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Fluvial Depositional Processes and Landforms

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DOI: 10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg087

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Fluvial depositional
processes and landforms
Paul F. Hudson
LUC The Hague, Leiden University, Netherlands
Fluvial deposits and landforms constitute a broad
and diverse range of Earth surface processes, and
are intricately related to human interests and
influences. Fluvial sediments are deposited by
overbank or lateral accretion processes which
result in a complex assemblage of deposits
organized within a floodplain mosaic. The
dominance of specific types of depositional
processes depends greatly upon the fluvial sed-
iment and discharge regime, which should be
considered from a drainage basin perspective.
Knowledge of fluvial sedimentary processes and
their depositional landforms is important to a
variety of disciplines, especially sedimentology
and geomorphology, engineering, hydrology,
ecology, and archaeology.
Earth scientists study fluvial deposits to gain
insights into patterns of flood sedimentation
and relations with climatic or anthropogenic
forcings. Recognition of distinct types of flu-
vial deposits is essential to understanding the
evolution of river valleys and their adjustment
to sea level fluctuation. Geotechnical properties
of fluvial deposits are essential for engineers to
consider, such as in the management of storm
runoff and the design of flood control systems,
as well as in transportation infrastructure. Fluvial
depositional processes also create significant
floodplain topography, which is important from
the standpoint of flooding. Fluvial landforms,
The International Encyclopedia of Geography.
Edited by Douglas Richardson, Noel Castree, Michael F. Goodchild, Audrey Kobayashi, Weidong Liu, and Richard A. Marston.
© 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0872
such as natural levees, have been utilized for
millennia by ancient and prehistoric civilizations
for settlement and agriculture, and archaeologists
are interested in active and relict fluvial deposits
in view of their geoarchaeological potential.
Because overbank fluvial landforms are created
from numerous individual flood events, they rep-
resent a climate- and landscape-sensitive archive
with great promise for furthering our under-
standing of watershed-scale hydrologic variation
in response to climate and anthropogenic change.
There are a variety of ways to classify fluvial
depositional landforms, including mechanisms of
sediment transport, morphology, hydraulics, and
whether sedimentary deposits are cohesive or
noncohesive. But fluvial deposits should always
be viewed from the perspective of the drainage
basin in which they have been constructed.
Here the important watershed characteristics
that influence fluvial deposits include scale (basin
area), discharge regime (magnitude, frequency,
seasonality), sediment load (suspended, bedload
dominated), lithology (crystalline, calcareous),
land use and land cover, and drainage basin
morphometry (slope, shape, relief). An impor-
tant drainage basin control is stream power,
and specific (or unit) stream power has been
shown to be an effective means to discriminate
general styles of fluvial deposits (Nanson and
Croke 1992). Similar to other components of
fluvial systems, specific fluvial deposits are scale
dependent and increase in size with drainage
area due to mutual increases in sediment load
and streamflow (energy). The scale dependence
of fluvial deposits suggests that the concept of
effective discharge applies to different types of
fluvial landforms, especially point bars, crevasses,
F L U VI AL DEP O SI TI O NA L P RO C E S S E S AN D L A ND F OR MS
and natural levees because of their relation to
channel morphology.
From the perspective of a methodological
framework, fluvial sedimentology and geo-
morphology provide useful approaches for
examining the processes controlling the devel-
opment of floodplain deposits and landforms,
and in relating them to the broader topic of river
metamorphosis and evolution. The science of
fluvial sedimentology is mainly conducted by
geomorphologists and sedimentologists within
university physical geography and geology pro-
grams, with government agencies having an
important role for much primary data collec-
tion (e.g., deep cores, soil mapping, geospatial
data, hydrologic data). Understanding active
sedimentary processes requires fieldwork and
instrumentation, such as the measurement and
description of bedforms, topographic surveying,
coring, and the mapping and collection of flood
deposits. Laboratory work includes chemical and
physical characterization of field samples, with
the latter utilizing the modified Wentworth scale
to formally classify the particle size of sedimen-
tary deposits. The use of color-infrared imagery,
combined with the increasing availability of
high resolution LiDAR digital elevation models
(DEM), greatly facilitates the identification and
mapping of fluvial depositional features such
as crevasses, old channel belts, and terraces.
Establishing the chronology of fluvial deposition
and landform evolution requires a combination
of relative and absolute dating techniques, with
the latter most commonly including radiomet-
ric approaches or field-based instrumentation.
Finally, indices of the above noted data types are
commonly analyzed by mathematical and statis-
tical approaches using computer-based hydraulic
models (e.g., Hydrologic Engineering Center -
River Analysis System (HEC-RAS)) within
the framework of a geographic information
system (GIS).
