High Integrity Aluminum (GENERAL)

NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION
High
Integrity
Aluminum
Die Casting:
(Alloys, Processes,
& Melt Preparation)
Compiled & Edited by:
Dr. Diran Apelian

Dr. M.M. Makhlouf
NADCA Publication #307

Although great care has been taken to provide accurate and current information, neither the author(s) nor the publisher, nor anyone
else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused
by this book. e material contained herein is not intended to provide specifi c advice or recommendations for any specifi c situation.
Any opinions expressed by the author(s) are not necessarily those of NADCA.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identifi cation and
explanation without intent to infringe nor endorse the product or corporation.
à 2006 by North American Die Casting Association, Wheeling, Illinois. All Rights Reserved.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo
copying, microfi lming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing form the publisher.
Contents
High Integrity Aluminum Die Casting:

(Alloys, Processes, and Melt Preparation)
Compiled & Edited by:
Dr. Diran Apelian & Dr. M.M. Makhlouf
WPI, Metal Processing Institute
Worcester MA
CONTENTS
Preface iii
1 High Integrity Die Casting Process Variations

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Conventional Die Casting............................................................................................................... 1
1.3 High Integrity Die Casting ............................................................................................................ 3
1.4 High Vacuum Die Casting ............................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Squeeze Casting ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.6 Semi Solid Metal (SSM) Processing ............................................................................................... 7
References .................................................................................................................................... 14
2 Aluminum Die Casting Alloys

2.1 Alloy Designations ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 Effects of Alloying Elements ......................................................................................................... 17
2.3 General Applications of Alloy Families ........................................................................................ 27
2.4 Die Casting Alloy Properties ........................................................................................................ 30
2.5 Aluminum Alloy Property Predictability ....................................................................................... 35
References ..................................................................................................................................... 37
3 Melting, Transferring and Holding

3.1 Melting & Heat Transfer .............................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Melting Process Concerns ............................................................................................................ 40
3.3 Melting Furnaces .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.3.1 Crucible (Pot) .................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.2 Reverberatory .................................................................................................................. 44
3.3.3 Stack Melter ..................................................................................................................... 45
3.3.4 Isothermal (ITM) .............................................................................................................. 46
3.4 Furnace Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 47
3.5 Refractories ................................................................................................................................... 47
3.6 Heat Transfer Aids ........................................................................................................................ 48
3.7 Metal Transfer & Holding ............................................................................................................ 50
References ..................................................................................................................................... 52
-i-
Contents
4 Sludge Formation & Prediction Methods

4.1 Sludge Formation Equation ......................................................................................................... 53
4.2 Experiment to Verify Sludge Equation ........................................................................................ 55
4.3 Morphology and Hardness of the Sludge Particles ..................................................................... 56
4.4 Effect of Chemistry on Sludge Formation ................................................................................... 57
4.5 Effect of Cooling Rate on Sludge Formation ............................................................................... 59
4.6 Effect of Holding Temperature on Sludge Formation ................................................................. 60
References ................................................................................................................................... 62
5 Dross Formation & Minimization Methods

5.1 Dross Formation ......................................................................................................................... 63
5.2 Influence of Melter Type on Dross Generation ........................................................................... 65
5.3 Influence of Charge Materials on Melt Loss ............................................................................... 66
5.4 Influence of Operating Practices on Melt Loss ........................................................................... 66
5.5 Dross Generation During Turbulent Transfers ........................................................................... 68
6 Melt Related Quality Detractors

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 69
6.2 Hydrogen Gas .............................................................................................................................. 70
6.3 Solid Particle Inclusions .............................................................................................................. 73
6.4 Inclusion Formation Mechanisms ............................................................................................... 76
6.5 Inclusion Appearance and Morphology ...................................................................................... 88

7 Melt Cleaning Systems and Techniques
References
7.1 ...................................................................................................................................
Introduction 93 95
.................................................................................................................................
7.2 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Flotation and Fluxing ............................................................. 96
7.3 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Filtration .............................................................................. 105
7.4 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Electromagnetic Separation ................................................. 112
References ................................................................................................................................. 113
8 Quality Assurance Methods

8.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 115
8.2 Metal Cleanliness Assessment Techniques ............................................................................... 116
3 Non-Destructive Testing of Cast Parts ..................................................................................... 125
References ................................................................................................................................ 130
- ii -
Preface
High Integrity Aluminum Die Casting:

(Alloys, Processes, and Melt Preparation)
Preface
Integrity is an interesting word. In products, it connotes soundness or an unimpaired condition; in people, it connotes
honesty, sincerity, and many other similar qualities. Whether it is a product or a person, it is impossible to have
integrity, let alone high integrity, if the starting material is not of the highest quality, or if the character and the values
that are learned in the early years of development are not properly attended to. Similarly, in aluminum alloy die-casting,
the critical step in rendering a high integrity product is the condition of the starting melt. This does not mean that
subsequent processing steps may not influence the final product, for indeed they do. As is the case with many other
industries, the body of knowledge related to die casting aluminum alloys has exponentially grown over the last two
decades. However, technical information relating to the production of high integrity die-castings has not been to date
gathered and presented in a single comprehensive text that puts this vital information at the fingertips of the die caster.
In our opinion, this book fills this gap. The book focuses on the key variables that are critical in achieving high integrity
aluminum alloy die castings; namely, the constitution of the aluminum alloy, the various steps of preparation of the melt,
and the die casting process by which the melt is cast into useful products. It goes without saying that the body of
knowledge that has been accumulated over the years in these areas is vast, and the task of reviewing and documenting
the extensive amount of information that exists today is not possible for a single person. Consequently, several of the
top metal casting engineers, scientists, academicians, and experts from the metal casting community were involved in the
preparation of this book and in the review of its various chapters.
The book is structured in eight chapters, each addressing a specific aspect of the die-casting process that directly
influences the production of high integrity aluminum die-castings. In Chapter 1, the reader is introduced to the die
casting process with all its variants, including high vacuum die casting, squeeze casting, as well as the emerging semi-
solid casting process. In Chapter 2, the reader is introduced to the various aluminum die casting alloys, their
designations and properties, as well as the effect of the various elements and impurities that are typically found in
aluminum die casting alloys on the characteristics of these alloys. Chapter 3 is dedicated to alloy melting and highlights
various types of melting furnaces, melt transfer and holding processes and equipment. It details the many issues that
may arise during melting and melt handling and holding, including melt oxidation, impurities pick-up, and dross
formation. Chapters 4 and 5 address the issues of sludge and dross formation, respectively, and highlight methods for
their mitigation. Chapter 6 introduces the reader to the various melt related quality detractors including hydrogen gas
and solid particle inclusions, and thoroughly characterizes the energetics of inclusion formation in molten aluminum
alloys; the emphasis is on prevention rather than remediation. Chapter 7 details the various melt cleaning systems that
are available today and outlines the techniques used to enhance melt quality, including the removal of unwanted phases
by flotation and fluxing and filtration, and highlights phase separation methods that utilize electromagnetic forces.
Finally, Chapter 8 catalogs the various methods that are available for the die caster to assure the manufacture of a high
integrity product. We certainly hope that the reader can find in this book all the technical information that he/she seeks.
It gives both of us great pleasure to acknowledge the collective effort of the many contributors to this book. The authors
of the chapters are acknowledged by having their names duly listed in the following page; but may be less obvious, yet
of great importance to the success of this book are the efforts of Dan Twarog and Steve Udvardy of the North American
Die Casting Association (NADCA) who have done a masterful job, not only in encouraging us to take on this task, but
also in assisting us in formatting the book and maintaining a uniform, high quality text and illustrations. Last but not
least, we particularly acknowledge John Jorstad for his encouragement, his support, and his valuable collaboration.
- iii -
Preface
D. Apelian M.M. Makhlouf

Howmet Professor of Engineering Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Director, Metal Processing Institute Director, Advanced Casting Research Center
WPI, Worcester, MA 01609 WPI, Worcester, MA 01609
April, 2004
Authors and Reviewers
Dr. Diran Apelian John L. Jorstad

Howmet Professor of Mechanical Engineering JLJ Technologies Inc.
Director, Metal Processing Institute Richmond, VA 23229
Worcester Polytechnic Institute JJORSTAD@aol.com
Worcester, MA 01609
dapelian@wpi.edu Dr. Makhlouf M. Makhlouf
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Rathindra (Babu) DasGupta Director, Advanced Casting Research Center
Chief Scientist, SPX Corp. CONTECH Division Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Technology Development Center Worcester, MA 01609
Portage, MI 49024 mmm@wpi.edu
babu.dasgupta@contech.spx.com
Dr. David Neff
Sumantra DasGupta Metaullics Systems Co. L.P.
SPX Corp. CONTECH Division Solon, OH 44139
Pierceton, IN 46562 dvneff@metaullics.com
sumantra.dasgupta@contech.spx.com
Dr. Libo Wang
Dr. C. Edward Eckert Metal Processing Institute
President, Apogee Technology Inc. Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Verona, PA 15147 Worcester, MA 01609
edt58@aol.com libo@wpi.edu
Daniel E. Groteke
Q. C. Designs, Inc.
St. Joseph, MI 49085
dgroteke@compuserve.com
- iv -
High Integrity Die Casting Process Variations
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
The die casting process has evolved significantly over the past 10 years. Conventional die castings are now seen as
innovatively engineered components. Modifications to the conventional process have allowed new applications to
be considered and different aluminum alloys to be used. There are now several variations of the conventional die
casting process which can be used to make high integrity die castings suitable for engineered structural
applications.
The important factors when selecting a die casting processes for high integrity products such as automotive chassis
and suspension components, or perhaps aerospace components, are product capability (shape and features), ability
to readily accommodate desired alloys and heat treatments, ability to meet required soundness and microstructure
standards, and (as important as all others) bottom-line cost. All high-integrity die casting processes address those
factors to one degree or another but none has yet emerged as the clear forerunner, meeting all requirements for a
majority of potential products. It is important to understand both the advantages and limitations of all of the
processes. The application of these processes has opened up opportunities to use a wider variety of aluminum
alloys and therefore increasing the design of die cast components to many new end market applications.
Die casting is globally the dominating process used to make aluminum castings. In North America, die casting has
traditionally accounted for nearly 70% of all aluminum cast products and with the advent of high-integrity die
casting concepts that now render the process suitable for structural applications, die casting may well carve out an
even larger share of future domestic markets.
1.2 Conventional Die Casting
The desirability of conventional high pressure die cast products rests largely in their low bottom-line costs.
Detractors will argue that severe competition in a decreasing domestic market has driven commodity pricing of die
castings. Certainly, offshore sourcing by major user industries has caused severe pricing pressures, but at the same
time there exists many legitimate low-cost features of conventional die casting.
-1-
Advantages of Conventional Die Casting:
x The process can accomplish close to net shape, minimizing and often eliminating secondary
machining costs.
x The process can accomplish thin cast sections, great part complexity and fine detail; many casting
processes require excess cast-section thickness and material simply to enable cavity filling and/or
solidification shrinkage feeding; the material thrifting that die casting readily enables minimizes
material weight and thus material cost.
x The die casting process is highly productive; cycle times for small parts cast in multi-cavity tools
can be as low as a few seconds, and even very large parts usually require less than a minute
cycle-to-cycle.
x The die casting process has traditionally tolerated the lowest-cost, scrap-based secondary alloys.
Material is usually a major component of any casting's piece price and this ability to source least-
cost alloys is a major cost benefit associated with conventional die casting.
Limitations of Conventional Die Casting:
Offsetting the cost benefits of conventional die castings are some severe limitations, especially with regard to
engineered structural applications. During conventional die casting, metal is sprayed at high velocity into the die
and cavity-atmosphere tends to be admixed and entrapped in castings during that turbulent cavity-fill. Although
high pressure during solidification can reduce entrapped pores to extremely small size, the total volume of pores
still remains significant. To put that into perspective, conventional die castings often contain more than one (and up
to several) volume percent voids, whereas squeeze and semi solid castings (both, high integrity die casting
variations) rarely contain more that tenths of a percent total voids.
Because of those entrapped pores (air and various cavity-gasses, compressed under high pressure during
solidification), conventional die castings cannot be exposed to high temperatures, solution heat treated or welded
for instance, without severe blistering (the metal softens somewhat at high temperatures, allowing pressurized gas
bubbles to expand see Figure 1-1). Some process variations improve on porosity entrapment, but not to the point
of pore elimination or of high product reliability. Moderate vacuum levels applied to the shot system and die cavity
during the fill cycle can reduce the volume of entrapped pores. The Pore-FreeTM process purged the shot system and
die cavity with oxygen; thus, as finely divided melt was sprayed into the cavity, tiny solid oxides were formed and
a rarified atmosphere was created that minimized entrapped pores.
Figure 1-1 Blistering of a conventional die casting as a result of solution heat treatment.
-2-
Another limitation of conventional high pressure die casting (a limitation that is shared by high integrity processes
as well) is a limited ability to accommodate disposable internal cores. The high metal flow velocities employed and
the high terminal pressures realized when cavity fill is completed both cause severe stress on traditional disposable
core materials such as might be used in the sand or semi-permanent mold processes. Some core materials stand up
against those conditions better than others, but those then also tend to be more difficult to remove from the cast
product. Mercury Marine has used salt cores to form complex internal configurations in two-stroke engine blocks
with great success, and some newer disposable core concepts have also emerged that show great promise; perhaps
disposable internal coring will not remain a die casting limitation at some time in the near future.
Die casting (conventional or high integrity) also requires robust and relatively expensive machines and tooling to
properly constrain the molten metal during rapid cavity fill and solidification under high pressures. Amortization of
high equipment and tooling costs must generally be spread over relatively large numbers of parts, thus die casting is
not usually cost-effective when fewer than a few thousand parts are to be produced annually or in total.
1.3 High Integrity Die Casting
Driven by the desirable cost factors related to conventional high pressure die casting, much research and
development has been devoted over the years to improving the integrity and reliability of die cast components; the
result has been such process variations as high-vacuum die casting, squeeze casting and semi solid metal (SSM)
processing, processes now classed as high integrity die casting.
The North American Die Casting Association (NADCA) defines high integrity die casting as processes that
minimize cavity fill turbulence, provide pressure during solidification and consistently produce high-integrity
1
product capable of solution heat treatment without blistering .
Melt cleanliness is somewhat different for high pressure die casting than for other liquid metal casting processes.
While melt should be clean in terms of oxides, other non-metallics and chemical impurities, hydrogen, the bane of
many metal casters, is not so important in high pressure processes. Consider this: The solubility of hydrogen in
liquid Al increases with the square root of the external pressure imposed on the molten alloy, thus if an alloy has a
maximum hydrogen solubility of 0.015 ml/100g at ambient (one atmosphere) pressure, it might have 10 times that
solubility, a maximum of 0.15 ml/100g, at 100 atmospheres pressure. Die and squeeze casting solidification
pressures are usually 800 to 1000 atmospheres.
Hydrogen precipitates from melts as the diatomic gas, thus it obeys the gas laws; meaning that any hydrogen pores
that did form would be infinitesimally small under the influence of the solidification pressures involved in die or
squeeze casting.
A pore of this size

atmospheres.
O at ambient pressure becomes this size o at a solidification pressure of only 100
Advantages of High Integrity Die Casting:
High integrity die casting processes indeed make products that are sound, that can be fully heat treated and are
produced from alloys that provide desirable combinations of strength and ductility (alloys suitable for engineered,
crashworthy applications).
-3-
Limitations of High Integrity Die Casting:
High integrity die casting processes and products cannot realize all of the cost benefits that are associated with
conventional high pressure die casting. The alloys utilized in high integrity die casting are typically primary instead
of secondary and are therefore more expensive. High integrity die casting also requires greater attention to melt
cleanliness and microstructure control, and the resulting products are most often heat treated.
1.4 High Vacuum Die Casting
Several versions of moderate level vacuum die casting are currently practiced (Hodler/OptivacTM, ThurnerTM,
VerticastTM, etc.); the process seemingly most often associated with high integrity structural castings is the high
vacuum VacuralTM process (Fig. 1-2) offered by Mühler Weingarten of Germany. The VacuralTM process evacuates
the entire die cavity and shot system as it draws melt under vacuum into the shot tube and then injects it under high
pressure into the die. This equipment, as employed by Alcoa together with their own process refinements is known
as AVDC and is used in their Soest, Germany plant to make weldable and crashworthy automotive chassis
components (an example is shown in Fig. 1-3, a 1+ meter long "B" post having sections ~ 2mm thick).
The theory behind vacuum die casting in general is simply this: If atmosphere in the shot system and die cavity are
essentially eliminated, then there can be little or no air available to be admixed and entrapped in the molten metal
during turbulent cavity fill. To that end, some vacuum systems (or the way in which some systems are employed)
achieve only a partial vacuum (perhaps 60 to 80%) and provide little more than excellent positive venting; they do,
in fact, significantly improve the fill and integrity of resulting parts, but may not make parts that can be solution
heat treated without blistering.
The goal of high vacuum die casting, such as VacuralTM, is to virtually eliminate the atmosphere in the shot system
and die cavity and thus make parts that are sound, heat treatable and have predictable and reliable mechanical
properties. To accomplish this, the shot and die cavity system must be well sealed to avoid drawing in ambient air
while under high vacuum. Also, a tortuous path is required between the die cavity and vacuum source so as to avoid
drawing molten melt into the vacuum system when terminal pressure is achieved at the end of each shot (Fig. 1-4).
Typical secondary alloys used in conventional die casting contain 1% or more of iron to prevent "soldering" of the
cast metal to tool steel. Molten aluminum is rightfully termed the "universal solvent" as it has a strong affinity to
dissolve other metals. The ternary Al-Fe-Si eutectic occurs at ~0.8% iron; thus, if the molten alloy already contains
a higher level of iron, there is a reduced driving force for the melt to attack and dissolve the relatively unprotected
die steel during casting. Iron at such high levels, however, forms complex primary phases with aluminum, silicon
and other components of alloys; those phases are especially harmful to ductility, and ductility is an important
property of high vacuum and other high integrity die cast products. Soldering is more an issue when injecting melt
at high velocities (>10 m/sec.) and normal-to-high melt temperatures (670 C and above), thus it is more an issue
during vacuum die casting than during squeeze (low velocity) or semi solid (low temperature) processing.
Figure1-2 Schematic of VacuralTM process equipment. Figure 1-3 Chassis component produced by AVDC.
-4-
Special alloys were needed to overcome soldering during high integrity vacuum die casting. Rheinfelden
Aluminium in Germany has developed two alloys especially for high integrity, high vacuum die casting. Both
Silafont-36 (now registered as 365 alloy in the US) and Magsimal-59 (not yet registered in the US) contain 0.5-
0.8% manganese, which has proven an effective substitute for iron to prevent soldering.
Figure 1-4 Example of the tortuous path needed to prevent melt being drawn into a vacuum system.
Advantages of High Vacuum Die Casting:
High vacuum die casting is capable of very thin cast sections (less that 2 mm) over extensive surface areas, such as
illustrated in the "B" pillar seen in Figure 3. Parts are sound and can be heat treated, if required, without blistering.
Made from the appropriate alloys (such as those developed by Rheinfelden), high vacuum die castings provide
exceptional ductility and crashworthiness. Silafont-36 (365 alloy) in a T-7 temper typically provides 260 MPa
ultimate tensile strength, 160 MPa yield strength and 15% elongation.
Limitations of High Vacuum Die Casting:
Maintaining the high levels of vacuum required in complex dies (especially those having numerous slides) is not an
easy task; many surfaces and joints must be sealed against leakage and the intrusion of ambient atmosphere.
Relatively expensive tooling and equipment, the premium nature of the alloys involved and greater expense during
processing combine to make high vacuum die casting significantly more expensive then conventional die casting
(still, parts made in the process can be very cost-effective).
Thin, rangy parts are notable difficult to eject from a steel tool and cool to ambient temperature without significant
warping and requirement for subsequent straightening.
1.5 Squeeze Casting
There are two distinct versions of squeeze casting, direct and indirect. However, both versions utilize the essentials
of the process; molten metal is introduced to casting cavities with minimum turbulence and solidifies under high
pressure within very robust (usually ferrous) closed dies. High pressure and intimate contact of molten alloy with
metal die surfaces produce very rapid solidification, small secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS), minimum
porosity and excellent mechanical properties.
-5-
Direct Squeeze Casting
Direct squeeze casting is sometimes termed liquid-metal forging since it is accomplished in equipment more akin to
that used for forging than to that used for die casting. It is a process in which liquid metal is poured into a lower die
segment contained within a hydraulic press, the upper die segment is then closed over it and high pressure (usually
100 MPa or more) is applied over the entire cavity until the part is solidified. This is not a die casting process or
variation, thus no further detail will be provided about direct squeeze casting.
Indirect Squeeze Casting
Indirect squeeze casting, on the other hand, is akin to die casting. Is performed in die-cast-like equipment (vertical
or horizontal) and tooling. An example of one version of indirect squeeze casting is the vertical process from Japan
(Figure 1-5).
Figure1-5 Schematic of indirect squeeze casting process.
During indirect squeeze casting, properly prepared melt (clean, grain-refined and modified) is poured into the shot
sleeve of a horizontal or vertical squeeze casting machine. From there, it is injected into the die through relatively
large gates and at relatively slow velocity (usually under 0.5 m/sec.). Melt in the die cavity is then solidified under
pressures typically ranging from a low of 55 MPa to a high of as much as 300 MPa (most often in the range of 80 to
110 MPa).
Squeeze Casting Advantages:
Indirect squeeze casting has proven to be among the more capable processes for such automotive safety
components as steering knuckles. It is especially useful for heavier-walled parts such as knuckles (Figure 1-6) but
considerably more limited for thin parts like chassis frame nodes or brackets (Figure 1-7).
Figure1-6 Example of squeeze cast steering knuckle. Figure1-7 Example of thin-walled steering column
bracket.
-6-
A356 is one of the more popular alloys used in squeeze casting, but it is by no means the only applicable alloy.
Almost any alloy used in permanent mold could also be a candidate for squeeze casting. Because melt remains in
intimate contact with the steel tool throughout solidification, SDAS at the surface of squeeze castings tends to be
exceptionally small (on the order of 10 to 15 microns) and the castings surface texture is very fine; both features
improve fatigue and impact properties, thus squeeze castings perform quite well during typical automotive product
durability tests.
Intimate contact between melt and die during solidification provides chill deep into cast structures too, typically
providing SDAS values in the range of 25 to 35 microns. Tensile properties of squeeze castings are thus quite good;
properties of specimens cut from A356 T-6 knuckle castings are typically 300-320 MPa ultimate tensile, 230-250
yield and 10-14% elongation. The higher-Mg version of the same alloy (357) provides higher strength (~360 MPa
ulimate, ~295 MPa yield) but at the expense of ductility (~5-6%). Conversely, the lower-Mg version (F356)
provides lower strength (~200 MPa ultimate, ~150 MPa yield) but exceptional ductility (>15%).
Squeeze Cast Limitations:

o
x Relatively poor tool life (melt temperatures during squeeze casting are typically 700 to 730 C. This is
O
quite a bit higher than is typical of die casting (650 to 660 C), thus the ¨T between die and melt is higher;
it is that ¨T that drives the onset of thermal fatigue of tool surfaces.
x Costly de-gating (large in-gates must be sawed from cast parts note the typical gate on Figure 1-6).
x Limited suitability for thin-walled or highly detailed parts
x Limited cavity count (high pressures limit the projected area that a given machine tonnage can
accommodate).
x As with most other high pressure processes, limited ability to accommodate disposable internal cores.
1.6 Semi Solid Metal (SSM) Processing
Semi solid metal casting has long been referred to in North America simply as "SSM" and in Europe as
"thixoforming" or "thixocasting". More recently, however, another distinction has become important and demands
closer attention to our terminology; now "thixoforming" or "thixocasting" is understood to mean a processing route
in which pre-cast billet is the feedstock whereas "rheocasting" means a process route that starts with molten alloy
and creates an appropriate slurry to then be used as the feedstock.
Semi solid metal processing, by whatever terminology or processing route, is capable of the same dimensions,
details and thin wall sections as conventional high pressure die castings. Unlike conventional die castings, however,
the semi solid process (throughout the rest of this paper simply called "SSM") is also capable of product integrity
and properties here-to-fore achievable only by squeeze castings and/or to the highest quality gravity and low
th
pressure permanent mold castings. As noted in the author's paper from the 6 International Conference on Semi-
[2]
Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites in Torino, Italy , there are inherent economies to be realized from any
and all styles of SSM processing when compared to other processes also capable of structural castings: 1) Near-net-
shape parts that require only a minimum of machining; 2) minimum weight parts, thin walls and great
detail/complexity, requiring minimum input material 3) fast cycles and 4) long die life.
Thixocasting
Previously, the most popular SSM processing route was thixocasting or thixoforming, the route that uses pre-cast
billet feedstock. In fact, for many years, the very symbol of SSM was a billet (Figure 1-8) that could be easily cut
with a knife when properly pre-heated for processing (likened to cutting butter). In the thixocasting route (Figure 1-
9), billet that was magneto-hydrodynamically (MHD) stirred during its manufacture is reheated, usually in induction
coils , then placed into the shot sleeve of a die-casting-like machine and injected into a die cavity.
-7-
1 2 3 4 5 6
As received EM stirring SSM billet Slug SSM Finished

Ingot and casting cut into slugs Heating Forming part
Figure 1-8 Properly heated billet Figure1-9 Thixocasting process

route.
The resulting product has a characteristic "globular" microstructure (Figure 1-10), a familiar microstructure that has
also become a symbol of semi solid processing. The globules are a result of 1) dendrites being fragmented when
MHD stirred during billet casting, 2) the natural low energy shape achieved when small dendritic or rosette grains
are suspended at billet pre-heating temperature and 3) further fragmentation of the alpha structure during flow into
the die.. The correct processing temperature is one where most of the alpha aluminum is solid and of the globular
form and the Al-Si eutectic remains molten; in the popular A356 or 357 alloys, that condition represents
approximately fifty volume percent solid. Globular alpha aluminum in molten Al-Si eutectic is thixotropic (hence,
the name associated with semi solid processing); without an applied stress, heated billets reasonably hold their shape
and can be placed into the shot sleeve of a casting machine using simple tongs, but once a shear stress is applied (as
by the shot piston), the mass readily flows, albeit like a viscous liquid.
And therein lies the major advantage of semi solid processing: The viscous nature of the semi solid mass allows it to
flow at high velocity while maintaining a stable flow front. In other words, shapes such as would be conventionally
die cast at high liquid velocities (> 10m/sec.) and accompanied by much air entrapment can be semi solid cast still at
relatively high velocities (perhaps 2 or more m/sec.) while maintaining a stable metal front and thus with no air
entrapment. Semi solid flow within a die cavity is much less erratic than liquid at high velocity, and can fill thin
sections even better than liquid in many instances. Semi solid metal is able to fill essentially the same thin sections
and provide the same part detail and complexity as die casting while still making high integrity structural parts that
be heat treated without blistering.
Figure1-10 The "globular" structure of semi solid (right) versus a normal dendritic structure (left).
-8-
Back to thixocasting; MHD billet sells at a considerable premium over foundry ingot, and process run-around cannot
be re-used for SSM processing without first being re-manufactured into billet. Thus billet-related costs often totally
offset the inherent economies of semi solid processing and have served as a deterrent to widespread acceptance of
SSM product by major user-industries like automotive.
Rheocasting
The relatively high total cost associated with SSM by the billet route has encouraged development over the past
ç
several years of various slurry-ready alternatives, among them Ube's NRC (New Rheo-Casting ) process and
AEMP's SoD (slurry on demand) process.
Slurry processes use normal foundry metal (primary or secondary, whichever is appropriate) and re-use process run-
around. The globular semi solid structure is generated as slurry from liquid metal just before parts are processed. The
slurry route provides the benefits of semi solid processing while avoiding the high cost associated with pre-cast
MHD billet.
®
NRC (New Rheo-Casting) Process
ç
The NRC process fundamentals are illustrated in Figure 1-11. In this processing route, aluminum alloy is melted
and properly treated (refined/modified, etc.) and is poured into a crucible of approximately the same size as the shot
sleeve of a vertical die casting machine. Melt is first over-cooled in the crucible and is then reheated and held at the
appropriate semi solid processing temperature before being dumped into the shot sleeve of the casting machine and
injected into the die.
Cleaning Pouring Cooling Reheating Casting

+
Coating
+
Preheating
ç
Figure 1-11 Schematic of the NRC process.
ç
Figure 1-12 NRC microstructure on right versus MHD on left.
-9-
A typical microstructure achieved using NRC slurry process is illustrated in Figure 1-12. Notable is a characteristic
of cast microstructures from slurry processing (Figure 1-12 right) compared to that from MHD billet processing
(Figure 1-12 left); the MHD structure always has eutectic entrapped within the alpha globules whereas the slurry
structure does not.
NRC castings are heat treatable and provide properties like other semi solid process products (described later).
TM
Another promising slurry process is the very low cost SLC (Sub-Liquidus Casting) process developed by THT
TM
Presses, Inc. SLC uses normal aluminum ingot (either primary or secondary), easily re-uses process run-around
and requires no processing equipment extraneous to the casting machine or processing time outside of a normal die
casting cycle. Product emerges from the process free of gates, thus trimming is minimized.
TM
The SLC Process
TM
The SLC slurry process was introduced in 2002. A schematic illustrating the concept was shown then and is
repeated herein. The large shot diameter, short shot stroke feature, together with a unique "gate plate" concept (see
Figure 1-13), makes this particular equipment well suited to a slurry form of semi solid processing.
TM
Figure 1-13 Schematic of SLC process shot sleeve and gate plate concept; naturally provides slurry of
correct temperature and structure to the die cavity.
TM
The SLC process develops slurry within the shot sleeve; no slurry processing equipment or time is required
outside of the casting machine or current casting cycle. The process requires only grain refined melt and proper
temperature controls.
TM
Practical SLC process cycles can only be realized if good grain refinement is achieved in the melt used to feed the
process. With good grain refinement, slurry of appropriate structure can be generated in seconds, whereas poor
refinements would require minutes. Good grain refinement can be achieved with 5:1::Ti:B master alloy and
ç ç
TiBloy , the TiBloy providing the most efficient refinement in aluminum-silicon alloys like the A356.
- 10 -
TM
The temperature of metal poured into the SLC shot sleeve must be controlled. Theoretically, it is most desirable to
transfer melt to the shot sleeve of the casting machine at a temperature very close to, yet just above, the alloy's
liquidus. Practically, however, five to ten degrees centigrade superheat might be needed to assure transfer without
pre-solidification of melt in transfer tools.
Boundary conditions driving cooling of the melt in the shot sleeve are controlled so as to transfer melt to the die
cavity in a temperature range representing a 0.4 to 0.6 volume fraction solid without overcooling too large a portion
of the melt that comes in direct contact with the side walls of the sleeve and surface of the piston. That concept
works quite easily in a large diameter, shallow shot sleeve, but would be difficult if not impossible in a small
diameter, deep sleeve without auxiliary heat and additional processing outside of the casting machine to allow
achieving the desired temperature and globular alpha structure over a significant portion of the shot. In the
large/short sleeve, the majority of the shot naturally achieves the required temperature and structure in a very
compact timeframe.
The gate plate directs slurry into the die cavity only from that part of the shot sleeve where melt is of appropriate
temperature and structure. The large diameter of the shot sleeve makes that task a simple one, allowing the use of
melt only from the more central part of the sleeve and avoiding metal closer to the sleeve walls. The gate plate
concept also provides a universe of alternatives for connecting single or multiple gates into single or multiple die
cavities.
TM
Perhaps the most difficult element of the SLC process to grasp and understand is the short timeframe required to
develop slurry of appropriate structure. The time and temperature aspects of SSM billet processing have tended to
drive the perception of time and temperature controls needed for slurry processing as well. MHD billet takes
minutes to re-heat for SSM processing and generally requires narrow temperature control to achieve consistency.
TM
Thus, it is difficult for some to understand how SLC slurry can be processed in seconds and to a temperature
range.
TM
The goal of the SLC process is merely to achieve a slurry structure suitable for gaining the advantages of semi
solid processing; that is, viscous and stable-front flow. The fraction solid of the slurry largely determines its
viscosity, and that viscosity determines the velocity at which the slurry can flow in the die cavity and still maintain
a stable metal front. That is the very heart of semi solid metal processing the ability to fill die cavities rapidly
while maintaining a stable metal flow front; that is what enables making castings having great detail and thin
sections while not entrapping oxides and cavity atmosphere as is the case during conventional die casting.
Certainly, there are so-called semi solid processing methods that target fractions of solid less that five percent, but
TM
they do not realize the casting integrity that true semi solid casting provides. SLC targets melt in the shot sleeve
having forty to sixty percent solid alpha grains of a largely globular morphology. When well grain refined liquid
alloy close to its liquidus temperature is placed in the shot sleeve of the casting machine and its cooling there is
suspended at temperature between the eutectic and a few degrees above, the multitude of rosette grains already
formed immediately seek a lower surface energy state and quickly become globules or spheroids that is the ideal
slurry for semi solid casting.
TM TM
Figure 1-14 Microstructure of SLC 380 type alloy. Figure 1-15 Microstructure of SLC A356 alloy.
- 11 -
Other SSM Slurry Approaches
Several new SSM slurry concepts have been offered recently. MIT introduced a concept (see Figure 1-16) in which
a spinning cold finger is introduced momentarily into a melt at just above the liquidus temperature. Tiny grains are
immediately seeded as the melt cools to only a couple of degrees below liquidus, and those quickly achieve the
globular structure desired for SSM processing (Figure 1-17). The MIT cold finger process is now being
commercialized by Idra-Prince.
The Metals Processing Institute at WPI is developing ideal SSM slurry structures by mixing two liquids in a special
mixing chamber. Their process is known as the "Continuous Rheocast Process", or simply CRP (Figure 1-18).
Figure1-16 MIT's "Spinning Cold Finger" achieved Figure 1-17 Typical microstructure.
in MIT process.
200Pm 200Pm
Figure 1-18 Typical microstructures developed with WPI's CRP process.
- 12 -
Properties of SSM
The mechanical properties of virtually all semi solid (SSM) processed parts tend to be alike, regardless of the
processing route. Tensile properties of SSM processed A356 T-6 (one of the most popular alloy choices) are
comparable to squeeze castings of the same alloy; test bars cut from castings typically provide ~320 MPa ultimate
tensile, 250 yield and 10+% elongation. Alloy 357 T-6, another popular SSM alloy, especially in Europe, typically
provides ~360 MPa ultimate, ~295 MPa yield) and 5+% elongation.
Case studies and properties of numerous squeeze and semi solid processed parts are illustrated in NADCA's
Product Specification Standards for Die Castings Produced by the Semi-Solid and Squeeze Casting Processes 1
as
3
well as in their Science and Technology of Semi-Solid Metal Processing .
SSM Process Advantages:

The key advantage of all SSM process routes is the ability to make die cast-like parts (thin walls, near-net-shape,
great detail and complexity, close dimensional controls) with true high integrity, structural casting properties.
A further advantage of slurry SSM routes is their ability to utilize normal foundry alloys and to re-process in-plant
run-around that enables taking full advantage of SSM processing economies. With SSM slurry, parts of minimum
material content can be processed rapidly, require minimum secondary machining and experience long tool life.
SSM Process Limitations:

The only real SSM limitation is in the thixocasting billet route and has to do with the relatively high initial cost of
MHD billet and the inability to re-use process run-around without first re-processing it back into billet.
References
1. NADCA Product Specification Standards for Die Castings Produced by the Semi-Solid and Squeeze
Casting Processes, 3rd Edition, North American Die Casting Association (NADCA), Rosemont, IL.
2. J. L. Jorstad: Transactions, 6th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and

Composites, Torino, Italy, September 27-29, 2000, pp 227-234
3. Science and Technology of Semi-Solid Metal Processing, Edited by Anacleto de Figueredo, 2001,
North American Die Casting Association (NADCA), Rosemont, IL.
- 13 -
- 14 -
Aluminum Die Casting Alloys
Chapter 2
2.1 Alloy Designations
In the United States, aluminum casting alloys and cast products are identified by a three-digit-plus-decimal
numbering system first adopted by the Aluminum Association in 1954 and then approved by the American National
Standards Institute, Inc. in 1957 (ANSI Standard Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum, number
H35.1). The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the
American Foundry Society (AFS), the North American Die Casting Association (NADCA) and the various Federal
and Military specifications for aluminum castings eventually followed suit and now all follow the ANSI H-35.1
alloy numbering convention. While somewhat different, even the international Unified Numbering System (UNS)
employs the ANSI numbering convention.
In the ANSI (Aluminum Association) numbering system, major alloying elements and certain combinations of
elements are indicated by specific number series, as follows:
Number Series Alloy Type
1XX.X 99.0% minimum aluminum content

2XX.X Al + Cu
3XX.X Al + Si & Mg, or Al + Si & Cu, or Al + Si & Mg & Cu
4XX.X Al + Si
5XX.X Al + Mg
7XX.X Al + Zn
8XX.X Al + Sn
The 6XX.X and 9XX.X number series are not in current use, but are being reserved for the future.
- 15 -
The digit that follows the decimal in each alloy number indicates the product form. A zero (0) following the
decimal indicates a cast product (a die casting, for instance). A one (1) following the decimal indicates the
chemistry limits for ingot used to make the XXX.0 product and a two (2) following the decimal also indicates the
ingot used to make that XXX.0 product, but ingot of somewhat different (usually tighter) chemistry limits than the
XXX.1 ingot. While not always the case, XXX.1 often indicates secondary alloy chemistry limits whereas XXX.2
would indicate primary alloy chemistry limits. For example, a designation 380.0 could indicate a die cast product
likely produced from 380.1 secondary ingot whereas 356.0 would might indicate a squeeze cast product produced
from 356.2 primary ingot. The important things to remember are that a "0" following the decimal indicates a cast
product whereas a "1" or "2" indicates the ingot chemistry needed to make the cast product.
Since melting and melt handling can alter the chemistry of an alloy prepared to make castings, the "XXX.1" or
"XXX.2" ingot specifications are always somewhat tighter than the "XXX.0" specifications for the cast part. And
according to convention, "XXX.2" ingot always has tighter chemistry limits than "XXX.1" ingot.
Letters can also precede an alloy's designation number. Letters denote some variation on the original designated
alloy, perhaps a lower-impurity version, or a version that has an additional controlled element, or one that has a
modified range for a controlled element.
Examples of the decimal numbering system and the application of letters are:
----others---
Alloy form Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti each total
360.0 die casting 9.0- 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.40- 0.50 - - 0.25
10.0 max max max 0.6 max max
360.2 ingot 9.0- 0.7- 0.10 0.10 0.45- 0.50 - - 0.25

