Journal of Career Development, Vol. 28, No.

2, Winter 2001 ( 2001)

Career Counseling in the Information Age

Kenneth B. Hoyt
Kansas State University

James Maxey
Applied Research-Research Division, ACT, Inc.

The emerging information age will make education/work relationships

stronger and stronger. These relationships must be emphasized by school
counselors. This document discusses how this can be done both for youth plan-
ning to attend a four-year college and for those planning some other kind of
postsecondary career-oriented education. One possible solution is suggested.
KEY WORDS: education/work relationships; career counseling; need for postsecond-
ary education/career counseling.

The information-based high technology society is rapidly emerging

(Drucker, 1994). This society calls for almost all high school leavers to
secure some form of postsecondary education if they hope to gain ac-
cess to and participate in the primary labor market (Marshall and
Tucker, 1992).
Professional career counselors are currently faced with the dilemma
of deciding whether to help all persons recognize the long term in-
creasingly close relationships that exist between education and work
or to help them make career decisions based on the short term reali-
ties of today’s occupational society. This dilemma is, perhaps, most
easily seen when studying conditions to be considered for four-year
college graduates.
The purposes of this presentation are to: (1) substantiate the con-

Address correspondence to Dr. Kenneth B. Hoyt, University Distinguished Professor,

Kansas State University, 362 Bluemont Hall, 1100 Mid-Campus Drive, Manhattan, KS
66506-5312.

129

0894-8453/01/1200-0129$19.50/0  2001 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

130 Journal of Career Development

clusion that, in the emerging information-based society, the term “ed-

ucation pays” is becoming increasingly true for almost all workers; (2)
illustrate an attending dilemma this poses for persons considering
four-year college degrees; (3) briefly describe one possible solution to
this dilemma; and (4) discuss some implications for education in gen-
eral and the counseling profession in particular.

Education Pays

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), U.S. Department of Labor,

has produced a variety of charts containing data confirming the posi-
tive relationships existing between education and employment suc-
cess. One such chart, entitled “Education Pays,” provides data for full-
time employed workers Age 25 and older (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
1995). This chart clearly shows the economic advantages of some kind
of postsecondary education, especially the four-year college degree for
these persons. Data are also provided demonstrating more education
leads to lower unemployment rates.
The “education pays” theme is reinforced in the Spring, 1995 issue
of Occupational Outlook Quarterly in a chart entitled “Education: It
pays for the rest of your life.” Here, data compiled by the Bureau of
the Census for full-time and part-time workers Age 18 and over are
contrasted with data collected from workers Age 25–64. In both
charts, the straight line relationship between level of education and
employment earnings is obvious. The only discrepancy is seen in data
reported for persons Age 18 and older who are in the “some college,
no degree” category. Here mean annual earnings for college dropouts
are only slightly higher than for “high school only” and definitely
lower than for persons with Associate degrees. When questioned about
this, key professionals in both BLS and Census Bureau strongly rec-
ommended using data for persons Age 25–64. They reasoned the large
numbers of students Age 18–24 with part-time jobs tend to depress
the reported earnings for those who will drop out of college.
When mean earnings data are examined for (a) males, (b) females,
(c) white males, (d) white females, (e) black males, (f) black females,
and (g) all persons, the strong positive relationship between mean
earnings and level of education can again be seen in each of these
seven comparisons (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
Census, Table 9, March, 1993). “Education pays” is not just a slogan!
Kenneth B. Hoyt and James Maxey 131

The Four-Year College Graduate Dilemma

In each of the nine kinds of comparisons referred to in the previous

section of this paper, the category “college graduate” contained data
more favorable than that found in any other category. Thus, it is not
surprising to find reports that 77% of 1995–96 high school seniors had
plans and expectations to receive a bachelor’s degree or more (Olson,
1996). This is true in spite of the sizable overlap in the range of sala-
ries among persons with varying degrees of education (Cosca, Winter,
1994–95). Furthermore, when the mean earnings data for four-year
college graduates are examined by major fields of study, salaries also
vary greatly (Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 40, 1996, p. 44). The
plans of a majority of high school seniors to pursue a college education
continue to exist even though, during the 1996–2006 period, only 27%
of job openings are expected to require a bachelor’s degree (Occupa-
tional Outlook Quarterly, 39, 1995–1996, p. 48). Table 1, shown below,
contains data illustrating this dilemma with unmistakable clarity.
When 77% of high school seniors are planning to attain a bachelor’s
degree or more in spite of the fact that 77% of jobs expected to exist
between 1996 and 2006 will not require such a degree, it seems safe
to say a dilemma truly does exist.