2
Form and process
Conventionally, fluvial landforms are created by
two major sets of depositional processes: lateral
accretion and overbank sedimentation. Within
these broad categories, however, are a range
of specific processes and depositional features.
Sediment sorting during overbank conditions
results in a lateral fining of flood deposits whereas
sediment sorting associated with channel migra-
tion and bar formation results in a vertical
fining-up sedimentary sequence.
Lateral accretion processes
In laterally migrating channels, coarse-grained
(noncohesive) bedload is deposited along channel
margins, and bedforms are the key sedimentary
signature where median particle size ranges from
coarse silt to gravel. Deposition occurs when
the critical shear stress required to entrain par-
ticles of a specific size exceeds boundary shear
stress. As such, the pattern of channel deposits
approximates that of the distribution of channel
boundary shear stress (Gomez 2006). Thus,
the coarsest channel sediments are deposited
within the channel thalweg, with sequentially
finer sediments deposited outwards towards the
channel margins as channel depth and velocity
decrease. A typical sequence along an asymmet-
ric channel cross-section (alternate bar or point
bar) is that coarse gravel or cobbles are deposited
within the channel thalweg at the cutbank, with
sand to coarse silts deposited within shallow
reaches towards the channel margins (inside of
bend). Lower flow regime (Froude number <1)
bedforms include ripples and dunes, which are
commonly well preserved in the sedimentary
record. The spacing and height of dune crests
are proportional to flow depth, and therefore
of keen interest to sedimentologists and geo-
morphologists to analyze the flow conditions
 F L U V I A L DEPOS ITIONA L PROC ES S ES AND L A ND F OR MS
during the moment of deposition. The transi-
tion to upper flow regime (Froude number >1)
includes upstream migrating antidunes, which
are rarely preserved in the sedimentary record
(Bridge 2003). Between low and high flow
stage, ripples and dunes provide sedimentologic
evidence of recent events and the hydraulics of
sedimentation. Phases of point bar deposition
can often be distinguished by thin (≈1–3 mm)
“clay drapes,” consisting of fine-grained cohesive
wash load sediments deposited during slackwa-
ter conditions during the waning stage of the
discharge hydrograph.
Channel bars
Channel bars develop as ripples and dunes are
successively deposited along the flanks of shallow
channel margins, resulting in lateral accretion.
The process of lateral channel bar aggradation
results in a distinctive fining-up trend in particle
size, and is consistent with the concept of helical
flow and a laterally migrating channel, which is a
key sedimentary signature to identify past fluvial
processes. The development of point bars within
meandering rivers is among the most studied
sedimentary features. Under an assumption of
equilibrium, alternating channel bars and point
bars adjust in association with lateral migration
and maintain a consistent size and morphology.
Bar deposits represent the largest percentage
of overall accommodation space within a river
valley. The recognition of floodplains infilled
with channel bar deposits is an important indi-
cation of former channel activity, which may
provide evidence for prior hydroclimatic con-
ditions. Coarse-grained floodplain deposits are
important natural resources which are heav-
ily exploited by humans. Within dry regions,
floodplain agriculture is often dependent upon
alluvial aquifers for irrigation, particularly
during extended low-flow conditions. Channel
bar deposits are heavily exploited for aggregate,
especially for construction of urban areas and
associated transportation infrastructure.
Overbank sedimentary processes
Overbank sedimentation is an important mecha-
nism for floodplain creation. Overbank deposits
bury coarse-grained channel bar deposits, and
in especially wide valleys cohesive fine-grained
backswamp deposits constitute a considerable
proportion of overall accommodation space.
In addition to backswamps, other fluvial sedi-
mentary features formed by overbank processes
include natural levees, crevasses, and infilled
channels (Bridge 2003).
Overbank sedimentation includes coarse sed-
iment (sand/coarse silt) transported as bedload
and fine-grained sediment transported in sus-
pension, especially wash load (clay/fine silt).