10.0 1.1 max max 0.6 max max
A360.0 die casting 9.0- 1.3 0.6 0.35 0.40- 0.50 - - 0.25
10.0 max max max 0.6 max max
A360.1 ingot 9.0- 1.0 0.6 0.35 0.45- 0.40 - - 0.25

10.0 max max max 0.6 max - - max
A360.2 ingot 9.0- 0.6 0.10 0.05 0.45- 0.05 - 0.05 0.15
10.0 max max max 0.6 max max max
Not all alloys have both a "XXX.1" and "XXX.2" ingot form. Many of the more traditional die casting alloys will
have only a "XXX.1" secondary-alloy ingot call-out and many "premium castings" alloys will have only a
"XXX.2" primary ingot call-out.
Later in this chapter, chemistry limits for the major alloying elements of alloys that should be of interest in die
casting will be tabulated, but readers are encouraged to seek more complete alloy chemistry specifications for all
aluminum casting alloys from the Registration Record Series Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for
Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings and Ingot published by The Aluminum Association, Inc. (see Suggested
Further Reading #1). That publication is a living document, revised every few years to eliminate old and outdated
specifications and to add new alloys and specification revisions.
This book identifies alloys likely to be of interest to die casters. The above-referenced Aluminum Association
registration record also identifies which casting process each alloy in the registry is intended for. Still, when
referring to the complete listing of alloys, readers might find additional compositions of more specific interest and
usefulness to them within the Aluminum Association's complete listing, regardless of to which casting process it
was assigned. Judgments as to an alloys suitability for any desired casting process requires only an understanding
of the effects of specific alloying elements and why specific alloy chemistries are intended for specific casting
processes.
- 16 -
2.2 Effects of Alloying Elements
The Aluminum Association's Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Aluminum Alloys in the Form of
Castings and Ingot lists for each alloy 10 specific alloying elements and also has a column for "others". Not all of
the listed elements are major alloying ingredients in terms of an alloys intended uses; and some major elements in
one alloy are not major elements in another. Also, some elements like Sr that can be very important to
microstructure control and mechanical properties are not specifically identified in the Aluminum Association
document, but instead are merely included in the category "others".
For purposes of understanding their effects and importance, alloying elements for the majority of alloys are
probably best classified as major, minor, microstructure modifiers or impurities; understanding, however, that
impurity elements in some alloys might be major elements in others:
x Major elements typically include silicon (Si), copper (Cu) and magnesium (Mg).
x Minor elements include nickel (Ni) and tin (Sn).
x Microstructure modifying elements include titanium (Ti), boron (B), strontium (Sr), phosphorus (P),
beryllium (Be), manganese (Mn) and chromium (Cr).
x Impurity elements would typically include iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and zinc (Zn).
2.2.1 Major Elements
Silicon
Silicon (Si) is unquestionably the most important single alloying ingredient in the vast majority of aluminum
casting alloys. Silicon is primarily responsible for so-called "good castability"; that is, the ability to readily fill
molds or dies and to solidify castings with no hot tearing or hot cracking issues.
Silicon's important role as an alloying ingredient is several-fold:
x Silicon's high heat of fusion contributes immensely to an alloy's fluidity.

x The fact that silicon has limited solid solubility (maximum 1.65%) and yet forms a eutectic with aluminum
at a significantly high level (12%) means that alloys with more than a few percent silicon undergo a
relatively large volume fraction of isothermal solidification, thus they gain significant strength while
undergoing little or no thermal contraction.
x The more silicon an alloy contains, the lower will be its thermal expansion coefficient.
x Silicon is a very hard phase, thus it contributes significantly to an alloys wear resistance.
x Silicon combines with other elements to improve an alloy's strength and to make alloys heat treatable.
x Silicon can cause a permanent increase in a casting's dimensions (termed "growth") if the part is not
thermally stabilized before being put into elevated temperature service.
Fluidity Fluidity in metal-casting terms really means fluid life; that is, the ability of an alloy to flow into and fill
out the details of a mold before becoming too solid to flow further. That characteristic combines the pure physics
definition of fluidity (the reciprocal of viscosity that is, the rate at which an alloy can flow through a given size
of orifice under some specific set of conditions of temperature, head pressure, etc.) with an alloys heat of fusion and
solidification mode (affecting the time/distance that an alloy can flow before becoming too solid to flow further
under the influence of a specific set of mold conditions of material, specific heat content, temperature,
coating/surface heat transfer coefficient, etc.).
As seen in the following table, the heat of fusion of aluminum is greater than any other commonly cast metal; only
silicon and beryllium have higher heats of fusion:
- 17 -
Metal (Element) Heat of Fusion
Aluminum 0.39 kJ/g

Magnesium 0.36 kJ/g
Iron 0.27 kJ/g
Copper 0.21 kJ/g
Zinc 0.10 kJ/g
Silicon 1.80 kJ/g
Beryllium 1.36 kJ/g
Silicon is readily available and relatively inexpensive as an alloying element and is commonly used in aluminum
alloys to increase heat of fusion and therefore improve fluidity (as well as other casting characteristics). Beryllium,
on the other hand is both expensive and potentially toxic. Therefore it is not a useful tool to significantly improve
the fluidity of aluminum casting alloys.
In alloys, the combined effect of the various contained elements on the total system's heat of fusion more-or-less
follows a rule of mixtures; that is, each element contributes according to its weighted amount and form. For
instance, silicon in simple Al-Si binary alloys contributes according to the pure element's heat of fusion and its
total % in the alloy (since almost no aluminum is soluble in silicon and the silicon phase is essentially present in the
solidified alloy as pure silicon). Copper, on the other hand, would contribute, not as pure copper, but rather
according to the heat of fusion of CuAl 2 (or whatever other form it is found in the solidified alloy) and that specific
form's volume fraction in the alloy.
Figure 2-1 depicts the effect of percent

silicon on the fluidity of binary Al-Si
alloys, as measured by a "fluidity spiral
test". Specific values are not provided
because those are so heavily influenced by
the mold or die material and condition, but
the indicated trend holds for all molding
systems.
Figure 2-1 Fluidity vs percent of Si in

binary Al-Si alloys poured at 1300èF
(704.4èC) and 1400èF (760èC).
Note that there is a maximum benefit of

silicon indicated, above which fluidity of the alloy decreases in spite of the fact that higher silicon levels continue
to contribute to the heat of fusion of the alloy system. This seems to be a phenomenon created by primary silicon
crystals collecting together to mechanically block further advancement of the flowing metal. Examination of the
microstructure along the cross section of fluidity spirals clearly showed that the tips of spirals poured from alloys
containing silicon above approximately the 18% level always contained only the eutectic phases and at some
distance back from the tips there always appeared a heavy agglomeration of primary crystals through which only
the low-melting-point eutectic had managed to pass. This finding would indicate that the maximum-fluidity
indication is probably a mold-related phenomena and thus ~18% silicon should not be looked upon as providing the
maximum fluidity benefit without careful consideration of the casting method and mold or die being used. In other
words, the ~18% silicon level might, in fact, provide maximum fluidity benefit in gravity-poured green sand molds
(the specific molds of the fluidity tests using the AFS spiral) whereas a higher (or lower) silicon level might prove
most beneficial in low-pressure permanent mold or in high pressure die casting.
- 18 -
Isothermal solidification - Pure aluminum (Al) and/or pure eutectic compositions (Al with 12% Si, such as 413
alloy, for example) solidify "isothermally", that is, at a single temperature. They tend to solidify progressively
from the die surface toward the thermal center of the casting's cross-section. There exists a very narrow plane of
demarcation between the solidified portion and the remaining liquid. That solidification pattern alone provides a
minimum tendency to hot tear during casting. The planar front solidification of isothermal solidifying alloys (or
narrow freezing range alloys) produces a sound skin extending to nearly the thermal center of the casting section.
At the end of solidification, any liquid-to-solid transition shrinkage is confined along the thermal centerline of the
casting. Because solidification shrinkage is not connected to the surface of the casting, castings produced from
these eutectic alloys are usually pressure tight.
The volume fraction solid versus

temperature solidification cooling curve for
a eutectic Al-Si alloy (413) is shown in
Figure 2-2a, together with comparison
curves for several other aluminum casting
alloys of interest.
Figure 2e
Figures 2-2a through 2-2e show fraction

solid as a function of temperature (from
Backerud- See reference #8).
Note the contrasting curve for the Al-Mg alloy, 518 in Figure 2-2c. As alloys sharing this characteristic curve
solidify, each incremental decrease in temperature is accompanied by an incremental increase in volume fraction
solid. A contiguous solid network of dendrites has formed by the time solidification reaches 50-60 volume percent
solid (coherency), whereupon the whole dendrite mass must contract as cooling through the steepest portion of the
curve continues to 100% solid. The strength of the solid fraction is insufficient to overcome any resistance to
contraction imposed by the die and/or internal cores and slides, and the casting is subject to tearing or cracking
during the latter stages of solidification. Alloys that share this solidification pattern are said to be "hot short"; and
that includes many alloys from the Al-Cu (2XX) and Al-Mg (5XX) systems. Broad-freezing-range alloys of the
2XX and 5XX families are considered "difficult to cast" because this hot short characteristic is the primary cause of
hot tearing and hot cracking during and following the late stages of solidification (these alloys also lack fluidity).
- 19 -
The presence of Si generally overcomes the hot-shortness and also the poor fluidity of casting alloys. As little as 5
percent Si in an alloy provides a sufficient degree of isothermal solidification to overcome any major hot shortness
issues and, at the same time, improves fluidity. Metal casters often label broad freezing range aluminum alloys as
being quite "difficult to cast." It is not, however, their solidification temperature range that makes them difficult,
but rather, their characteristic cooling curve shapes (little isothermal solidification) and their lack of fluidity, both
brought on by their lack of sufficient silicon. Alloys 333 and especially B390 alloys also have relatively broad
solidification temperature ranges, but those alloys contain significant quantities of silicon, thus they have excellent
fluidity and they undergo a substantial degree of isothermal solidification (depending on silicon content).
All 3XX and 4XX alloys undergo a significant degree of isothermal solidification at the major Al-Si eutectic arrest.
By the time cooling resumes below that arrest temperature, the bulk of the solid has already formed and only the
lowest melting temperature phases remain liquid (generally, the copper and/or magnesium bearing phases). The
3XX and 4XX alloys already have, at that point, sufficient structure and strength to overcome whatever cooling-
contraction restrictions the mold might impose as the casting continues to solidify from the Al-Si eutectic arrest to
the solidus temperature. 3XX and 4XX alloys have almost no tendency to hot tear or hot crack, except where some
form of imposed "hot spot" might exist in the mold or die during late stages of solidification.
Strength Silicon alone contributes very little to the strength of aluminum casting alloys. However, when
combined with magnesium to form Mg
2 Si, Si provides a very effective strengthening mechanism in aluminum
castings. Mg 2 Si is soluble in the solid alloy to a limit of about 0.7% Mg, and provides the precipitation
strengthening basis for an entire family of heat-treatable alloys (alloy numbers 356 through 360 and their
variations).
Thermal Expansion Coefficient - Increasing the silicon level in an alloy decreases its thermal expansion
coefficient as well as its specific gravity.
Wear Resistance Silicon also increases an alloy's wear resistance, which has often made aluminum silicon alloy
castings attractive substitutes for gray iron in automotive applications. The hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, such as
B390, are used extensively in premium aluminum bare-bore engine blocks, for example
Silicon and Cutting Tool Wear - As important as silicon's contributions are to improved casting characteristics,
there exists a downside as well. The more silicon an alloy contains, especially into the hypereutectic range, the
greater the tool wear during machining, With the current popularity of polycrystalline diamond cutting tools, tool
wear has become less and less of an issue when selecting casting alloys. It continues to be an important
consideration, however, where High Speed Steel (HSS), carbide or other less wear-resistant tools are still
employed.
Growth in Al-Si Casting Alloys - "Growth" is the permanent increase in a casting's dimensions that occurs when
silicon precipitates from solid solution. Silicon occupies less space within the crystal lattice when in solution than
when out, thus growth occurs during precipitation. This phenomenon should not be confused with thermal
expansion; thermal expansion is a reversible change in dimensions that occurs during heating of a casting
(contraction during cooling), whereas growth is a permanent increase in dimension that occurs during precipitation
of silicon.
Maximum growth is realized when the starting temper or condition of the casting retains the maximum dissolved
solute (during rapid solidification of die castings or immediately following solution heat treatment and quenching).
Growth is only a troublesome issue when unstable (other than T-5 or T-7) Al-Si alloys are exposed to elevated
temperatures during normal service (for instance, as pistons in an internal combustion engine). Troublesome growth
is avoided by forcing it to occur before a casting reaches its final service dimensions. Exposure of the casting
during a T-5 or T-7 tempering age of 230 235èC for 8 to 10 hours is usually sufficient to stabilize the part (all
precipitation will have taken place before it is placed into elevated temperature service).
- 20 -
Copper
Copper (Cu) has the single greatest impact of all alloying elements on the strength and hardness of aluminum
casting alloys, both heat-treated and not heat-treated, and at both ambient and elevated service temperatures.
Copper also improves the machinability of alloys by increasing matrix hardness, making it easier to generate small
cutting chips and fine machined finishes.
On the downside, copper generally reduces the corrosion resistance of aluminum; and, in certain alloys and
tempers, it increases stress corrosion susceptibility.
Aluminum-copper alloys that do not also contain at least moderate amounts of silicon have relatively poor fluidity
and resistance to hot tearing during solidification. Although alloys with up to 10% copper were popular in the very
early years of the aluminum foundry industry, they have now been replaced by silicon containing alloys, with the
exception of the very-high-strength alloy 206 that is described later.
Magnesium
Magnesium's (Mg) role is also to strengthen and harden aluminum castings. As mentioned earlier in this section,
silicon combines with magnesium to form the hardening phase, Mg 2 Si, that provides the strengthening and heat
treatment basis for the popular 356 family of alloys. Magnesium is also the strengthening ingredient in the high-
magnesium 5XX alloys that contain very little silicon; those alloys too depend on Mg 2 Si, but gain additionally from
other magnesium-bearing phase.
The Al-Mg alloys 515 through 518 are designated for die casting, as is the proprietary Al-Mg alloy "Magsimal-59"
developed by Rheinfelden Aluminium. The strength of binary Al-Mg compositions is not generally improved by
heat-treating, however, the alloys have excsellent strength and ductility in the as-cast (F temper) condition.
Al-Mg alloys have relatively poor castability, as previously described, because of their lack of silicon. However,
they have excellent corrosion resistance and they tend to anodized to a natural aluminum color. Machinability of
these alloys is excellent too.
Magnesium's greatest effect on strength occurs, not in the 5XX alloy series, but rather when it is combined with
copper in 3XX alloys, forming the precipitation-hardening phase, Al
2 CuMg.
2.2.2 Minor Elements
Nickel
Nickel (Ni) enhances the elevated temperature service strength and hardness of 2XX alloys. It is employed for the
same purpose in some 3XX alloys, but its effectiveness in the silicon-containing alloys is less dramatic.
Tin
Tin (Sn) in 8XX aluminum casting alloys is for the purpose of reducing friction in bearing and bushing
applications. The tin phase in those alloys melts at a very low temperature (227.7 C). Tin can exude under
emergency conditions to provide liquid lubrication for a short time to rubbing surfaces if such bearings/bushings
severely overheat in service. The 8XX series alloys are not, however, applicable to die casting or its variations.
- 21 -
2.2.3 Microstructure Modifying Elements
Titanium & Boron
Titanium (Ti) and boron (B) are used to refine primary aluminum grains. Titanium alone, added as a titanium
aluminum master alloy, forms TiAl 3 , which serves to nucleate primary aluminum dendrites. More frequent
nucleation or initiation of dendrites means a larger number of smaller grains. Grain refinement is illustrated in
Figure 2-3.
Unrefined Refined
>3000 µm < 300 µm
Figure 2-3 Illustration of grain refined aluminum.
Grain refining efficiency is better when titanium and boron are used in combination. Master alloys of aluminum
with 5% titanium and 1% boron are commonly used additives for this purpose. They form TiB 2 and TiAl 3 , which
together are more effective grain refiners than TiAl 3 alone.
The most efficient grain refiner for Al-Si alloys has a Ti:B ratio closer to 1.5:1. That is a special case, applicable to
3XX and 4XX alloys and not to other alloy systems.
Sodium, Strontium, Calcium and Antimony
These elements (one or another, not in combination) are added to eutectic or hypoeutectic aluminum silicon casting
alloys to modify the morphology of the eutectic silicon phase. Without the benefit of a modifying treatment,
eutectic silicon solidifies in a relatively coarse continuous network of thin platelets, shown in Figure 2-4a. That
morphology provides abundant stress risers and thus limits the attainment of maximum strength and ductility.
Modification with one of the above elements changes the eutectic silicon into a fine fibrous or lamellar structure
(Figures 2-4b and 2-4c).
Figure 2-4a Unmodified. Figure 2-4b Modified. Figure 2-4c Super-modified.
Sodium (Na) accomplishes the desired fine fibrous structure as is shown in Figure 5 when added at levels of 0.01-
0.05% (~0.002-0.008 actually retained) but the effect of sodium fades very rapidly and the melt often has to be
re-treated within hours to maintain its modified condition.
- 22 -
Strontium (Sr) accomplishes the same modified eutectic silicon structure as sodium, but strontium's effect fades at
a much slower rate. Strontium is usually added to somewhat higher retained levels than sodium (0.01 - 0.025%);
but strontium can generally be counted on to remain effective for many hours and through numerous re-melts.
Because of this, strontium has become the preferred modifier in North America.
Calcium (Ca) is considered a weak modifier, having roughly the same effect as sodium, but it is far less reliable.
Calcium is believed to increase hydrogen solubility in aluminum melts, which causes pinhole porosity in castings.
It is, therefore, not a popular modifier.
Antimony (Sb) accomplishes a fine lamellar eutectic silicon structure when added at levels of 0.1 - 0.2%. Its effect
is truly permanent, virtually lasting through long holding periods and through repeated re-melts. In Europe,
modification with antimony is quite acceptable, but in North America, it has been limited because concerns
regarding potentially toxic antimony compounds have not yet been resolved. Also, antimony is not compatible
with the other modifiers, so issues arise regarding mixing of antimony-modified scrap and returns with similar
product that has been modified with another agent. Antimony reacts with sodium or strontium to form compounds
that nullify all of the individual effects, thus adversely affecting the level of modification and limiting it to that
achieved by whichever element (antimony, sodium or strontium) is in excess of the reacted/combined compounds.
These modifying elements are not compatible with phosphorus (P) either. They too interact, forming phosphorus
compounds that are neither effective as modifiers nor as primary Si refiners (see next section). Phosphorus levels
above a few ppm should be avoided in hypoeutectic alloys that are to be modified.
While sodium or calcium benefit aluminum-silicon alloys, they must be avoided in aluminum-magnesium alloys
because they severely limit the attainment of maximum ductility.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) is added to hypereutectic aluminum silicon alloys (0.005 - 0.025% added, 0.0005 - 0.0025%
typically retained) to limit the size of the primary silicon phase and to improve its distribution. Phosphorus
combines with aluminum in the melt to form tiny, insoluble AlP 3 particles (Figure 2-5). Because of their similar
crystals habit and lattice constants, AlP 3 particles are effective nuclei on which primary silicon crystals can initiate
and grow. This effect of nucleation of primary silicon crystals is illustrated in Figures 2-6.
Figure 2-5 High magnification of AlP 3 particle. Figure 2-6 Typical refined (left) and unrefined (right)
microstructure.
Nucleation of the primary silicon phase is commonly termed "refinement," whereas control of the morphology of
eutectic silicon is termed "modification." As noted above, artificial nucleation of primary silicon with phosphorus
and modification of the eutectic with sodium, strontium or other modifiers cannot be achieved simultaneously in
hypereutectic alloys, except to the extent that both are influenced by rapid solidification.
- 23 -
Manganese & Chromium
Alone or in combination, manganese (Mn) and/or chromium (Cr) change the morphology of the iron-rich Al 5 FeSi
phase (Figure 2-7) from its typical platelet/acicular form to a more cubic Al 15 (MnFe) 3 Si 2 form (Figure 2-8) that is
far less harmful to ductility. That forms the rationale for the Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for
Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings and Ingot stipulation in 356.1 alloy "if iron exceeds 0.45%, manganese
content shall not be less than one-half the iron content." As with the platelet/acicular Al 5 FeSi phase, the volume
fraction and size of the cubic Al 15 (MnFe) 3 Si 2 phase is also a function of concentration levels and solidification rate.
Greater concentrations of iron, manganese and/or chromium are tolerable at faster solidification rates.
Figure 2-7 Iron-rich Al 5 FeSi phase in platelet/acicular form. Figure 2-8 Cubic Al 15 (MnFe) 3 Si2 form.
While manganese and/or chromium cause a beneficial change to the morphology of iron phases, it is that change in
combination with large concentrations of iron, manganese and chromium that leads to "sludge" in traditional
secondary die casting alloys.
Manganese and/or chromium also tend to stabilize some 2XX and 7XX alloys at elevated service temperatures.
Chromium especially suppresses grain growth in those systems. Manganese and chromium impart a bronze to gold
color to 7XX alloys that are anodized.
Beryllium
Beryllium is included in aluminum casting alloys for two distinct purposes: to reduce the high oxidation potential
of molten 5XX alloys; and to somewhat offset the harmful effects of small amounts of iron impurity in some 3XX
alloys.
Magnesium is more reactive than aluminum and is lost from Al-Mg alloys over time by "burning". Pure aluminum
forms a tough, continuous and relatively impervious natural oxide that, once formed, protects the melt from
continuing oxidation for so long as the oxide remains intact. High-magnesium aluminum alloys like the 5XX series,
on the other hand, have a discontinuous oxide that is far less protective and allows oxidation to continue even when
the melt surface is undisturbed, thus gradually removing magnesium. A very small amount of beryllium (0.002
0.008%) in 5XX-type alloys increases the Pilling-Bedworth Ratio of the natural oxide, making it relatively
impervious and thus beryllium serves to protect even Al-Mg alloys from continuous oxidation and loss of
magnesium to "burning". Be also protects the alloy during pouring and thus decreases reactions with moisture
associated with molds and die lubricants.
At somewhat higher concentrations (0.04-0.08%), beryllium alters the composition and morphology of the iron-
bearing phase formed by relatively small quantities of iron impurity in the A357 type alloys; thus, the iron has no
substantial affect on ductility.
- 24 -
Beryllium oxides and other substances are recognized carcinogens and, for hygienic reasons, industry practices
carefully restrict the use of beryllium. Even though beryllium concentrations associated with the 5XX and A357
type alloys are quite low and do not need to be considered hazardous, precautions must be taken during melting,
during melt and dross handling and especially during welding of castings, in order to minimize the opportunity to
create hazardous substances and to limit exposure to any dangerous beryllium substances.
While higher concentrations of beryllium (0.10 - 0.l4%) are able to similarly offset even higher levels of iron in
alloys like 358, the expense and greater health risks of using so much beryllium should be carefully assessed. In
fact, because of the potential health risks involved, and the ever-decreasing popularity of beryllium-containing
alloys, alloys that specifically require beryllium as a controlled minimum/maximum element have been omitted
from the listing of potential die casting alloys in this text.
2.2.4 Impurity Elements

Iron
Iron (Fe) is present in most traditional die casting alloys as an impurity, yet a very useful impurity. Iron in
concentrations of 0.8% or more greatly reduces the tendency of an alloy to solder to die casting tooling. The Al-Fe-
Si ternary eutectic composition occurs at about 0.8% Fe. Theoretically, when iron is alloyed to a little above that
amount, the supersaturated molten alloy has little tendency to dissolve the relatively unprotected tool steel while the
molten alloy and die are in intimate contact.
Iron in a moderate range intended to reduce soldering is also credited with improving somewhat the resistance of
die casting alloys to hot tearing during solidifications in rigid die cast tooling. That characteristic may, however, be
overstated as some die casters say iron at the upper end of the typical range actually causes hot-tearing issues.
Iron combines with aluminum, silicon, and other elements to form a variety of hard, complex insoluble phases. The
beta Al
5 FeSi phase forms as very thin platelets, which appear acicular or needle-like in a polished cross section
(Figure 2-7). Such morphologies provide stress risers in a matrix that significantly reduce the ductility of an alloy.
Their volume fraction and size are functions of not only the iron concentration but also of solidification conditions
(rate). The platelets tend to be fewer and smaller at higher solidification rates; thus, die casting is able to tolerate
higher iron levels than other casting processes.
Iron is not so well tolerated in high-integrity die casting variations such as squeeze and semi solid casting. In those
cases, a major goal is often high ductility, and beta Al 5 FeSi platelets destroy ductility by providing numerous stress
risers and points of crack initiation. In those cases, primary alloys more traditionally used in sand and permanent
mold casting have become the popular choices for high-integrity die casting as well. Those alloys avoid Al 5 FeSi
platelets by limiting iron to very low limits. In some cases, high-integrity die castings have tolerated less pure
alloys than required in sand and permanent mold by simply abiding by the rule "if iron exceeds 0.45%, manganese
content shall not be less than one-half the iron content."
Zinc
The only intentional and controlled additions of zinc (Zn) to aluminum casting alloys are in the 7XX series, and
those are not yet suitable for die casting or any of its variations.
Otherwise, zinc is present merely as an acceptable impurity element in many secondary (scrap-based) die casting
alloys. As such, zinc is quite neutral; it neither enhances nor detracts from an alloy's properties. The literature of
the 1950's and 60's sometimes made claims that zinc improved machinability or surface finish or pressure tightness
of aluminum casting alloys, but time has generally proved that those claims were unfounded.
It should be recognized that zinc is a relatively heavy element, and as such it increases an alloy's density. High-zinc
secondary alloys usually seem attractive because they cost somewhat less than low-zinc versions. However, that
attractiveness can be deceiving if the cost differential is too small; it can make little sense to purchase lower cost
alloys if doing so means shipping more material with each casting.
- 25 -
Sludge a special impurity case
The platelet/acicular iron-rich phase illustrated in Figure 2-7 is of the beta Al 5 FeSi -type. The more cubic phase,
shown in Figure 2-8, is of the Al 15 (MnFe) 3 Si 2 type. In its primary form, it is this latter phase that is commonly
referred to in the die casting industry as "sludge". When it occurs in melts in which the "sludge factor" (the sum of
the 1 x % iron + 2 x % manganese and 3 x % chromium) is too high relative to the melt temperature, it is referred to
as "fall-out". Fall-out settles to the bottom of furnaces or crucibles where it collects as a dense mass (Figure 2-9)
and can gradually decrease the capacity of the furnace or crucible.
Figure 2-9 Furnace Sludge.
A sludge factor versus temperature chart is given in Figure 2-10. When the sludge factor is at or below the value
indicated for a given melt holding temperature on the chart, no fallout occurs.
380
660
No Sedimentation
640 Figure 2-10 Sludge factor versus

temperature Jorstad chart has been developed.
620
Gobrecht
H
o 600
l
Sedimentation
d
i 580
n 1.0 2.0
g Sludge Factor (= Fe + 2Mn + 3Cr)
Die casters too often operate at sludge factors of 1.8 or more and at melt holding temperatures of 660°C or less,
putting them at risk of fallout. Sludge crystals that form in the furnace tend to be large because they grow very
slowly. Sludge crystals settle to the floor of the furnace; however, if they are stirred into the melt and ladled into a
casting, they can cause catastrophic damage to cutting tools during subsequent machining operations. In a casting,
they are commonly referred to as "hard spots" (Figure 2-11).
- 26 -
Figure 2-11 Hard spot in casting caused by furnace sludging.
The mere fact that fallout is avoided by chemistry and temperature controls in the furnace does not mean that
sludge crystals cannot occur in castings. At a moderately high sludge factor, although sludge fallout might not
form in the furnace, sludge crystals do form in castings. Solidification rates in die castings are relatively fast so
sludge crystals formed there are usually smaller than the phases shown in Figure 2-11. Tiny sludge crystals in
castings will not usually be looked upon as "hard-spots"; still, they can decrease cutting tool life during machining,
just how much will depend on their volume fraction and size.
The important thing to remember about sludge is that, in spite of having a preferred morphology (globular
Al 15 (MnFe) 3 Si 2 versus the acicular Al 5 FeSi type), sludge-type crystals can form in very significant volume fractions
when the sludge factor of a melt is too high (say, above 1.8), and that can be harmful to fluidity, to the mechanical
properties of a die cast part and to cutting tool life during machining.
2.3 General Applications of Alloy Families
The 1XX alloys are used commercially to cast electric motor rotors. Rotors are usually cast on vertical high-
pressure die casting type machines especially designed for this purpose. The high electrical conductivity of
relatively pure aluminum is useful in collector rings and conductor bars, which are cast integrally with steel
laminations that are stacked in the die prior to casting. These alloys might occasionally also be used to cast
connectors for joining transmission cables.
The 1XX.1 rotor alloys are 100.1, 150.1, and 170.1, indicating 99.0, 99.5, and 99.7% minimum percent aluminum
respectively. Impurities are controlled to maximize electrical performance and to minimize microshrinkage and
cracks during casting. Alloy 100.0 contains the most impurities and has the best castability. Higher iron resists hot
cracking and improves solidification shrinkage, thus 100.1 alloy is preferred for large rotors, while alloy 150.1 or
170.1 might be preferred for higher-efficiency, fractional-horsepower motors.
Rotor alloy performance is controlled by composition. An easy-to-use rule-of-thumb type formula for conductivity
is: Conductivity (in %IACS) = conductivity of pure Al (63.50 % IACS) minus 6.9 times (Fe + Si %) minus 83
times (Ti +V + Mn + Cr %). This formula can be used on the casting floor to quickly estimate and adjust rotor
metal conductivity to the motor manufacturer's requirements. Rotor metal suppliers also control electrical
performance by making boron additions that form complex precipitates with undesirable elements before they cast
the melt into ingots. They also control the iron and silicon ratios so as to promote more-desirable forms of the Al-
Fe-Si phases. Controlling chemistry variations for a specific rotor casting facility and equipment, even within the
acceptable limits for a given rotor alloy, is important to both electrical performance and casting results.
The 2XX alloys include the highest strength aluminum casting alloys available today. The 2XX alloys also tend to
retain their strength better than other alloy systems at elevated service temperatures.
- 27 -
When casting 2XX alloys in rigid molds or die casting dies, special methods are required to minimize solidification
stresses; two effective techniques are 1) cast in hotter than usual tooling and 2) eject cast parts from tooling at the
highest practical temperature. Special techniques are also necessary to chill critical strength/ductility areas of
castings simultaneously promoting directional solidification from colder remote casting extremes back to in-gates
or other sources of shrinkage feeding.
There exists an alloy A201.2, but it is so expensive and in such limited use that it will not be considered in this
book. Alloys 206 and A206, on the other hand, while offering nearly as high mechanical properties, are much less
expensive and might be considered viable candidates for future application to certain die cast versions like semi
solid processing.
Applications for alloys 206 and A206 include military and aerospace hardware where the highest tensile and impact
properties are required. They are also used for a variety of structural castings on trucks and trailers and in gear and
pump housings.
Alloy 296 is used in gear housings, axle housings, crankcases and wheels for trucks. However, Al-Si-Cu alloys
have much better castability and have largely replaced 296 in most of its applications.
2XX alloys have never been candidates for high pressure die casting because of their poor fluidity and tendency to
hot-shortness. Still, the lower casting temperature, higher tool temperature, pressure filling and viscous, stable-front
flow of semi solid metal processing would seem to offer promise for high-integrity die cast type products from
alloys like 206.
The 3XX alloys are the true workhorses of the aluminum casting industry because of their superior casting
characteristics and good strength. Al-Si-Cu alloys are the most prevalent and the higher-copper versions are fully
heat treatable. When full heat treatment is desired, however, the Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys provide the highest strength
and hardness, at both ambient and elevated temperatures.
Alloys 319 and B319 are used in numerous commercial casting applications and have been extensively used in
recent years for automotive engine crankcases, intake manifolds and cylinder heads. They are also used to cast oil
pans for autos and trucks. Neither version is considered a die casting alloy, due mostly to their moderate silicon
levels, however, their solidification modes have already made them attractive for semi solid processing.
Pistons for automobiles are also cast from the 3XX alloys. Alloy 332 is the traditional car engine piston material;
but 339 and B390 alloys, which are better able to withstand the stresses of modern high specific output engines, are
increasingly replacing it.
Another general-purpose alloy is 333, which has traditionally been used to cast sole plates for irons, a variety of
meter and regulator parts and also automotive cylinder heads. This alloy too has solidification characteristics that
should make it desirable for semi solid metal forming.
The 355 type alloy, especially C355, is one of a small group of select alloys used to make military and aerospace
parts that meet the MIL-A-21180 specification for "premium quality" castings (the 206 alloys are also in this
group). They are used in aircraft crankcases, gear-boxes, housings and supports, as well as in impellers for
superchargers. This alloy has already been used for semi solid processing and to a limited extent for squeeze
casting as well.
Alloy A356 is currently the workhorse of aluminum structural castings, and the most popular alloy used in squeeze
casting and semi solid metal processing. The 356/A356 family of alloys is used for a variety of commercial
castings too; electrical hardware, marine hardware and pump bodies, etc. The higher purity A356 is another of the
"premium quality" casting alloys for military and aerospace applications. A356 has long been the material of
choice for cast aluminum automobile wheels in North America and has become the standard for most automotive
chassis and suspension castings as well. A357 alloy is similar to A356 but has higher strength. It, too, is used to
make "premium quality" castings.
- 28 -
Alloys 360 and A360 are in the same family as A356, but were designed specifically for die casting and, as such,
contain more silicon and higher iron and allow more impurities than A356.
The 380 family of alloys have long been the workhorses of the die casting industry, probably accounting for 85% or
more of all die cast aluminum. These are secondary (scrap-based) alloys that also evolved specifically for die
casting, and thus contain more silicon and iron, and allow more impurities than alloys intended for other casting
processes. These alloys provide a good balance between low material cost, moderate strength without need for heat
treatment and castability. Magnesium in these alloys is usually controlled to very low levels to minimize formation
of oxides during very turbulent cavity fill, but small amounts of magnesium (~0.3%) can markedly improve
hardness and machining characteristics (tight chip curl, short chips, minimum BUE on tools and improved surface
finishes), thus specifications throughout the rest of the world allow and often require some magnesium in Al-Si-Cu
die casting alloys.
The hypereutectic 3XX alloys (390, B390, 393) are used primarily in wear applications (engine blocks,
compressors, pistons, pumps, pulleys, brake systems, etc.), but they are also popular for very thin parts, since they
have exceptional fluidity.
The 4XX alloys are used where good castability is required in conjunction with better corrosion resistance than is
generally afforded by some 3XX alloys. Applications include marine castings, office equipment frames, and
equipment for food handling and components for the chemical industry.
Alloy A444 is essentially A356 alloy, but with magnesium. A444 has outstanding ductility combined with
moderate strength and is used extensively to cast lamp pole bases, bridge rail supports, and the like for highways,
where impact absorbing properties are important. While the 4XX alloys are not heat treatable (strength does not
increase in response to heat treatment), A444 for highway applications is often given a T-4 treatment (exposed to
typical solution heat treating temperature for an hour or so) so as to spherodize eutectic silicon and thus provide
maximum ductility and energy absorbing capability in the event an automobile strikes it.
Alloy 413 is the Al-Si eutectic alloy and solidifies over the narrowest range of all casting alloys except perhaps the
1XX rotor alloys. As previously mentioned, eutectic alloys solidify progressively from the die surface toward the
thermal center of a casting's cross-section. That planar-front solidification produces a sound skin extending to
nearly the thermal center of the casting section. At the end of solidification, any liquid-to-solid transition shrinkage
is confined along the thermal centerline of the casting. Because solidification shrinkage is not connected to the
surface of the casting, castings produced from these alloys are usually pressure tight.
The 4XX alloys have broad casting process applicability, and are suitable for use in processes ranging from sand to
high pressure die casting. 4XX alloys are even used to cast electric motor rotors that require high electrical-
resistivity (motors with high starting torque); in such cases, more highly alloyed die casting compositions like 443.2
are commonly used. Alloys such as 443.1 provide conductivities in the range of 30 to 35% IACS.
The 5XX alloys have the best corrosion resistance of the aluminum casting alloys. They also polish to high finishes
and they tend to anodize with a pleasing natural aluminum appearance. Therefore, they are popular for decorative
castings as well as castings used in dairy and food-handling equipment, for pipe-fittings in marine and chemical
systems, marine hardware and architectural/ornamental applications.
The 5XX alloys require more care in preparation and casting than lower-magnesium content alloys because they are
more reactive in the presence of moisture in the atmosphere, in lubricants and the like. Like the 2XX alloys, 5XX
alloys lack fluidity and have hot-shortness tendencies, thus they are not often selected for die casting. However,
pressure during die casting minimizes fluidity issues and semi solid processing can minimize hot shortness issues.
Alloys 515 through 518 are actually designated for die casting, and might be specified when maximum resistance to
corrosion is required, and/or when a combination of strength and ductility higher than is generally achievable using
common 3XX or 4XX die casting alloys is desired.
- 29 -
A relatively new entry into the 5XX family of alloys is proprietary "Magsimal-59" developed by Rheinfelden
Aluminium in Germany. This alloy is realizing very rapid success and increased use for die casting large, thin-
walled automotive body, chassis and suspension components that must have both strength and ductility without the
stress and distortion that would surely come about when fully heat treating such thin and rangy parts.
The strength of the largely-binary 5XX compositions is not, in fact, generally improved by heat treating; however,
they have good strength and good ductility in the as-cast (F temper) condition, and thus are now receiving well-
deserved attention for large structural die castings that would be difficult to heat treat without developing residual
stresses and distortion.
The 7XX alloys have good impact properties and they develop reasonably high strength without a need for heat
treatment. The 7XX alloys continuously age at room temperature but develop nearly-peak properties within 20-30
days after casting. They are therefore popular for large machine tool parts, furniture, garden tools, textile and office
machine castings, trailer parts and mining equipment parts especially parts that could be troublesome to heat treat
and quench without issues of stress and distortion. The 7XX alloys have the highest solidus temperatures of all
aluminum casting alloys (other than pure aluminum/rotor metal), which renders them suitable for use in assemblies
that are joined by brazing. The 7XX alloys are not intended for die casting.
The 8XX alloys are used exclusively to cast bushings and journal bearings. They have excellent compressive
properties and unique lubricating properties under over-heat conditions. The unique ingredient in 8XX alloys is tin
(Sn). Tin resides in the solidified casting largely as small globules of the essentially pure element. If normal
lubrication fails and causes overheating of a bushing/bearing, the tin phase melts at 231 C (its normal low melting
temperature) and exudes from the over-heated surface to provide emergency liquid-tin lubrication and thus it
prevents catastrophic failure of the system. The 8XX alloys are not suitable for die casting.
2.4 Die Casting Alloy Properties
The tables that follow provide chemistries (Table 2-1), physical properties (Table 2-2), mechanical properties
(Table 2-3) and processing characteristics (Table 2-4) for the range of die casting alloys identified for inclusion in
this book. Note that the selection includes both traditional die casting alloys and alloys previously identified with
other casting processes but that are now or could become popular for some of the more recent high integrity high
pressure die casting process variations.
In order to differentiate intended uses of the alloys in die casting terms, a column is provided in each table that
indicates (by use of a letter) which process variation each alloy will likely find application; traditional die casting
and die casting alloys are identified with the letter "D" and are also highlighted in bold italics, high-vacuum die
casting are identified by the letter "V" and are also highlighted in bold italics, squeeze casting are identified by the
letter "S", thixocasting (billet SSM) are identified by the letter "T" and rheocasting (slurry SSM) are identified by
the letter "R". The letter "p" in parenthesis following one or another of the above letters signifies specifically a
"premium" or "high-integrity" application of that process.
Note that not all alloys previously identified in the Aluminum Associations registry of alloys as "die casting" alloys
are included in this book. Some of those alloys have little or no information about them in popular publications and
are thus omitted from inclusion in this book. Some require the use of beryllium, which is increasingly unpopular
because of potential health hazards and are for that reason omitted from inclusion in this book.
The properties and other data shown in the tables were assembled largely from publications by the North American
Die Casting Association (NADCA), by ASM International, by the Aluminum Association, by the American
Foundry Society (AFS), by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM). Those references are all listed in the "Further Reading" list at the end of this chapter. Since
the most comprehensive tabulation of properties for the majority of alloys included in this publication were found
in the ASM publication (additional reading reference # 5); that information was considered most reliable.
- 30 -
Chemistry Specifications
The chemistries shown in Table 2-1 all came from the Aluminum Association registry (additional reading reference
#1)
Table 2-1: Chemistries of Alloys Identified as Candidates for Die Casting

