Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.autosteel.org
US FORGING PLANT
LOCATIONS
www.autosteel.org
DRIVERS TO CHANGE
www.autosteel.org
JOINT INDUSTRY ALLIANCE
(JIA)
Joint
Industry
Alliance
(JIA)
Steel,
Forging and
Heat Treating
Industry Pact Heat Treating Society
www.autosteel.org
Forging Industry Educational &
Research Foundation (FIERF)
www.autosteel.org
FIERF MAGNET SCHOOLS
www.autosteel.org
FORGED STEEL, CAST ALUMINUM AND
CAST IRON IN SAFETY-CRITICAL
AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS
Funded by:
and
www.autosteel.org
OVERALL OBJECTIVES
www.autosteel.org
PROJECT OUTLINE
• Literature Survey
– Forging vs. Competing Manufacturing Processes
– Potentials for Improving Competitiveness
– Durability & Optimization of Steering Knuckle
• Experimental Work
– Specimen Testing
• Forged steel SAE 11V37
• Cast aluminum ASTM A356-T6
• Cast iron ASTM A536 Grade 65-45-12
– Component Testing on forged steel and cast aluminum
knuckles
• Determining test configuration
• Manufacturing fixtures
• Load-control fatigue testing
www.autosteel.org
PROJECT OUTLINE
• Analytical Evaluations
– Digitizing steering knuckle Geometry
• Forged steel
• Cast aluminum
• Cast iron
– Stress/Strain (FEA) Analysis
• Forged steel knuckle
• Cast aluminum knuckle
• Cast iron knuckle
– Durability (Fatigue) Analysis
– Optimization Analysis
www.autosteel.org
PUBLICATIONS
AND PRESENTATIONS
• Fatigue Performance Evaluation of Forged vs. Competing Process
Technologies: A Comparative Study, 24th FIA Conference, Cleveland, OH,
October 2002.
• A Comparative Study of Forged Steel 11V37, Cast Aluminum A356-T6,
and Cast Iron 65-45-12; Monotonic Properties, Cyclic Deformation, and
Fatigue Behavior, Technical Report to FIERF and AISI (available through
www.forging.org), March 2003.
• Forged Steel, Cast Aluminum and Cast Iron in Safety Critical Automotive
Components, Great Designs in Steel Seminar 2004, Livonia, MI (February
18th 2:30 PM).
• Fatigue Life Comparison of Competing Manufacturing Processes: A
Study of Steering Knuckle, (SAE Technical paper 2004-01-0628) SAE World
Congress 2004, Fatigue Research & Applications Session, Detroit, MI (March
9th 11:30 AM).
• Durability Comparison and Life Predictions of Competing Manufacturing
Processes: An Experimental Study of Steering Knuckle, 25th FIA
Conference, Detroit, MI (April 20th 1:50 PM).
• Experimental and Analytical Durability Assessment of Vehicle Steering
Knuckle, Jr. Auto. Eng’g, in review.
www.autosteel.org
STEERING KNUCKLES
www.autosteel.org
STEERING KNUCKLE WITHIN
THE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
¾ Knuckle body
connects to strut,
front and rear lateral
links, and tension
strut/chassis bracket
¾ Spindle attaches to
wheel hub & bearing
assembly
¾ Steering, braking,
cornering, hitting pot
holes cause cyclic
loads
www.autosteel.org
SPECIMEN TESTING
Specimen Testing
¾ Strain-controlled tensile tests
www.autosteel.org
SPECIMEN GEOMETRY
2.5
24.5
R12.7
6.985
2.54
9.53
76
B
Generating specimens
wFlat plate specimen Forged steel knuckle:
configuration and dimensions
A
C
www.autosteel.org
COMPARISON OF MATERIAL
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Forged Steel Cast Aluminum Cast Iron
11V37 A356-T6 65-45-12
YS (MPa) 556 232 300
YS Ratio 1 0.41 0.54
UTS (MPa) 821 302 471
UTS Ratio 1 0.37 0.57
%RA 37 10 25
%RA Ratio 1 0.27 0.68
YS’ (MPa) 541 291 407
YS’ Ratio 1 0.54 0.75
Sf (at Nf=106) 352 122 253
Sf Ratio 1 0.35 0.72
* base of comparison is 11V37.
www.autosteel.org
MATERIAL CYCLIC & MONOTONIC
STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR
700
1
σ ⎛ σ ⎞ n
ε = εe + ε = + ⎜ ⎟
600
p
E ⎝ K ⎠
Monotonic
500
Cyclic
True Stress (MPa)
Cyclic
400
Monotonic
300
Cyclic
Monotonic
200
www.autosteel.org
MATERIAL
STRESS-LIFE COMPARISON
¾ Long-life fatigue
strengths of cast
aluminum 35% and
cast iron 72% of
forged steel
www.autosteel.org
EFFECT OF OVERLOADS
Fx
Fy
Fz
Mx
www.autosteel.org
MATERIAL
PLASTIC STRAIN COMPARISON
¾ Overloads are 1.000%
common for
¾ Cyclic plasticity
an index for
tolerance against
overloads 0.010%
www.autosteel.org
MATERIAL
NEUBER CURVE COMPARISON
10.0
Forged Steel 11V37
Cast Iron 65-45-12
Cast Aluminum A356-T6
Neuber Plot:
¾ is useful when
ε aσ a (MPa)
analyzing component
geometries with 1.0
stress concentrations
www.autosteel.org
DIRECTIONAL FATIGUE STRENGTH
OF THE FS KNUCKLE
1.00%
C
B
True Strain Amplitude, Δε /2, %
Longitudinal
C
A direction
B
experiencing the
highest level of
stress, exhibits
B
best fatigue
strength.