Although large floods receive a great deal of
attention from the standpoint of hydrology, sed-
imentologically there is no relationship between
flood magnitude and the rate of floodplain
sedimentation. Individual flood deposits vary in
thickness from millimeters to as much as half a
meter, exhibiting pronounced lateral fining in
thickness and particle size with distance from the
active channel. Overbank flow velocity rapidly
decreases upon exiting the channel. This causes
sand and coarse silt to fall out of suspension
and to be deposited along the channel margins,
or transported across the floodplain as bedload,
which may then be preserved as dunes and rip-
ples as flow conditions transition from upper to
lower flow regime (Bridge 2003). The distance
that coarser sediments are transported across the
floodplain surface as bedload is controlled by
local floodplain hydraulics, which are influenced
by the floodplain topography, the growth of veg-
etation, and floodplain hydrology. The overbank
sedimentation process can be further considered
3
F L U VI AL DEP O SI TI O NA L P RO C E S S E S AN D L A ND F OR MS
based on whether advective or turbulent diffusive
processes are dominant (Pizzuto 1987). Turbu-
lent diffusive processes occur when floodplain
basins (e.g., backswamps) are inundated prior
to the river being overbank. This produces a
steep suspended sediment concentration gra-
dient across the floodplain, and induces abrupt
sedimentation and high amounts of coarse
sediment to be deposited along the channel
margins. Advective sedimentation occurs when
the river floods an otherwise dry floodplain,
and enables coarser suspended sediment to be
transported further from the channel margins.
Along the distant margins of natural levees and
in backswamps, slackwater deposition of clay is
the dominant mode of sedimentation and results
in thin clay laminations perhaps a millimeter in
thickness (Aalto et al. 2003).
Natural levees
Natural levees represent the aggregate con-
struction of numerous individual sedimentation
events and require hundreds of years to form.
Natural levees form along channel-floodplain
margins and slope towards floodplain bottoms.
Natural levees are located along meandering,
braided, anastomosing, estuarine, crevasse, and
distributary channels of alluvial fans and deltas.
They are especially associated with flood-prone
rivers dominated by suspended sediment trans-
port, and coastal plain meandering rivers in
particular. The size (height and width) of natural
levees is related to flood stage variability and the
available sediment for construction (Cazanacli
and Smith 1996). The stratigraphy of natural
levees at cutbanks includes individual strata com-
monly ranging from 1 cm to 10 cm in thickness,
decreasing in thickness with distance from the
active channel bank.
The slopes of natural levees between the
channel and flood basins are related to sediment
4
size, with coarse sediments associated with steep
natural levees while fine-grained sediments are
more associated with broad low sloping natural
levees (Cazanacli and Smith 1996). Along a given
river reach, the largest natural levees are located
at the outside of meander bends, suggesting the
reworking of floodplain deposits during large
events, but also that crevasse mechanisms are
important to natural levee development. In the
case of laterally stable channels, minor natural
levees may form on the inside of meander bends
(burying point bar deposits). Along a river, the
size of natural levees increases downstream of
tributaries, especially with a large increase in
discharge and sediment load. Natural levees are
largest towards the lower reaches of large coastal
plain alluvial valleys, but then decrease in size as
they flow within deltaic settings and sediment
load is exhausted (Hudson and Heitmuller 2003).
From the standpoint of humans, natural levees
are among the most important landforms within
an active floodplain, as their higher surface and
permeable soils permit settlement and, especially,
agricultural activities with minimal flood risk.
Crevasse splays
A crevasse is formed during overbank conditions
because of flood waters scouring a trough into
the channel bank. A crevasse splay is a fan-shaped
deposit with an axial scour channel extending at
a tangent from the main river channel and natural
levee crest, along the outside of a meander bend
(Bridge 2003). Crevasses have a dendritic pattern
because of smaller bifurcating channels, which
are primarily depositional. Sediment is deposited
mainly by sheet wash, and includes minor
natural levees formed along the banks of the
larger secondary channels (Cazanacli and Smith
1996). Crevasses are important mechanisms
for distributing coarse sediments from high-
energy settings to low-energy settings, which are
 F L U V I A L DEPOS ITIONA L PROC ES S ES AND L A ND F OR MS
otherwise dominated by fine-grained cohesive
deposits. The formation of crevasses is especially
associated with flood duration, although flood
frequency is also important.
Crevasse splays provide an indication of the
flood activity of a river, and in remote locations
should be seen as a good indicator of flood
hazards. In regions with considerable economic
and human welfare interests, river management
agencies are tasked with managing crevasses.
Restoration of floodplain ecosystem services
along some lowland rivers includes the explicit
breaching of river dikes during flood events
to simulate crevasse processes. The ensuing
hydrologic and topographic variability restores
important elements of a river’s geodiversity, stim-
ulating biogeographic complexity (Florsheim
and Mount 2003). The recognition of distal
floodplain sedimentation by crevasse-like pro-
cesses is especially important in rivers with a
high flood duration, such as humid tropical rivers
which undergo an extended season of floodplain
inundation. In such cases, crevasses continue
to deliver large amounts of coarse silts to flood
basins within a network of interconnected
floodplain channels (e.g., Aalto et al. 2003).