Composition - Weight Percent*
Casting Others
Alloy Version(s)** Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti each
150.1 Rotors -99.5%Al Fe:Si::2:1 min 0.05 Mn+Cr+Ti+V 0.025max 0.03
206.0 R(p) 0.1* 0.15 4.2-5.0 0.20-0.50 0.15-0.35 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.15-0.30 0.05
B319.0 T, R 5.5-6.5 1.2 3.0-4.0 0.8 0.10-0.50 0.50 1.0 0.25

333.0 R 8.0-10.0 1.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.05-0.50 0.50 1.0 0.25
354.0 S(p), R(p) 8.6-9.4 0.20 1.6-2.0 0.10 0.4-0.6 0.1 0.20 0.05
355.0 S, R 4.5-5.5 0.6 (a) 1.0-1.5 0.50 (a) 0.40-0.60 0.25 0.35 0.25 0.05
A355.0 S(p), R(p) 4.5-5.5 0.09 1.0-1.5 0.05 0.40-0.60 0.05 0.04-0.20 0.05
356.0 R 6.5-7.5 0.6 (a) 0.25 0.35 (a) 0.20-0.45 0.35 0.25 0.05
A356.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20-0.45 0.10 0.20 0.05
B356.0 S(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.25-0.45 0.05 0.04-0.20 0.05
F356.0 S(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.17-0.25 0.10 0.04-0.20 0.05
357.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.45-0.60 0.05 0.20 0.05
B357.0 S(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.45-0.60 0.05 0.04-0.20 0.05
360.0 D, R 9.0-10.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.40-0.60 0.50 0.50 0.15
A360.0 D, V, S 9.0-10.0 1.3 0.6 0.35 0.40-0.60 0.50 0.50 0.15
365.0 V(p), R(p) 9.5-11.5 0.15 0.03 0.50-0.80 0.15-0.50 0.07 0.04-0.15 0.005-0.015 Sr, 0.001 P
380.0 D 7.5-9.5 2.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35
B380.0 D, R 7.5-9.5 1.3 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.50 1.0 0.35
383.0 D 9.5-11.5 1.3 2.0-3.0 0.50 0.10 0.30 3.0 0.15
384.0 D 10.5-12.0 1.3 3.0-4.5 0.50 0.10 0.50 3.0 0.35
A384.0 D 10.5-12.0 1.3 3.0-4.5 0.50 0.10 0.50 1.0 0.35
385.0 D 11.0-13.0 2.0 2.0-4.0 0.50 0.30 0.50 3.0 0.30
390.0 D, T, R 16.0-18.0 1.3 4.0-5.0 0.10 0.45-0.65 0.10 0.20 0.10
B390.0 D 16.0-18.0 1.3 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.45-0.65 0.10 1.5 0.20 0.10
392.0 D 18.0-20.0 1.5 0.40-0.8 0.20-0.60 0.8-1.2 0.50 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.15
413.0 D 11.0-13.0 2.0 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15
A413.0 D 11.0-13.0 1.3 1.0 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15
A443.0 R 4.5-6.0 0.8 0.30 0.50 0.05 0.25 0.50 0.25
C443.0 D 4.5-6.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.10 0.50 0.50 0.15
A444.0 S(p), R(p) 6.5-7.5 0.2 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05
515.0 D, R 0.50-1.0 1.3 0.20 0.40-0.6 2.5-4.0 0.10 0.05
518.0 D, R 0.35 1.8 0.25 0.35 7.5-8.5 0.15 0.15
Magsimal-59 D, V(p), S(p), R(p) 1.8-2.5 0.15 0.05 0.5-0.8 5.0-5.8 0.08 0.15 0.001 Na
* Single numbers indicate only the maximum allowed

** Traditional Die Casting = D; Vacuum Die Casting = V; Squeeze Casting = S; Thixocasting (billet SSM) = T; Rheocasting (slurry SSM) = R; (p) signifies premium or high-integrity.
(a) if iron exceeds 0.0.45%, then manganese content shall mot be less than one-half of iron
- 31 -
Physical Properties
Physical properties of the alloys are shown in Table 2-2. Note that complete and reliable information was not
found in the literature for all of the alloys shown in Table 2-1.
Table 2-2: Physical Properties of Alloys Identified as Candidates for Die Casting
Melting Electrical 25 C, Thermal Coefficient of

Casting Specific Density Range Conductivity Conductivity Thermal Expansion
Alloy Version(s)** Temper Gravity kg/m³ °C %IACS W/(m?°K) 20-100 °C
150.0 D 2.71 2713 643-657 57 220 23.5
206.0 R(p) T-4 2.80 2796 540-650 30 121 19.3
B319.0 T, R F 2.80 2796 516-604 27 109 21.4

333.0 R F 2.77 2768 520-585 26 104 20.7
333.0 R T-5 2.77 2768 520-585 29 116 20.7
333.0 R T-6 2.77 2768 520-585 29 116 20.7
333.0 R T-7 2.77 2768 520-585 35 140 20.7
A333.0 R F 2.77 2768 520-585 25 104 20.7
354.0 S(p), R(p) F 2.71 2713 540-600 32 125 20.9
355.0 S, R T-6 2.71 2713 550-620 36 146 22.3
A355 S(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 550-620 22.3
356.0 R T-5 2.68 2685 560-615 43 167 21.4
356.0 R T-6 2.68 2685 560-615 39 151 21.4
356.0 R T-7 2.68 2685 560-615 40 154 21.4
A356.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 560-615 40 150 21.4
B356.0 S(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 560-615 21.4
F356.0 S(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 560-615 21.4
357.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 560-615 40 150 21.4
B357.0 S(p), R(p) T-6 2.71 2713 560-615 21.4
360.0 D, R F 2.68 2685 570-590 37 149 21.0
A360.0 D, V, S F 2.68 2685 570-590 37 149 21.0
365.0 V(p), R(p) F 2.64 2640 550-590 37 150 21.1
380.0 D F 2.74 2740 520-590 27 107 21.2
B380.0 D, R F 2.74 2740 520-590 27 107 21.2
383.0 D F 2.71 2713 520-585 23 96 21.1
384.0 D F 2.73 2734 520-580 22 96 21.1
A384.0 D F 2.72 2720 520-580
385.0 D F 2.73 2730 520-585
390.0 D, T, R F 2.73 2730 507-650 25 134 18.0
B390.0 D F 2.73 2730 507-650 24 134 18.0
392.0 D F 2.64 2640 550-670 22 107 18.5
413.0 D F 2.66 2657 575-585 39 151 20.5

A413.0 D F 2.66 2657 575-585 39 151 20.5
A443.0 R F 2.69 2685 575-630 37 142 22.1
C443.0 D F 2.69 2685 575-630 37 142 22.1
A444.0 S(p), R(p) T-4 2.68 2680 575-630 41 159 21.8
515.0 D, R F 2.65 2655 585-640 35 138 23.9

518.0 D, R F 2.53 2530 540-620 24 100 24.1
Magsimal-59 D, V(p), S(p), R(p) F 2.63 2630 580-618 28 125 24.1
Several general trends are noteworthy:
1. The lowest specific gravity values are associated with those alloys containing the largest amounts of
magnesium and/or silicon. The highest specific gravity values go with those alloys containing the
highest levels of copper and/or zinc.
2. The lowest thermal expansion coefficients are associated with those alloys containing the highest
levels of silicon. The highest coefficients are associated with those alloys having the most
magnesium.
3. The highest electrical and thermal conductivity values are associated with the purest alloys and the
alloys having the least total solute in solid solution (Al-Si or Al-Si-Mg).
- 32 -
Mechanical Properties
Table 2-3: Typical Mechanical Properties of Alloys Identified as Candidates for Die Casting
Ultimate 0.2% offset Compressive Endurance Young's
Casting Tensile Yield Elongation Hardness Shear Yield Limit Modulus
Alloy Version(s)** Temper MPa MPa % BHN MPa MPa MPa Gpa
150.0 D 76 48 20 20 62
206.0 R(p) T-4 430 265 17 100 290 285

T-71 435 345 12 120 255 370 90
B319.0 T, R F 235 130 3 85 165 130 70

T-5 250 150 2 90 175 75
T-6 275 185 3 95 200 185 75
333.0 R F 235 130 4 90 185 130 100
T-5 255 195 4 100 185 170 85
T-6 310 220 4 110 225 205 105
T-7 290 200 4 100 195 195 85
354.0 S(p), R(p) T-6 380 280 6 100 248
355.0 S, R T-6 290 185 4
A355 S(p), R(p) T-6 300 225 12 90 190 220 95 72
356.0 R F 180 125 5
T-5 185 140 2
T-61 370 235 5 85 207 185 90 72
T-7 220 165 6 70 170 165 75 72
A356.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) T-61 285 210 10 90 195 220 90 72
F356.0 S(p), R(p) F 18
T-6 15
357.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) F 190 100 6
T-51 200 145 4
T-6 360 295 5 100 240 300 90 72
B357.0 S(p), R(p) T-6 360 295 7 100 240 295 105 72
360.0 D F 325 170 3 75 205 130 71
A360.0 D F 315 165 4 75 200 125 71
V, S, R T-6 350 275 5 71
364.0 D, R F 295 160 7 180 125 71
365.0 V(p), R(p) T-7 260 160 15 70 170 71
369 D F 300 160 7 180 120 71
380.0 D F 320 160 3 80 190 140 71
B380.0 D F 325 160 4 80 190 140 71
383.0 D F 310 150 4 75 190 145 71
384.0 D F 330 170 3 85 200 140 71
A384.0 D F 330 165 4 85 200 140 71
385.0 D F 335 175 3 95 145 71
390.0 D, T, R F 320 250 1 120 140 81
T-5 295 265 <1 130 145 81
T, R T-6 315 <1 150 160 81
B390.0 D F 315 250 <1 120 140 81
392.0 D F 290 260 <1 115 235 105 80
413.0 D F 300 140 3 80 170 130 71

A413.0 D F 290 130 4 80 130 71
A443.0 R F 225 110 9 65 130 120 71
C443.0 D F 230 100 9 65 130 120 71
A444.0 S(p), R(p) T-4 195 85 20+ 71
515.0 D, R F 280 165 10 71
518.0 D, R F 310 190 8 80 200 140 71
Magsimal-59 D, V(p), S(p), R(p) F 315 200 15+ 90 200 140 71
The mechanical properties shown in Table 2-3 are intended to represent "typical" properties that might be expected
from sound castings most were generated by testing standard industry test specimens. The values should provide
a reasonable basis for assessing the relative capabilities of the alloys as applied to commercially available castings.
Certainly, the properties that will actually be achieved in any given casting could deviate substantially from the
information in the tables, due to the influence of varying product designs and because of varying casting processes,
practices and conditions.
- 33 -
Properties of traditional/conventional die casting alloys are those most often provided in the references cited for
"suggested further reading" and in numerous former and current alloy-supplier's data books and product bulletins.
It is generally understood in the industry that reported properties of conventional die castings were largely
generated by testing die-cast-to-size test bars, not specimens cut from die cast parts. Die castings tend to have a
dense and fine-structured "skin" that is exceptionally strong and ductile; a skin that usually ranges in thickness
from 0.02 to 0.06 mm. Beneath that skin, the structure is coarser (albeit, still fine compared to castings by most
other methods) and somewhat porous because of gasses entrapped during turbulent filling of the die and then
compresses during solidification under high pressures. Because of the compressed pores, conventional die castings
cannot be solution heat treated (T-4, T-6 or T-7 tempers) without blistering (as the metal rises to solution heat
treating temperature and softens, the entrapped gasses, obeying the gas laws, expand to become enlarged bubbles)
die casting alloys are thus reported in the "F" (as cast) temper.
The products of the high-integrity die casting process variations are heat treatable without blistering (that is, unless
reactions with die lubricants cause surface blistering) and much less dependent on a dense "skin" for section
properties. Like permanent mold (gravity or low pressure), properties of high integrity die castings are often
derived by excising and testing sections from cast parts, and not merely testing cast-to-size test bars.
The properties shown for high-vacuum die castings "V", squeeze castings "S", semi-solid castings (SSM) by the
thixocasting (billet) route "T" and the rheocasting (slurry) route "R" and the premium versions of those "(p)" were
all derived by testing specimens cut from practical cast shapes. Since properties of any cast product depend greatly
on the specific part design, the exact process variation and specific casting practices being employed, any table of
data such as Table 2-3 cannot possibly reflect the actual properties that will be achieved in any specific casting.
The properties shown are those suggested as achievable with each alloy and temper when produced as sound
castings by the relevant process(es) indicated.
Processing Characteristics
Table 2-4: Processing Characteristics* of Alloys Identified as Candidates for Die Casting
(*1 = "best", 5 = "worst")
Solidification Hot Tearing
Casting Shrinkage or Cracking Pressure Corrosion
Alloy Version(s)** Fluidity Tendancies Tendancies Tightness Resistance Machinablity Weldability
150.0 Rotors 1 2
206.0 R(p) 3 4 4 3 4 1 2
B319.0 T, R 2 2 2 2 3 3 2
333.0 R 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
A333.0 R 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
354.0 S(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 3 3 2
355.0 S, R 1 2 1 1 3 3 2
A355 S(p), R(p) 1 2 1 1 3 3 2
356.0 R 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
A356.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
B356.0 S(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
F356.0 S(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
357.0 S(p), T(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
B367.0 S(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 2
360.0 D, R 2 1 1 1 2 3 D=5, R=1
A360.0 D, V, S 2 1 1 1 2 3 D=5, V&S=1
365.0 V(p), R(p) 1 2 1 1 2 2 1
380.0 D 2 3 2 2 4 3 5
B380.0 D, R 2 3 2 2 4 3 D=5, R=1
383.0 D 1 3 2 2 4 3 5
384.0 D 1 3 2 2 4 3 5
A384.0 D 1 3 2 2 4 3 5
385.0 D 1 3 2 2 4 3 5
390.0 D, T, R 1 2 2 2 4 2 D=5, T&R=1
B390.0 D 1 2 2 2 4 2 1
392.0 D 1 2 2 2 4 2 1
413.0 D 1 2 1 1 2 3 1
A413.0 D 1 2 1 1 2 3 1
A443.0 R 2 1 1 1 2 5 1
C443.0 D 2 1 1 1 2 5 1
A444.0 S(p), R(p) 1 1 1 1 2 3 1
515.0 D, R 5 2 4 5 1 2 D=5, R=2

518.0 D, R 5 2 4 5 1 2 D=5, R=2
Magsimal-59 R(p) 4 3 3 3 1 2 2
** Traditional Die Casting = D; Vacuum Die Casting = V; Squeeze = S; Thixocasting (billet SSM) = T; Rheocasting (slurry SSM) = R; (p) signifies premium or high-integrity.
- 34 -
Some notable trends are:
1. The best fluidity ratings belong to the higher-silicon alloys and the poorest ratings to the higher-
magnesium alloys.
2. The greatest shrinkage tendency belongs to the aluminum-copper alloys and the least tendency belongs to
the copper-free aluminum-silicon alloys.
3. The greatest hot tearing or hot cracking tendency belongs to the aluminum-copper alloys and the
aluminum-magnesium alloys; and the least tendency belongs to the copper-free aluminum-silicon alloys.
4. The best corrosion resistance belongs to the aluminum-magnesium alloys and the least corrosion
resistance belongs to alloys that contain copper.
5. Machinability rating is a composite of several factors; cutting tool life, chip length/curl ratio, and tendency
to build up on the cutting tool edge and thus create difficulties achieving dimensions and surface finish.
Machinability ratings are thus quite subjective as one person's criteria might lean more heavily toward
tool life while another's greatest interest is close dimensional control and surface finish. Because silicon's
hard and abrasive, the poorest tool life belongs to the highest-silicon alloys. Copper and magnesium
harden an alloys matrix and thus those elements provide the best chip characteristics and surface finish.
6. Conventional die castings cannot be welded for the same reasons that they cannot be heat treated they
out-gas and blister during the high temperature exposure of welding. For the more high-integrity versions
of die casting the same ones that allow successful heat treating, welding is feasible and weldability
correlates with amounts of copper or magnesium that affect solidification of the weld joint.
2.5 Aluminum Alloy Property Predictability
A major advancement in the field of aluminum die casting alloys is the ability to predict important engineering
properties based on a specific chemistry. Conversely, identifying an alloy chemistry based on property
requirements is being developed to aid the design community and expand the applications of die cast components.
Recent research results have resulted in a comprehensive database that includes chemistry, microstructures, and
properties of aluminum-based die casting alloys. The data within this database has been obtained through precise,
standardized testing performed at the ACRC and augmented by thoroughly scrutinized data from the literature. The
database has been put into an electronic form that is easily searchable.
Multiple regression analysis was used to generate trend equations based on this database and the trend equations
were used to create a PC-based, user-friendly electronic tool that can be used in the selection and design of die
casting alloys for specific applications. Version 1.0 of the electronic database and design tool has been thoroughly
tested, and is marketed by the North American Die Casting Association.
Research Background
In order to fulfill the objectives of the project, a wide-ranging study in which the effect of ten alloying elements and
their interactions on the mechanical and physical properties of die cast components was performed. The Twenty-
four aluminum-based alloys containing elements common to aluminum die-casting alloys in the range typical to
these alloys were produced. The alloys were die-cast into standard ASTM specimens, and their mechanical and
physical properties were determined. In addition, microstructure examination using scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and energy dispersive x-rays (EDX), as well as thermal analysis were performed on each of the alloys in
order to correlate the alloy chemistry with its die cast microstructure and properties.
The data collected from this exhaustive testing became the nucleus for the electronic database. Subsequently, the
database was enlarged by adding more points to it, but only after each potential data point has been thoroughly
scrutinized for its accuracy, reliability and consistency with the published data. Trend equations were fitted to the
measured data using standard statistical methods. The trend equations were then used as the basis for the electronic
design tool. The design tool was developed in such a way that allows its user to enter a set of alloy properties that
describes the desired performance requirements of a component, and then the tool selects the standard Aluminum
- 35 -
die casting alloy that is capable of these properties. If a standard alloy does not exist, the design tool suggests the
alloy chemistry that would be capable of the required properties. The tool also works in the reverse direction:
specific alloy chemistry may be entered, and the tool calculates the performance characteristics of a die cast
component.
Development of the Database
The alloys tested were aluminum-based alloys with compositions that include all the elements common to die
casting alloys in quantities that are typically found in die casting alloys. In order to clearly illustrate the effects of
these elements on the microstructure and properties of aluminum die casting alloys while examining a practical
number of alloys, the Taguchi method for design of experiments was used. Two Taguchi Orthogonal Arrays were
employed: an L 16 and a modified L 8 . The L 16 orthogonal array called for sixteen alloys where each of the ten
elements was used at two significantly different levels. In addition, those element interactions that are known to
have a significant effect on alloy properties were included. Since the range of silicon, copper, magnesium, iron and
zinc in typical die casting alloys is quite wide, and since the L 16 Taguchi orthogonal array incorporates only the
high and low ends of this range, the L 8 array was needed in order to investigate the effects of these elements at
levels that are intermediate to the range used in the L 16 orthogonal array. In the modified L 8 orthogonal array,
silicon is used at four levels while each of the other four elements is tested at two levels. In this design of
experiments, twenty-four alloys were necessary to cover the range of chemistry of typical Al-based die casting
alloys. The microstructure and metallurgical integrity of each of these alloys was thoroughly characterized, and all
relevant mechanical and physical properties of each alloy were measured using die cast, ASTM standard
specimens, and ASTM standard test methods. The specific material characterization and property measurements for
each experimental composition were as follows:
x Differential Thermal Analysis

x Cooling Curves
x Microstructure Analysis
x Room Temperature Tensile Test
x Elevated Temperature Tensile Test
x Fatigue Strength Test
x Impact Test
x Wear Resistance Test
x Hardness Test
x Specific Gravity Measurement
x Thermal Conductivity Measurement
x Electrical Conductivity Measurement
Customizing An Alloy
The experimental results have been proven effective in several instances. Several die casting companies adjust
their alloy chemistry in order to meet specific application requirements. One company `fine tuned' one of the alloys
and adopted it as their standard specification for making heat sinks for lap top computers. The alloy, which now
carries the trade name "Thermalloy", has a significantly higher thermal conductivity than previously used die
casting alloys. It is not to far in the future that all alloys will be customized to meet the demands of the application.
- 36 -
References
1) Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings and Ingot,
th
The Aluminum Association, Inc. at 900 19 Street, N.W. in Washington, D.C
.
2) Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings, Publication #18, The Aluminum
th
Association, Inc. at 900 19 Street, N.W. in Washington, D.C.
3) Die Casting Handbook, Second Edition, 2001, North American Die Casting Association (NADCA),
Rosemont, IL.
4) NADCA Product Specification Standards for Die Castings Produced by the Semi-Solid and Squeeze
rd
Casting Processes, 3 Edition, North American Die Casting Association (NADCA), Rosemont, IL.
5) Science and Technology of Semi-Solid Metal Processing, Edited by Anacleto de Figueredo, 2001, North
American Die Casting Association (NADCA), Rosemont, IL.
6) Aluminum: Properties and Physical Metallurgy, Edited by John Hatch, 1984, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH (specifically, Chapter 8, Properties of Commercial Casting Alloys, pp 320-350).
7) Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, Edited by J. R. Davis, 1993, ASM International, Materials Park, OH
(specifically, Selection and Application of Aluminum Alloys, Foundry Products, pp 88-120).
8) Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum Alloys: Volume 2, Casting Alloys by Lennart B√ckerud, et al,
1990, American Foundry Society (AFS), Des Plaines, IL.
nd
9) Aluminum Casting Technology, 2 Edition, 1993, American Foundry Society (AFS), Des Plaines, IL.
10) Annual Book of ASTM Standards, volume 02.02 Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys; Die-Cast Metals,
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia, PA (specifically B85, B108 and
B686).
11) G. Taguchi, System of Experimental Design, UNIPUB, Kraus International Publication, 1987.
12) M.M. Makhlouf, D. Apelian, and L. Wang, Microstructures and Properties of Aluminum Die Casting
Alloys, NADCA, Rosemont, IL, 1998.
- 37 -
- 38 -
Melting, Transferring and Holding
Chapter 3
3.1 Melting & Heat Transfer
The melting of aluminum requires that significant heat be input into a vessel in which the aluminum is to be melted.
This is a function of the inherent heat of fusion of aluminum, which must be supplied to melt the aluminum (and
any aluminum alloy) at the melting temperature to convert solid to liquid. Figure 3-1 displays the thermal energy
required to convert a pound of aluminum at the melting temperature from a solid to a liquid. Nearly half of the
total heat necessary is involved in this step. Consequently good furnace design, operation, and maintenance are
required to contain, melt, and hold aluminum alloy in the die cast industry. Furnaces are merely heat transfer
devices in which solid metal is converted to liquid metal by the application of heat.
Figure 3-1 Thermal energy required to melt metal.
- 39 -
Heat transfer occurs by three modes:
Conduction, Convection, & Radiation
In all cases, heat transfer must take place with a temperature gradient, heat flowing from a `hot' body to a `cold'
body. Heat conduction is a physical property of matter, in this case the structure of solid or liquid aluminum. Heat
convection depends on moving matter to carry heat energy. Heat radiation is due to the property of matter to emit
or absorb heat energy through `space' - i.e., with different kinds of energy `rays'.
In small crucible furnaces utilized in aluminum melting, heat transfer occurs through a combination of all three
modes--convective radiation if the crucible is gas-fired, and conduction through the crucible walls. Electrically
heated crucible furnaces would produce heat transfer through radiation and conduction. Reverberatory furnaces are
powered by natural gas or by electric heating elements, and the principal means of heat transfer is through
radiation. The heat energy heats up the refractory in the roof and sidewalls, and this heat is transmitted to the bath
surface and to the interior of the bath through the sidewalls. Some convectional heat transfer occurs within the
bath, but since a `still' bath or melt does not contain `movement', very little heat transfer actually takes place by
convection. Therefore it is desirable to `force' the convection by providing a means of `moving' the metal. This
greatly enhances the rate of heat transfer.
3.2 Melting Process Concerns
Oxidation
Melt oxidation is a strong concern during aluminum melt processing. A thin oxide layer will always exist over the
melt, and if kept thin actually provides some protection against further oxidation. However, it is difficult to control
the thickness of this skin in actual practice. Figure 3-2 depicts the rate of oxidation, which accelerates with
0
temperatures in excess of 1400 F. This in turn results in heavy oxide buildup or dross formation on the melt
surface with subsequent high melt loss. In large reverbatory furnaces, such melt losses can range from as little as
2% to as much as 6% or greater depending on the charge mix and operating circumstances.
30
25
h 20
2
r
15
t
W10
G
a
i
n
, 5
m
g
/ 0
c
m 1240 1300 1390 1420 1450 1475
Temperature - F
Figure 3-2 Rate of oxidation of aluminum.
Melting practice for most die casters dictates that a molten `heel' of metal be maintained in nearly all melting
furnaces, with subsequent additions of solid charge (ingot, sow, alloy additions) and back-scrap (gates, runners,
trim, scrap castings) usually up to 25-30% of the total furnace charge. Best practice usually involves charging in
`layers', with lighter gage material on the bottom to avoid undue exposure to further oxidation, followed by heavier
gage constituents.
- 40 -
Most die casters will prefer to purchase specification ingot, sows, or hot metal deliveries that are òn composition'.
Of course back-scrap in the form of trim, gates and runners will usually be recycled back into the melting furnace.
It is imperative that different alloys and returns be kept separate and not mixed between two or more compositions.
However, many die casters will make alloy additions as required to reach specific levels in particular customer
compositions, etc. Low melting elements such as zinc and magnesium can be added as pure metals. Other
elements have higher melting points than pure aluminum and must be added in master alloy form. These include
copper, manganese, iron and silicon. While they may be added as pure metals, the rate of dissolution is very slow
and they must be fully submerged to avoid "forced convection" or vigorous mixing can aid in dissolution oxidizing.
Impurities
The melting of aluminum alloy feedstock materials requires knowledge of, and control of, impurities associated
with melting and furnace operations. These include metallic impurities, non-metallic impurities, and hydrogen.
Metallic impurities include naturally occurring tramp elements associated with secondary metal production - sow,
ingot, RSI (recycled scrap ingot), in situations where these elements exist in concentrations in excess of the
solubility limit for aluminum. Nickel, manganese, chromium, zirconium, as well as low-melting point elements
such as lead, tin, bismuth fall into this category. Non-metallic impurities include oxides of various elements,
principally aluminum, magnesium, iron, and silicon. Hydrogen is readily absorbed into aluminum as the only
gaseous component which is truly soluble in aluminum. Figure 3-3 describes the hydrogen solubility in molten
aluminum and the significant reduction in solubility that exists in the solid state.
Figure 3-3 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum.
Sources of impurities are many. Firstly, aluminum oxidizes very readily, and all commerical melting of aluminum
is done in air. Other sources include all solid charge material, which will always have an oxide skin, scrap castings,
trim scrap, machining chips, etc, and fluxing compound debris. Double oxides of aluminum and magnesium are
o
called `spinel', and result from extended exposure at high temperatures (usually in excess of 1400 F) when
magnesium is present. Corundum is a very dense form of aluminum oxide (Figure 3-4), which forms at high
temperatures in highly oxidizing atmospheres--the very
environment that exists in aluminum melting furnaces.
Corundum formation causes very adherent buildup on furnace
refractories--exacerbated with high silica-containing
materials-- which cannot be removed by chemical means and
often cannot be removed by mechanical means either.
Refractory erosion is also a source of oxide impurities as
refractories deteriorate through thermal cycling, mechanical
wear/abrasion during furnace maintenance, fluxing salt attack,
and metal flow/penetration of joints.
Figure 3-4 Corundum from melting furnace.
- 41 -
Sources of hydrogen include fossil fuel decomposition of natural gas and oil, which are burned in fuel-fired
furnaces. Of course there is always a certain amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Ingot and sows contain a
certain amount of occluded hydrogen even if they have been produced with a degassing process. Fluxes, and
lubricants from the die casting or subsequent metalworking processes can also deliver hydrogen into the metal.
Dross
In all melting furnaces, the aluminum melting process forms `dross'. This is the top layer on the bath, which as it
forms is actually a `lacy' mixture of oxides, debris and dirt, and entrapped metal. This dross layer can become
quite extensive, growing to several inches, and will severely retard heat transfer by radiation. Hence the absolute
surface temperature increases, and the oxide layer grows quickly. Dross formation increases with dirtier scrap or
charge, more inherently oxide-laden material such as chips or fines, direct flame impingement, and increased
turbulence at the surface which introduces more `fresh' metal exposure. Dross formation can therefore best be
controlled by careful charging, melting and furnace maintenance practice. It is also possible to recover a portion of
the aluminum entrapped in the dross layer with an appropriate fluxing practice.
Fluxing
Many die casters will use chemical fluxes as part of their melting practice. Fluxes are chemical compounds and
mixtures of chemical compounds which perform specific functions. Mixtures may include reactive ingredients, as
well as filler materials, which provide extension of volume and/or which reduce cost. It is extremely important that
fluxes be used discriminately! Fluxes should be used sparingly, and only for the purpose for which they are
intended. During melting, cover fluxes may be used to provide protection of the melt from high oxidation rates.
Cover fluxes are mixtures of particular chloride salts with a small amount of fluoride salt, whose overall
composition create a liquid flux cover at typical aluminum melting temperatures. The cover flux provides a barrier
to oxygen and hydrogen absorption from the atmosphere. Such a cover flux also helps to agglomerate loose dirt,
oxides, and other debris from scrap and other charge material.
Wall-cleaning fluxes are used to help in softening the buildup on furnace walls to permit easier removal by
mechanical cleaning. They are usually applied with a lance or flux-gun, or may simply be `broadcast' manually
onto the walls. Slightly exothermic, these fluxes under closed-door and high-fire conditions increase the localized
temperature of the oxide buildup and thereby soften or loosen the attached oxides permitting easier mechanical
removal and skimming. Corundum formation cannot be removed chemically, but in its early stages sufficient
loosening of mildly adherent corundum can be removed with the combination of fluxing salts and hard work!
Drossing fluxes are designed to assist in separating the entrapped aluminum from the loosely adherent oxide-skin
envelope, which surrounds the aluminum in the dross layer. The structure of dross can be likened to `m and m'
candies as in Figure 3-5. The process involves use of a reactive flux, which must be spread over the dross layer.
With additional heat (closed-door reverb furnace, high-fire) the flux begins to react, increasing the localized
temperature. Careful rabbling, raking, chopping through the dross layer with an appropriate tool helps to fully mix
the flux with the dross. As the heat applied plus the mechanical action achieves good separation and increased
fluidity, the molten aluminum coalesces back into the main
bath. Typically, the aluminum content of untreated dross
averages 80-85%. Initial fluxing treatment can recover
half this amount, rendering the remainder still
economically and technically viable for secondary metal
recovery in-house or with an outside dross processor,
where an additional 25-30% absolute metal content
recovery is still possible. Figures 3-6 & 3-7 portray
untreated and treated dross appearance.
Figure 3-5 Illustrated structure of dross.
- 42 -
Figure 3-6 Untreated dross. Figure 3-7 Treated dross.
3.3 Melting Furnaces
3.3.1 Crucible (Pot) Furnace
There are a variety of furnaces to be found in the pressure die casting industry. The most historically common of
these is the crucible, or pot furnace (Figure 3-8). The energy source traditionally was gas or oil. Today most are
either gas-fired or are electric resistance heated. Figure 3-9 depicts the relative thermal efficiencies of crucible
furnaces. Despite low efficiencies, crucible furnaces being relatively small (250-2000 lb nominal capacity) offer
the die caster considerable flexibility, especially when producing specialty alloy compositions where only a
minimal amount of metal is required. Crucible or pot furnaces may be used exclusively for melting, wherein the
metal is then transferred into another furnace or a transfer ladle, usually with a tilt-pour crucible. Alternatively,
some crucible furnaces are used both for melting as well as casting, using a separating baffle to isolate the melting
side from the casting side. In the latter process, it is necessary to
maintain a minimal variation in both metal level and temperature in
order not to create sludge formation. Best practice here utilizes a
steady-state ingot charging device, in which the rate of melting,
temperature, and metal level are controlled to match the out-take
rate during casting from the same furnace. The baffle can be
replaced by a full sill-to floor-filter of the same configuration to
provide clean metal to the casting side.
Figure 3-8 Small crucible melting furnace.
Figure 3-9 Melting efficiencies of typical crucible melting methods.
- 43 -
3.3.2 Reverberatory Furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces (Figures 3-9a,b, & c) range from as little as 2000 lb holding capacity in melting, up to
100,000 lb or greater. Smaller furnaces (under 10,000 lb) may be electric or gas; larger furnaces are always gas-
fired. `Reverberatory' refers to the principle mode of heat transfer--radiation--in which the heat energy
`reverberates' from the roof and sidewalls into the bath (Figure 3-10). There are several different configurations of
reverberatory furnaces, which are employed in the die casting industry. Single- chamber furnaces include just the
main hearth and an access door. Sloping, or dry-hearth furnaces alloy the charge material to sit on a `ledge' and
melt somewhat slowly with the molten metal `sliding' down the sloped ramp into the main bath. This allows large
feedstock materials such as sow or RSI to build up heat slowly and release any moisture of condensation or
entrapped moisture without causing a safety problem, as melting takes place gradually. Open, sidewell furnaces
have an external chamber with full access to charge ingot, sow, or scrap castings. These furnaces can become quite
large. In the larger open-well furnaces, continuous charging and periodic partial tap out is preferred to total batch-
mode operation, in order to maximize energy utilization and productivity. Furthermore, maintaining an adequate
`heel' at worst, and reasonably steady operating temperatures helps to avoid sludge formation caused by low
temperatures.
Figure 3-9a Electric reverb melting furnace. Figure 3-9b Electric reverb holding furnace.
Figure 3-9c Open well, gas fired reverb.