0.10%
1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7
www.autosteel.org
DIGITIZED MODELS
www.autosteel.org
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
FOR STRESS (FEA) ANALYSIS
CAST ALUMINUM KNUCKLE
www.autosteel.org
MESH DETAILS
CAST
ALUMINUM
KNUCKLE
www.autosteel.org
CONTOURS OF VM STRESS FOR
FS KNUCKLE (Pmax = 4.9 kN)
www.autosteel.org
CONTOURS OF VM STRESS FOR
CA KNUCKLE (Pmax = 6.2 kN)
www.autosteel.org
CONTOURS OF VM STRESS FOR
CI KNUCKLE (Pmax = 6.2 kN)
www.autosteel.org
STRESS ANALYSIS RESULTS
CRITICAL LOCATIONS
www.autosteel.org
FORGED STEEL KNUCKLE
TEST SETUP
www.autosteel.org
CAST ALUMINUM KNUCKLE
TEST SETUP
• Strut attachment of
the arm was
connected from both
sides to a pair of
moment arms.
• Moment arms
transferred the
bending load from
the loading actuator to
the knuckle.
• Four hub bolt holes
were fixed to the
bench.
www.autosteel.org
MEASURED
& PREDICTED STRAINS
¾ To verify testing configuration
and FEA results
¾ Measured and predicted strain
values at 2.2 kN static load.
¾ All measurements after a few
cycles
¾ Locations of the gages are
shown with arrows.
¾FEA and measured strains are
relatively close
www.autosteel.org
COMPONENT
FAILURE CRITERIA
¾ To record macro-
crack nucleation, 1.5
growth, and Forged Steel Knuckle
www.autosteel.org
FRACTURE SURFACES
FORGED
STEEL
KNUCKLE
CAST
ALUMINUM
KNUCKLE
fracture crack
nucleation
fracture
crack crack
propagation propagation
crack
nucleation
www.autosteel.org
COMPONENT TEST RESULTS
& STRESS-LIFE COMPARISONS
¾ Forged steel knuckle
gives about two
orders of magnitude
longer life than cast
aluminum knuckle
¾ Apparent fatigue limit
for forged steel
knuckle, but not cast
aluminum knuckle
¾ Highest load levels
represent overload
conditions for
suspension
components, such as
steering knuckle
www.autosteel.org
COMPONENT STRESS-LIFE
PREDICTIONS
1000
Forged Steel Knuckle - Test Data
Cast Aluminum Knuckle -Test Data
Forged Steel Knuckle - Prediction
Cast Iron Knuckle - Prediction
Cast Aluminum Knuckle - Prediction
www.autosteel.org
COMPONENT STRAIN-LIFE
PREDICTIONS
• Predictions based on
the ε-N approach are
relatively close to
experimental lives for
forged steel and cast
aluminum knuckle.
• Life Predictions:
¾ Forged steel 10X cast
iron
¾ Forged steel 30X cast
aluminum
www.autosteel.org
Forging Influencing Influenced Influenced
Parameters Parameters Mechanical Properties FORGING
Monotonic Tensile & FATIGUE
Workpiece Behavior Strength
Material Su , Sy , σf
Ductility
%EL, %RA,
Workpiece
Geometry
Fracture Tensile
Defects Behavior & Toughness &
• Porosity Damage Resilience
• Inclusions
Tolerance
Die & Tool
Design
Stiffness
E
Forging Tensile
Impact & Strain
Method Surface Dynamic
&Sequence Hardening
Finish Behavior K, n
• Roughness • CVN
• Scale Energy
Friction and • Hardness
• ε Effect
Lubrication
Fracture
Toughness
Forging Residual K1c, Kc, J1c
Temperature Stresses Cyclic
Behavior & Crack
Fatigue Growth
Resistance
Workpiece Α, m, ΔKth
Temperature
Cyclic
Other Strength
Microstructure Behavior & σ’f , b, Sf, S’y
• Grain Type
Contact and Size
Properties
• Wear Cyclic
Time • Grain Flow Ductility
Resistance
• Fretting ε’f , c
Behavior
• Corrosion Cyclic Strain
Loading Resistance Hardening
• Creep
Rate Behavior
K’, n’
DEFINITION OF
OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM
DESIGN VARIABLES
OBJECTIVE FUNCTION (can change)
• Material
Weight of FS knuckle – Replacing by microalloyed
steel
– etc.
• Manufacturing process
CONSTRAINTS – Forging steps
(cannot change) – Machining
• Equivalent or better fatigue – Grinding
strength – etc.
• Geometry: • Part processing
– Strut mounting bolt-hole size – Heat treatment
and location – Surface treatment
– Suspension connection bolt- – Inducing compressive residual
hole size and location stress
– Spindle diameters – Induction hardening
– Spindle length – Rolling
– etc.
www.autosteel.org
CONCLUSIONS
• From tensile tests, cast aluminum and cast iron reached 37%
and 57% of forged steel UTS, and percent elongation were
24% and 48% of forged steel, respectively.
www.autosteel.org
CONCLUSIONS
www.autosteel.org
w w w . a u t o s t e e l . o r g