Solving the Dilemma: Some Supply Side Figures

The following statistics make it appear a variety of factors are act-

ing which, in combination, are reducing the number of four-year col-
lege graduates over what might otherwise be expected. These statis-
tics include:

Table 1
High School Student Expectations vs Predicted Job Openings,
1996–2006

Percent of High
School Students Percent Predicted
Level of Education Expecting to Attain Job Openings

Bachelor’s degree or more 77% 27

Less than bachelor’s degree 23% 76.7%
Source: Olson, 1996, Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 41, 1997–98, p. 11.
132 Journal of Career Development

• 61.9% of 1995 high school graduates enrolled in college in Fall,

1995, including 40.4% in four-year colleges, and 21.5% in two year
colleges (U.S. Department of Labor, April 1996).
• 26.9% of 1994–95 four-year college freshmen were reported not to
be returning as sophomores in Fall, 1995 (Geraghty, July 1996).
• 51% of 1980 high school graduates expecting to receive a bachelor’s
degree had done so by 1992 (National Center for Education Statis-
tics, Table 1, 1995).
• 45.8% of students entering some type of postsecondary institution
in 1989 with a goal of pursuing a bachelor’s degree had attained a
bachelor’s degree by 1994—17% were still enrolled leaving 26% who
had dropped out (National Center for Education Statistics, Table
15, 1996).
• 57.1% of students entering four-year colleges in Fall, 1989 with a goal
of pursuing a bachelor’s degree had attained a bachelor’s degree by
1994—15.6% were still enrolled leaving 21% who had dropped out
(National Center for Education Statistics, Table 15, 1996).
• 7.9% of students entering two-year institutions in Fall, 1989 with a
goal of pursuing a bachelor’s degree had attained a bachelor’s degree
by 1994—23% were still enrolled leaving 40.6% who had dropped out
(National Center for Education Statistics, Table 8, 1996).
• 1,340,000 four-year college graduates are predicted to enter the la-
bor market as job seekers annually between 1994 and 2005 (Shelley,
1996).

Solving the Dilemma: Some Demand Side Figures

The following statistics should be helpful to those seeking to under-

stand the relative need for four-year college graduates in the emerging
information-oriented occupational society.
Of the 26.3 million new jobs expected to be created between 1996
and 2006;
• 8.0 million will require a bachelor’s degree or higher.
• 10.0 million will require only a high school education or less.
• 3.0 million will require postsecondary training at the sub-baccalau-
reate level.
• 5.3 million will require some form of work-based training (Occupa-
tional Outlook Quarterly, 41 1997–1998, p. 11).
• The total number of job openings requiring a bachelor’s degree or
Kenneth B. Hoyt and James Maxey 133

higher is expected to rise by 31% between 1996 and 2006 (Occupa-

tional Outlook Quarterly, 41 1997–1998, p. 11).
• The total number of job openings requiring a bachelor’s degree or
higher is expected to total 11.5 million during the 1996–2006 period
(Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 39 1995–1996, p. 48).
• Between 1994 and 2005 job openings requiring bachelor’s degrees
are predicted to average 1,040,000 annually (Shelley, 1996).
• Between 1994 and 2005, all the groups of occupations requiring two
or more years of formal education after high school are growing
faster than the average for all occupations while those requiring
less than this amount of education are growing at a below average
rate (Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 39 1995–1996, p. 48).
• Between 1995 and 2005 job openings requiring any form of postsec-
ondary education are expected to total 15.5 million. During this
same time period the total number of jobs requiring no more than
two to three weeks of on-the-job training is expected to increase by
20.1 million (Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 39 1995–1996, p. 48).
• Between 1992 and 2005 job openings requiring some form of post-
secondary education less than a bachelor’s degree will grow by 34%.
This is faster than for any other category of education (Occupational
Outlook Quarterly, 41 1997–1998, p. 11).
It is obvious the number of expected job openings exist requiring
only a few days or weeks of short-term on-the-job training (20.2 mil-
lion) is significantly greater than the total number requiring any kind
of formal postsecondary education (15.5 million). It seems clear the
emerging high tech society, at least up to the Year 2005, will create
and call for a great many “low tech” jobs, most of which will be in the
secondary labor market
The annual number of college graduates who are “job seekers”
(1,340,000) is expected to exceed the number of expected job openings
(1,040,000) by 300,000 during the 1994–2005 period. As a result, the
proportion of four-year college graduates expected to end up in non
college jobs or be unemployed is predicted to grow from 18% to 22%
during this period (Shelley, 1996).