Figure 3-10 Reverb with top charge furnace design.
- 44 -
Also common is a smaller, electrically heated single-chamber reverberatory furnace, or a dual-chamber furnace in
which metal is melted in one end and cast through the other end. Barrel reverberatory furnaces are also common in
the die casting industry (Figure 3-11). These moderately sized furnaces provide good alloy flexibility, produce
good heat transfer and are conveniently tapped by tilting the furnace to allow metal to flow from the tap hole into a
transfer ladle.
Figure 3-11 Barrel reverb furnace.
3.3.3 Stack Melter
Stack melters are now being more commonly used (Figure 3-12) in the melting of aluminum. A furnace charge
consisting of ingot, sow, and back scrap is located into a charging bucket and hoisted to the top of the stack.
Within the stack there may be `flights' or levels in which the charge rests and drops to succeeding levels as melting
proceeds. The stack is heated by burners and flue gas products of combustion; as melting commences and
continues the molten metal collects into the bath at the bottom of the stack. A variation on this approach is the `jet
melter', in which a gas burner directly impinges on the solid metal charge in the stack. Both types of furnace
operate best with continuously charged, consistently sized medium-to-large feedstock with low surface area-to-
volume ratios to optimize recovery; i.e., reduce melt loss to a minimum.
Figure 3-12 Stack melting furnace.
- 45 -
3.3.4 Isothermal Melting
Conventional versus Isothermal Melting (ITM)
In a traditional melting furnace, solid aluminum is typically added to a small quantity of molten metal remaining in
the furnace hearth (often called a heel). Heat transfer occurs from gas-fired burners to melt the charge. The
temperature of the furnace ceiling and walls, the heel, and also the charge increases dramatically as the melting
process progresses. These temperature excursions are characteristically non-isothermal. Additional solid aluminum
charge may be added, and the process is complete when the furnace capacity is reached. Molten aluminum is then
removed from the furnace at the desired temperature. During high rate firing, the furnace ceiling and wall surfaces
O
can reach a temperature of at least 2100 F due to omni-directional radiation heat transfer from the burners. This is
O
over 700 F higher than the typical melt temperature. The molten aluminum itself may have even exceeded the
desired withdraw temperature due to thermal inertia.
A fundamental limitation of traditional gas fired reverberatory melting methods is that the primary burner-to-charge
heat transfer is by radiation and therefore depends on surface area. Further, heat transfer away from the metal
surface and to the remainder of the bath occurs exclusively by conduction in a non-recirculated furnace, as natural
convection cannot occur in a top down heating geometry.
The result of these two effects is that melt surface temperatures become exceptionally high. Since the oxidation rate
of aluminum increases markedly with temperature, an oxide skim layer forms on the metal surface and grows in
thickness. The low thermal conductivity and high emissivity of the oxide further reduces burner to charge heat
transfer and drive surface temperatures even higher.
O
Surface temperatures can easily exceed 1700 F. This process leads to low heat transfer rates and high melts loss.
Temperature stratification within the melt bath also increases dramatically with melt rate, and a temperature
O
gradient of over 80 F per foot of melt depth is not unusual. During metal transfer from the furnace, the burners are
operated in a low firing rate condition, and everything cools down. After the furnace is "drawn down" to minimum
capacity, the process is repeated. It is entirely batch in nature and, again, non-isothermal.
Designed as a multi-bay continuous flow system, ITM employs electronically controlled immersion heaters in a
heating bay. A recirculating quantity of molten aluminum within the process provides a heat transfer medium to a
continuously fed solid aluminum charge, and metal is
withdrawn and returned to the hearth at approximately the same
temperature (hence, isothermal melting). High heat flux (130
Watts per square inch or 64,900 BTU per square foot) and
external material coatings provide the mechanical and chemical
protection that makes this system practical.
The essential difference between conventional reverberatory

melting and ITM is the mode of heat transfer. While
reverberatory melting is radiation driven and occurs topically
through the melt surface, ITM is based on forced convection
and is volumetric in nature. Heat transfer to the melt and charge
occurs by flowing metal around a strategically designed array of
submerged heaters. The result of this fundamentally different
approach is that ITM's electric resistance high flux heat source
has a specific firing rate of over 450,000 BTU per hour per
square foot, requires no combustion air, and eliminates
emissions. Consequentially, the maximum melt temperature
experienced in the ITM process under the most aggressive
melting conditions is projected to be less than 90 O
F above the
desired holding temperature.
Figure 3-13 ITM prototype unit melting at 300#/hr.
- 46 -
By using electric resistance as the ITM heat source, near 100% thermal efficiency can be achieved in a cost-
effective manner with no on-site pollution. The newly developed materials give the immersion heaters a highly
conductive, impact resistant ceramic coating on a metallic sheath, combined with a highly thermally conductive,
dielectric integral coupling medium between the sheath and the heat producing element. CPRM used as a heat-
producing element allows the heater to reliably operate at much higher temperatures and total power input than
immersion resistance heaters that are available today.
x Operates at well under half of the energy consumption required for conventional melting
x Produces no in-plant emissions
x Practical for large scale aluminum operations due to new materials and construction techniques for
immersion heaters
x Future versions of ITM can be used in retrofit applications for existing furnaces
x Derivative heaters can be applied to energy efficient heating and holding applications
x ITM requires less than 25% of the floor space as compared to conventional melting
x Decreased melt loss (1% vs. 6%) and reduced dross generation
Potential energy savings offered by this technology extend throughout the aluminum field and to sectors in many
other industries. Within the aluminum industry, benefits can be realized in applications such as: immersion heating
(i.e. caster holding furnaces), retro-fit drop-in heater/ circulator for existing melting furnaces, resistance heated
troughs, and just in time melting/flexible ingot manufacturing.
While not yet commercialized, Isothermal melting and holding is an emerging technology which offers great
promise to pressure die casting melting and holding operations.
3.4 Furnace Maintenance
It is necessary to adhere to all available furnace maintenance procedures as recommended by the furnace
manufacturer, for any style of furnace. Burners should be kept tuned with the proper fuel/air ratios. Thermocouples
and temperature controllers should be checked and calibrated regularly. Electric heating elements should be
monitored and changed out when current and resistance stray from recommended levels. Good crucible furnace
operation avoids undue thermal gradients and thermal cycling within the crucible material, and any buildup,
particularly at the metal level, should be removed frequently and carefully. In reverberatory furnaces, doors, sills
and jams should be well maintained so that positive pressure inside the furnace ensues, assuring that air is not
aspirated into the furnace creating excessive oxidation and heat loss up the stack. Overall, excessive
melting/holding temperatures should be avoided with any type furnace in order to maintain structural integrity and
proper `fit' within the steel superstructure. Regular hot cleaning should take place to remove buildup and possible
corundum formation on walls; any furnace bottom sludge should also be removed periodically.
3.5 Refractories
Molten aluminum is often considered to be almost a ùniversal solvent'. That is, liquid aluminum is very
aggressive in attacking vessels in which it is contained, particularly metal ones. Consequently, materials must be
used that can withstand attack and dissolution by molten aluminum, i.e., refractories. As the name implies,
refractory materials are `high temperature' and maintain resistance to molten aluminum, and only the best
refractory materials are capable of being used in this application. Crucible furnaces utilize silicon carbide or clay-
graphite crucibles as the containment material in the vessel. The most common material used today in all
reverberatory furnace types is high alumina brick or castable, with minimal amounts of free silica, but with low
cement as a bonding agent and special non-wetting agents. These create a special high temperature phase with
reduced wettability of the liquid aluminum at melt processing temperatures, without such special additives,
increased metal penetration and corrosive attack would occur.
Silica (SiO 2 ) is a detrimental refractory material component in molten aluminum exposure as a reaction can occur
with time as follows:
4Al + 3SiO 2 3Si +2Al 2 O 3
- 47 -
Over time, aluminum will break down the silica and create pure silicon (Si) and aluminum oxide. When this occurs
within the pore structure of refractory, it is accompanied by a volume change, and continued thermal cycling and
metal level variation cause the refractory to spall and crack, exposing new refractory surface to possible damage.
Consequently silica brick, fireclays, and other compositions high in silica content must be avoided. Refractories of
this composition also enhance corundum formation, which must be avoided.
The high integrity composition most useful for aluminum application is mullite. This is a durable refractory
containing approximately 72% alumina and 28% silica fired to equilibrium conditions, which create a resultant very
resistant compound consisting of (3Al 2 O 3 *2SiO 2 ). Despite the silica content, this composition is largely resistant to
the silica displacement reaction, especially with the non-wetting additives, However, this composition is quite
sensitive to impurities, and may not form well when impurities are present in the base-line refractory composition.
Mullite type refractories have excellent volume stability and strength at high temperatures, coupled with reasonably
good resistance to alkalis, which is important when using fluxing compounds. Again, small amounts of impurities
can reduce the refractory's integrity against chemical attack.
Hot-face castables are used directly in contact with the molten metal. In most furnaces, this `layer' may be 2-4
inches. Back-up refractory construction provides more thermal insulation. Insulating castable or brick is made
from various fire clay, alumino-silicate materials such as mullite, but with a higher degree of porosity than a dense
castable material used as hot-face. The lower density retards the transfer. Other insulating refractory materials
commonly employed include low density board products, foamed silica, and ceramic fiber.
When utilizing a furnace lining with an insulating castable, care must be taken not to erode the denser hot face
away. This exposes the backup lining, resulting in accelerated wear and aluminum penetration through the
increased porosity. In extreme cases this could lead to liquid metal breakout, a very dangerous situation.
3.6 Heat Transfer Aids
Forced convection aids in heat transfer, especially considering the large amount of heat input necessary to bring
solid aluminum to the melting point and then to convert the solid to a liquid. Forced convection accelerates the rate
of heat transfer from the heating source to the solid-liquid mass, increasing the conversion of solid to liquid. There
are several means to accomplish forced convection, by stirring or pumping. In small furnaces, manual or even
mechanical stirring can be of some help, and the stirring action can help achieve greater homogeneity in melt
temperature and alloy uniformity, and can also aid in alloy dissolution. Smaller pot or crucible furnaces, as well as
smaller reverberatory type furnaces (3000 lbs) can certainly benefit from simple stirring. It is important, however,
to `stir' such furnaces with a minimum of turbulence which would cause `breaking' of the melt surface and
exposing fresh metal to further oxidation and dross formation.
However, more formidable methods are required to achieve good heat

transfer by forced convection in larger furnaces. This is best
accomplished by means of a metal pumping system (Figure 3-14).
Mechanical centrifugal pumps are employed in a vertical configuration,
driven either by air motors, or more commonly by a DC electric motor
and inverter drive control system. Metal enters into the base of the
pump, through a volute chamber, and a rotating impeller drives the
liquid metal out through a discharge port in the pump base. The
discharged metal then contacts the scrap or solid charge and creates the
forced convection or metal movement, which facilitates melting. In so
doing, the pump `circulates' molten metal between three furnace
chambers, drawing hot metal from the hearth, through the pump well,
and into the charge well, and back again into the hearth. All three
chambers are connected by submerged arches, which provide
`communication' between them, moving liquid metal through all
chambers to provide a `circulation route' (Fig. 3-15).
Figure 3-14 Liquid metal circulation pump
- 48 -
Figure 3-15 Centrifugal pump used

to transfer metal.
Benefits of such circulation pumps are well documented. The increased forced convection accelerates the melting
rate, which generates a reduction in energy utilized to melt a pound of aluminum, so the `BTU's consumed per
pound of production can be reduced substantially. The increased heat transfer throughout the bath allows the
absolute surface temperature at the top of the bath (or melt) to be reduced, thereby increasing the heat transfer by
radiation from the heat source (burners or electric elements) into the melt. This has the added benefit of reducing
the dross formation or `melt loss'. Furthermore, the improved heat transfer results in a lower thermal head--the
temperature, which the walls and roof reach above the bath level. Lower thermal heads in the refractory minimizes
thermal stresses, which develop during the melting/pouring cycle, and help extend refractory life.
In many large reverberatory furnaces (80,000-100,000 lbs) it is not uncommon to experience temperature gradients
o
within the bath depth (nominally 30-36") of up to 50 F per foot without circulation. However, excellent
o
temperature homogeneity can be achieved with a circulation pump, reducing the gradient to within 10 F or less
throughout the bath. Additionally, maintaining alloying uniformity throughout the melt is an increasingly
important benefit of circulation. Since die cast alloy is especially prone to sludge formation and heavy metal
segregation (copper, zinc, iron) arising from low temperature, minimizing temperature variation is extremely
important. Forced convection also aids in alloy additive dissolution rates.
Melt refining capability can be added to forced convectional circulation by

the addition of gas injection to a mechanical pump (Figure 3-16). In this
instance a process gas, usually nitrogen is injected through a lance directly
into the pump base where the gas is then `sheared' by the action of the
rotating impeller to create a `swarm' of finely-sized gas bubbles. The
finer the gas bubble size, the higher surface area/volume generates greater
reactivity with the molten aluminum. Thus hydrogen levels can be
reduced as the process or `collector' gas absorbs the hydrogen in the melt.
A small amount of chlorine can be employed to react with alkali metals
present (sodium, lithium, calcium) to remove these elements when
necessary. In addition to hydrogen removal, solid particulate (inclusions)
can also be removed to an extent by means of flotation with the gas
injection refining. Chlorine can be used to enhance the separation of
inclusions from the aluminum melt, though this is not commonly used by
die casters.
Figure 3-16 Gas injection pump.
- 49 -
Gas injection pumps are also used in that segment of the die casting industry which produces their own secondary
metal alloy composition from scrap sources. In this case available feedstock material may contain magnesium
concentration levels higher than specification alloy allows; hence the magnesium must be refined out. Chlorine is
the most economical and efficient reactant to refine the magnesium from the bath, and the "smelter-die caster" can
continuously refine magnesium while charging the metal and gaining forced convective circulation as well.
An emerging alternative technology makes use of a electromagnetic pumping system, rather than a mechanical one.
Such pumps are becoming increasingly utilized in larger furnaces, especially those that are tilting, do not already
have a sidewell, or which are fully drained each cycle. Again, the same benefits of forced convection accrue to this
pumping system as well--energy reduction, increase in melt rate, less dross formation, lower thermal heads,
increased alloy and temperature homogeneity. Smaller versions of electromagnetic circulation pumps are evolving,
which have application in medium-sized die cast industry melt furnaces (25,000-40,000 lb). Special charge wells
can be associated with the electromagnetic pump, shown schematically in figure 3-17. Which facilitates scrap
charging and alloy additons.
Figure 3-17 Schematic of an electromagnetic pump.
3.7 Metal Transfer & Holding
When metal is melted in a `central melter', it must be further transferred into holding or casting furnaces. Typically
this is done with a transfer ladle. Another method, increasing in popularity during foundry renovation, is to utilize
electrically heated launders to transfer metal. The guiding principle in any liquid metal transfer operation is to
avoid turbulent flow. When a metal `stream' is `broken', new surface area is created which has the potential of
creating more oxide and absorbing `fresh' hydrogen from the atmosphere as well. Consequently, `cascading' of the
metal must be avoided in any process.
The simplest form of metal transfer is to unplug a taphole in the melt furnace and allow the metal stream to fill a
transfer ladle, from which it is further processed (e.g., degassing and/or flux injection) and then subsequently
poured into a casting furnace (crucible, or small casting reverberatory furnace) associated with a specific die
casting press. Unfortunately, such pouring operations often create more oxides and further hydrogen absorption,
especially when pouring from head heights greater than two feet. Even the act of just filling a 1000 lb ladle from a
furnace taphole outlet is usually enough to create sufficient turbulence to generate further oxides and hydrogen, not
to mention possible dross and sludge entrainment from the furnace pouring stream. Whenever possible, troughing
or gentle slopes should be employed in making transfers to minimize such turbulence.
One way of minimizing turbulence, at least to an extent, is to utilize a transfer pump (Figure 3-18). Like its
brethren, this is a small vertically mounted centrifugal pump that may also be outfitted with a filter cap on its inlet.
Transfer pumps take metal from a melter in a submerged position intermediate between the top and the bottom,
thereby avoiding entrainment of top dross and bottom sludge. Metal is driven by the rotating impeller up through a
riser and into a section of closed piping and/or open troughing into the receiving vessel, either a transfer ladle or
perhaps a separate holding furnace. While some turbulence still results, and the metal stream is not completely free
from oxidation/oxide potential, transfer pumps nevertheless considerably reduce the problem.
- 50 -
Figure 3-19 Electrically heated launder system.
Figure 3-18 Metal transfer pump.
Another method of transfer that is increasing in popularity utilizes electrically heated launder systems (Figure 3-
19), which maintain a constant flow of molten metal to casting cells. When foundry renovation is undertaken,
particularly when just a single alloy is processed, this is a preferred technology which should be considered, as it
completely avoids any problems with pouring operations and cascading metal. Usually a central melter will feed 6,
8, 10 or more connected casting furnaces through the nearly constant level-pour launder system. Metal is
maintained in the launders at all times (other than maintenance outages) ensuring minimal turbulence and
temperature variation, using highly insulating refractory. Heating is provided by resistance elements in modular lid
covers, usually every two or 4 feet. Such launders are not sealed, however, and surface oxides and dross buildup
can occur. It is necessary to develop a standardized maintenance monitoring process to keep such systems
operating in best circumstance.
Other molten aluminum transfer techniques employ a pressure pump to fill ladles or molds (Figure 3-20).
Eelectromagnetic dosing pumps (Figure 3-21) are being useful. These have been used extensively in permanent
mold and high-performance green sand foundries to deliver metal directly into the molding process, and they are
now beginning to be used for pressure die casting. Likewise,
`dosing' pumps whereby air pressure drives metal through a
delivery tube as shown in figure 3-22, are being increasingly used
in North America pressure die casting application, although they
have a long history in European application. This is an alternative
to the currently more common robotic ladle metal delivery
normally employed in most die casting furnaces today in North
America. In each case the advantage is that metal is delivered into
the molding device from a submerged position, minimizing
entrainment of surface dross and also further exposure to oxidation
in air. Accuracy and shot control is ever increasing, widening the
possibilities for further utilization in the pressure die casting
industry as precision-transfer systems at the point-of-casting.
Figure 3-20 Pressurized system for transferring metal into delivery ladle.
- 51 -
Figure 3-22 Dosing furnace feeding diecast machine.

Figure 3-21 Electromagnetic dosing pump.
References
1. Neff, D. V. Metal Melting & Handling, NADCA 1999

AFS Aluminum Casting ( )
- 52 -
Sludge Formation & Prediction Methods
Chapter 4
4.1 Sludge Formation Equation
Die Casters refer to the buildup of solid heavy-element compounds on the floor of their melting and holding
furnaces as "sludge". This sludge is made up of oxides, such as alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) and magnesia (MgO) [1,2], and
primary crystals that contain Al, Si, Fe, Mn, Mg and/or Cr [3]. Generally, these oxides and crystals have high
melting points and high specific gravities; therefore, they tend to accumulate on the floors of furnaces and thus
reduce the effective capacity of the furnace. Moreover, when the sludge crystals are entrained into castings, they
decrease the alloy's fluidity and form "hardspot" inclusions [2, 3, 4], which make machining difficult and degrade
the mechanical properties of the cast component. The formation of sludge may also increase the die-soldering
tendency of the alloy because sludge crystals are composed mainly of Fe and Mn rich compounds and their
formation causes a depletion of Fe and Mn in the melt.
Sludge formation has been shown to be dependent on the alloy's chemistry, melting and holding temperatures, and
time. Jorstad [3] and Gobrecht [5] studied the sludging phenomenon and defined a sludge factor (SF) for Al-Si-Cu
alloys. This factor is calculated from the Fe, Mn, and Cr contents of the alloys as follows,
Sludge factor (SF) = (1 u wt%Fe) + (2 u wt%Mn) + (3 u wt%Cr)
- 53 -
4 5 380 2 1 3
660
No Sedimentation
640
Jorstad
620
Gobrecht
H
o 600
l
Sedimentation Figure 4-1 Temperature versus sludge factor.
d
i 580
n 1.0 2.0
g Sludge Factor (= Fe + 2Mn + 3Cr)
Figure 4-1 shows the dependence of SF on temperature and delineates areas where sludge will form in Al-Si-Cu
alloys. Shabestari et al [6] investigated the effect of alloy chemistry, holding temperature and cooling rate on sludge
formation in Al-12.7Si alloys. They found that the Fe, Mn and Cr contents of the alloy as well as the cooling rate
significantly affected the morphology, quantity, and size of the sludge particles. They also found that sludge did not
form until a certain temperature was reached for a given Fe content and the sludge forming temperature depended
on the Fe content of the alloy. Shabestari et al [6] gave the following relationship to describe the dependence of
sludge forming temperature on the alloy's iron content,
2
Temperature ( qC) = 645.7 + 34.2 (%Fe)
Flores, A. et el [7] studied the effect of holding temperature and time and alloy chemistry on sludge formation in Al
based alloys. They found that in Al-Si-Cu alloys when the composition exceeded 0.060%Fe, 0.50%Mn and 8%Si,
sludge, in the form of Al(Fe, Mn)Si, formed at temperatures in the range 610-660qC. Flores, A. et el [7] tested a
7.5%Si, 1.2%Fe, 3.53%Cu, 0.60%Mn, 0%Cr alloy and found that when the melt was held at temperature for 50
minutes, the area percentage of Al(Fe, Mn)Si type sludge formed at a location 14 cm from the melt surface was
approximately 2.4%, 8.2% and 1.1% for holding temperatures 630qC, 640qC, and 660qC, respectively. In addition,
at 640qC, the area percent of the sludge increased significantly when the Cr content of the alloy was increased from
0% to 0.2%. Flores, A. et el [7] also found that the average size of the sludge particles depended on the holding
temperature and time. At 640qC, the average size of the sludge particles was over 40 µm after holding for one to
two minutes, while at 630qC and 660qC it was about 5 µm for the same holding time. These findings suggest that
the Al(Fe, Mn)Si type sludge forms most readily at about 640qC.
Though numerous studies have been conducted on sludge formation, the results are inconsistent. For example, for
an alloy containing 1%Fe, the Shabestari equation predicts that sludge can form when the melt is held at 680qC. On
the other hand, the curves given by Jorstad and Gobrecht (Figure 4-1) predict that for the same iron content, sludge
can form only when the holding temperature is below 600qC. Inconsistency also exists in the sludge factor
formula. While the Jorstad relationship is widely accepted, some [3] prefer the relation;
Sludge factor (SF) = (1 u wt%Fe) + (1.5 u wt%Mn) + (2 u wt%Cr)
- 54 -
There are also different opinions about the role of cooling rate in sludge formation. Most studies show that the
morphology of the sludge is significantly affected by the cooling rate. Jorstad [3] and Gobrecht [5] did not specify
the cooling conditions used to derive their equations and some studies report that the polyhedral and Chinese script
morphologies of the Al(Fe, Mn)Si type sludge are independent of cooling rate [10, 11]. The mechanisms
underlying sludge formation in aluminum-silicon die casting alloys are still not well understood and extensive,
systematic research in the area is needed.
The sludge formation tendency of selected aluminum die-casting alloys was tested at various cooling rates and
holding temperatures. It was found that:
x For cooling rates that are typical to die casting, the sludge factor calculated using the relation: SF = 1 X
wt%Fe + 2 X wt%Mn + 3 X wt%Cr determines the tendency of the alloys to form sludge. Large amounts of
sludge formed in alloys 1 and 3; these alloys had a calculated SF of 2.51 and 2.54, respectively. Sludge was not
detected in alloys 2, 4, 5 and A380 (Table 4-1) who's calculated SFs are 1.86, 1.27, 1.32 and 1.70.
x The Fe, Mn and Cr content of the alloy, as well as the ratio of these elements to one another and the cooling
rate, are the major factors that determine the quantity, size, and morphology of the sludge that forms in 380-
type aluminum die casting alloys.
4.2 Experiment to Verify Sludge Factor Equation
Six aluminum die casting alloys were investigated. The target and achieved compositions of these alloys are
presented in Table 4-1. The commercial A380.0 alloy is included to provide a reference point for comparison. The
calculated SF (sludge factor) for each of these alloys, based on the targeted and achieved chemistry, is shown in
Table 4-2. The SF for each of the achieved alloys is also marked by ( ) in Figure 4-1.
Composition (%)
Alloy
No
Others
Si Cu Fe Mn Mg Ni Cr Zn Ti Sr Total Al
Target 13.0 5.0 1.6 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.05 3.0 0.20 <0.02 0.50 Balance
1
Achieved 12.88 4.84 1.84 0.26 0.54 0.28 0.05 2.91 0.19 0.00
Target 7.0 1.25 0.7 0.50 0.05 0.05 0 3.0 0.20 0.02 0.50 Balance
2
Achieved 7.32 1.20 0.80 0.50 0.04 0.06 0.02 2.97 0.20 0.01
Target 13.0 5.0 1.2 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.05 3.0 0.20 <0.02 0.50 Balance
3
Achieved 13.09 4.88 1.34 0.51 0.29 0.29 0.06 3.01 0.20 0.00
Target 7.0 1.25 0.7 0 0.05 0.25 0.15 0.50 0 <0.02 0.50 Balance
4
Achieved 6.83 1.82 0.79 0.03 0.14 0.27 0.14 0.52 0.02 0.00
Target 7.0 1.25 0.7 0.25 0.05 0.05 0 3.0 <0.2 <0.02 0.50 Balance
5
Achieved 7.07 1.34 0.74 0.26 0.05 0.06 0.02 3.00 0.05 0.00
Target 7.5-9.5 3.0-4.0 1.3 0.50 0.10 0.5 - 3.0 - - 0.50 Balance
A380.0
Achieved 9.51 3.43 1.02 0.22 0.05 0.08 0.08 2.43 0.05 0.00
Table 4-1 Targeted and measured chemistry of the alloys.
- 55 -
Alloy 1 2 3 4 5 A380.0
Target 2.25 1.7 2.35 1.15 1.2 <2.3
Achieved 2.51 1.86 2.54 1.27 1.32 1.7
Table 4-2 Sludge factors for the alloys in Table 4-1.
Two holding temperatures were tested: 670qC, which is the holding temperature commonly used for 380 type
alloys, and 720qC, which is high enough so that sludge should not form. Notice that at 670qC, the Gobrecht relation
predicts that sludge will form in alloys 1 and 3 only. On the other hand, the Jorstad relation predicts that sludge
should form in alloy 2 and possibly in alloy A380 as well as in alloys 1 and 3. The Shabestari relation predicts that
sludge will form in all six alloys.
4.3 Morphology and Hardness of the Sludge Particles
All the sludge particles detected in the six alloys tested were identified as Fe-rich compounds. Their size and
morphology depended largely on the alloy's chemistry and on the cooling rate. The morphologies observed were
mainly polyhedral, star-like, and blocky. Chinese script and needle-like Fe-rich compounds can also constitute
sludge when they form at low cooling rates and are therefore large. However, in die casting operations, where the
cooling rate is typically high, there is no primary Chinese script and large needle-like particles. Comparison of the
sludge particle size to the DAS or cell size of the alloys reveals that the polyhedral, star-like, and blocky sludge
particles are primary phases. Fig. 4-2, which is the microstructure obtained when alloy 1 is cooled slowly, shows
that a polyhedral sludge particle is surrounded by a primary silicon particle, which suggests that the polyhedral
particle forms before the primary silicon. Fig. 4-2 also shows a Fe-rich needle-like sludge particle surrounded by a
primary silicon particle.
P
S
Figure 4-2 The Fe-rich needle and polyhedral particle surrounded by the
primary Si in alloy 3 slowly cooled. S-Primary Si, P-Polyhedral,
N-Needle (or Platelet).
- 56 -
1
The hardness of sludge particles was measured using a micro hardness tester . The results are presented in Table 4-
3. Also listed in Table 4-3 for comparison is the microhardness of other major phases present in the alloys.
Microhardness measurements were made only on the slowly cooled samples because in these samples the phases
were large enough to permit measurement. The hardness of the polyhedral, star-like, and blocky particles is about
840 and the hardness of the needle-like particles is about 650. These particles are much harder than the Al matrix
(75), but softer than the primary Si particles (1200). Because the Fe-rich phases are very brittle and break easily
even under a small load, it was difficult to measure the hardness of the Chinese script iron-rich phase. However,
based on a few measurements, it is estimated that the hardness of the Fe-rich Chinese script is close to or a little
lower than that of the polyhedral particles.
Phase Micro hardness value

Polyhedral, star-like, and blocky 840 r 60
Fe-rich phase particles, and Chinese script
Needle 650 r 60
Cu-rich blocky particles 440 r 50
Primary Si 1200 r 120
Al matrix 74 r 5
Table 4-3 Micro hardness of different phases in the studied alloys.
4.4 Effect of Alloy Chemistry on Sludge Formation
Figures 4-3 through 4-8 show microstructures of alloys 1 through 5 and alloy A380, respectively. The samples in
these microstructures were taken from parts cast in a copper wedge mold after melts were held at 670qC for 3
hours. The DAS and the fineness of the various phases in these microstructures are very similar to those observed
in die cast bars that are 0.25" in diameter, and therefore are representative of die cast microstructures. It can be seen
clearly that under these solidifying conditions, the SF of the alloy accurately predicts sludge formation. Figures 4-3
and 4-5 show that alloys 1 and 3, which have high SFs, 2.51 and 2.54, respectively, form significant amounts of
sludge. The sludge consists of Fe-rich primary phases in the form of platelets and star-like particles. On the other
hand, in alloys 2,4,5, and A380 the Fe-rich phases are small and are located predominantly in the interdendritic
areas of the microstructure. Consequently, they do not contribute to the sludge.
S S
T T
Figure 4-3 The microstructure of alloy 1, melt was held

qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge mold, at wall
at 670
thickness of 0.17". T-Star-like, N-Needle (or Platelet),
S-Primary Si.
1
Shrimadzu micro hardness tester model HMV-2000.
- 57 -
S
C T
Figure 4-4 The microstructure of alloy 2, melt was

held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge mold, at held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge mold,
at wall thickness of 0.17". C-Chinese script. wall thickness of 0.17". T-Star-like, S-Primary Si.
N
C
Figure 4-6 The microstructure of alloy 4, melt was held

at 670 qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge mold, at wall held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge mold,
thickness of 0.17". N-Needle (or Platelet). at wall thickness of 0.17". C-Chinese script.
The morphology of the Fe-rich phases is strongly influenced by the Fe:Mn:Cr ratio of the alloy. When Fe is high
and both Mn and Cr are low, a large fraction of the Fe-rich phases is in the form of needle-like or platelets, e.g.,
alloy 1 seen in Fig 4-3. When the ratio of (Mn + Cr) : Fe increases, the size and amount of needle-like and platelets
decrease, and instead, more Chinese script and/or polyhedral, star-like and blocky particles form, e.g., alloy 3 seen
in Figure 4-5. Generally, a higher Mn level leads to more Chinese script and a higher Cr level favors the formation
of polyhedral, star-like and blocky particles.
- 58 -
Figure 4-8 The microstructure of alloy A380, melt

was held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, cast in copper wedge
mold, at wall thickness of 0.17". B-Blocky particle.
4.5 Effect of Cooling Rate on Sludge Formation
Cooling rate plays an important role in determining the amount, size and morphology of sludge. When the melt was
cooled slowly in the crucible after holding, the sludge formed not only in alloys with high SF, such as alloys 1 and
3, but also in all the other alloys. For example, sludge formed in alloy 2 in the form of large Chinese script (Figure
4-9) and in alloy 4 in the form of polyhedral and blocky particles (Figure 4-10). Recall that sludge did not form in
these alloys when they were cooled fast (Figures 4-3 and 4-5). Figure 4-11 shows that in alloy A380, sludge formed
at the low cooling rate as large Chinese script, platelets, and polyhedral particles.
C P
qC for
Figure 4-9 The3microstructure
hrs, air cooledof
inalloy
crucible. C-Chinese
2, melt was heldscript.
Figureheld
4-10at The
720microstructure
qC for
of 3alloy
hrs, 4,
airmelt
cooled
wasin crucible.
at 720 P-Polyhedral.
With an increase in cooling rate, the size of the sludge particles and the volume fraction of sludge decrease. In some
alloys, e.g., alloys 2, 4 and 5, the Fe-rich phases form in the interdendritic regions and they become so small so that
they do not contribute to sludge.
- 59 -
N
C
Figure 4-11 The microstructure of alloy A380, melt was

held at 720 qC for 3 hrs, air cooled in crucible. C-
P Chinese script, N-Needle (or Platelet), P-Polyhedral.
Cooling rate also affects the morphology of sludge particles. For example, in alloy 1, the sludge is predominantly in
platelet and polyhedral form at the low cooling rate, as shown in Fig 4-12. On the other hand, at the high cooling
rate, it is in the form of platelets and star-like particles as shown in Fig 4-3. Similarly, in alloy 3, the sludge consists
of blocky particles and Chinese script at the low cooling rate as shown in Figure 4-13, and it becomes star-like
particles at the high cooling rate as shown in Fig 4-5
.
N
S
C
C
P
S C
Figure 4-12 The microstructure of alloy 1, melt was Figure 4-13 The microstructure of alloy 3, melt was
held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, air cooled in crucible. held at 670 qC for 3 hrs, air cooled in crucible.
S-Primary Si, N-Needle (or Platelet), P-Polyhedral. C-Chinese script, B-Blocky particle.
4.6 Effect of Holding Temperature at 670 qC on the Sludge Formation

Because the amount of sludge formed in an alloy is inversely proportional to holding temperature, there should be
more sludge particles in an ingot solidified quiescently after holding for 3 hours at 670qC than in an ingot of the
same alloy solidified quiescently after holding for 3 hours at 720qC. However, examination of the microstructure at
corresponding locations in ingots from all the alloys studied did not reveal any difference in sludge content between
ingots that were solidified quiescently after holding for 3 hours at 670qC and those that were held at 720qC. This
suggests that sludge doesn't form in the studied alloys during holding at 670qC.
- 60 -
References
1 Makhlouf, M.M., Apelian, D. and Wang, L., Microstructure and Properties of Aluminum Die Casting
Alloys, NADCA, 1999.
2 Crepean, P. N., Tiwari, B. L., and Rahmoeller, K. M., " Characterization of Oxide Sludge, Dross and
rd
Inclusions in Aluminum Melting and Holding Furnaces", Proc. Of the 3 International Conference on
Molten Aluminum Processing, Orlando, Fl, Nov. xx-xx, 1992, pp 51-57.
th
3 Jorstad, J. L., "Understanding Sludge", Proc. Of the 14 SDCE International Die Casting Congress and
Exposition, Toronto, Ont, Canada, May 11-14, 1987, Paper No. G-T87-011.
4 Groteke, D. E., "Elimination Hard Spots from Aluminum Die Castings", Die Casting Engineer, Vol. 29,
No. 5, Sept/Oct. 1985, pp 16-18, 20, 22, 24.
5 Gobrecht, J., "Gravity-Segregation of Iron, Manganese and Chromium in an Aluminum-Silicon Casting,

Part I", Giesserei, Vol. 61, No. 10, 1975, pp 263-265.
6 Shabestari, S. G. and Druzleski, J. E., "The Effecet of Solidification Condition and Chemistry on the
Formation and Morphology of Complex Intermetallic Compounds in Aluminum-Silicon Alloys", Cast
Metals, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1994, pp 217-224.
7 Flores, A., Escobedo, J. C., Mendez, M. and Mendez, J., "Kinetics of the Formation, Growth and
Sedimentation of the Al 15 (Fe, Mn) 3 Si 2 Phase in Al-Si-Cu Alloys", Trans. of International Die Casting
Congress and Exposition, Drtroit, Michigan, USA, Sept. 30 Oct. 3, 1991, pp 293-297.
8 Pucella, G., Samuel, A. M., Samuel, F. H., Doty, H. W. and Valtierra, S., "Sludge Formation in Sr-
Modified Al-11.5wt%Si Diecasting Alloys", AFS Trans. Vol. 107, 1999, pp 117-125.
9 Sablonniere, D. L. and Samuel, F. H., "PoDFA Measurements of Inclusions in 319.1 Alloy: Effect of Mg
(0.45%wt%) Addition and Role of Sludge", AFS Trans., Vol. 104, 1996, pp751-761.
10 Ghomashchi, M. R., "Intermetallic Compounds in an Al-Si Alloy Used in High Pressure Die-Casting", Z
Metallkunde, 78 (1987), 11, pp 784-787.
11 Gustafsson, G., Thorvaldsson, T. andDunlop, G. L., "The Influence of Fe and Cr on the Microstructure of
Cast Al-Si_Mg Alloys", Met. Trans. A. 17A (1986), pp 45-52.
- 62 -
References
1 Makhlouf, M.M., Apelian, D. and Wang, L., Microstructure and Properties of Aluminum Die Casting
Alloys, NADCA, 1999.
2 Crepean, P. N., Tiwari, B. L., and Rahmoeller, K. M., " Characterization of Oxide Sludge, Dross and
rd
Inclusions in Aluminum Melting and Holding Furnaces", Proc. Of the 3 International Conference on
Molten Aluminum Processing, Orlando, Fl, Nov. xx-xx, 1992, pp 51-57.
th
3 Jorstad, J. L., "Understanding Sludge", Proc. Of the 14 SDCE International Die Casting Congress and
Exposition, Toronto, Ont, Canada, May 11-14, 1987, Paper No. G-T87-011.
4 Groteke, D. E., "Elimination Hard Spots from Aluminum Die Castings", Die Casting Engineer, Vol. 29,
No. 5, Sept/Oct. 1985, pp 16-18, 20, 22, 24.
5 Gobrecht, J., "Gravity-Segregation of Iron, Manganese and Chromium in an Aluminum-Silicon Casting,

Part I", Giesserei, Vol. 61, No. 10, 1975, pp 263-265.
6 Shabestari, S. G. and Druzleski, J. E., "The Effecet of Solidification Condition and Chemistry on the
Formation and Morphology of Complex Intermetallic Compounds in Aluminum-Silicon Alloys", Cast
Metals, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1994, pp 217-224.
7 Flores, A., Escobedo, J. C., Mendez, M. and Mendez, J., "Kinetics of the Formation, Growth and
Sedimentation of the Al 15 (Fe, Mn) 3 Si 2 Phase in Al-Si-Cu Alloys", Trans. of International Die Casting
Congress and Exposition, Drtroit, Michigan, USA, Sept. 30 Oct. 3, 1991, pp 293-297.
8 Pucella, G., Samuel, A. M., Samuel, F. H., Doty, H. W. and Valtierra, S., "Sludge Formation in Sr-
Modified Al-11.5wt%Si Diecasting Alloys", AFS Trans. Vol. 107, 1999, pp 117-125.
9 Sablonniere, D. L. and Samuel, F. H., "PoDFA Measurements of Inclusions in 319.1 Alloy: Effect of Mg
(0.45%wt%) Addition and Role of Sludge", AFS Trans., Vol. 104, 1996, pp751-761.
10 Ghomashchi, M. R., "Intermetallic Compounds in an Al-Si Alloy Used in High Pressure Die-Casting", Z
Metallkunde, 78 (1987), 11, pp 784-787.
11 Gustafsson, G., Thorvaldsson, T. andDunlop, G. L., "The Influence of Fe and Cr on the Microstructure of
Cast Al-Si_Mg Alloys", Met. Trans. A. 17A (1986), pp 45-52.
- 62 -
Dross Formation & Minimization Methods
Chapter 5
5.1 Dross Formation
Most dictionaries define dross as "scum on molten metal" with the implication that it has no value and is an
undesirable material. While it is certainly an undesirable material, and the source of much grief in operations that
melt aluminum or aluminum alloys, the solid form of dross is a valuable co-product that can have a major effect
upon the profitability of the producer's operation. This comes from the simple fact that, in addition to the oxides
present in the dross, it often contains large quantities of entrapped useful aluminum alloy. This material can
potentially be lost from the process stream during the normal removal and cleaning process unless great care is
exercised at the generating source, or is recovered in subsequent recycling efforts.
The composition of dross is dependent upon the base analysis of the alloys being melted, but the major constituent
in almost every case is aluminum oxide, with other contaminants added from the other alloy constituents and
process contributors. Any new aluminum surface, whether solid or molten, will quickly form a protective oxide
when the surrounding medium contains even a very small amount of oxygen from any source (free oxygen,
moisture, or reducible oxides). Molten surfaces are subject to the same oxidants, but are also exposed to other
potential contributors to the layer of oxide rich materials present on the melt.
Industries conducting melting operations on aluminum and aluminum alloys operate a wide variety of types of
primary melters and holders to provide molten material to their process lines. All are active dross producers, with
their own characteristics influencing both the rate and quantity of oxide bearing material generated. Further, the
operation of transferring the molten material between the melters, holders and the final solidification point is an
additional source of dross generation that can, in many cases, exceed the volumes generated in the actual initial
melting.
The first oxide film to form on molten pure aluminum is generally agreed to be gamma-alumina ( ), which is a thin
film that inhibits further oxidation. After a brief incubation period the film transforms to an alpha-alumina ( )
form, which oxidizes and grows at a much greater rate. When alloying elements are added to the pure aluminum,
both the rate of formation and the nature of the resultant oxide are changed dramatically. While the common
alloying elements (copper, iron, manganese, chromium, zinc, silicon, etc.) in die cast alloys have little effect upon
the rate of oxidation, other elements can play a major role in changing both the rate and volume of dross formation.
The most important of these is magnesium, which is present in almost all commercial alloys as either a trace or
major alloying element. A second contributing element is lithium, which is never used as an alloying element in
conventional die casting alloys, but may be present in trace amounts in the scrap streams that are used to generate
the secondary alloys. These constitute the bulk of materials poured in the die casting industry.
- 63 -
Even small quantities of magnesium in the cast alloy can convert the dross to a mixed oxide of MgO Al 2 O 3 and
Al 2 O 3 , with the percentage of the mixed oxide (spinel) increasing rapidly until a level of 2% Mg is reached in the
alloy. At that approximate level the composition of the oxide reverts to pure magnesia, and the rate of formation
increases.
The oxide and mixed oxide films are continuous over the surface of the melt, but can grow at rates that are
multiples of the growth on solid metals. This growth is supported by the entrained alloy trapped in the filmy oxides,
and additionally by capillary action transporting fresh aluminum through the relatively porous layer of material.
In addition to the growth of oxide films and dross on the melt surfaces that are induced by exposure to general
atmospheric conditions, there are a number of factors encountered in industrial melters that can supplement and
even alter the growth factors. These include turbulence induced by the mode of melting energy, the generation of
atmospheres that are chemically more reactive, and even the addition of oxidants or contaminants with the melt
stocks. These are illustrated in Figures 5-1 & 5-2 below.
Figure 5-1 Showing the complex interactions that occur between the atmosphere above the melt; the
entrapment of useful aluminum alloy by the crumpled oxide films; and the resultant buoyancy of oxide
inclusions in the melt due to the adsorption of hydrogen onto the complex surfaces of the inclusion.
Turbulence caused by direct impingement of burner flames on the melt can be an especially damaging condition in
accelerating the rate of dross formation. The movement on the metal surface ruptures the oxide film, exposing new
surface to oxidizing gases at elevated temperature. These gases contain potentially high levels of moisture from
entrained humidity or products of combustion, further adding to the oxidation potential.
- 64 -
Similarly, the melt stocks themselves can be a source of dross and contaminants as they carry in their own layer of
oxide and surface moisture that reacts to generate additional oxide, while also adding hydrogen to the melt.
Further, many items of die cast home scrap and returns will carry in moisture and organic compounds from die
lubes, machine oil and grease, etc. These add carbides and nitrides to the suspended inclusion matter in the metal,
and ultimately wind up in the dross.
Figure 5-2 Illustrating the addition of supplementary volumes of contained surface oxides that are on the metal
stocks entering the furnace molten metal. Also, the presence of organic compounds will similarly react with the
molten bath to add carbides and nitrides to the inclusion level. These suspended inclusions and oxides, by
themselves have a higher density than the molten aluminum, but are carried to the dross layer by hydrogen gas
adsorbed on the inclusion surface.
5.2 Influence of Melter Type on Dross Generation
The various requirements for alloy composition; metal volumes and pouring temperatures have created a very wide
range in the size and types of melters and holders used in the industry.
The very large die casters make use of direct molten metal deliveries from the secondary or primary refiners to
minimize the need for remelting cold stocks. This practice does add a requirement for very large holders at the
receiving point to balance usage and deliveries, and further adds to the transportation costs because of the unique
carriers involved. These increases in cost are more than offset by the savings in energy, labor and melting loss.
Those operations too remote from suppliers to use molten deliveries rely upon primary melters in their own
operations to convert their feedstocks to molten form. A variety of melter types are used in these operations, with
the choice dictated by available capital, energy costs, melt demand, labor rates, and the types of charge materials
that will be used or generated internally.
- 65 -
The melter types in use range from induction melters (both channel and coreless); resistance-heated furnaces
(usually all wet-bath charge types); reverbatory furnaces (of wet-bath, dry hearth or combination charging modes);
and stack melters (where the charge is preheated and dried before entering the melting zone). All furnace types
have their proponents, depending upon selection factors mentioned before, and in general will sustain melting
losses (dross generation) ranging from a low of 0.5% up to a maximum of approximately 4.0% for similar charge
stocks.
For molten deliveries, the die caster does not sustain the melting loss on the original feedstocks because that is
absorbed at the refining plant (the die caster's only loss is usually that associated with the metal transfers and the
normal hearth losses). Between the other furnace types, the choice is usually made with primary consideration
given to the size and surface area of the materials being melted. Dry hearth furnace types are usually chosen where
the materials being charged have minimal surface area (large sows or full stacks of ingot). Wet bath furnaces have
advantages where the charge materials are mixed in section thickness, with the thinner materials being able to be
quickly submerged to minimize additional surface oxidation. Stack melters have the advantage of energy
efficiencies gained from preheat and drying of the charge materials before entering the melting zone, but sustain
somewhat higher melting losses when melting thin gage stocks and flashings because of increased oxidation before
melting. Resistance furnaces generally have lower melting losses because of the elimination of combustion
atmosphere related melt losses, but higher energy costs for power. Induction furnaces are usually the preferred
choice for scrap forms with very high surface areas (dried machine turnings or flashings, etc.) because of their rapid
submergence of the materials.
5.3 Influence of Charge Materials Upon Melt Loss
As indicated earlier, the primary factors influencing melting loss, other than equipment or processing related
variables, are the surface-area-to-mass ratios of the charge materials, and the condition of the surface itself. Large
heavy-section melt stocks (i.e. sows, or even ingot shapes) have the largest ratio of mass to surface area, and sustain
proportionally minimum melt loss. In- house remelt of clean scrap, shot buttons, runners, etc., are higher because
of the increased surface area. If the same materials carry moisture or die lube as they enter the melt, the loss could
be doubled.
Other scrap forms such as painted scrap, oily and greasy clean-out scrap from machines are not being currently
introduced into the melting furnaces of most die cast plants because of the downstream need for bag houses and
other air pollution control equipment. These materials are processed in secondary refining plants that are equipped
with such equipment, and are often pre-dried to remove the bulk of contaminants before introduction into molten
metal. While adding cost to the recycling operation, the early removal of moisture, oil and organic materials are
recognized to be essential to minimize associated melt losses and inefficiencies.
5.4 Influence of Operating Practices Upon Melt Loss
The practices used in melting aluminum can have a major impact upon the rate of dross generation and the resultant
melting losses. With most melting being done in fuel fired reverbatory furnaces, relatively small variations in a
number of process parameters can have a large impact upon the melting losses sustained. One of the first would be
the adjustment of the fuel/air ratios used in the burners, with strongly oxidizing conditions producing the obvious
result of an increased rate of dross formation if there is any movement of the melt surface to expose fresh aluminum
surfaces. A second, and equally important factor is the holding temperature of the melt after melting has been
achieved. The impact of temperature increases of only 50 or 100è F can be quite significant, as may be seen in
Figure 5-3.
- 66 -
Percent Oxidation Increase

vs. Temperature
1000
210%
100
84%
Percent
Oxidation
Increase 23%
11.6%
10
2.3%
1
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Temperature (èF)
Figure 5-3 A graph showing the logarithmic increase in aluminum

oxidation as the holding temperature is increased.
Similarly, the thickness of the layer of dross over the melt can have an impact because of its insulating effect, and
the required increase in firing rate of the burner system to maintain process temperatures. The temperature in the
dross layer rises, increasing the rate of oxidation of the metal being aspirated from the hearth volume, and can
produce a logarithmic increase in melting losses. The impact of increases in the dross thickness on melt rate is
shown in Figure 5-4, and is recognized by most melting operators. For this reason, the thickness of dross on melter
surfaces is most commonly maintained at less than 1.5 inches.
Figure 5-4 The impact of a layer of hearth dross upon the melt rate of a reverbatory melter.
- 67 -
Typically the temperature of the dross layer is approximately 100 to 150è higher than the melt temperature. Thus,
high melt temperatures incur the risk of ignition of the drosses with spontaneous burning of the aluminum metal,
causing potentially catastrophic results. If allowed to continue, temperatures attained during these reactions will
exceed 3,000è F, and can result in melting of furnace refractories and the total loss of the furnace.
The industry preference for wet-bath charging of light gage scraps can be the source of an additional incremental
increase in melting losses if the drosses formed on the surface of melt are subsequently exposed to direct burner
flames. The surface drosses are a "soupy" mixture of oxides and entrained metal, and can contain up to 80 or even
90% of useful alloy. Without prompt removal form the surface, or treatment to separate the metallics form the
oxides and dirt, they will oxidize, consuming valuable metallics.
Dry hearth furnaces are immune to some of these problems because the surface oxides from the charge materials
remain on the sloping hearth, as the melted metal drains into the furnace. If wet or oily gates, runners and shot
buttons are placed on the dry hearth, they will not develop the same problems as if they were charged into a molten
bath. They will however contribute a higher oxide load to the hearth, which can prevent complete drain back of the
molten alloy, and expose it to oxidation.
It is for these reasons that the more efficient aluminum die casting melting operations will emphasize skimming of
their furnace hearths on a regular basis. These are conducted on an as-needed basis, usually once per shift, unless
wet drosses are created. Recommended practices with the wetter drosses are to skim on a minimum of a four-hour
schedule.
Recognizing that a high percentage of useful metallics can be lost when wet drosses are removed from the furnace,
many operations will attempt to reduce the metallic content by in-furnace treatment of the drosses with exothermic
fluxes. These contain oxidants and fluorides to generate temperature and help promote a separation of the oxides
from the metallics. The exothermic reaction does consume aluminum values while generating heat, and can be the
source of a loss of up to 20% of the contained metallics in the dross, if the flux is applied too liberally. When
performed in the open air, or in the furnace hearth, the fluxing operations can also generate smoke and fume, which
discourages the practice unless performed during non-production periods.
The subject of minimizing oxidation of the drosses and the recovery of useful metallics has been the subject of
intense research and development in recent years, with the commercialization of a number of processes to achieve
that goal. These have included dross coolers (with both rotary cooling in large drums and controlled cooling under
inert atmospheres); dross presses to quench the temperature while squeezing molten metal from the solidifying
mass; and most recently, powered gravity separation devices that mix a very small quantity of flux in a controlled
environment to achieve a separation of the oxides and metallics. The latter units are used at the melter generating
the dross, achieve an efficient separation of the bulk of the free metallics, and further permit the return of the
recovered metal at elevated temperature to the process stream. As such, they appear to offer a viable economic
solution to the problem of achieving melt loss reduction.
5.5 Dross Generation During Turbulent Transfers
Any transfers of molten aluminum alloys that involve turbulence are also the sources for both oxide inclusions in
the metal (as identified in Figure 5-1), and a very rich skim that is usually taken off at the transfer point. The
exposed surface areas of molten metal during turbulent transfer are quite prone to develop ruptured oxide skins that
entrain both air, hydrogen and useful metal in a rich, "wet" dross that might contain as much as 95% metal.
The small oxide inclusions introduced to the melt can be the sources of many problems for die casters, including
porosity in the final casting, a degradation of mechanical properties, and the nucleation source for hard spots and
undesirable microstructures. While their aggregate density is close to that of molten aluminum, depending upon the
volume of adsorbed hydrogen and entrained air, the small oxide inclusions will either float to the surface, remain
suspended in the melt, or settle as sludge to the bottom of the furnace. As such, they can be the source of additional
metal loss and significant causes of scrap.
- 68 -
Melt Related Quality Detractors
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
Several types of second phases may be present in molten aluminum alloys. When the quantity of any of these
second phase substances in the molten alloy exceeds a certain threshold limit that is dictated by the intended cast
product, they detract from the quality of the melt and lead to unacceptable performance of the casting. These
unwanted phases include hydrogen gas, solid particles, and molten salt inclusions.
Traditionally, hydrogen and shrink porosity were the casting quality detractors of greatest concern to metalcasters.
During the last decade, however, metal cleanliness -specifically inclusions, has emerged as the pre-eminent quality
issue for many types of castings. This is particularly true for premium and commercial grade castings wherein high
strength to weight ratios, machined surface finish, fracture toughness, and low cycle fatigue are primary design
considerations. Unfortunately, the analytical capability, cause/effect understanding, and general knowledge base
for inclusions are not on parity with other types of castings defects.
The various classifications of commonly encountered inclusions in the cast shop are reviewed, namely: oxides,
carbides, salts, and intermetallic particles. Elementary linear and parabolic law melt oxidation, protective and
unprotective oxides, and spinel formation mechanisms are particularly emphasized, due to their practical
significance in foundry operations. Line item recommendations, for the control and management of specific
inclusions, are then given at the conclusion of each section. Finally, photomicrographs, illustrating the
characteristic appearance and morphology of representative inclusions, are shown, with an integrated discussion of
the popular analytical techniques that are used for identification.
- 69 -
6.2 Hydrogen Gas
Aluminum alloy cleanliness, which has been in the limelight during the last two decades, remains one of the
aluminum casting industry's primary concerns. When applied to aluminum alloys, the term cleanliness refers to
minimal levels of the following contaminants: 1) dissolved hydrogen, 2) alkaline elements, such as Na, Li and Ca,
and 3) solid particulate inclusions. Extensive research has contributed greatly to our fundamental understanding of
these contaminants. As a result, many companies routinely follow procedures for removing inclusions, and the
removal of hydrogen and alkaline elements has become an indispensable melt treatment procedure. However, with
ever increasing demand for improved alloy properties, requirements for alloy cleanliness are becoming more and
more stringent, leading greater numbers of foundries to pay closer attention to this aspect of melt preparation.
6.2.1 Sources of Hydrogen Gas
Hydrogen is the only gas with significant solubility in molten aluminum. The principal source of hydrogen in
aluminum alloys is moisture in the air. Most commercial aluminum alloys are melted while exposed to the natural
environment, which contains moisture, and the moisture reacts to form hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms then diffuse
through the oxide layer and react with the melt. Another source of hydrogen is alloy additions. Magnesium has a
relatively high solubility for hydrogen and typically contains between 0.5 and 8 ppm hydrogen. Other metals such
as titanium, manganese and iron, can also be important sources of hydrogen. The re-melting of secondary metal,
which commonly has moisture on its surface, the oil or gas used in the furnace, which produces water vapor when
burned, and refractories and tools can also contribute hydrogen to molten alloys. Despite the many sources of
hydrogen, its initial concentration in the melt is determined chiefly by the humidity in the furnace atmosphere, and
by the melt temperature and the alloy composition [1].
The moisture content in the atmosphere varies significantly in different weather conditions. For example, for a
2
relative humidity of 50%, the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere is 0.0443 lb/in at 0qC and 0.535
2
lb/in at 40qC, a 12-fold difference. This suggests that the alloys melted in hot, humid weather will contain
considerably high levels of hydrogen. Likewise, it should be possible to produce alloys with low hydrogen content
in cold, dry weather without degassing.
The hydrogen content and solubility in aluminum and its alloys is expressed as milliliters of hydrogen at standard
temperature and pressure per 100 grams of metal (ml/100 g at 723 K, or 0 qC, and 1 atm) or as parts per million
(ppm). The relationship is: 1 ml/100g = 0.9 ppm = 0.00009%. Though several equations have been derived from
experiments for calculating hydrogen solubility in liquid and solid aluminum and its alloys, none has been
universally accepted. However, most researchers agree on several facts about hydrogen solubility in aluminum
alloys. These include the fact that hydrogen solubility in liquid and solid aluminum and its alloys is dependent on
temperature, alloy composition, and hydrogen partial pressure over the metal. For pure aluminum, at the melting
temperature, 660qC, and 1 atm of hydrogen gas, hydrogen solubility is in the range of 0.67-0.77 ml/100g in liquid
and about 0.035 ml/100g in the solid. At 730qC, solubility is between 1.07-1.25 ml/100g. In the temperature range
between the melting point and about 300qC above the melting point, hydrogen solubility doubles for every 100 to
120qC increase in superheat. (Some of the elements in various alloys increase and some decrease hydrogen
solubility).
The solubility of hydrogen in foundry alloys ranges from about 0.6 to 1.5 ml/100g at the alloys' normal melting
temperature and 1 atm of hydrogen gas pressure. It is, however, rare for normally produced melts to contain these
levels of hydrogen [2]. This is because in production, hydrogen pressure above the melt is low and the oxide film
that readily forms on the alloy's surface acts as a barrier isolating the melt from the atmosphere and impeding
excessive hydrogen dissolution. Metal from reduction cells typically contains 0.3 to 0.6 ml/100g after it has been
siphoned to the transfer crucible. Hydrogen content is further reduced when the metal is poured into the mixing
furnace. Typical equilibrium hydrogen content in melts is 0.1 to 0.3 ml/100g of alloy. Equilibrium is generally
obtained after 2 to 4 hours of holding time [3]. Though the actual hydrogen content in the melt is much lower than
its solubility, it is still too high in most cases and may lead to the development of porosity.
- 70 -
6.2.2 Formation of Porosity from Dissolved Hydrogen
Since the first commercial use of aluminum alloys, metal casters have fought to prevent microporosity in aluminum
alloy castings. However, the fundamental mechanisms of microporosity formation are still not clearly established.
A generally accepted mechanism is as follows [4, 5]. Suppose the solubility of hydrogen in liquid and solid alloy is
on the order of 0.65 and 0.035 ml/100, respectively, and the melt's initial hydrogen content is about 0.2 ml/100g.
During solidification, and since most of the hydrogen is rejected at the solid-liquid interface, the interdendritic
liquid becomes gradually enriched with hydrogen as the fraction of solid metal increases. Figure 6-1 shows the
variation of hydrogen concentration in the liquid. As solidification progresses, the hydrogen content in the liquid
increases, and eventually it exceeds its solubility limit. Ideally, a gas pore should nucleate at this point. However,
the creation of a new pore requires the establishment of a new surface. Because of this surface barrier, the
hydrogen concentration in the liquid continues to increase above the solubility limit until it reaches a value at which
pores can form (Stage I in Figure 6-1). At that point, pores begin to nucleate (Stage II in Figure 6-1). Nucleation
of the pores occurs predominantly at the root of dendrites or at other heterogeneous sites, such as inclusions. Since
the diameter of the pore is extremely small (<20 µm) when the pore begins to grow, the pore enlarges at a slow
rate. Thus, the hydrogen concentration in the liquid is not severely affected during this period. After the pore has
grown to its equilibrium diameter, the bubble may detach itself from the dendrite arm and may be transported into
the bulk of the liquid. During this stage (Stage III in Figure 6-1), the bubble grows instantaneously and hence, the
hydrogen content of the liquid drops rapidly. Subsequently, the rate of pore formation decreases slightly since the
hydrogen concentration in the liquid is lowered because of the growth of pores (Stage IV in Figure 6-1). Growth of
pores continues until the casting is completely solid.
Figure 6-1 The variation of hydrogen concentration in the liquid.
The hydrogen concentration at which pores begin to nucleate is a critical value for pore formation. It depends on
the cooling rate, rather than on the initial hydrogen content of the melt. The solid fraction at the beginning of pore
nucleation is called the threshold solid fraction, and it is dependent on such factors as alloy composition, initial
hydrogen content, and cooling rate. As the initial hydrogen content increases, the rate at which the critical
hydrogen concentration is attained in the liquid accelerates. Hence, porosity begins to form at relatively small solid
fractions.
For example, at a cooling rate of 0.1qC/s, the threshold solid fraction at initial hydrogen contents of 0.1 and 0.5
ml/100g are typically of the order of 0.93 and 0.47, respectively. Evidently, higher initial hydrogen content gives
pores more time to grow, resulting in a larger amount of total porosity and larger pore size. When the initial
hydrogen content is below about 0.05 ml/100g, the threshold solid fraction is 1.0, indicating that the porosity
formation may be suppressed under these conditions.
- 71 -
Because pores nucleate predominantly at the root of dendrites, the pore size will be determined by the dendrite arm
spacing (DAS), which, in turn, is determined by the cooling rate. At a higher cooling rate, the size of nucleating
pores decreases. Under these conditions, the contribution of the surface effect increases because of the smaller pore
size, and pore formation becomes difficult. Thus, greater amounts of hydrogen may be tolerated at higher cooling
rates. Shivkumar et al's [5] calculation suggests that at cooling rates of 0.1 and 20qC/s, the hydrogen content that
may be tolerated before the onset of porosity is between 0.05 and 0.08 ml/100g. This critical value may be reduced
significantly in the presence of large amounts of inclusions. For an initial hydrogen content, an essentially constant
value of porosity is observed beyond a cooling rate of about 5qC/s. Though both initial hydrogen content and
cooling rate affect pore size, it appears that cooling rate has the greater influence. The density of pores is also
strongly affected by cooling rate.
Thomas et al. [6] conducted an experiment and analyzed the data obtained by other researchers to define the
hydrogen levels necessary to avoid porosity formation during the solidification of aluminum alloys. In the
experiment, a series of six Al-8%Si alloys with hydrogen contents in the range of 0.10-0.82 ml/100g were cast in a
water-cooled mold. The study showed that there is a linear relationship between hydrogen content and level of
porosity for Al-8%Si alloys, which was similar to results previously observed for other aluminum alloys. The
experiment also demonstrated that one could define a practical threshold hydrogen value of approximately 0.8
ml/100g, below which porosity should not occur during solidification. This value is a relatively insensitive
parameter and should apply to most common casting conditions for, more than likely, all aluminum alloys. The
experiments also showed that the exact level of porosity is dependent on local cooling conditions, the lowest
porosities being found in the regions with the highest cooling rate.
Pore formation occurs primarily during solidification. In addition, supersaturated hydrogen in the solid may diffuse
(though at a much slower rate than in the liquid) into exiting pores, causing pores to grow or new pores to form
when the casting is serviced or treated. This is called secondary porosity. This may be a problem during annealing
ingots, especially when inclusions are present. However, supersaturated hydrogen is generally small, total gas
pressure within the pores is low, and most of the hydrogen can escape from the product's surface. Therefore,
dissolved hydrogen should not add significantly to the amount of porosity. In castings, which usually have a large
surface area/volume ratio, dissolved hydrogen is thought to have only a minor effect on porosity formation.
6.2.3 Effects of Hydrogen on Product Properties
Hydrogen affects the performance of aluminum alloys only when it causes pore formation. In aluminum alloy
castings, pores can form because of hydrogen or because of shrinkage, with the latter being more important in
porosity formation. It is difficult to determine which pores form because of hydrogen and which because of
shrinkage. Actually, both factors play a role in the formation of most pores, making it difficult to separate out the
effect of hydrogen. For that reason, studies of the effect of hydrogen on alloy properties are usually conducted on a
comparative basis. Such studies have shown that, in general, hydrogen has a negative effect on tensile properties.
For example, tensile strength and elongation decrease significantly in 356 alloy as hydrogen concentration
increases. Yield strength is only slightly affected because this property is related more closely to the metallurgical
state of the aluminum matrix than to defects in the structure. The detrimental effects on elongation are particularly
in castings solidified at high cooling rates, with the benefits that usually result from finer microstructures being lost
due to porosity. Pores can become the origins of fatigue cracks that act as sites for stress intensification. In that
way, porosity may reduce fatigue resistance. Porosity may also degrade the pressure tightness of castings and
cause surface defects that must be machined, polished or anodized. In special applications, hydrogen may have a
positive effect on alloys. For example, when the major concern is the integrity of a casting's as-cast surface, adding
hydrogen can offset the effects of shrinkage and prevent some surface defects. However, such applications are rare.
Tolerable hydrogen content in a casting depends on the conditions of solidification, such as the thickness of the
casting and the casting method, as well as the properties required in the final product. For extrusions, a final
hydrogen content in the melt below 0.15 ml/100g is usually sufficient. For beverage cans, foil, memory disks and
high-integrity engineered and automotive castings, a level of 0.10 ml/100g or lower may be required [7].
- 72 -
6.3 Solid Particle Inclusions
The process to create commercial aluminum casting alloys was once characterized as the "controlled contamination
of an otherwise pure element". Clearly, the deliberate incorporation of solute elements such as silicon, copper, and
magnesium imparts essential attributes of castability and mechanical strength to unalloyed aluminum, however,
other inadvertently added components are also present. These components are manifested as solid particulates or
immiscible liquid phase(s) present in the molten alloy, and are broadly classified as inclusions.
Inclusions may be present in mean particle sizes of several to several hundred microns, morphologies of spherical
particles and ideomorphs to lacy films, and concentrations in the range of part per million levels to fractional
percentages. The extent to which inclusions render a casting alloy "unfit for use" is a function of the processing
techniques employed, and product application. In virtually all situations, inclusions are considered quality
detractors.
Traditionally, hydrogen and volumetric shrinkage porosity, misruns, and dimensional issues were the principal
quality detractors of greatest concern to the foundryman. During the last 15 years, however, metal cleanliness-
specifically inclusions, have emerged as the pre-eminent quality detractors for many categories of castings. This is
particularly true for premium and commercial grade castings wherein high strength to weight ratios, machined
surface finish, fracture toughness, and low cycle fatigue performance are primary design considerations. The
ability to process clean metals is now considered as a critical enabling technology for these types of castings. The
various types of inclusions and inclusion classification are given below.
Various classifications of inclusions that are commonly encountered in the foundry are discussed in this paper.
These classifications broadly consist of oxides, carbides, solid and molten halide salts, and intermetallic particles.
Underlying mechanisms leading to the formation of inclusions are discussed in detail, with an emphasis on melt
contamination avoidance.
6.3.1 Exogenous Inclusion Sources
Nonmetallic and intermetallic inclusions are generally classified by type and origin [8]. Inclusions that are
imported to the molten metal stream from external sources are referred to as exogenous. Exogenous inclusion
sources include occluded particles on and within primary and secondary ingot, major alloying elements and master
alloys, and containment refractory degradation products. The surface oxide layer on all aluminum and alloy
furnace charge media constitutes, by strict definition, an exogenous inclusions source. Anodized and chemical
conversion coated scrap are particularly rich potential sources of exogenous inclusions.
Hydrocarbon surface contaminants, such as found on painted scrap, oil, grease, and residual die lubricants, will
pyrolyze at melt temperatures. Although hydrocarbon pyrolysis products cannot be considered directly as potential
exogenous inclusions, the reaction of aluminum and carbon does yield aluminum carbide, Al 4 C 3 . This reaction will
be discussed in depth in a subsequent section.
Aluminum carbide is also frequently found in primary ingot; originating from anode reactions in the aluminum
reduction cell. Unless agglomerated, however, this form of aluminum carbide is generally innocuous in most
castings due to a small particle size (<10 î m). Oxygen present in silicone based lubricants (ie:
dimenthlypolsiloxane) also represents an exogenous reactant to potentially form inclusions.
- 73 -
6.3.2 In-situ Inclusion Sources
Inclusions that form as a result of a chemical reaction within the melting metal handling system are known as in-
situ. This general source of inclusions is the most prevalent and often insidious within the foundry arena, due to the
strong thermodynamic driving force for oxidation.
In-situ formed oxides include alumina (Al 2 O 3 ), magnesia (MgO), and magnesium aluminate spinel (MgAl 2 O 4 ).
Although many oxidation reactions occur directly with the atmosphere or water vapor, less stable metal oxides also
represents an additional source oxygen. Silica (SiO 2 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ) are metal oxides
that are capable of reduction by aluminum and or magnesium to form the more stable oxides. These general
Goldschmidt type exchange reactions will be comprehensively discussed. Oxygen from desorbed free and
constitutional water in refractories and fluxing gases may also result in the in-situ generation of oxides.
The chlorination of aluminum alloys is a popular fluxing practice to remove dissolved hydrogen, and also to
facilitate the floatation separation of inclusions. Chlorine is a highly reactive gas, however, that readily generates
magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ) when magnesium is present as an alloying element. Magnesium chloride is a surface
O
active immiscible liquid at melt temperatures (Tm=1307 F), and is useful for the dewetting of oxides. Excessive
quantities, however, constitute difficult to separate inclusions, particularly when associated with oxides. Thus,
magnesium chloride, with or without oxide agglomerates, may be a particularly undesirable in-situ inclusion.
Certain fluidizing type salt fluxes also have the potential to form magnesium chloride under special circumstances.
Sodium, calcium, lithium, and strontium form stable chlorides by reaction with chlorine. Due to the typically low
concentration of these elements in most casting alloys, the law of mass action (reaction rate proportional to
concentration of reacting species) generally results in a reduced amount of observable halide salts. All are highly
soluble in magnesium chloride, however, and some are characterized by systems with deep eutectic troughs. This
feature contributes to the burden of molten salts that are present. Due to the difficulty in separating second liquid
phases from molten aluminum, these inclusion types are best handled by a policy of avoidance.
Aluminum carbide was briefly discussed as an exogenous inclusion type. Although potroom metal and remelted
hydrocarbon containing scrap may contain aluminum carbide, this inclusion type also forms, in-situ , via reactions
with hexachlorethane degassing tablets, halofluorocarbon fluxing gases, and from carbon, graphite, and carbide
refractories.
The poor wetting characteristics of the latter refractory materials fortunately results in chemical inertness, except
O
when molten salts and high temperatures (>1450 F) are present. Molten salts provide a cationic exchange medium
that facilitates the reaction between aluminum and carbon. Aluminum carbide inclusions may be produced as a
result of these reactions.
Finally, intermetallic compounds are a type of in-situ inclusion, and frequently form as a result of peritectic
reactions. The aluminides of titanium (TiAl 3 ), zirconium (ZrAl 3 ), and vanadium (VAl 3 ), as pure or substitutional
intermetallic compounds, are in this class. Reduced melt temperatures and a high local concentration of titanium,
coupled with elevated residual levels of titanium, zirconium, and vanadium promotes the formation of the peritectic
intermetallics.
"Sludge" or "silicon dropout" in die casting alloys is an intermetallic compound that can form as a consequence of
elevated iron, manganese, and chromium concentrations, when the silicon concentration is in excess of 5 percent.
Again, low metal holding temperatures also encourage the formation of sludge, and the well recognized, "sludge
factor formula" of sludge factor = %Fe +(2)%Mn +(3)%Cr is useful in determining minimum melt holding
temperatures for specific alloys. If the sludge factor value is 1.9, for example, a minimum holding temperature of
1200ºF would probably be acceptable for 380 alloy. A sludge factor of 1.7 would allow reduction to a minimum
temperature of 1160ºF, for the same alloy. Ideomorphic morphology sludge particles are a common source of hard
spots in machined die castings.
- 74 -
A summary of exogenous and in-situ inclusions is tabulated in Table 6-1. It must be recognized that the formation
or existence of these compounds is a necessary, but alone insufficient condition for the presence of inclusions in
castings. Proper metal handling and treating practices are capable of separating oxides, carbides, salts, et al, from
the metal stream before they become inclusion manifestations in castings. Table 6-2 lists typical inclusions found in
aluminum alloys wherein the shape/morphology, as well as the size range of these inclusions are given.
Classification Types Observed Potential Source(s)
Non-metallic Various refractory particles, Refractory degradation,

Exogenous Al 4 C 3 , etc. potroom metal, refractory/metal
reactions
Non-metallic - MgO, Al 2 O 3 films clusters, Melting, alloying: metal transfer

in-situ and dispersoids; MgAl 2 O 4 turbulence
films and clusters
Homogenous MgCl 2 -NaCl-CaCl 2 , etc. Poor separation of fluxing

Salts reaction products
Particle/Salt MgCl 2 -NaCl-CaCl 2 /MgO, etc. Salt generated during chlorine

fluxing of magnesium containing
alloys, filter and metal handling
system releases.
Table 6-1 Inclusion Types in Molten Aluminum.
- 75 -
Phase Shape/morphology Size range ( P m)