Solving the Dilemma: Helping Parents and Youth Consider

Alternatives to the Four-Year College

It seems unlikely that most parents and most school counselors will
soon abandon their plans for sending recent high school graduates to
134 Journal of Career Development

four-year colleges. Neither (a) the expected oversupply of four-year

college graduates in the labor market nor (b) the fact that only about
50% of those enrolling in college can be expected to receive a bachelor’s
degree will cause this change. If four-year colleges are to continue
describing themselves as institutions preparing students for success
in the occupational society, the implications of these kinds of data
cannot simply be ignored.
Neither can the problem be solved by trying to convince parents
and/or youth that other kinds of educational opportunities are supe-
rior to those found in the four-year college/university. The “Education
Pays” data presented earlier makes clear the economic advantages of
graduation from a four-year college for most persons. Four-year col-
lege graduates, on the average, earn higher wages and experience
lower unemployment rates than do other persons. Sizable differences
exist depending on the college major but, generally speaking, this is
true (Hecker, 1996; Shelley, 1996).
Some parents strongly advocate the importance of liberal arts edu-
cation as preparation for work. They sometimes justify this position
by pointing to the high job placement data produced by some four-
year liberal arts colleges. Sometimes they emphasize the fact that the
foundation skills—including basic academic skills, listening/speaking
skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities—identified in the
SCANS report (U.S. Department of Labor, 1991) as needed for success
in the emerging information society are typically best provided stu-
dents in four-year liberal arts college settings.
Parents and youth contend the goals of higher education extend con-
siderably beyond only preparing students for occupational success.
The importance of higher education as preparation for life and living
as well as for making a living is often seen as sufficient justification
for enrolling students in four-year college/university settings. The con-
cept of the “educated person” holds great value for those individuals.
It would be unwise and untrue to tell parents and high school stu-
dents such arguments lack validity. It would be equally unwise for
school counselors to spend time convincing many high school students
not to plan on attending a four-year college. Instead, three other coun-
selor roles seem appropriate here.
First, counselors should help both youth and their parents under-
stand the reality implications of a projected 50% completion rate and
a projected 20–25% oversupply of four-year college graduates in terms
of jobs requiring a bachelor’s degree. Deciding to enroll in a four-year
college in no way guarantees success and should not always be re-
Kenneth B. Hoyt and James Maxey 135

garded as a “good thing” (in an occupational sense) for all high school
graduates.
Second, counselors should help both youth and their parents under-
stand and appreciate the wide variety of postsecondary educational
choices available to today’s high school graduates. The basic question
facing high school seniors has changed from “Should I go to college or
should I go to work?” to “Should I go to a four-year college or seek
some other kind of postsecondary education that will prepare me for
entry into the emerging primary labor market?”
Third, counselors should help each student decide which kind of ed-
ucational institution is best for him or her at this time. A person who
enrolls and then later drops out of a four-year college to become unem-
ployed will be considered by many to be worse off than one who enrolls
in and completes a career-oriented two-year program in a community
college and is then placed in an occupation directly related to that
program. The false belief that any person’s decision to enter a two-
year postsecondary program is a “second best” choice must be dis-
carded.
As we look ahead, two sub-groups should receive special supplemen-
tary attention. One consists of the almost 50% of entering college
freshmen who never become four-year college graduates. The second
sub-group consists of those four-year college graduates who fail to find
jobs requiring a four-year college degree (Wash, 1995–96). It is virtu-
ally impossible to identify members of these two sub-groups while
they are still in high school. For this reason, the most defensible ac-
tion to take may be to treat all four-year college-bound youth as
though they may become a member of one of these sub-groups. Use of
this rationale should be easily justifiable to both parents and to youth.