Al 2 O 3 Films or group of films t = 0.1 to 5
d = 10 to 1000
Polygon particles d =0.2 to 30
MgO Polygon particles d = 0.1 to 5
t = 1 to 6
Films consisting of particles d = 50 to 1000
Al 2 MgO 4 Truncated pyramidal shaped particles d = 0.1 to 5
t = 1 to 6
Thick films or lumps of particles d = 50 to 1000
Iron oxide Film or clusters of films d = 0.1 to 1
FeO or Fe 3 O4 t = 50 to 1000
SiO 2 Lumps d = 0.5 to 5
Calcium silicate Lumps or sphere-like particles d = 10 to 100
(Ca, Si, O)
Potassium silicate (K,Si,O) Lumps or sphere-like particles d = 10 to 1000
Refractory Brick (Al, Si, O) Lumps or particles d = 10 to 300
Complex oxide Thick films t | 10
(Na,K,Ca,Al,O) d = 50 to 500
CaSO 4 Rods l = 1 to 5
Al 4 C 3 and Al 4 O 4 C Rectangular or hexagonal discs d = 0.5 to 25
t<1
Graphite Elongated particles d = 1 to 20
Carbon Elongated particles d = 10 to 50
t = 1 to 5
AlN Film d = 10 to 50
t = 0.1 to 3
Na 3 AlF6 Spheres d = 2 to 60
AlB 12 Polygonal particles or irregular porous lumps d = 1 to 20
AlB 2 Hexagonal or rectangular discs t<1
d = 20 to 50
TiB 2 Clusters of hexagonal or rectangular discs d = 1 to 50
VB2 Clusters of hexagonal or rectangular discs d = 1 to 20
ZrB 2 Hexagonal or rectangular discs d = 1 to 20
Al 3 Ti Rods d = 1 to 20
Al 3 Zr Polyhedral particles, rods, clusters of rods d = 1 to 150
Fe-rich
Al 8 Si 1.6 (Fe,MN) 1.8 (Cu,Zn) 0.1 Platelets
Al 8 Si 1.5 (Fe,MN) 1.7 (Cu,Zn) 0.2 chinese script particles
Al 8 Si 1.6 (Fe,MN) 1.8 (Cu,Zn) 0.1 Polyhedral crystals
Cu-rich
Al 2 Cu(Si,Fe,Zn) 0.2
Table 6-2 Typical Inclusions in Aluminum Alloys [Simensen & Berg (1980), Shivkumar et al (1991) and Petersen
(1994)].
6.4 Inclusion Formation Mechanisms
Exogenous inclusions, by definition, are imported to the metal stream from external sources. Avoidance of these
inclusion types is thus generally beyond the control of the casting engineer, except to exercise prudent furnace
charge selection and operation. Potential sources of exogenous inclusions were identified previously, and will not
be considered here. This section will address formation mechanisms that are responsible for in-situ inclusions.
These include oxidation, aluminum carbide, and halide salts. Practical implications for the avoidance of in-situ
inclusions will be incorporated within the corresponding sub-section.
- 76 -
6.4.1 Oxidation Mechanisms - Energetics
Oxide particles and films are the most common sources of inclusion defects in the industry. It is therefore useful to
review several basic elements of oxide formation in aluminum and aluminum alloys. First, the energetics of
aluminum oxidation will be described, followed by an elementary discussion of oxidation mechanisms (including
kinetics) of aluminum and aluminum-magnesium alloys. Finally, practical considerations for the minimization of
oxide formation will be incorporated in the third part of this section.
As a thermodynamic principle, a reaction, or series of reactions, will tend to proceed in a direction that minimizes
the free energy of the system. Common reactive metals, such as lithium, magnesium, aluminum and even iron, will
therefore combine with oxygen, and certain oxygen bearing compounds, to form stable oxides.
Although the rate of oxidation is influenced by factors such as the coherency of the oxide layer, oxidation itself will
proceed indefinitely until the metal has been essentially consumed. For example, all of the aforementioned metals
are never naturally found in their pure states. Certain metals, such as iron, form porous oxides that progressively
exfoliate to expose a nascent metal surface. This fact explains why uncoated iron continues to oxidize (rust) at a
relatively high rate. Conversely, aluminum oxide is dense, coherent, and is characterized by an oxidation rate that
decreases with time. Oxide coherency will be discussed in the subsequent section.
The following reaction describes the oxidation of pure aluminum:
2Al + 3/2 O 2 o Al 2 O 3 (1)
Accordingly, the equilibrium constant for the reaction, K e , is:
[ Al2 O 3 ]
Ke 2 3/2
(2)
[ Al ] PO 2
Where [ ] designates concentration of pure species at standard states
The free energy accompanying this reaction at near 1350ôF (~1000K) is [9]:
Fô= -324 kcal/mole (3)
The free energy change of a reaction is related to the equilibrium constant by the Van't Hoff isotherm:
Fô= -RT lnK e (4)
-1 -1
Where: R= 1.99 cal-mole -K , T= 1000K.
Finally, combining equations (2) and (4), substituting equation (3), and solving for PO yields the minimum oxygen
2
partial pressure required for aluminum oxidation:
[ Al2 O3 ]
Ke exp( ' F O / RT ) 2 3/2
(5)
[ Al] PO 2
-50
PO~ 10
2
Atmospheres
- 77 -
-50
It can be seen that the oxygen partial pressure in a system required to prevent aluminum oxidation is less than 10
atmospheres. Since this is an impractically achievable value, aluminum oxidation is essentially unavoidable in
commercial metallurgical systems. The effect of the popular practice of inert gas shielding is therefore not to
preclude oxidation, rather to reduce the rate of oxide formation. This is due to a reduction in the concentration of
the reacting species ( PO 2 ). A similar argument applies to the oxidation of pure magnesium and aluminum-
magnesium alloys.
6.4.2 Oxidation Mechanisms
Although it was demonstrated, in the preceding section, that aluminum oxidation is practically unavoidable, the
character of the oxide formed is determined by the prevailing oxidation mechanism(s). This mechanism controls
the transport of reacting species (metal and oxygen) to a site where oxidation reactions occur, and therefore
determines the overall oxidation rate.
Figure 6-2 depicts a generalized oxidation mechanism, wherein a metal, its developing oxide layer, and source of
gaseous oxygen, coexists. Further, two diffusion fluxes are shown; one involving the transport of metal vapor
cations (j m ), the other, oxygen anions (j O ). During the incipient phase of oxide formation, the intrinsic reaction rate
(speed at which metal cations and oxygen anions chemically combine), controls. As the oxide layer develops, the
global reaction rate is subsequently controlled by transport considerations. Since the size of oxygen anions is
significantly greater than the metal cations, the migration of these cations through the oxide layer determines the
rate of oxide growth. The reaction consumes metal cations as a sink, and cationic transport is driven by the
resulting concentration gradient.
Figure 6-2 Physical Transport Mechanism Depicting Parabolic Law Oxidation and
Derivation from Fick's First Law of Diffusion.
- 78 -
If the oxide layer is dense and free of physical discontinuities, metal cation transport is progressively impeded. The
rate of oxide growth thus diminishes with time. Fick's first or second law of diffusion can be used to develop an
analytical expression to describe the process:
1/2
= (2Kt) (6)
Where: = thickness of oxide layer

t= oxidation time
2
K= a constant based on a diffusion coefficient with units of cm /sec.
The general form of equation (6) is graphically depicted in Figure 6-3. Since the resulting curve is a parabola, this
type of kinetically self-limiting oxidation is referred to as parabolic law oxidation. An important commercial
consequence of parabolic law oxidation is that the rate of oxidation decreases with time; asymptotically
approaching a limiting value. A dense, non-porous, and protective oxide is typical of this type of oxidation. The
oxidation of molten aluminum produces such an oxide.
Figure 6-3 Graphical Representation of Parabolic Law Oxidation. (Note Diminishing Rate with Time)
Conversely, if the resulting oxide is porous, physically disrupted by turbulence, or volatilizes (ie: tungsten oxide),
the protective value of developing layer is lost. In this situation, the rate of oxidation is essentially time invariant
because little resistance to cationic transport is offered. This mechanism is referred to as linear oxidation, and
continues until the quantity of metal is consumed. The resulting oxide is said to be unprotective. Importantly, a
protective oxide, such as alumina, may be rendered unprotective by film rupture caused by melt turbulence.
A third oxidation mechanism, known as logarithmic oxidation, is characterized by slower rate kinetics than
parabolic oxidation, and occurs with extremely coherent\dense oxide layers. Certain solid metals exhibit parabolic
oxidation.
- 79 -
The mathematical forms of the three classes of oxidation mechanisms discussed are given by:
= Kt (linear) (7A)
= A ln(Kt+B) (logarithmic) (7B)
1/2
= (2Kt) (parabolic) (7C)
In a classic paper, Pilling and Bedworth [10] proposed a practical rationalization of protective and unprotective
oxides. Their original work related to oxidation on solid metal surfaces, however, the analysis can be applied to
quiescent liquid metals, and when the metal/oxide couple is confined (as in a furnace, crucible, or trough).
The Pilling and Bedworth model essentially recognizes that if the density of an oxide forming on a metal surface is
lower that the parent metal, the oxide is protective. If the oxide is denser than the parent metal, the layer is
unprotective.
The so-called Pilling-Bedworth Ratio (PBR) is defined as:
VolumeOxid e M o Pm
PBR (8)
VolumeMeta l M m N A Uo
Where: MO = molecular wt. of oxide

Mm = molecular wt. of metal
m = metal density
O = oxide density
NA = metal atoms/molecules oxide.
Tabulated values of PBR for selected oxides are given in Table 6-3. The practical significance of this information
is that if PBR > 1, the oxide layer is dense, protective, and follows the parabolic law. If PBR < 1, a porous and
unprotective oxide is produced, and either linear or logarithmic oxidation prevails. Beryllia, boria, and alumina
have PBR values greater than unity; therefore these oxides are protective. If a molten metal bath with these oxides
remains undisturbed, the quantity of oxide formed will therefore be limited. Further, the addition of elements that
form oxides with high PBR values (ie: beryllia) to melts containing unprotective oxide forming elements (ie:
magnesium), can produce a protective oxide. Casting alloy A357 exploits this effect, since one role of added
beryllium is to reduce the impact of magnesium on oxidation. Again, the melt must remain undisturbed, otherwise,
surface renewal will occur by oxide rupture, and the alloy will emulate linear oxidation.
Table 6-3 Pilling Bedworth Ratios for Selected Oxides.
- 80 -
Many commercial casting alloys contain significant amounts of magnesium as a solute element, thus, the influence
of magnesium on oxidation warrants discussion. Private research has shown that magnesium concentrations below
approximately 0.08 weight percent do not significantly influence the oxidation characteristics of aluminum. At
concentrations above about 0.1 weight percent magnesium, however, parabolic law oxidation is not maintained
indefinitely. The double oxide, magnesium aluminate spinel, (MgAl 2 O 4 ), is observed. Two chemical reactions are
responsible for spinel formation by alternative paths viz:
Mg + 2Al + 2O 2 o MgAl 2 O 4 (from elements) (9)
and
MgO + Al 2 O 3 o MgAl 2 O 4 (from oxides) (10)
Since the oxides of aluminum and magnesium are almost always present, reaction (10) is energetically favored.
Magnesia has a PBR value less than unity (0.79), and therefore, anticipates a high oxidation rate.
The mechanism of spinel formation has been

examined by the Aluminum Company of
4
America , and others. Figure 6-4 graphically
depicts spinel formation in quiescent aluminum-
magnesium alloys, in air, and without beryllium
additions. During the initial stage of oxidation,
alumina appears on the surface of the melt.
Oxidation follows the parabolic law. After a
period of tens of seconds, however, amorphous
magnesia, followed later by a transformation to
crystalline magnesia, emerges.
Figure 6-4 General Mechanism for Spinel

Formation.
Spinel formation appears almost coincident with crystalline magnesia, and the oxide rate increases dramatically.
This transition has been referred to as "break away oxidation".
Spinel continues to form as an incoherent and unprotective oxide, until all present magnesium, in the alloy, is
consumed. The incubation period required for break away oxidation varies from minutes to hours, depending on
temperature, and whether or not pre-existing crystalline magnesia is present from prior oxidation.
Beryllium, inhibiting atmospheres of non-reactive gases, sulfur hexafluoride, carbon dioxide, and low melt holding
temperature extend the incubation period.
6.4.3 Oxide Exchange Reactions
Aluminum melt oxidation can also occur from non-gaseous sources of oxygen. These reactions were previously
referred to as Goldschmidt or exchange reactions. The thermodynamic driving force for exchange reactions is
again, minimization of system free energy, through the formation of a more stable oxide. A "thermite" reaction is
an extreme example involving the chemical oxidation of aluminum by iron oxide. Silica (SiO 2 ) and aluminum
represents another more commonly encountered example of an exchange reaction.

In this situation, silica oxides aluminum viz:
3/2 SiO 2 + 2Al o Al 2 O 3 + 3/2 Si (11)
- 81 -
The Gibbs free energy change for this reaction at 1350ôF is [9]:
q
F net = +3/2 (167) for SiO 2 - 324 for Al 2 O 3 = -73.5 kcal/mole (12)
Thus, the reaction is energetically favorable.
Silica, such as found as impurities in certain refractories, is therefore capable of oxidizing aluminum, provided that
effective interphase contact occurs (wetting). Various additives and topical coating treatments made to refractories
precludes wetting, while certain molten salts promote contact.
6.4.4 Practical Implications of Oxidation
An elementary discussion of the energetics and kinetics of melt oxidation was provided in the preceding sub-
sections. Although the emphasis was on mechanistic understanding, information, of a practical value to the
foundryman, was implicit throughout the text. The more salient points will be summarized, below:
1. Temperature - Since diffusion processes are thermally activated, the oxidation constant, K, follows an
Arrhenius relationship via:
K = exp (- F*/RT) (13)
Increasing melt temperature thus increases the oxidation rate as an exponential function.
An approximate "rule of thumb" for the temperature dependence of the rate of linear oxidation (ie: magnesium
in aluminum), is a doubling of rate for every 60ôC increase in melt temperature [11].
2. Flame impingement Metal casters have long recognized that the direct impingement of flame on an
aluminum melt is undesirable. Hydrogen adsorption not withstanding, this practice is particularly undesirable
because: high melt surface temperatures are developed, water vapor as a product of combustion (POC)
increases the oxygen potential over the melt, and induced metal turbulence provides for enhanced surface
renewal. Although properly designed gas-fired reverberatory furnaces minimizes these consequences, the use
of torches and burners to locally heat metal must be avoided. Radiant heating panels, immersion heaters, and
induction heating are desirable alternatives to direct flame impingement.
3. Turbulence - Melt agitation and turbulence disrupts normally coherent and protective oxide layers. A
continuously renewed nascent metal surface is thus generated, substantially increasing the overall oxidation
rate. In fact, an aluminum melt can be oxidized to completion with constant stirring, while an undisturbed melt
may exhibit minimal oxidation for extended periods of time. The most common form of melt agitation is metal
transfer turbulence. Turbulence creates a high melt surface area to volume ratio and also intimately mixes the
surface oxide films with metal to become inclusions.
4. Alloying practice - Normally, alloying practice is optimized to maximize recovery. The addition of copper and
silicon to an aluminum melt is an example. Reactive elements in pure form, such as zinc and particularly
magnesium, must be carefully added to minimize the impact of oxidation on metal quality. Magnesium can
result in insidious quality consequences, in accordance with the following situation. If an elemental magnesium
addition is made to a furnace without careful submersion, the low density and melting temperature of the
element can create magnesium rich pooling on the melt surface. These pools typically ignite and rapidly
oxidize, evolving a dense white "fume". The fume is a sub-micron particulate dispersoid of MgO, that is also
present on the melt surface. Subsequent mixing distributes the particulate throughout the melt. Because of the
size of the particles, body force separation by sedimentation is dubious. MgO remains distributed throughout
the melt as a suspension.
- 82 -
In the previous discussion of aluminum-magnesium alloy oxidation, it was shown that pre-existing MgO is one
of the conditions that rapidly accelerates the formation of spinel (MgAl 2 O 4 ), via the reaction of equation (10).
Molten metal that was alloyed with magnesium many hours hence therefore has the capacity to rapidly oxidize
by this "seeding" process. Removal of the MgO suspension will correct the problem, however this is difficult
due to particle size. The best policy to address this situation is avoidance, either through proper submersion
alloying practices, or the use of master alloys.
The presence of magnesium chloride (MgCl 2 ) can also produce MgO through a hydrolysis reaction. This halide
salt will be discussed further in a subsequent section.
5. Additives - Where possible, beryllium additions to aluminum-magnesium and aluminum-lithium alloys

significantly reduces the formation of oxides. The mechanism responsible for this effect is oxide densification
through the incorporation of beryllia in an otherwise porous oxide layer (PBR of beryllia is 1.68). The impact
of beryllium can be dramatic, although the presence of this element in an industrial setting without the
necessary environmental controls can present serious hygiene consequences. Alloys used for food contact
applications are also prohibited from containing potentially toxic elements, such as beryllium.
Fridlyander, et al [12] discuss the effects of beryllium additions to aluminum-magnesium and aluminum-
magnesium-lithium alloys, and provides an excellent mechanistic description of protective mechanisms. Figure
6-5 depicts the impact of beryllium additions on the oxidation rate of an Al-3.5%Mg alloy [10].
A topical layer of boria (B 2 O 3 ) and borate
containing compounds also significantly

reduces oxidation. The PBR of boria is 3.1.
Unfortunately these compounds are also
excellent proton conductors, thus,
facilitating hydrogen adsorption. Boron
compounds are therefore restricted to non-
hydrogen sensitive applications, or where
effective subsequent degassing can be
accomplished.
Figure 6-5 The Effect of Beryllium

Additions on the Oxidation Behavior of an
Aluminum 3.5% Magnesium Alloy(data
collected by ALCOA Laboratories [11]).
6. Protective gas covers - Although aluminum oxidation cannot be prevented, the rate of oxidation can be
reduced by providing a protective cover gas over the melt. Dry nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide is useful
for this purpose. Further, reactive additives, such as sulfur hexafluoride, is particularly useful in protecting high
magnesium content aluminum melts. A collateral benefit of gas covers is that hydrogen and its sources are also
excluded.
The open air administration of protective gas covers must be carefully executed to avoid the secondary
aspiration of air and water vapor. Laminar flow devices are commercially available to minimize secondary air
entrainment. Closed electric furnaces operated at a slight positive pressure from a protective gas are effective
in reducing melt oxidation.
- 83 -
6.4.5 Aluminum Carbide Formation
It was previously stated that the principle sources of aluminum carbide inclusions were primary (potroom)
aluminum, and the reaction of paints, oils, and other carbon containing compounds with aluminum. The latter
occurs during scrap melting.
Aluminum carbide found in primary ingot is characterized by a discrete particle size typically less than 20 µm, and
frequently smaller than about 8 µm. High nucleation rate precipitation reactions, from elevated temperature molten
aluminum in the reduction cell, are believed to be responsible form this type of size population. Aluminum carbide
that originates from scrap contaminants is somewhat larger in size.
In all cases, the in-situ formation of aluminum carbide involves energetically favorable reactions between
aluminum, elemental carbon, or carbon containing compounds. It is generally understood that the higher purity
grades of aluminum are more likely to form aluminum carbide from these reactants than highly alloyed materials.
The following reactions are thermodynamically capable of producing, but do not necessarily assure that aluminum
carbide will form:
Elemental carbon and graphite
3C + 4Al o Al 4 C 3 (14)
Methane (natural gas)
3CH 4 + 4Al o Al 4 C 3 + 12H (15)
Hexachloroethane (degassing tablets)
3C 2 Cl 6 + 14Al o 2Al 4 C3 + 6 AlCl 3 (v) (16)
Dichlorodifluoromethane, a halocarbon (Freon 12)
3CC1 2 F 2 + 8Al o Al 4 C 3 + 2AlCl 3 + 2AlF 3 (17)
Silicon carbide
3SiC + 4Al o 7 Al 4 C 3 + 3Si (18)
Stoichiometric considerations demonstrate that a significant quantity of aluminum is consumed by each of these
reactions to produce aluminum carbide particles. For example, the most elementary reaction (14) requires 3 moles
of carbon (36g), and 4 moles of aluminum (108g), to form 1 mole (144g) of aluminum carbide. Thus, carbon and
aluminum combines to form a potential inclusion source with four times the mass of the original quantity of carbon
that participates in the reaction. Aluminum carbide formed by these in-situ reactions is always a particulate of
ideomorphic morphology, and usually between 10-30 µm in size.
As previously stated, thermodynamic feasibility is a necessary, but alone insufficient, requirement for a reaction to
physically occur. In the case of solid carbon and carbon containing reactants, for example, intimate interphase
contact (wetting) between aluminum and the carbon source is needed. For this reason, carbon, graphite, and silicon
carbide all constitute excellent refractory materials, because the contact angle of aluminum of carbon (or SiC [13])
usually exceeds 90º. These substances are therefore normally not wet by aluminum, thus inhibiting the aluminum
carbide formation reaction. Air oxidation is a much more serious issue with most carbon and graphite materials.
The presence of surface active molten halide salts and certain solute elements in aluminum with demonstrated
surfactancy (ie; lithium), however, promotes wetting. Aluminum carbide formation reactions may then become
operative.
- 84 -
Gas phase carbonaceous reactants present a more favorable scenario for aluminum carbide formation than solid
reactants. Methane, certain halocarbons, such as dichlorodifluoromethane, and virtually all volatile petrochemical
hydrocarbons (linear and cyclic) are viable sources of carbon. In most cases, atomic hydrogen is also produced by
hydrocarbon decomposition, with the obvious effect on melt gas concentration.
Although diffusion rates in gases are several orders of magnitude higher than in liquids, the limitation on gas phase
reactivity is short gas bubble residence time in the melt. Effective gas\metal contact time is particularly limited in
the case of many halocarbon molecules, such as dichlodifluoromethane, because the pyrolysis reactions are slow.
Conversely, hexachloroethane is a subliming solid and results in somewhat greater residence time to allow
reactions to proceed.
Aluminum carbide is technically an intermetallic compound that is believed to display surface activity. This
characteristic often results in the agglomeration of aluminum carbide with other inclusion types (ie: film oxides), to
form much larger inclusion clusters.
The practical controls for limiting melt contamination by aluminum carbide, consist primarily of obviating metal
contact with carbon sources, and avoiding excess melt superheat. Specifically, these controls include:
1. Charge media - Scrap contains oils and paints should be processed, off-line, prior to furnace charging.
2. Temperature - Although aluminum carbide formation reactions are not necessarily favored at elevated
temperatures, melt contact with carbon sources is greatly facilitated by improved wetting at high temperature.
Carbon and graphite oxidation is also enhanced by these conditions, and results in the production of porous
surfaces and particulate carbon - all promoting reaction with aluminum.
3. Molten halide salts - Molten salts, such as magnesium chloride and eutectic mixtures thereof, promote contact
and ion exchange with carbon sources. It is important to minimize the use of chlorine, in the fluxing of
magnesium containing alloys, to concentrations usually under 10 volume percent of the total fluxing gas.
Further, efficient phase contractors for chlorine fluxing operations are preferred over open-ended wands.
4. Hexachlorethane - If hexachloroethane is employed as degassing tablets, a quiescent settling period of usually

15-30 minutes should permit particles to separate. Careful metal withdraw is also desirable.
6.4.6 Halide Salt Formation
Halide salts constitutes a class of halogen containing compounds that may be generated when halides react with
aluminum. In this context, the dominant halogen source is chlorine used for fluxing purposes. Chlorine is
unparalleled in its value as a reactive gas for inclusion removal, skim control, and in certain instances, degassing.
The potential exists, however, to form molten and solid chloride salts, that are particularly difficult to remove from
the melt. Further, these salts are implicated in collateral reactions, such as spinel and aluminum carbide formation.
Chloride salts are of much greater consequence in the production of certain aluminum wrought alloys, than in
foundry operations. Aluminum-magnesium 5XXX series alloys, used for beverage container applications, require
exceptionally low levels of dissolved alkali elements. Substantial quantities of chlorine are used to remove these
contaminants.
The reaction of aluminum and chlorine is strongly energetically favored. This reaction is stoichiometrically
characterized by:
Al + 3/2 Cl 2 o AlCl 3 (19)
The net Gibbs free energy change for this particular reaction at 1350ôF is -141 Kcal-mole-1. Aluminum chloride
sublimes at 352ôF, is present as a vapor, and rapidly exits the melt if magnesium is not present.
- 85 -
The chlorine-like odor observed as an off-gas during chlorine fluxing is actually hydrogen chloride (HCl) that
forms by hydrolysis of aluminum chloride with moisture. A dense white particulate plume accompanies hydrogen
chloride, and is comprised largely of hydrated alumina. Since aluminum chloride is not retained in the melt, its
direct consequence as an inclusion is not an issue. Industrial hygiene and environmental concerns are of greater
importance.
Experienced metalcasters will recognize that the chlorination of non-magnesium containing alloys (ie: 2XX series)
copiously produces a dense plume and odor, while chlorination of a magnesium containing alloy will not. This is
due to the formation of magnesium chloride, a liquid salt at melt temperatures (T M = 1307ôF). Although
environmentally more hospitable, magnesium chloride can become highly detrimental inclusions. The following
reaction mechanism applies to commercial casting alloys containing magnesium at a concentration in excess of 0.2
weight percent.
Solute magnesium is capable of reacting with both chlorine and aluminum chloride to form liquid phase
magnesium chloride; a potentially consequential inclusion. Magnesium chloride is produced by two reactions:
Mg + Cl 2 o MgCl 2 (l) (20)

and
Mg + 2/3 AlCl 3 (v) o MgCl 2 (l) + 3/2 Al (21)
-1
Both reactions are energetically favorable, with net free energy changes of -114 Kcal-mole-1 and -21 Kcal-mole ,
respectively. Aluminum will be present in concentrations at least two orders of magnitude greater than magnesium.
Thus, the probability that a chlorine atom will first encounter an aluminum atom is greater than for magnesium.
Although the reaction described by equation (20) is more energetically favorable, aluminum chloride formation
occurs first as a sequential reaction. This intermediate reaction product is then reduced by magnesium, to produce
magnesium chloride as a terminal reaction product via equation (21). In each case, the reaction products are
accompanied by a reduction in reaction free energy. A small quantity of chlorine also reacts directly with
magnesium to form the chloride. Magnesium chloride formation is thus a series-parallel path reaction scheme.
Stoichiometrically, magnesium and chlorine combines in equimolar ratios (24g/71g) to form 1 mole of magnesium
3
chloride (95g). Since the STP density of chlorine gas is 0.19 lb m /ft , (95/71) (.19) = 0.25 lb m of magnesium chloride
can form from 1 standard cubic foot of chlorine. In the rigorous sense, a small quantity of aluminum chloride is
dissolved in the liquid salt that is produced.
Sodium, calcium, lithium, and strontium, if present in the melt, will all react with chlorine to produce their
respective chloride salts. The standard free energy changes associated with these reactions are provided in table 6-4.
Further, the relative stability of the chloride and fluoride reaction products is given in table 6-5, represented as
reaction free energies normalized to 1 mole of chlorine. If these elements are present as residuals in an aluminum
casting alloy, say from secondary ingot, the total salt burden will be increased. All of the chlorides listed form
eutectic systems with magnesium chloride. Consequentially, salts that are normally solid at melt temperatures in
pure form, can combine to form liquid mixtures. The magnesium chloride\calcium chloride and sodium
chloride\calcium chloride system phase diagrams [14] are shown in Figures 6-6 and 6-7 to illustrate this effect.
- 86 -
Table 6-4 Properties of Selected Salts

& Oxides.
Table 6-5 The Relative Free Energy of Formation of Commonly Encountered Halide Salts.
Figure 6-6 The Calcium Chloride Magnesium

Chloride System.
Figure 6-7 The Sodium Chloride Calcium Chloride System.
- 87 -
The removal of molten salts presents a formidable challenge because typical molten metal filters are not designed
to separate two immiscible liquids. Further, most molten salts are chemically aggressive, and readily degrade
common chemical refractory binder systems (ie: aluminum phosphate). Finally, even body force separation of
molten salt is difficult, due to low density and small droplet size.
Stoke's law describes the terminal velocity, V t , of a particle of a given density, p , and radius, R,is capable of
achieving in a liquid of specified density, l , and viscosity, under laminar flow conditions:
2
2 ( U1 UU )g
Vt R (22)
9K
-2
where g = 981 cm-sec .
In accordance with this relationship, terminal velocity varies as the square of particle diameter and with the first
-
power of the density difference between the two phases. Since the density of magnesium chloride is about 2.2 g-cm
3 -3
, and assuming a melt density of approximately 2.4 g-cm at 1350ºF, the terminal velocity of a 50 µm salt particle
-1 -1 -1 -1
is only 0.023 cm-sec (0.54 in-min ). This compares to a separation velocity of 0.17 cm-sec (4.0 in-min ) for a
50 µm alumina particulate inclusion. Thermally induced forced convection in a furnace may be capable of
maintaining a salt particle in suspension for extended periods of time.
The practical means for controlling halide salt inclusions include:
1. Chlorination - Avoid using excessive chlorine for the fluxing of magnesium containing alloys. Generally,
less than 10 volume percent, and preferably, 3-5 volume percent chlorine is appropriate for enhancing
inclusion floatation and producing an acceptably dry skim. Efficient phase contactors should also be used
for chlorine fluxing.
2. Temperature control - Maintain the minimum practical melt superheat to discourage refractory wetting
and chemical deterioration by molten halide salts. The wetting characteristics and reactivity of molten
halides increases significantly above 1325-1350ºF. Further, melt fume generation is more pronounced at
high temperatures.
3. Charge selection - If casting alloys are produced from high scrap fractions or secondary ingot, residual
sodium, calcium, potassium, and lithium concentrations should be maintained at the lowest economical
levels, if chlorination is used. Sodium additions, for the purpose of modification, should be made after the
chlorination process. Also, salt carryover, from certain recycling operations, and "bath" carryover, from
low grade primary ingot, can represent an exogenous inclusion type that is imported into the system.
6.5 Inclusion Appearance and Morphology
6.5.1 Quality Manifestations
Mechanisms responsible for the in-situ formation of oxides, carbides, and halide salts were discussed in the
preceding section. Formation of the substance, alone, is not sufficient to determine if an inclusion manifestation,
and ultimately a quality detractor, will form in a particular casting. These three events must occur to present an
oxide, carbide, or salt as a potential quality threat:
1. Formation
2. Metal entrainment
3. Failure to separate
- 88 -
Many oxidation reactions, for example, originate and progress as topical events on the melt surface. These oxides
prefer to remain topical, because of their intrinsically poor wetting characteristics, and high surface tension of
aluminum. In fact, elegant solutions to the technical problem of wetting and dispersion of oxides, in the production
of aluminum metal matrix composites, have been developed to overcome these difficulties.
If melt agitation and transfer turbulence is present, however, oxide films are easily ruptured and entrained in molten
metal. Metal transfer events are particularly detrimental, because formation and entrainment occur concurrently.
Down sprue and gating system turbulence are categorically included. Failure to remediate with the appropriate
separation technique will result in potential inclusion related quality issues.
Sand, gravity permanent mold, and investment castings, are particularly susceptible to feeding related defects from
oxide inclusions. These inclusions may result in the poor fill of thin sections, misruns, and exaggerated shrink and
hydrogen porosity. Casting quality is also compromised because oxide inclusions can cause "hard spots" on
machined surfaces, reduce strength (particularly fracture toughness and ductility), and limit the low cycle fatigue
performance of rotating components.
An interesting manifestation of the heterogenous nucleation of hydrogen porosity by an inclusion is that metal
containing inclusions are more likely to sensitize sand, investment, and semi permanent mold castings to disperse
hydrogen porosity in a "salt and pepper" distribution throughout the casting. This is unacceptable for high grade
commercial and premium quality cast products. Conversely, however, non-critical ornamental type castings may
benefit from a dispersed and non-interconnected pore distribution.
Intermetallic compounds, such as sludge, are common inclusion defects in die castings. Sludge is more a function
of alloy chemistry, than intrinsic casting parameters, although temperature control and holding furnace cleanliness
are important considerations. Dark hard spots and loss of ductility are the typical mechanical manifestations of
sludge in die castings [15]. Management of sludge is usually through control of the sludge factor/temperature
relationship.
Unfortunately, the opacity of molten aluminum renders the direct visualization of inclusions impossible.
Techniques have been developed, however, that concentrates suspended inclusions on a porous substrate to provide
a platform for qualitative examination by metallography [8, 16-19]. Photomicrographs used in this section to
discuss the various inclusion types were obtained by these methods.
6.5.2 Alumina
Alumina can exist as several polymorphs, each with a characteristic physical appearance. A polymorph is a distinct
crystallographic phase of chemically identical compounds. Alumina's polymorphic modifications include alpha,
beta, eta, gamma, and sapphire. Alpha, gamma, and to a lesser extent, eta, are frequently found in castings, and
probably represent in excess of all inclusion defects.
The initial alumina polymorph to form on the surface of a magnesium free melt is gamma. Gamma alumina is
typified by a lacy film morphology, with aspect ratios (length to equivalent diameter) ranging from 5 to several
thousand. The alumina inclusion depicted in Figure 6-8 is gamma alumina, featuring its characteristically high
aspect ratio morphology.
Ruptured gamma alumina films are the most frequently encountered alumina inclusions in castings. The
macroscopic appearance of this inclusion type is generally "marbled" and circuitous. Since gamma films can
contribute to the non-Newtonian viscous behavior of aluminum, these inclusions are often observed with shrink
porosity.
Gating system turbulence can easily generate gamma alumina films, that are transported with the advancing solid-
liquid interface during solidification. These films ultimately become associated with shrink, often below the
riser(s).
- 89 -
The prolonged exposure of gamma alumina to elevated temperature (>2000ôF) usually invokes a phase
transformation to the alpha polymorph. This process is known as calcination. Alpha alumina is particulate in
morphology, and frequently is found with an aspect ratio of 1-10. Although gamma alumina is relatively soft
(Moh's hardness less than 9), Alpha alumina is a somewhat harder phase (Moh's hardness =9.6). Corundum
abrasive paper is comprised of alpha alumina. Due to morphological considerations, alpha alumina is much less
frequently associated with feeding defects than gamma alumina, but more often seen as a discrete hard spot. In
these cases, metal holding practices should be investigated.
Eta alumina may be found in aluminum alloys that contain lead and/or bismuth. The specific role of these elements
on the oxidation mechanism of aluminum is not well understood. This phase is characterized by a soft, easily
friable supernatant mat. It is believed to originate as a transformation of the incipient oxide phase, gamma, because
some incubation is required to form eta alumina.
All alumina phases are readily identifiable using an electron microprobe, or energy dispersive (EDAX) and\or
wavelength dispersive (WDS) analysis on a scanning electron microscope.
6.5.3 Magnesia
The crystallography of magnesia is not as thoroughly documented as in the case of alumina. This oxide can be
found in casting alloys containing in excess of 0.2 percent magnesium, but more frequently in the higher
magnesium 5XX series alloys. As in the case of alumina, magnesia may be observed as films, but also as
dispersoid and cluster morphologies.
Figure 6-8 illustrates a magnesia dispersoid. This form of magnesia is considered as incipient phase, and the
precursor to other phases of magnesia. A magnesia dispersoid actually consists of discrete sub to 1-2 î m
ideomorphic particles, that are believed to be loosely contained in colonies by Van der Waals forces. The
dispersoid particles are initially amorphous, and, as such, are unidentifiable using X-ray micro diffraction
techniques. Amorphous magnesia readily transforms to the crystalline form, without a significant difference in its
metallographic appearance, except for a slight particle coarsening.
- 90 -
Figure 6-8 Photographs of Commonly Encountered Inclusion Types.
Since dispersoid magnesia is of an early transitional morphology, it is not frequently found in castings produced
from pre-alloyed ingot. The observation of this form of magnesia in a casting is generally suggestive of alloying
malpractice or the hydrolysis of magnesium chloride, as the source.
Time intervals of minutes to tens of minutes cause dispersoid magnesia to mature into films, and ultimately,
clusters. Actual time requirements appear to vary as a function of other processing variables, such as atmosphere
and temperature. The thin dark region at the upper boarder of the dispersoid in Figure 8 is a developing film.
Magnesia films may further develop into a terminal film phase or cluster (also shown in Figure 6-8), or transform to
magnesium aluminate spinel. Spinel usually most readily forms in alloys of low to intermediate magnesium
concentration (<1-2.5 percent), while terminal magnesia films are more likely to be observed in alloys with higher
magnesium concentrations. Magnesia can be easily identified by electron micro probe and energy dispersive
techniques with a scanning electron microscope.
6.5.4 Magnesium Aluminate Spinel
Spinel formation mechanisms were previously discussed in some detail. Although direct origination may occur
from the elements, pre-existing magnesia is the energetically preferred path. The spinel clusters, that are visible in
Figure 6-8, illustrate the coarsened templates of their magnesia precursors. Spinel is typically relatively large, and
can be as great as several millimeters in size. Larger spinel particles are usually clusters, or of a blocky
morphology.
- 91 -
Due to the time dependence of its formation reaction, spinel manifestations in castings usually do not originate
exclusively from metal transfer turbulence. Typical sources of spinel include furnaces and metal transfer crucibles,
particularly if direct flame impingement is employed. It again must be emphasized that pre-existing magnesia
greatly expedites the formation of spinel, and for this reason, alloying and fluxing practices must be carefully
monitored.
The difference between extreme spinel accretions and a light oxide growth in a furnace following a week-end
holding event, is often the quantity of magnesia that was originally present.
6.5.5 Aluminum Carbide
Aluminum carbide is always metallographically observed as discrete ideomorphic particles, either homogeneously,
or associated with other inclusions. A film morphology does not exist although platelets with aspect ratios of about
3-5 may be seen. Aluminum carbide from primary ingot originates from the potroom, and is frequently under 5 î m
in individual particle size. Other sources, such as in-situ reactions including with halocarbons and particularly
hexachloroethane, produce particles of greater size. The aluminum carbide photomicrograph in Figure 6-8 features
a background dispersion of potroom aluminum carbide (1-2 î m), with an overlay of 20-30 î m particles that were
produced by reaction with a halocarbon.
Aluminum carbide is frequently seen as an agglomerated inclusion with other inclusion types. Intermetallics, such
as titanium aluminide and titanium diboride, are often observed with aluminum carbide, due to its surface activity.
Alumina and magnesia films may also be seen as associated phases. Due to its characteristically small particle size,
aluminum carbide is not usually the singular quality problem in castings.
Elements of low atomic number are difficult to detect using microprobe techniques. Carbon, therefore, is not
readily observable. Fortunately, two characteristics of aluminum carbide facilitate identification using optical
techniques.
First, aluminum carbide is hygroscopic, and rapidly adsorbs water from the atmosphere. In its as-polished
anhydrous form, aluminum carbide appears as light gray. Atmospheric exposure, of a duration of several hours,
however, results in hydration and a significant darkening of the phase. Long exposure to high humidity conditions
will produce water to appear on the sample, resulting in an obscuration of the discrete aluminum carbide particles.
Repolishing such as sample restores the original anhydrous form of the carbide.
The second useful characteristic of aluminum carbide for identification using optical microscopy, is birefringence,
particularly with larger particles. Ideomorphs above about 15 î m in size often appear striated and alternatively
yellow, or pink.
6.5.6 Halide Salts
Halide salts, that were present in the melt as a second immiscible liquid phase, usually appear spherical. Because
most halide salts are highly water soluble, the salt inclusion itself is almost always lost during sample preparation.
A void formed by the fugitive droplet is generally the only remaining manifestation of salt in a sample. These voids
can be easily distinguished over hydrogen porosity, however, because they lack a reflective surface. Further, since
most halide salts react with moisture to form hydrogen chloride, a reaction rim frequently accompanies salt voids.
This hydrolysis may also produce a measurably reduced pH of the sample surface.
Molten salts are also associated with other inclusion types; typically magnesia. The halide salts depicted in Figure
6-8 are surrounded by aluminum carbide, and were formed by the reaction of chlorine with a magnesium
contaminant. Solid halide salts are infrequent, and when present, may appear as in a variety of sizes and
morphologies. Such inclusions are soft, and may hydrolyze to develop a low pH.
Due to the high atomic number of halides, the electron microprobe and EDAX techniques are useful for
unambiguous identification of salts.
- 92 -
References
1. Guthrie, R.I.L. and Nilmani, M., "Impurity Sources and Control - - General Principles of Metal Treatment."
Aluminum Metal Treatment & Casting, Edited by Nilmani, M., TMS, 1993, p85-104.
2. Grusleski, J. E., The Treatment of Liquid Aluminum-Silicon Alloys, AFS Inc. Des Plaines, Ill, 1990, p143-168.
3. Pendersen, T., "Refining Efficiency on Hydrogen, Alkaline Metals and Inclusions in the Hydro Metal Refining
System," Light Metals 1991, TMS, Edited by Elwin L. Rooy, p1063-1067.
4. Zou, J., Tynelius, K., Shivkumar, S., and Apelian, D., "Microporosity Formation in A356.2 Castings,"
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Production, Refining, Fabrication and Recycling of Light
Metals, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, Aug. 26-29, published by the Canadian Institute of Metallurgists, 1990,
p323-332.
5. Zou, J., Shivkumar, S., and Apelian, D., "Modeling of Porosity Formation in Grain Refined Aluminum
Castings," Proceedings of the Symposium of Process Modeling, TMS-AIME Annual Meeting, Feb. 1991,
published by TMS-AIME, Warrendale, PA.
6. Thomas, P. M., and Grusleski, J. E., "Threshold Hydrogen for Pore Formation During the Solidification of
Aluminum Alloys -- Communications", Metall. Trans. B, March 1978, Vol. 9B, p139-141.
7. Neff, D. V., "Degassing and Cleaning of Molten Aluminum," Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on
Aluminum Processing, Vol. I, May 26-29, 1994, Westin Regina Hotel-Cancun, Q. R., Mexico, p57-72.
8. Eckert, C.E., "Inclusions in Aluminum Foundry Alloys"; Modern Castings (April 1991)
9. JANAF Thermochemical Tables, Second Edition, NSDRS-NBS37 (1971)
10. Pilling, N.B.; Bedworth, R.E.; Journal of the Institute of Metals; V29 (1923)
11. Extracted from published material from "Principles of Metal Treatment"; a short course presented through
TMS-AIME; New Orleans (1991)
12. Fridlyander, I.N.; et al; "Oxidation of Alloys of an Aluminum-Magnesium-Lithium System with Beryllium
Additive"; Alyum. Splavy; N5 (1968)
13. Choh, I; Oki; U; "Wetability of SiC to Al and Al Alloys"; Mat Sci Tech; V3(May, 1987)
14. Levin, E.M.; Robbins, C.R.; McMurdie; Phase Diagrams for Ceramists; American Ceramics Society (1969)
15. Armstrong, G.L.; "Metallurgical Defeats Encountered in Machining Aluminum Die Castings"; Paper G-T75-
011; 8th SDCE International Die Casting Exposition and Congress; SDCE (March 17-20, 1975)
16. Irwin, D.W.; "Sampling to Detect Inclusions in Molten Aluminum"; Aluminum Melt Refining and Alloying-
Theory and Practice Symposium; Melbourne; (1989)
17. Eckert, C.E.; Mutharasan, R.; Apelian, D.; "An Experimental Technique for Determining Specific Cake
Resistance Values in the Cake Mode Filtration of Aluminum Alloys"; Light Metals, pp 1225-1248 (1985)
18. Simensen, C.J.; "Sampling and Analysis of Impurities in Aluminum"; International Seminar on Refining and
Alloying of Liquid Aluminum and Ferro-Alloys; Trodheim, Norway; (August 26-28, l985)
19. Apelian, D.; "How Clean is the Metal you Cast? The Issue of Assessment... A Status Report"; Proc. 3rd
International Conference on Molten Aluminum Processing, Orlando, Florida; American Foundrymen's
Society; (November 9-10, 1992)
- 93 -
- 94 -
Quality Assurance Methods
Chapter 7
Melt Cleaning Systems and Techniques
7.1 Introduction
The role of molten metal treatment has become increasingly important in the overall scheme of the foundry
operation. By treating molten metal, one is able to add value to the end product, improve productivity, and increase
quality. The quality of molten metal can be improved by proper control of two interrelated parameters: chemical
composition and unwanted phases. Control of unwanted phases in the molten metal is a critical element in the
melting/casting sequence. The term "unwanted phases" refers to exogenous solid particles, liquid phases that are
present above the liquidus temperature of the alloy, and gaseous phases, such as dissolved hydrogen in the melt.
Several types of solid particles may exist in molten aluminum. These are:
Oxides, which can form by direct oxidation of elements in the melt, or which are introduced into the melt
with furnace charges. These include alumina (Al 2 O3 ) particles that may be found in magnesium-free
alloys, magnesia (MgO) particles that may form by the oxidation of localized concentrations of
magnesium in magnesium containing alloys, and magnesium aluminate spinel (MgAl 2 O4 ).
Salts, such as MgCl 2 , which can form in Mg-alloys when argon/nitrogen - chlorine mixtures are used to
remove hydrogen from melt.
Carbides, such as Al 4 C3 , which may form during the aluminum melting process, or when certain solid
degassing tablets (e.g., C 2 Cl6 -hexachloroethane) are used.
Intermetallic compounds, such as titanium aluminide (TiAl 3 ) particles, which may form when poor
quality grain refining master alloys are use.
Exogenous refractory inclusions caused by spalling of high silica refractories from crucible or furnace
walls and their entrainment into the melt.
- 95 -
Though there are several aspects to molten metal quality, the focus of this review is the removal of impurities from
aluminum alloys rather than chemical composition control. Most of the unwanted solid phases present in
aluminum alloys exhibit a complex structure and are hard and brittle. The critical size of the solid particles that
may be tolerated in a casting depends on the end application. In most cast components, solid particles with sizes
greater than 10 - 20 Pm may have a drastic effect on the quality of the cast part. The presence of solid inclusions in
a casting may cause a number of undesirable problems in the final fabricated aluminum alloy product including the
reduction of mechanical properties, excessive tool wear during machining operations, increased porosity, poor
surface quality, and lack of pressure tightness.
The common methods of solid particle removal from molten metal are flotation and/or fluxing using small gas
bubbles, sedimentation during holding, and filtration through cake filters or porous, rigid media filters. Another
promising technique is electromagnetic separation. This chapter provides a description of the various systems that
are currently available on the market.
7.2 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Flotation and Fluxing
In a typical flotation and fluxing treatment process, a reactive or inert gas, or a combination of both gases, is purged
into the liquid metal. Chlorine and fluorine are the most commonly used reactive gases, and argon and nitrogen are
the most commonly used inert gases. As the gas bubbles rise to the surface of the melt, they come in contact with
the solid particles and dissolved hydrogen and carry them to the top slag where they may be skimmed. The solid
particles removal efficiency depends largely on the contact time between the gas bubbles and the molten metal and
also on the volume fraction of gas injected into the melt.
In a typical flotation process, hydrogen gas dissolved in the melt diffuses to the fluxing gas bubbles, which initially
have a low hydrogen partial pressure and therefore can uptake hydrogen. The rate of hydrogen removal from the
melt is limited by the kinetics of this diffusion process. Sodium and other alkaline earth metals that are dissolved in
the melt diffuse fairly quickly in the melt, but the equilibrium pressure of these elements in an inert fluxing gas is
low and, therefore, only small amounts can be absorbed into the gas bubbles. In order to accelerate their
absorption, a reactive gas, such as chlorine, is sometimes used.
Non-metallic particles, such as oxides, carbides, and magnesium aluminate spinel are also removed by flotation to
the melt surface. The size and number of gas bubbles limit the removal of these particulates. The removal
efficiency also depends on the clustering and agglomeration of the particles that may be caused by effecting
turbulence in the melt. The addition of chlorine (or other halogens) to the purging gas affects the surface tension of
the purge gas bubbles and makes oxides and solid particles adhere more efficiently to the surface of the bubbles.
Depending on the hydrodynamics in the molten metal, the rate-determining step for impurity removal may depend
on mass transfer or on the intrinsic rate(s) of the chemical reactions at the bubble surface. Usually, the former
dominates. The impurities must be transported from the bulk metal to the surface of the bubble through a diffusion
boundary layer. At this boundary layer, either a chemical reaction occurs, or the impurity simply crosses into the
bubble. The impurity removal kinetics is determined by the rate-determining step.
Several resistances determine the rate of impurity removal. In the case of hydrogen, these include: transport of
dissolved hydrogen in the liquid phase, hydrogen desorbtion kinetics at the metal/gas interface, and bulk flow of
hydrogen within the bubble. Clearly, removal kinetics are optimized in cases where the surface area of the membrane
is maximized, and the melt is agitated.
The removal of dissolved impurities such as alkali elements and hydrogen by gas sparging (fluxing) involves three
serial transport resistances; namely, liquid phase resistance, interface resistance and resistance to mass transport within
the bubble. The magnitude of these resistances will be estimated to illustrate the rate -determining step. Based on the
removal of sodium:
- 96 -
LIQUID PHASE RESISTANCE
In the absence of convective transport, the liquid phase mass transfer coefficient, k m,l , can be derived from penetration
theory:
0.5
k m,l = 2(D/ S ) (1)
-4
Where D is diffusivity and is lifetime. Based on a diffusivity value of D ~ 10 for sodium in aluminum, and a
lifetime, , of 1 second,
k m,l = 2(10-4/3.14)0.5 = 0.01 cm/sec (2)
INTERFACE RESISTANCE
The metal/membrane interface can be considered as an evaporation surface, wherein Langmuir diffusion applies. It is
therefore necessary to calculate vapor pressure values for the elements of interest, and to assess potential solvent/major
element interference effects. The Clausius-Clapeyron relation was integrated and solved as follows:
v 2
d lnP/dT = H /RT (3)
Note that the form of this equation is ln P = -A/T + B. The vapor pressure data are shown in Table 7-1.
O O1000K
Element Tv , K - H v, cal/mole A B P , mm Hg
-6
Al 2600 67,950 34,146 19.77 < 10
Mg 1393 31,500 15,829 17.99 8.7
Li 1604 32,190 16,176 16.72 1.7
K 1030 18,530 9,312 15.67 756.9
Na 1162 23,120 11,618 16.63 150.2
Ca 1760 35,840 18,010 16.87 0.3
Table 7-1 Vapor pressure data.
For evaporation, the evaporative mass transfer coefficient, k m,e , can be approximated using Knudsen analysis:
o
YPi a
Km ,e 0.5 (4)
Um ( 2SMRT )
In the case of sodium at 1000K,
= activity coefficient ~ 1
O 5 2
P = pure species vapor pressure = 150 mm Hg = 2.0 X 10 g/cm/sec
M = molecular weight = 23 g/mole
= condensation coefficient = 1
3
m = molar density = 0.096 moles/cm alloy
7
R = ideal gas constant = 8.31 X 10
k m,e = 0.6 cm/sec (5)
GAS PHASE RESISTANCE
Since values of diffusivities for gas phase diffusion substantially exceeds liquid phase diffusion, transport resistance in
the gas bubble will be ignored.
- 97 -
TOTAL RESISTANCE
The total resistance (ignoring gas phase resistance), 1/k, is the sum of the reciprocals of the previously approximated
liquid phase mass transfer and interface coefficients. In the case of sodium at 1000K,
1/k = 1/k m,l + 1/k m,e
= 1/0.01 + 1/0.6 = 101.7
Liquid phase resistance is dominant
A significant conclusion is that melt convection is required to enhance bulk transport of sodium and minimize liquid
phase transport resistance. This necessary convection can be imparted by mechanical agitation.
ENERGY PARTITIONING IN FLUXING
Energy supplied to a gas/liquid fluxing system is required for two reasons. The first purpose is the creation of
interphase interfacial area. Since all interfaces have a characteristic surface energy, the creation of surface area
requires the input of energy. The amount of energy required to produce gas/metal interfacial area increases in a linear
relationship with the amount of surface area increase. Relative to bubble diameter, however, the energetic requirement
follows an inverse relationship. For example, the amount of energy, E, to produce argon bubbles of decreasing
diameter in aluminum has been calculated and illustrated in Table 7-2.
Table 7-2 Energy Requirements to Form Bubbles.
Where d b is bubble diameter, n b is bubble number,

and ¦ SA is the sum of bubble surface area. As
shown in the above data, the reduction of bubble
diameter from 25 mm to 1 mm requires ~25000
times more energy.
The second requirement for mechanical energy input

in fluxing is for melt agitation. Such energy is used
to stir the melt and thereby overcome liquid phase
transport resistance. Melt agitation also serves to
distribute bubbles throughout the melt, which has the
effect of reducing liquid phase transport distances.
It is vital that the level of mechanical energy input

exceeds the isothermal expansion power (IEP) of
the sparging gas, at a particular sparging rate.
Failure to satisfy this criterion will result in an
under-stirred system characterized by large and
poorly dispersed gas bubbles. Three situations are
shown in Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1 Energy requirements to form bubbles.
- 98 -
The transport of the impurities to the bubble surface and the flotation of the bubble largely depend on the velocity
and turbulence fields due to the flow of melt and gas bubbles in the treatment reactor.
A number of commercial gas-purging systems are available. Depending on the method of gas sparging into the
melt, they can be grouped into the following categories:
x Porous lances
x Porous floor plugs
x Rotary gas purging units
x Flux injection units
Figure 7-2 depicts the relative introduction of these various techniques to the industry:
Figure 7-2 Introduction

period and performance of
fluxing methods
7.2 The Static Lance
Static lances are available in configurations ranging from straight lances to T and L shapes in order to fit specific
furnace applications. Many foundries still use the old straight graphite lance with a small hole at the bottom. These
lances may be effective when used with reactive gases, but they are slow and inefficient when used with inert
gasses or gas mixtures, and they produce fairly large bubbles which coalesce easily and rise quickly to the melt
surface. The purge gas-liquid contact area is minimal, hence the reaction is very inefficient, although adequate
degassing performance may be achieved, but at the expense of prolonged treatment times---which is often not an
option in a production foundry/diecasting operation. An improvement can be made to a static lance by adding a
porous disperser to it which breaks up the incipient gas flow and produces very fine bubbles, as shown in Figure
7-3. The porous disperser may be constructed from either porous graphite or a porous ceramic/refractory
composition. In smaller batch treatment vessels, or in continuous use in small casting furnaces, the porous media
disperser provides a distinct performance advantage compared to an open, straight lance. In another lance
applciation, Figure 7-4 depicts an archival unit--still in operation in a few metal casters--, in which metal is treated
with nitrogen under a salt flux cover, followed by passage through a bed of flux-coated "sticky" alumina balls.
Nitrogen is introduced into the melt through the L-shaped lance at such a rate as to produce vigorous turbulence
whereby most of the oxide in the molten aluminum is wetted and absorbed by the salt flux.
- 99 -
Figure 7-3: Water Model of Porous Disperser. Figure 7-4 L-shaped lance in an in-line
melt treatment process [1].
7.2.2 Porous Floor Plugs
The use of refractory porous plugs imbedded in the refractory floors of furnaces has proved to be quite effective.
The plugs must be carefully installed in proper patterns to create a wide dispersion of bubbles and they should not
be turned off during operation. Figure 7-5 shows a typical porous plug. These plugs are normally used in high-
production degassing boxes or on the floor of large holders. They are not normally used in smaller foundries due to
their high cost and difficulty in replacement.
Ao round reverse tapered porous refractory core

Bo non-porous refractory lining
Co Inconel can
Do Inconel flux gas supply pipe
Eo refractory nest block
F o external packing gland
Figure 7-5 Schematic representation of a porous plug [2].
Metal quality can be greatly improved by using porous plugs [2]. Tests have indicated that hydrogen levels in the
melt immediately following fluxing are reduced by up to 50% compared to levels achieved with a standard fluxing
lance. Particulate counts also appear to improve despite significant reductions in settling times. Using the porous
plug instead of the hand-held fluxing lance significantly reduces fluxing time and the chlorine content of the flux
gas. Another significant benefit of the porous plug is its ability to eliminate temperature stratification in the holding
furnace.
- 100 -
7.2.3 Rotating Impeller Degasser
The use of a rotary impeller unit is a `phase contactor', in that it provides intimate contact between the liquid metal
which contains both dissolved impurities, ie hydrogen, and particulate, ie inclusions--and a gas phase. A rotary
degasser is a highly effective method of removing unwanted matter from molten aluminum. An electric, hydraulic,
or air motor rotates a graphite rotor with a specially shaped impeller at 350 to 900 rpm in the melt thus creating a
dispersion of small bubbles. The rotary unit is highly effective in all types of foundry applications, from small
batch crucible furnaces to large continuous casting systems. A comparison of a rotary impeller degassing with the
lance and porous plug methods of degassing is illustrated in Figure 7-6. The greatest benefit of rotary impeller
fluxing is the ability to impart very high levels of mechanical energy to the gas/liquid melt system. This ability is
reflected by the dramatically improved degassing performance of rotary impeller fluxing as compared to lances and
porous plugs, which are gas stirred.
Figure 7-6 Comparison of degassing techniques

[5]. One, two, or more rotors may be mounted on the
same rotor shaft. Several impeller types are depicted
in Figure 7-7.
Figure 7-7 Several degassing rotor

sizes, shapes [6]
Moreover, rotary gas-purging units can be used in

different configurations including in-line for melt
treatment during casting operations, in batch
mode for treatment of melts in furnaces or
transportable crucibles, and for pretreatment of
pot room metal and removal of sodium and
lithium. The rotary unit has been used for many years in wrought aluminum production, but only during the past 15
years has the system's cost been affordable for shape casting foundries and diecasters. A number of manufacturers
offer a variety of versions of the rotary gas purging system. The system can use either nitrogen, pure argon or an
argon/chlorine mixture as the purging gas. When an argon/chlorine mixture is used, typical hydrogen reductions
range from 0.30 ml/100g down to as low as 0.05-0.08 ml/100g [7]. Sulfur hexafluoride and other halogen
compounds have also been employed, but these are falling out of favor due to adverse environmental impact. In
general, producers of high integrity die castings no longer employ chlorine or other halogens as a rule, owing to
environmental considerations.
As shown in Figure 7-7, a wide variety of rotor sizes, shapes, and configurations have found usefulness in
rotor degassing processes, as manufacturers and users attempt to define the best configuration for a given
application. There are several factors to consider and coordinate when defining a `correct' rotor degassing process
and specific rotor selection for a particular application. Production requirements, space constraints, and operating
circumstances and cost will determine whether to employ a fixed or portable rotary degassing unit. Geometry--the
size of the ladle and volume of metal to be treated will determine rotor degasser shaft length, rotor diameter, and
power required. Choice of purge gas will depend on economics and specific melt cleaning requirements.
- 101 -
Treatment times will be influenced by starting gas content and end result desired, as measured by reduced pressure
test results (specific gravity, visual standards), Alscan measurements, or laboratory hydrogen analysis, all of which
may be a part of an end-user cast product specification.
Consequently, the successful degassing process must evaluate these several interrelated effects. It is a good idea
to start with the specific degassing unit manufacturer's recommendations regarding gas flows and rotor speeds,
together with observable bubble pattern reaching the metal surface (avoiding turbulence and choppy `splash), and
coupled with semi-quantitative or quantitative degassing results.
When the reduced pressure test is employed as a quality determinant, it must be remembered that this is a
semi-quantitative test only. True hydrogen content is not measured in this test, rather the relative effect
of overall metal cleanliness, as inclusions present will nucleate gas bubble formation under the reduced
pressure employed. Consequently sampling technique, equipment maintenance, and constancy of test
conditions must be maintained to insure valid results from test to test and in making any determinations of
process change or suitability of the metal for casting.
7.2.4 Flux Injection
Flux injection allows the caster to perform melt treatment to improve the cleanliness of the metal. The general
process involves utilization of a specific fluxing salt that is applied through a delivery gas--either inert, such
as argon or nitrogen, or reactive (halogen gases such as chlorine or fluorine compounds). The purpose of flux
injection is often two-fold in most foundry applications---hydrogen removal, and partial removal of inclusions
by flotation.
Flux injectors can be static, introducing flux and gas through a stationary lance submerged in the furnace. The flux
reaction removes gas and particulates from the aluminum melt in a relatively short period of time. These systems
are used primarily in small melting furnace batch type applications, such as small reverbs, crucible furnaces and
holders.
The flux injection method addresses the major drawback of conventional practices, namely the limited contact of
flux surfaces with the unwanted impurities in the melt. Flux injection overcomes this limitation by delivering
predetermined amounts of powdered flux beneath the melt surface. Upon leaving the lance, the flux melts into
small droplets that expose a large specific surface to the melt as they float to the surface, which accelerates flux-
induced melt cleaning, ie partial removal of inclusions, which then rise to the surface of the melt. When halogen
gases or halogen salts are employed, additional wetting occurs between the gas bubble and insoluble particulate, ie
inclusions, facilitating their removal by rising to the dross phase where they may be skimmed. Hydrogen is
removed by the dissolved hydrogen diffusing into the insoluble carrier gas bubbles, or when the fluxing salts
contain compounds which decompose to provide insoluble gas bubbles.
A typical flux injection system includes a dry-powder feeder that mixes the powdered flux into an inert gas stream
carrying it through a lance immersed in the melt. Further evolution of the process has resulted in hybrid equipment
that combines the best traits of flux injection and
spinning nozzle rotor degassing (Figure 7-8). This
technology is now commonly employed in many
foundries in batch-mode application, such as
treatment in a transfer upon tapout from a melting
furnace and before delivery to casting units.
Shown schematically in Figure 7-8, there

are several manufacturers who offer this
Figure 7-8: Schematic, flux

injection/rotor degassing
- 102 -
hybrid equipment. The combination of flux injection coupled with rotor dispersion offers the
caster the following advantages [8,9]
(1) fluxing salts are contained, protected from the atmosphere, and thereby minimizing personal exposure
during use.
(2) only measured or controlled amounts of fluxing salts are used, resulting in minimal waste.
(3) by introducing the flux in submerged position within the molten metal, emissions are minimized.
(4) rotor dispersion increases the kinetics of mixing and phase-contact, resulting frequently in reduced treatment
time.
(5) with the proper flux composition being introduced, the dross from the process is treated in-situ,
resulting in increased recovery of the metallic aluminum contained in the dross.
7.2.5. Emerging Technology
The impact of rotor degassing technology as a melt treatment process is now very well established and growing
in importance in the production of high integrity aluminum die castings. It is worthwhile to view a relatively new
development in this technology in light of its fundamentals and to further review the concept of rotor degassing
theory. This new technology differs from the standard rotor degassing process by application of periodic rotation
reversal, or `reverse rotation', which has given rise to the aptly-named REVROT process. This metal treatment
process was developed to enhance reaction kinetics and phase separation. Importantly, the process is reported to
3
operate at a power density (kW/ft metal) of almost one order of magnitude greater than conventional rotary
impeller based fluxing processes without vortex formation. As with conventional processes, the fluxing gas is
purged into the molten aluminum through an impeller, as shown in Figure 7-9 [10]. The primary difference
between this technology and the conventional impeller-purging unit is the periodic reversal of the direction of
rotation of the impeller in the unit. Reversing the rotation direction reduces the formation of vortices in the melt,
thus reducing the re-entrance of inclusions from the top slag into the melt bulk. This can be explained as follows:
All conventional rotating impeller metal fluxing processes employ a submerged rotating impeller to:
a) Create shear within the body of metal to form gas bubbles

b) Disperse gas bubbles throughout the melt
c) Agitate the melt
Process gas bubbles provide sites for hydrogen de-sorption, chemical reaction (ie, trace element reduction), and
separation of suspended inclusions by the flotation mechanism. Melt agitation and mixing disperses these bubbles for
intimacy of contact between the gas and metal phases. Minimum bubble size combined with vigorous sub-surface
agitation maximizes process efficiency.
3
Efficient bubble formation is dependant on maximizing shear forces in the fluid phase. Energy (ie, ergs/cm ) is
required to generate gas/liquid interfacial area; this energy being supplied by the reaction of stationary fluid on the
impeller (shear). Shear is maximized when the radial velocity gradient in the fluid is as great as possible.
Alternatively, maximum shear is produced when the radial velocity differential between the fluid phase and rotating
impeller is also maximized.
Newton's Law of viscosity describes this situation, viz:

= - (dv /dr)
where: = shear force
= Newtonian viscosity (laminar)
dv /dr = radial velocity gradient.
The radial velocity gradient, dv /dr, must be maximized to produce the highest values of .
- 103 -
In conventional rotary impeller fluxing processes, metal in the treatment chamber begins to rotate with the impeller.
Since this, in effect, diminishes the magnitude of the reaction force, the radial velocity gradient becomes relaxed.
Shear forces are minimized, bubble surface area generation decreases, and dispersive mixing decreases. The effect is
that the limiting condition for bubble size and dispersion is approached.
Incipient vortex formation results as the fluid flow field in the treatment chamber fully develops. Vorticity is
undesirable because consequential surface turbulence promotes ingestion and entrainment of skim. Baffles,
asymmetrical chamber configuration, and special impeller designs have been traditionally used to control vorticity. An
additional method used to control vorticity is to operate the process at low power and impeller speed levels. In the case
of a rotating impeller, power input increases as the cube of impeller speed.
All conventional rotating impeller fluxing processes use constant power input\impeller speed and unidirectional
impeller rotation. Electric or pneumatic motors are typically used, in combination with some form of torque
multiplication (gear reduction).
Figure 7-9 Schematic diagram of a REVROT

unit [10]
The reverse-rotation, REVROT technology was originally developed to enhance the effectiveness of rotary impeller
fluxing processes. Categorically, these fluxing methods use the kinetic energy of a rotating impeller to invoke a radial
shear stress to a body of metal, creating turbulence and eddies. These eddies interact with an applied process gas
stream and supply sufficient energy to generate gas/liquid interfacial area, thus resulting in the formation of small
diameter bubbles. Consequentially induced bulk turbulence in the melt distributes the bubbles throughout the
treatment vessel. Further, this turbulence also enhances liquid phase mass transfer; an important consideration in back-
mix type reactors.
The magnitude of the induced shear stress, , is related to melt viscosity viz:
=- eff grad v
where: eff is the effective melt viscosity
grad v is the velocity tensor.
Shear stress is maximized at large values of grad v, and is related to the specific power input to the system by the
impeller.
- 104 -
A useful method to characterize the effectiveness of various impeller designs is to plot the impeller Reynolds number,
Re i, against the impeller power number, P i, as below:
2
ND U
Re i
Keff
and,
P
Pi 3 5
N D U
where: N = impeller RPM

D = impeller diameter
= melt density
P = impeller power input.
It was demonstrated the maximum value for P iis limited at high Re i values by the formation of a vortex, thus limiting
the magnitude of the induced shear stress. Vorticity occurs when the rotational velocity of the bulk melt and impeller
converges; this mechanism can be interpreted as a relaxation of the reaction forces necessary to maintain high shear
gradients. Vortex formation is also undesirable because of surface turbulence and metal "rolling" that occurs.
The traditional method for reducing (but not eliminating) vorticity is to employ baffles in the reactor vessel. This
approach is undesirable because effective baffles create quiescent regions that impede liquid phase mass transfer and
contribute to dead volume. Residence time distribution studies have perspicuously illustrated the latter effect. Further,
baffles are difficult to mechanically implement.
The reverse-rotation process addresses these limitations by instantaneously reversing the rotational direction of the
impeller as the velocity gradient begins to relax. The shear stress field is thus constantly maintained at the maximum
possible value for a particular impeller/reaction chamber combination. Accordingly, the impeller power number
function does not exhibit rapid diminution at high impeller Reynolds numbers, characteristic of conventional systems.
Substantially higher specific power input is possible with the REVROT process, compared to unidirectional rotation,
and impeller designs capable of much higher shear are possible.
7.3 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Filtration
Filtering the molten metal in order to remove inclusions prior to casting has been an accepted technology for many
years. At present, the majority of primary aluminum alloys that are cast in sand or permanent molds are filtered.
Alloys that are cast via the investment casting process for aerospace applications are also filtered; and in certain
applications, aluminum alloys are filtered prior to continuous casting.
Filtration methods can be divided into two categories based on the dominant inclusion capture mechanism: (1)
surface or cake filtration and (2) depth or deep-bed filtration. In surface filtration, the particulates are retained as a
cake on the surface of the filter medium. Thus, in the early stage of filtration, the pore size of the filter medium
determines the impurity particle size that will be retained. The aggregate of impurity particles acts as a "second"
filter above the original medium, providing additional resistance to flow and affecting separation of the particles
from the melt. On the other hand, in deep bed filtration the filter pores are significantly larger than the particulates
and deposition of particulates occurs throughout the depth of the filter. When small particles flow through the
tortuous pore structure of the packed filter medium, the particles deposit on the surface of the grains due to
diffusion, direct interception and surface forces. The attachment forces are mechanical, physiochemical, and/or a
combination of the two.
- 105 -
Commercially available filter media for aluminum treatment can be grouped into three categories [11]:
Category 1: Deep Bed Filters (DBF), which includes unbonded ceramic particulate filters as well as loose
ceramic media, such as tabular alumina grains, alumina balls, and flux grains.
Category 2: Ceramic Foam Filter (CFF), and
Category 3: Rigid Media Filter (RMF), which includes bonded ceramic particulate.
Each of these categories of filter media will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs. The diecasting
process, unlike sand-casting and gravity die-casting (permanent mold) processes, does not permit the use of in-
mold filtration. Thus to employ filters, they must be applied either into central re-melt furnaces, or directly into
casting furnaces from which the metal is withdrawn to feed the shot sleeve or pouring basin. A key filtering media
that has excellent applicability in this context is the rigid media, or bonded particle filter. Consequently, most of
the discussion on removal of unwanted phases by filtration will be geared towards rigid media filters; but for the
sake of completeness, deep bed filters and ceramic foam filters will be briefly covered.
7.3.1 Deep Bed Filters (DBF)
Deep bed filters have been employed since the mid-1960s and are still widely used in the production of primary
aluminum. In this type of filter, the molten aluminum passes through an auxiliary vessel that contains a bed of
tabular alumina balls as shown in Figure 7-10 (a) [12]. Particulates in the melt traveling through the bed (Figure 7-
10 (b)) are captured by the alumina balls. Typically, DBF filters have low linear metal velocity (around 0.1-0.4
2 2
cm/s). A typical maximum flow density is approximately 5 kg/m s and a typical specific loading is 1000 T/m . Its
filtration efficiency is a function of the filter depth and the metal's velocity, and particulate concentration in the
filtered melt decreases exponentially with filter depth.
Since the Alcoa 528 filter (Figure 7-10 (c)) uses combined bed filtration and gas injection, flotation plays a major
role in particulate removal and the system can operate at higher flow densities than an equivalent deep-bed filter
2 2
(up to 8-12 kg/m s vs. approx. 5 kg/m s) with relatively good filtration efficiencies (70-90%). However, because of
its design, initial particulate release is shorter than traditional deep-bed filters (typically lasting two minutes vs. 15
minutes for a deep-bed filter), also bed rejuvenation is a frequent and cumbersome requirement.
(a) (b)
(
(c)
Figure 7-10 Schematic diagrams of Deep bed filtration. (a) A typical DBF [20] (b) Magnified view of DBF [13]
(c) Alcoa 528 filter
- 106 -
7.3.2 Ceramic Foam Filters (CFF)
Ceramic foam filters are produced by impregnating reticulated polyurethane foam with a ceramic slurry and binder
followed by subsequent burnout of the organic foam material and firing of the ceramic to produce a high
temperature bond. This type of filter, a porous open cellular structure, has gained widespread use in many
applications, including slab, billet and foundry ingot casting, as well as foundry shapes. Figure 7-11 (a) shows a
schematic of a typical CFF. Ceramic foam filters are made by a number of manufacturers. They are approximately
50 mm thick and are available in a range of pore sizes (20-80 ppi, i.e. pore sizes varying from 0.5 to 2 mm).
Filtration efficiencies of the common 30 ppi units are quite variable; and will typically range from 20-70% for
particles in the range 10-100 Pm, averaging approximately 50% [14]. CFFs are prone to release of large quantities
of captured inclusions, and it has been observed that near the end of a cast, efficiencies can be low and unstable
[15].
2 2
, typically 100T/m . Accordingly, a typical 15s u 15s filter element (surface
CFFs have low2 specific loading values
area = 0.15m ) should be used to filter less than 15 tons of metal. CFFs are therefore "single use" filters. It is
important to note, however, that CFFs can be used at fairly high flow rates, their maximum specific flow density
2
being around 33 kg/m s [15]. Past this maximum flow density, filtration efficiency will drop rapidly. Finally,
CFFs can be easily installed prior to the casting station with minimal capital expenditure, they have very low metal
hold-up values because of the compactness of the system, and they are thus well suited to frequent alloy changes.
Given their inconsistent performance pattern, CFFs are not suited by themselves for the casting of critical products.
CFFs can be helpful where some particulate removal is required under operating conditions poorly suited to a deep-
bed filter (e.g., frequent alloy changes, small batches, etc.). A new graphite-based non-ceramic foam filter is shown
in Figure 7-11 (b). This filter offers significant advances in performance and re-melting characteristics when
compared with conventional CFFs [16]. The graphite composition is more easily wetted by molten aluminum than
are typical CFFs, so the metal head height required to prime the filter in the early stages of pouring (4 inches for a
typical CFF) is reduced to 2.5 inches in the filter. Additionally, the low density of the filter (about 60% that of a
comparable traditional CFF) and the low thermal capacity of the filters reduce heat loss from the metal to the filter
thus preventing premature freezing and allowing feeding through the filter when it is used in direct pouring
applications.
(a) (b)
Figure 7-11 (a) Schematic diagrams of foam filters. (b) A schematic view of a foam filter.
7.3.3 Rigid Media Filters Bonded Ceramic Filters
The bonded particle filter is an aggregate of either alumina or (preferably) silicon carbide particles bonded with a
molten-aluminum-resistant ceramic binder in a thermally fused process. The binder, which envelops the
particulate, prevents any reaction between the silicon carbide and aluminum at normal die-casting process
temperatures. In a fundamentally close-packed structure, the bonded particle filter contains nominally just 40%
porosity, whereas the more open structure ceramic foam filter is nominally 80% porosity. Filter grades use a
nomenclature determined by ANSI particle size standards. Typical grades employed in die-casting include "6 grit",
"8 grit", or "10 grit". There is a correspondence, though not equivalence, to ceramic foam filters in that the
2
The useful life of the filter before it is loaded up and starts acting as an inclusion generator instead of an inclusion accumulator.
- 107 -
nominal average pore diameters of these grades of bonded particle filters are approximately 10% smaller,
respectively, and 30-40-50 ppi ceramic foam filter structures.
The bonded particle filter has a series of distinctive advantages for die-casting application. With close control of
the particle size distribution on the grain and chemistry of the ceramic binder phase, the bonded particle filter
exhibits [17]:
o Superior strength and durability at molten aluminum temperatures, permitting better handling and
potential cleaning ability in-situ
o Full chemical compatibility--no reactivity or degradation in all common diecasting alloy composition,
which permits long filter life to be achieved
o High thermal conductivity (with silicon carbide) resulting in minimal thermal gradients between
upstream/downstream positioning of the filter placement
o Enhanced and sustained filtration efficiency through the combination of complexity of internal structure
(tortuous path for metal flow), lower porosity (better balance between cake-mode and depth-mode
filtration mechanisms), and affinity of the binder phase on the surface of the particulate to capture and
retain inclusions.
The principal product configurations that are used in both high-pressure die-casting and gravity die-casting
(permanent mold) include a filter pump, a `vertical gate filter', and a `box filter'. Other product configurations are
used with low-pressure die-casting, squeeze casting, and in dosing furnaces. In all cases, the filter product is
employed in a continuous, sustained-usage, constantly wetted by the molten aluminum for optimum filter life.
Filter pump - In diecasting, many of the foundries that employ a central re-melt furnace use a mechanical pumping
mechanism to deliver metal into a transfer ladle (Figure 7-12). In this instance the pump facilitates metal transfer
by allowing metal to be taken from the melter in a submerged position, avoiding entrainment of surface dross or
bottom sludge, and eliminating the need for taphole drains and frequent uncertainty of opening/closure of the
taphole. When a filter is employed with the pump, pre-filtering takes place such that the tapped metal quality is
improved and lessens the burden on subsequent processing such as degassing or flux injection
- 108 -
(a)
(b)
Figure 7-12 (a) Filter pump, (b) and filter pump in central melter.
Vertical Gate Filter - The vertical gate filter serves as a baffle,

separating wall, dividing the hearth or heating zone from the
pouring well in a central melter (as shown in Figure 7-13) or in a
casting furnace. In the latter, the filter may be used in conjunction
with either hand ladling or automatic ladling as shown in Figure 7-
14. The filter extends to the floor of the dipwell and to the entire
width of the dipwell in either a single piece or multiple-piece
construction. In wider widths integral studs are positioned on the
filter's top surface to permit a steel angle iron to be used for lifting
and positioning. Often the filter placement is òffset' from the
hotwall a couple inches away from the arch to permit full metal
(and thus heat) flow and full utilization of the available filtering
surface area. Preheating the filter to just 400qF immediately prior
to installation, minimizing metal-level draw-down, using well
covers on the unused portion of the well and when not casting helps
to minimize thermal gradients. The filter can actually be installed
into the furnace without drain-down, utilizing the molten metal as
the secondary preheat source without incident. Compressible fiber
paper or ceramic rope gaskets may be used on the filter perimeter to
enhance sealing and subsequent removal when the filter is spent.
Typical filter life--depending of course on throughput, initial metal
cleanliness, and operating circumstances unique in every die-casting
shop--can be 2-3 months in this application. When furnaces are
rebuilt, slots are often incorporated into the sidewalls to facilitate
filter installation and replacement.
Figure 7-13 Vertical gate filter & Figure 7-14 Vertical gate filter used with auto ladle.
When crucible furnaces are used, the `vertical gate filter' can be incorporated into the crucible itself as shown in
Figure 7-15. The filter serves as a baffle to separate pouring-in from dipping-out sections. While employed
principally in casting crucibles, it is also possible to utilize this configuration in combination melting/casting
crucibles provided that temperature stability is maintained to avoid sludging that can immediately occur with a
temperature drop below the `sludging temperature'. Equally, the metal input rate must nearly equal take-out rate to
minimize metal level variation for best filter life, which is nominally two months. The filter may then be removed
and replaced with a new one. With crucible furnaces, the `surround' heat permits a new filter to be installed and
pre-heated in-situ to adequate temperature within one hour. On a new crucible, the filter may be installed and
preheated jointly with the crucible with each coming up to temperature together prior to filling the crucible with
molten metal.
- 109 -
Figure 7-15 Crucible baffle filter.