Solving the Dilemma: The Counseling for High Skills Project

One attempt to solve the dilemma can be seen in the “Counseling

for High Skills Project” (CHS) at Kansas State University. CHS oper-
ated from 1992–1998 under a $3.3 million grant from the DeWitt Wal-
lace-Reader’s Digest Fund. The DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Fund
invests in programs designed to foster fundamental improvement in
the quality of educational and career development opportunities for
all school-age youth, and to increase access to these improved services
for young people in low-income communities.
The CHS project seeks to develop and demonstrate strategies to
136 Journal of Career Development

help the 70% of persons who will never be four-year college graduates
discover and choose from other kinds of postsecondary educational op-
portunities available to them.
The basic strategies utilized in this project are simple and straight-
forward:
1. Listen to persons considering some form of postsecondary 1–2 year
career oriented education and discover the questions they ask in
making enrollment decisions.
2. Construct data collection instruments containing items designed to
answer these questions.
3. Word items so current postsecondary students, not institutional
reps, are the experts needed to respond to the item.
4. Construct items to gather “customer satisfaction” measures from
present and former postsecondary students that can be shared with
prospective students.
5. Analyze data by program by institution.
6. Develop a computer disk for each state containing all CHS data
collected in that state.
7. Conduct counselor professional development sessions aimed at
showing counselors how to use the computer disk.
8. Establish a system for recollecting data periodically.
9. Establish and demonstrate three national CHS exemplars, each
representing a different way of continuing CHS once grant funds
are no longer available.
The “let’s listen to students” approach utilized in the CHS project
has been used to date with 40,000+ postsecondary students in 1948+
specific programs in 370+ postsecondary 1–2 year career oriented in-
stitutions in 15 states. Preliminary results have, to date, been very
positive. The kinds of longitudinal data needed to further validate this
approach are currently being initiated.

Implications for the Future

As the information-based occupational society continues to grow, so,

too, will the need for high quality postsecondary career-oriented edu-
cation on the part of almost all members of the labor force (National
Center on Education and the Economy, 1990). At the present time, it
appears the average age of community college students is in the 30–32
age range. Some of these are recently displaced adult workers who
Kenneth B. Hoyt and James Maxey 137

need a different kind of occupational expertise. Others are persons

who, after having spent from 10 to 15 years after high school gradua-
tion going from one short-term, low-paying job to another in the sec-
ondary labor market, now recognize specific occupational skills are the
key to entering and succeeding in the primary labor market. The ca-
reer needs of all these persons must continue to be served.
If the United States is to compete successfully in the international
marketplace, the average age of its career-oriented postsecondary sub-
baccalaureate students must be lowered. This will occur only if many
more secondary school leavers enroll in some kind of postsecondary
educational program rather than seek immediate employment in the
secondary labor market. Professional counselors have serious respon-
sibilities for helping make this happen.
As counselors move in this direction, they must do so recognizing
that, as of today, most employers have not yet created the kind of
“high skills” workplace that demands workers who are graduates of
postsecondary 1–2 year career-oriented educational institutions.
Thus, it seems likely that, in the years immediately ahead, some two-
year career-oriented program graduates may wind up finding their
first jobs only in the secondary labor market. Even if this happens,
their chances of moving quickly into the primary labor market will be
increased over those of persons with only a high school diploma. The
general employability/adaptability/promotability skills persons ac-
quire in their postsecondary career-oriented educational programs
may, for many, turn out to be even more valuable than their specific
occupational skills.
In many ways, we find ourselves in a “Which came first—the
chicken or the egg?” situation. The question is, “Which will come
first—high skilled educated workers or jobs that require such work-
ers?” As of today, the answer appears to be “high-skilled educated
workers.”

Concluding Remarks

The changes brought about by the emerging information-based oc-

cupational society clearly call for increasingly close relationships be-
tween education and work. The need for almost all workers to acquire
some form of postsecondary education continues to grow. This, in turn,
makes for marked changes in the preparation and functioning of pro-
138 Journal of Career Development

fessional counselors—both those serving youth and those serving

adults. It is time these changes be implemented.

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