Figure 7-16 Bonded particle filter vessel.
In the second principal configuration of the bonded particle filter, an entire `vessel' is constructed from bonded
particulate to achieve any particular size and geometric shape. This will be dictated by furnace geometry and the
specific casting application, as the size must account for the ladling motion. In this application the all-media filter
vessel has certain advantages. Molten metal `filters' by flow from outside to inside the vessel (although such
vessels can also be used for `pour-in' purposes) allowing a manual or automatic ladling operation to withdraw
filtered metal directly from the interior of the vessel. A typical construction is shown in Figure 7-16.
Consequently, the greater filtering surface area available permits the use of finer grade filters, and also allows for
extended life. Typical life of these all-media filter vessels is 3-4 months for best economy. As the filtering vessel
sets within the dipwell, there is no concern for pickup of refractory debris from furnace sidewall deterioration or
cleaning, nor sludge-pickup from the furnace bottom. Furthermore, the external or inlet side of the durable bonded
media filter vessel sidewalls may be scraped periodically when filter cake builds up to extend filter life to an extent,
and to further minimize thermal gradients.
Low Pressure Processes
The bonded particle filters can be used in the low-pressure
process directly onto the stalk or riser tube. The ability to
produce unique and complex three dimensional shapes
afforded by the bonded particle filter manufacturing process
allows such filters to be matched to dimensional parameters
associated with each stalk tube and furnace. A variety of
typical configurations are shown in Figure 7-17. Depending
on the type of stalk tube employed--ceramic or cast iron--
different assembly or attachment techniques can be utilized.
Filter life--depending on available filtering surface area--can
be matched quite easily to cast iron, and affords extended filter
life (approximately 3 weeks) even when ceramic stalk tubes
are used.
Figure 17: Bonded Particle Filter Configurations used in low pressure casting.
- 110 -
Another application makes use of the all-media filtering vessel concept, in this
case a `cylinder' filter which houses, ie surrounds, the stalk tube but is
independent of it (Figure 7-18). Very significant filter life is thus achieved
(nominally 10-12 weeks) without the necessity of detachment of a spent filter
from a stalk tube for new filter installation or re-use of the stalk tube. This is
especially effective when long-life ceramic stalk tubes are employed.
Figure 7-18 Cylinder filter for low pressure casting.
Dosing Furnaces
Increasingly, dosing furnaces are being employed to directly fill metal into the shot sleeve, as shown in Figure 7-
19. The bonded particle filter can be employed here as well, in that the product application and configuration
(Figure 7-20) are merely similar to a stalk tube in a low-pressure process.
Figure 7-19 Dosing furnace for die casting.
Figure 7-20 Dosing furnace filter.
- 111 -
It is important to understand that filtration through any filtering system involves probability of inclusion
capture, and filtration performance--efficiency and life--are greatly affected by the nature of the overall
metal quality that the filter must accommodate. In general, application of an effective filtering system
should produce the following results :
o Increased metal fluidity for better mold fill and reduced filling defects
o Improved mechanical properties, in particular elongation and fatigue life
o Reduction or elimination of hard spots causing machining difficulties
o Reduction or elimination of micro-porosity and `leakers' caused by inclusion-nucleated porosity
o Enhanced surface finish for polishing, plating, anodizing, and other finish processes
o Increased productivity, profitability, and reduced scrap and re-work of diecastings.
7.4 Removal of Unwanted Phases by Electromagnetic Separation
Inclusion removal in a unidirectional electromagnetic force field is a powerful method for separating all types of
nonmetallic inclusions from molten metals. Such a force field can be generated by either crossing an applied DC
current in the melt with a steady magnetic field [18], by a traveling magnetic field [19], or by induction from a
time-varying magnetic field [20]. The principal advantage of this separation method is that the force exerted on the
inclusion particle by the field is independent of the particle's composition, state (solid or liquid), or density. In
addition, the expulsion force can be easily controlled by simply changing the strength of the applied field.
Until now, electromagnetic removal of inclusions has been the least often used method of aluminum melt treatment.
In fact, the method is still in the experimental stage. Electromagnetic forces are otherwise used for stirring [21],
casting [22-25], and pumping molten metal [26].
Electromagnetic volume forces, also known as Lorenz forces, affect the "conducting" melt by increasing its
apparent specific gravity in the direction of the force, but do not affect the nonmetallic inclusions (oxides, spinels,
and carbides). This difference in apparent densities causes the non-conducting inclusions to rapidly float in the
opposite direction of the applied Lorenz force, due to the inclusion's not having the same conductivity as the melt
(Figure 7-21).
It has been reported [27,28] that electromagnetic separation has applications in separating nonferrous metals from
each other. Vives and his co-workers successfully separated artificial suspensions (brass, copper, silica) of
diameters between 0.1 to 10 mm from various molten metals (tin, lead, aluminum). Park et al [18] eliminated
artificially introduced iron intermetallic compounds (20Pm to 60Pm in size) from aluminum melts in an
experimental setup where they used a steady magnetic field, Tanaka et al [26] separated Al
2 O 3 from an Al-Al 2 O3
system using a traveling magnetic field, and Patel and Kaddah (1997) [29] removed 120-Pm-size SiO 2 particles
from aluminum melt by using a time-varying magnetic field.
Electromagnetic separation, a promising and technically feasible way of separating nonmetallic inclusions, still is in
the developmental stage, and the industrial implementation of the technology has yet to be achieved.
Figure 7-21 Principle of the method to separate inclusions from molten metal [30].
- 112 -
One current application of electromagnetic casting/filtration technology in use is the electromagnetic dosing pump,
shown in Figure 7-22, which is used in the production of high performance precision sand components for
vehicular application. Either ceramic foam or bonded particle filters are employed with the pump to provide
physical phase separation of inclusions, but there is a certain amount of èlectromagnetic separation' which also
occurs in the pumping chamber. However, the principal electromagnetic function with this pump is to deliver
metal into the mold in controlled fashion.
Figure 7-22 Electromagnetic Dosing Pump (CMI-Novacast)
References
1. Emley, E.F. and V. Subramanian. In-Line Treatment of Liquid Aluminum by the F.I.L.D. and Other
Processes. in Light Metals. 1974: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society.
2. Guttery, J.R. A Two-Year User's Experience with Porous Plug Fluxing in a Modern Casting Facility. in
Light Metals. 1993: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society.
3. Clumpner, J.A., R.E. Hershey, and W.L. Hoffmann. MINT - An In-Line Melt Purification System: Predicting
Commercial Performance with Aluminum Alloys. in Light Metals. 1986: The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Society.
4. Spotlight, N.P., in Light Metal Age. 1998. p. 138.
5. Eckert, C.E., Mutharasan, R., Jorstad, J., Apelian, D., Miller, R.E., Principles of Aluminum Metal
Treatment, TMS short courses, 1993 1997, The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society.
6. Eckert, C.E., and Sanderson, C.W., A Perspective on Recent Developments in the Degassing of Molten
Aluminum, Symposium of the 2000 Annual Meeting of the Aluminum Association, Ingot Casting Research
Topics, Baltimore MD.
7. Snow, G., D. Pattle, and G. Walker. R.D.U. - An Efficient Degassing System for the Aluminium Cast House.
in Light Metals. 1987: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society.
8. Neff, D.V., Principles of Molten Metal Processing for Improving Die Cast Quality, Transactions, NADCA,
1991, p.85
9. Neff, D.V., The Benefits of Flux Injection Combined with Rotor Dispersion for Producing Clean Aluminum
rd
Casting Alloys, Proceedings, 3 International Conference on Molten Aluminum Processing, AFS, Orlando,
Nov. 1992
- 113 -
10. Eckert, C.E., US patent No. 5,616,167, 1997.
11. Apelian, D., Mutharasan, R., Romanowski, CA., Miller, R.E. and eckert, C.E. (1983), Report of the AIME,
pp. 935- 969.
nd
12. Martin, J.P. (1993), Proc. Of the 32 Annual Conf. Of Metallurgists, CIM, Quebec (Canada), 28 Aug-2 Sep.
13. Netter, P. and C. Conti(1986), Light Metals 1986, pp.847.
14. Gauckler, L.J., M.M. Waeber, C. Conti and M. Jacob-Duliere(1985), JOM, September 1985, pp. 47.
nd
15. Dupuis, C., Belan, G. and Martin, J.P. (1993), Proc. Of the 32 Annual Conf. Of Metallurgists, CIM, Quebec
(Canada), 28 Aug-2 Sep.
16. FOSECO (1996), A Product Description (Company Brochure), July 1996.
17. Neff, D. V., "Continuous, Sustained, "Re-usable" Filtration Systems for Aluminum Foundries and Diecasters,
th
Proceedings, 4 International Conference on Molten Aluminum Processing, AFS, Orlando, Nov. 1995
18. Park, J-P, Sassa, K. and Asai, S. (1995), J. Japan Inst. Metals, Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 312-318.
19. Tanaka, Y., Sassa, K., Iwai, K. and Asai, S. (1995), Tetsu-to-Hagane, Vol 81, No. 12, pp. 1120-1125.
20. Kaddah, N.E. (1996), Emerging Separation Technologies for Metal II, The Minerals, Metals & Materials
Society, pp. 203-213.
21. Tzavaras, A.A. and H.D. Brody(1984), Journal of Metals, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 31-37.
22. Evans, J.W.(1995), JOM May 1995, pp. 38.
23. Vives, C. and R. Ricou(1985), Metall. Trans. B., 16B, June 1985, pp. 377.
24. Li, B.Q., J.W. Evans and D.P. Cook(1991), Metall. Trans. B, 22B, Feb. 1991, pp. 121.
25. Pritchett, T.R. (1981), Light Metal Age, October 1981, pp. 12.
26. Henderson, R.S., R.C. Chandler and W. Brown(1996), Light Metals 1996, pp. 869.
27. Fletcher, D., R. Gerber and T. Moore (1995), IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 31, No. 6, Nov. 1995,
pp.4184.
28. Vives, C and R. Ricou(1982), Liquid Metal Flows and Magnetohydrodynamics, Third international seminar on
MHD Flows and Turbulence Series, 1981, Israel.
29. Patel, A.D. and Kaddah, N.E. (1997), Light Metals 1997, pp. 1013-1018
30. Park, J-P., Tanaka, Y., Sassa, K. and Asai, S. (1994), International Symposium on Electromagnetic Processing
of Materials, Nagoya, ISIJ, pp. 497-502.
- 114 -
Chapter 8

8.1 Introduction
The functionality of aluminum alloy castings is strongly dependent on casting soundness. This implies that such
castings be virtually free of hydrogen porosity and entrained nonmetallic inclusions. Negligence in reducing the
dissolved hydrogen content of the melt, mitigating the formation of inclusions or removal of impurities can result in
premature failure of castings, broken machine tools or poor mechanical properties. Figures 8-1 and 8-2 show the
types of defects resulting from the use of "contaminated" metal before pouring/casting.
Figure 8-1 Inclusion (dross from melt)

on machined surface led to broken tool.
Figure 8-2 Oxide inclusions in tensile bars machined from actual castings contributing to poor tensile properties.,
- 115 -
8.2 Metal Cleanliness Assessment Techniques
Several qualitative, semi-quantitative and quantitative tests are available to estimate and control metal cleanliness,
particularly inclusion concentration of aluminum alloys. A brief description of a few of the select techniques is
provided below.
8.2.1 Chemical Analysis

Elemental composition of an impurity is determined either wet or via spectrographic analysis in unfiltered and
1 1
filtered samples . An efficiency parameter (K) is then used to describe the filter performance :
K = 100% (C i C o )/C i
where, C i and C o are the concentrations of the specific element at inlet of the filter and after filtration, respectively.
Detection methods (sample weight ranging from 0.5 to 30 g) based on the above principle and types of impurities
1
(all sizes) analyzed include the following :
x Emission spectroscopy for Li, B, Na and heavier elements

x Hot extraction for hydrogen
x Combustion analysis for carbon
x Neutron activation for oxygen
x Gas chromatography for aluminum carbides and calcium carbides
1
Although the above methods have been used by many over the years, their limitations include :
x Variability in data due to non-uniform distribution of inclusions

x Samples analyzed may not be representative of the bulk melt
x No direct correlation between oxygen concentration (obtained via neutron activation) and the
concentration of inclusions > 20Pm
x Not practical for assessing inclusion levels on the shop floor
8.2.2 Pressure Filter Tests
In this technique, a certain volume of metal is passed through a filter, thus forcing the inclusions in the melt to
settle and concentrate on the filter. The trapped inclusions are subsequently analyzed metallographically.
Methods of analysis based on the above principle include the Porous Disc Filtration Analysis (PoDFA), Liquid
Aluminum Inclusion Sampler (LAIS) and the Prefil Footprinter.
1
In the PoDFA technique (see Figure 8-3), approximately 2 kg of molten metal are made to pass through a filter.
Following sectioning of the filter with the residue, metallographic analysis is conducted to reveal the inclusion
2
concentration, i.e. area of inclusions in the sectioned part (mm /kg ). Size, distribution, morphology and type of
inclusions can be further studied using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Measurement of the rate of filtration may also be used as a measure of metal cleanliness assessment in the PoDFA
technique. Figure 8-4 shows the variation in mass of metal passing though the filter as a function of time for
various inclusion concentrations. It is evident that the PoDFA technique helps distinguish between very "dirty"
2 2 1
metal (> 1 mm /kg) and relatively clean metal (<1 mm /kg) .
- 116 -
A balance
located below
the filtrate
crucible
allows the
operator to
obtain the
right amount
of metal
Figure 8-3 Porous Disc

Filtration Apparatus.
1
Figure 8-4 Variation in mass of metal (through a filter) as a function of time.
2,3
The LAIS technique (like the PoDFA is also an off-line test) requires sampling cylinders into which the metal is
pulled through a filter (see Figure 8-5). Once the cylinders are prepared, the vacuum assembly is taken near the
sampling area. A cylinder is fitted to a crossover that has another cavity where the sampling cup is placed. The
upper end of the cylinder is connected to the vacuum pump having an appropriate vacuum gage. The vacuum is
turned off and the cylinder and sample assembly are immersed into the melt for preheating. The assembly is held
using appropriate fixtures. After about 10 minutes of preheating, the vacuum is turned on and the melt begins to get
sucked into the cylinder and the sampling cup through the crossover. The test is ended when the cylinder is filled
completely (emission of fumes occurs). At this point, the vacuum is turned off and the cylinder assembly is placed
on a graphite chill block for unidirectional cooling. Thereafter, the cylinder is disassembled and the sample is
removed for metallographic analysis (to determine level and/or type of inclusions).
To Vacuum
Pump
Steel
hollow
Sampling
cylinder
cup 3
Figure 8-5 Schematic of LAIS apparatus.
Molten Aluminum
Filter/frit
Porous
Graphite
Crossover
Movement of Aluminum during

vacuum suction
A sample obtained from the LAIS is typically a cylinder with the dimensions of 1.7" x 0.7". The sampling cup is a
graphite cup having a frit (filter) running along its cross-section about an inch from one end. The metal pulled
resides in the hollow of the cylinder and the oxides collect at the frit. Hence the frit has to be exposed and
2
metallographically prepared to reveal the oxide count (mm /kg) of the sample .
- 117 -
2
In a study conducted by DasGupta and Apelian, cleanliness of a 319 aluminum alloy melt was determined using
the LAIS technique. Four different melt conditions were evaluated and for each melt condition, several test bars
were cast using a permanent mold test bar mold. Figure 6 shows the variation in average percent elongation of a
319 aluminum alloy as a function of oxide count. As expected, higher elongation is achieved with cleaner metal
(lower oxide count of the alloy) that results from either degassing or degassing + filtration being employed prior to
pouring/casting.
2.5
Filtered and degassed

metal
2
Degasses metal but

no filtration
1.5 No filtration, no degassing and
metal allowed to regas for 10 hours
%
1
E
l
Degassed metal but
o no filtration
n
g
a
t0.5
i
o
n
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
LAIS(sq. mm /kg)
2
Figure 8-6 Variation in average percent elongation as a function of oxide count (LAIS).
Although both the LAIS and PoDFA tests have been used successfully in casting facilities, inclusion particles less
1
than 10 Pm in size have been known to influence the results .
In the Prefil Footprinter test (considered a reliable tool for on-line detection), a fixed volume of metal is allowed to
flow at 12 psi pressure through a fine filter at the base of the top crucible (see Figure 8-7). The metal flowing
through the filter collects in the receptacle crucible at the bottom. The increase in weight is recorded real-time as
metal flows through the filter in the top crucible. The faster the metal flows through the filter, the "cleaner" the
metal (fewer inclusions such as oxide films left on the filter). If needed, the metal residue above the filter can be
subsequently evaluated using optical microscopy and SEM.
Figure 8-8 shows the accumulated weight versus elapsed time for a 390 aluminum alloy. The data were generated
on separate days from metal in a dip-well (following degassing and filtration). These data provide the extremes of
overall metal cleanliness observed (at a given location and for a given alloy) and, thus, can later be used as a point
4
of reference .
A comparison of the six curves in Figure 8-8 also reveals the effect of decreasing metal cleanliness (increasing
inclusion concentration) on the slope and overall shape of the curves. For example, the initial slope of the curve
(20 to 30 seconds) representing the lowest flow rate (curve L) is lower than that of curve H representing the highest
flow rate ("cleanest" metal). Also to be noted is the change in the slope of curve L as the build-up on the Prefil
filter increases with time. On the other hand, the slope of curve H remains unaffected.
- 118 -
In a study using 356 aluminum alloy, the effect of furnace refractory and furnace filter condition on the overall
metal cleanliness was evaluated. The results from this study are shown in Figure 8-9. As expected, damaged
furnace refractory along with a damaged furnace filter yielded the lowest mass flow rate. The highest mass flow
rate (thus, the cleanest metal) was achieved after repairing the damaged refractory and employing a new furnace
filter. A comparison of the curves in Figure 8-9 shows that the initial slopes of the curves (~20 seconds) are fairly
comparable; however, changes in inclusion level (attributed to damaged furnace refractory and/or damaged furnace
filter) eventually contribute to changes in slope/overall shape of the curves.
C
A = receptacle for collecting metal
B = heating element for preheating crucible
D C = operating screen showing graph or footprint
B D = crucible with filter at the bottom
E = insulated pressure chamber
E
A
Figure 8-7 Photograph of Prefil apparatus.
1600
1400
Highest flow rate (H)

1200
1000
800
4/5/01
4/11/01
M 600 8/9/01
a 9/24/01
s Lowest flow rate (L) 11/20/01

1/2/02
s 400
(
g 200
m
s
) 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (sec)
Figure 8-8 Prefil foot-printer data for 390 aluminum alloy recorded on various days.
- 119 -
1400
1200
Refractory repaired;
filter removed
1000
Refractory repaired;
new filter added
800
600
M
a
s Refractory repaired;
s
filter still damaged
(
400
g
m
s
) Poor furnace refractory;
damaged filter
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (sec)
Figure 8-9 Prefil footprinter data for 356 aluminum alloy.
Other techniques used for identifying the presence of inclusions in a melt include the Qualiflash and the K-mold.
2
The Qualiflash unit has a crucible into which the melt to be analyzed is poured. The metal is made to pass through
a filter located at the bottom of the crucible and flows into a "stepped" mold containing eight steps. A "dirtier"
melt would fill fewer steps than a melt relatively free of inclusions. The number of steps filled is noted and used
later to obtain a Qualiflash cleanliness rating.
5
In the K-mold technique (a step bar permitting fracture of the knife point) the number of inclusions (>400 Pm)
5
observed on fracture surfaces (four samples of five fractures each need to be examined ) divided by 20 provides the
inclusion rating for the melt.
8.2.3 Electric Resistivity Tests
Methods of analysis based on the above principle include the Liquid Metal Cleanliness Analyzer (LiMCA); see
3
Figure 8-10. LiMCA is considered a reliable tool for on-line detection of inclusions > 15 Pm. In this
1,3
technique, a small volume of metal is made to pass through an orifice of 0.1 to 1 mm while there is a large
electric current passing through the aperture. The presence of an inclusion particle passing through the orifice
creates an increase in the total resistance of the current path, thereby generating a momentary voltage drop
(displayed real-time on a computer screen) proportional to the volume of the particle. During the LiMCA test, the
3
momentary voltage drops are noted and classified according to their magnitudes . Consequently, a measure of the
size distribution of the inclusion particles (>15 Pm) in the melt can be obtained.
Figure 8-10 Liquid Metal

Electrodes
Cleanliness Analyzer pictured
left and illustrated right.
Aperture
Inclusion
causing voltage
Molten Aluminum drop
- 120 -
The use of LiMCA in the foundry industry is limited by its high cost and the fact that non-conducting inclusions of
5
similar sizes but different chemical content cannot be distinguished . Also, narrow apertures of 200-500 Pm are
3
necessary to detect inclusion particles < 15-20 Pm .
8.2.4 Closed-Loop Recirculation
In closed-loop recirculation (CLR) instruments, a purge gas (argon or nitrogen) is continuously circulated (via an
6
immersed probe) though the metal being tested . This process continues till the hydrogen diffusing into the carrier
6
gas is in equilibrium with the hydrogen in the molten metal . The diffusion of hydrogen into the purge gas results
in a drop in thermal conductivity (of the gas mixture) that is then used to represent the partial pressure of hydrogen
6
in the purge gas. The hydrogen concentration in molten aluminum alloys can then be determined by :
Hydrogen in solution (H) = S o (P l /760) where,
S o = solubility of hydrogen for a given temperature at a pressure of 760 mm Hg pressure

P l = partial pressure of hydrogen in the purge gas
The two techniques based on the CLR principle include Telegas and AlSCAN (see Figure 8-11). Both are used
for measurement of dissolved hydrogen (reported in cc or ml per 100 g aluminum) in aluminum melts and are
considered by many to be accurate and reproducible. Figures 8-12 and 8-13 illustrate the difference in probes
used for the two methods.
1 = Carrier/purge gas
2 = Probe and thermocouple immersed in melt
3 3 = Hydrogen content measuring unit
Figure 8-11 AlSCAN apparatus for hydrogen measurement.
- 121 -
NOTE: NOTE:
Ceramic probe Probe consists of a square ceramic disc with two stainless steel capillary tubes
Gas bubbles (N2 + H2) collected Gas changes occur at the probe-metal interface
Depth of immersion is critical No gas bubbles collected (as with Telegas)
6 6
Figures 8-12 & 8-13 Telegas probe (left) & AlSCAN probe (right).
2
In a study conducted by DasGupta and Apelian, the hydrogen content of an A356 aluminum alloy melt (7% Si,
0.2% Fe, 0.2% Cu, 0.10% Mn, 0.46% Mg, 0.1% Zn and 0.28% Ti) was determined using the AlSCAN apparatus.
Three different conditions of the melt were evaluated and for each melt condition, several test bars were cast using
a test bar mold. Figure 8-14 shows the effect of increasing hydrogen content on the range and average percent
elongation of the A356 aluminum alloy. As expected, higher hydrogen content (resulting from ineffective or no
melt treatment) is observed to decrease percent elongation.
5
4.5
4
3.5 Molten metal purged with
argon + chlorine for 40
3 minutes No melt treatment
Molten metal purged with
2.5 argon for 30 minutes
2
1.5
%
1
E 0.5
l 0
o
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
n
g ml/100g hydrogen
a
t Effect of increasing hydrogen content of melt on percent elongation of A356 aluminum.
Figure 8-14
i
o
n
- 122 -
2
In another study conducted by DasGupta and Apelian, the hydrogen content of a 319.1aluminum alloy melt (6%
Si, 0.5% Fe, 3% Cu, 0.5% Mn, 0.1% Mg, 0.35% Ni, 1.0% Zn and 0.24% Ti) was determined using the AlSCAN
technique. In this investigation, four different melt conditions were evaluated and for each melt condition, several
test bars were cast. The effect of increasing hydrogen content on the range and average percent elongation of the
319.1 aluminum alloy is shown in Figure 8-15. Higher hydrogen content (resulting from ineffective or no melt
treatment) is again observed to decrease percent elongation.
Degassed melt,
2.5
but no filtration
Filtered & degassed

1.5
metal
1 No degassing, no
% filtration; melt
allowed to regas for 10 hours
0.5
E
l 0
o
0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
n
g ml/100g hydrogen of melt on percent elongation of a
Figure 8-15 Effect of increasing hydrogen content
2 a
319 aluminum alloy.
t
i
o
8.2.5 Reduced nPressure Test
The reduced pressure test (RPT), often referred to as the Straube-Pfifer test, provides qualitative information of the
overall cleanliness (combinational effects due to inclusion content and hydrogen) of the melt. The RPT (see
Figure 8-16) involves solidifying a sample of molten metal (between 100 g and 200 g) under reduced pressure
(typically 26 mm of mercury). By reducing the pressure over the sample during solidification, hydrogen bubble
7
nucleation and growth is enhanced . The bubble formation is due to the decrease in hydrogen solubility with
decreasing pressure according to the law of mass action:
S = (f. H) / P where ,
S = solubility of hydrogen gas in the melt
f = activity coefficient of hydrogen
H = amount of hydrogen in the melt
P = pressure of hydrogen vapor over the melt
Appearance of a "mushroom" head (convex surface) during solidification indicates a high hydrogen content, while
a concave surface occurs when hydrogen content of the melt is low.
- 123 -
1 = Vacuum chamber
2 = Vacuum gage
3 = Pressure regulator
4 = Vacuum pump
2
4
Figure 8-16 Reduced Pressure Test apparatus.
The solidified sample is subsequently sectioned and visually examined for porosity nucleated by inclusions during
the test. In comparing the cross-section of the sample with a visual progression chart (see Figure 8-17), an estimate
of the overall melt cleanliness can then be obtained (a lower number/rating equates to "cleaner" melt). The density
of the RPT sample can also be determined and used as a measure of porosity.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
10 11 12
Figure 8-17 Visual progression chart for a given alloy; lower number/rating indicates "cleaner" melt.
7
DasGupta et al examined the correlation of RPT densities to hydrogen content (AlSCAN measurements) of an
unmodified and not grain-refined 356 aluminum alloy. The correlation curve, shown in Figure 8-18, was obtained
7
from 100 data points (AlSCAN and RPT density measurements from 25 different heats) that were fitted using
polynomial regression. The correlation curve can be useful in that one can estimate hydrogen content in the melt
from the density of an RPT sample. The correlation curve corroborates earlier studies that showed the RPT density
7
to be inversely proportional to the hydrogen content of the melt .
- 124 -
Hydrogen Content; ml/100g
0.28
0.24
0.2
0.16
0.12
0.08
R sq ua r e - 0 . 6 7 8
0.04
2.5 2.54 2.58
RPT Density: g/cc 2.62 2.66 2.7
7
Figure 8-18 Correlation between RPT density and hydrogen content of 356 alloy.
8.3 Non-Destructive Testing of Cast Parts
Non-destructive testing of aluminum alloy castings is necessary to monitor quality of castings being manufactured.
The level of quality required of the components often dictates the frequency of testing and types of tests needed.
The commonly used techniques include:
x Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

x Fluoroscopic Inspection and Automated Defect Recognition
x Ultrasonic Inspection
8.3.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
In this process, the liquid penetrant flows over a surface and enters various types of minute surface openings (0.1
8
Pm or 0.4 Pin, in width) by capillary action . Consequently, this technique helps detect surface cracks, laps,
laminations and similar flaws. It should be noted that surface condition (cleanliness, roughness) of the part being
inspected is critical since false indications can arise from poor surface preparation/condition. The three basic
8
penetrant systems commonly used are :
x Water-soluble---the penetrants can be removed directly with water

x Post-emulsifiable---these penetrants have an oil base and, thus, cannot be removed directly with
water. Consequently, an emulsifier is needed (following application of the penetrant) to make the
penetrant soluble in water.
x Solvent-removable---these also have an oil base, and employ a solvent used both for precleaning and
removal of excess penetrant.
- 125 -
8
Each of the above systems utilizes either a visible or a fluorescent penetrant material . The visible-penetrant
inspection utilizes a liquid that is typically red in color and, thus, reveals red indications under visible light. On the
other hand, the fluoroscent-penetrant inspection employs penetrants that fluoresce under ultraviolet light.
Components with complex designs (sharp corners or radii) and/or made with alloys that are prone to hot-tearing are
often subjected to liquid penetrant inspection.
8.3.2 Fluoroscopic Inspection and Automated Defect Recognition (ADR)
This system has replaced conventional radiography (film x-ray) and consists of an x-ray generator and a detector
(an image intensifier or a digital detector). When the x-rays generated are made to pass through the component
(aluminum casting in this example), the aluminum absorbs and attenuates a portion of the x-rays, and transmits the
rest. The degree to which a part attenuates x-rays is a function of several variables including x-ray wavelength,
velocity and part density. The transmitted rays impinge on the detector that is located behind the casting. These
rays selectively affect the detector and create an image that can be viewed on a screen (cathode ray tube).
If there is a defect, it will absorb more or less x-ray energy (influenced by the nature of the defect) than the
surrounding aluminum matrix. Consequently, the transmitted rays will affect the detector differently. In this way,
the image created by the detector provides a visual impression of the defects that may be present in the casting. The
ease with which a detector can discern a defect depends on its density relative to the parent material.
The image created by a detector can be converted to a digital image that may be subsequently processed by a
computer program (ADR program). Based on the difference in gray scales of the image, the program can detect
defects in the image with great success (see Figure 8-19).
The ADR is used extensively in high-volume detection environments so as to reduce dependency in a human
operator to make decisions.
Figure 8-19 X-ray evaluation equipment and radiograph.
- 126 -
8.3.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
An ultrasonic transducer emits ultrasonic waves that pass through a certain section of a component. Upon
impinging a defect, a portion of the wave is reflected back to the source, and a portion is transmitted to the bottom
of the section. Upon hitting the bottom, part of the wave is reflected back to the source and part is transmitted to
the environment. By sensing the magnitude of these reflections and the time in between them, one can get a fair
idea of the presence of a defect in the cross-section as well as its location relative to the thickness of the component
being tested. As shown in Figure 8-20, the two (2) large peaks correspond to the reflection off of the front wall (top
of section) and back wall (bottom of section). Only these peaks are expected if there is no defect in the part.
However, in the presence of a defect, one or more secondary peaks will appear (between these large peaks)
corresponding to reflections from the defect. If the defect is large and/or oriented in a random fashion, it may cause
very little of the wave to transmit to the back wall. In this case, there will be a substantial loss in magnitude of the
back wall peak.
Transducer
Front Wall
Back Wall
Figure 8-20 Ultrasonic Inspection schematic (left) and output display (right).
8.3.4 Eddy Current Inspection
As shown in Figure 8-21, a coil running Alternating Current (exciting current) close to a conducting part induces
"eddy current" in the part as a result of electromagnetic induction. The presence of flaws in the part alters the
magnitude of this current. By monitoring the voltage across the coil, surface and sub-surface flaws can be detected.
Coil running AC
Eddy currents
Defect
Figure 8-21 Eddy Current Inspection schematic.
- 127 -
8.3.5 Resonance Inspection
An acoustic transducer induces continuous acoustic pulses in the component being tested. These pulses are induced
at various frequencies and relatively low amplitudes. At certain frequencies, the part resonates based on the natural
frequencies of the part. At these frequencies, the amplitudes are magnified and show up above the background (see
Figure 8-22). If there are differences in the part that affect its overall stiffness, the resonant frequencies will shift
from their normal positions. A computer program magnifies these differences in the resonant frequency patterns
between the "good" parts and the "bad" parts by using a complex statistical algorithm. Initially, known "good"
parts and known "bad" parts have to be "taught" to the system to develop the sort module. Therefore, this sort
module can be used to sort random parts in production.
Note: Resonant frequencies determined by

dimensions and material properties of
"whole part":
f r = k/m
where:
f r = resonant frequency
k = stiffness (material property,
e.g: Young's Modulus)
m = mass (dimensions, density)
Figure 8-22 Resonance Inspection equipment and output display.
8.3.6 Leak Test
Leak testing provides the rate at which a liquid or gas will pass through a discontinuity (void, crack) in a part.
Gross shrink porosity and/or presence of inclusions can contribute to "leaks" in components that need to be
pressure tight. As shown in Figure 8-23, the presence of aluminum cold flakes (pre-solidified aluminum from a
shot sleeve) in a casting created a non-knitting condition, thereby allowing the fluid to pass through the resultant
discontinuity.
Figure 8-23 Cold flake (pre-solidified

aluminum from shot sleeve) entrapment in a
casting contributing to "leak".
Aluminum cold flakes on fracture surface; 8.7X Scanning electron micrograph of cold flakes; 500X;
arrow indicates regions of partial bonding with mating surface
- 128 -
8.3.7 Electrical Conductivity Measurement
Electrical conductivity of metals is the reciprocal of the electric charge flux per unit voltage gradient. The absence
of imperfections in a part provides a more direct path for electron flow and, thus, yields higher conductivity values.
The readings obtained are expressed as a % of the International Annealed Copper Standard (%IACS).
Electrical conductivity measurements can be used for determining presence of inclusions or porosity. This
technique can also be used for assessing level of eutectic silicon "modification" due to strontium (or some other
9
agent) addition (higher conductivity values result from "modified" structures); see Table 8-1 .
Sample # Average % strontium Average % IACS
1 0 22.5
2 0.005 35
3 0.010 35
4 0.017 32
5 0.026 31.5
6 0.035 31
7 0.054 30
8 0.078 29
9
Table 8-1 Electrical Conductivity Measurements.
- 129 -
References
rd
1. Diran Apelian, "How Clean is the Metal You Cast? The Issue of Assessment: A Status Report", Proc. 3
International Conference on Molten Metal Aluminum Processing; Nov 9-10, 1992; pp 1-15
2. Sumantra DasGupta & Diran Apelian, "Interaction of Initial Melt Cleanliness, Casting Process and
th
Product Quality: Cleanliness Requirements Fit for a Specific Use", Proc. 5 International Conference on
Molten Metal Aluminum Processing; Nov 8-10, 1998; pp 234-258
3. Sergey Makarov, Diran Apelian and Reinhold Ludwig, "Inclusion Removal and Detection in Molten
Aluminum: Mechanical, Electromagnetic, and Acoustic Techniques", AFS Transactions, 1999
4. P.G.Enright, J.R. Hughes and J.Pickering, "Characterization of Molten Metal Quality Using the Pressure
Filtration Technique", AFS Congress 2003; Paper # 03-086
5. Metal Melting and Handling, NADCA In-Plant Study Course, 302-IP
6. AlSCAN Engineering Bulletin No. 5, February 1991
7. B. DasGupta, L. Parmenter & D. Apelian, "Relationship Between the Reduced Pressure Test and
th
Hydrogen Content of the Melt", Proc. 5 International Conference on Molten Metal Aluminum
Processing; Nov 8-10, 1998; pp 285-300
8. Metals Handbook Desk Edition, American Society for Metals, 1985
9. R. DasGupta, C. Brown and S. Marek, "Analysis of Overmodified 356 Aluminum Alloy", presented at the
nd
92 AFS Congress, Hartford, CT, 1988
- 130 -

High Integrity Aluminum (GENERAL)

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NORTH AMERICAN DIE CASTING ASSOCIATION

Compiled & Edited by:

Dr. Diran Apelian

NADCA Publication #307

High Integrity Aluminum Die Casting:

1 High Integrity Die Casting Process Variations

2 Aluminum Die Casting Alloys

3 Melting, Transferring and Holding

4 Sludge Formation & Prediction Methods

5 Dross Formation & Minimization Methods

6 Melt Related Quality Detractors

6.4 Inclusion Formation Mechanisms ............................................................................................... 76

6.5 Inclusion Appearance and Morphology ...................................................................................... 88

8 Quality Assurance Methods

High Integrity Aluminum Die Casting:

D. Apelian M.M. Makhlouf

Authors and Reviewers

Dr. Diran Apelian John L. Jorstad

High Integrity Die Casting Process Variations

1.2 Conventional Die Casting

Advantages of Conventional Die Casting:

Limitations of Conventional Die Casting:

1.3 High Integrity Die Casting

A pore of this size

Advantages of High Integrity Die Casting:

Limitations of High Integrity Die Casting:

1.4 High Vacuum Die Casting

Advantages of High Vacuum Die Casting:

Limitations of High Vacuum Die Casting:

1.5 Squeeze Casting

Direct Squeeze Casting

Indirect Squeeze Casting

Figure1-5 Schematic of indirect squeeze casting process.

Squeeze Casting Advantages:

Squeeze Cast Limitations:

1.6 Semi Solid Metal (SSM) Processing

As received EM stirring SSM billet Slug SSM Finished

Figure 1-8 Properly heated billet Figure1-9 Thixocasting process

Cleaning Pouring Cooling Reheating Casting

Other SSM Slurry Approaches

Figure 1-18 Typical microstructures developed with WPI's CRP process.

SSM Process Advantages:

SSM Process Limitations:

2. J. L. Jorstad: Transactions, 6th International Conference on Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and

Aluminum Die Casting Alloys

2.1 Alloy Designations

Number Series Alloy Type

1XX.X 99.0% minimum aluminum content

360.2 ingot 9.0- 0.7- 0.10 0.10 0.45- 0.50 - - 0.25

A360.1 ingot 9.0- 1.0 0.6 0.35 0.45- 0.40 - - 0.25

2.2 Effects of Alloying Elements

x Minor elements include nickel (Ni) and tin (Sn).

2.2.1 Major Elements

Silicon's important role as an alloying ingredient is several-fold:

x Silicon's high heat of fusion contributes immensely to an alloy's fluidity.

Metal (Element) Heat of Fusion

Aluminum 0.39 kJ/g

form's volume fraction in the alloy.

Figure 2-1 depicts the effect of percent

Figure 2-1 Fluidity vs percent of Si in

Note that there is a maximum benefit of

The volume fraction solid versus

Figures 2-2a through 2-2e show fraction