Infilled channels
Many floodplains contain evidence of past river
channel dynamics in the form of old channels,
including abandoned river courses, meander cut-
offs, and sloughs. Old channels become infilled
with overbank deposits, primarily fine-grained
cohesive deposits. Sedimentologically, these are
often termed “clay plugs,” especially infilled
oxbow lakes. This is somewhat of an oversim-
plification, however, as most infilled channels
also contain lenses of coarser deposits (fine sand
and coarse silt) which provide an indication
of the frequency of prior flood events, espe-
cially large floods. Radiocarbon dating organic
material obtained from field coring is a common
approach to identifying the timing of past river
channel changes, as well as paleoflood history.
Infilled channels exist within active meander
belts, but are also preserved in abandoned mean-
der belts. The timescales for channel infilling
depend greatly on the main-stem sediment load
and flood regime, as well as on the floodplain
topography and distance of the old channel
from the active channel. Over long periods
(10−3 years) infilled deposits become compacted
and dense, and form clay plugs. Old clay plugs,
however, have contemporary relevance because
of being resistant to bank erosion, which thereby
influences subsequent patterns of river meander-
ing. The presence of hard clay plugs is especially
common where an active channel is reworking
an older channel belt, and should be considered
in the development of channel engineering and
bank protection management plans.
Backswamps
Beyond the limits of coarse sediment delivery,
overbank flooding results in the transport and
accumulation of thick fine-grained cohesive
deposits. Backswamps are usually associated
with larger river valleys which have sufficient
accommodation space to store old deposits,
and which are distal enough from the active
channel that they are dominated by low-energy
conditions and fine-grained sedimentation for
extended periods (10−3 years). Sedimentation
is dominated by the deposition of wash load
sediments (fine silt/clay) within a slackwater
environment. The presence of “stringers” of
coarser sediments (silt/fine sand) transported by
prior large flood events is occasionally noted
in deep floodplain corings. The thickness of
backswamp deposits varies mainly according to
the size (depth and width) of the river valley, but
commonly exceeds 10 m (Bridge 2003).
5
F L U VI AL DEP O SI TI O NA L P RO C E S S E S AN D L A ND F OR MS
Alluvial fans
Alluvial fans are formed where fluvial sediments
are deposited as a fan-shaped landform. The
essence of the feature is that multiple distributary
channels extend outwards in a dendritic pattern
from the fan apex, which is located where the
longitudinal profile exhibits an abrupt reduc-
tion in slope. The channels deposit sediment
at widely different rates because of being in
different stages of formation and function. Two
important controls on alluvial fan formation
include an abrupt reduction in stream gradient
and an increase in the zone of deposition. These
boundary conditions occur where a narrow river
valley enters a larger valley along bluff lines or
fault-controlled mountain flanks. Several addi-
tional drainage basin controls on the formation
and morphology of alluvial fans include (i) sedi-
ment load, (ii) hydrologic regime, (iii) gradient,
and (iv) drainage area. Alluvial fans are located
across all climatic regions, although a common
misconception is that they are mainly associated
with dry climates. This is likely because the
morphology and vegetation pattern of alluvial
fans is more discernible and distinctive within
dry environments. The groundwater within
coarse alluvial fan deposits often represents an
important aquifer to small communities, and
especially for irrigation of associated agriculture.
Sedimentary deposits associated with alluvial
fan formation include a combination of channel
and overbank deposits, with the latter being
dominant under the influence of extensive sheet
flow conditions during flood events, as well as
debris flow deposits. As such, the coarse particle
size of alluvial fans exhibits a distinctive fining
trend with distance away from the fan apex, and
sediment sorting also increases. The timing of
alluvial fan sedimentation should be sensitive
to exogenic controls, although linking their
activity to climate change can be problematic in
6
tectonically active regions because of base-level
changes (Harvey 2002). Where alluvial fans
are closely spaced they may coalesce, resulting
in a larger depositional landform termed a
“bajada.”
Fluvial terraces
Fluvial terraces are relict fluvial landforms situ-
ated above the active floodplain surface. Their
morphology consists of distinctive elongated
flat surfaces (treads) defined by erosional bluffs
(risers). Terraces are formed when channel inci-
sion hydrologically disconnects the floodplain
surface from active fluvial processes. Relict fluvial
deposits then undergo reworking and modifi-
cation by other types of surficial processes,
including eolian, runoff, weathering, and pedo-
genic processes. Many river valleys are defined
by specific terrace sequences, with progressively
higher (and older) terraces displaying evidence of
a greater degree of reworking and pedogenesis.
In relation to humans, fluvial terraces are among
Earth’s most productive lands. River terraces
have a variety of qualities that lend themselves
to human exploitation, including (i) freedom
from flood risk, (ii) deep fertile soils, (iii) level
surfaces, and (iv) proximity to water resources,
making them invaluable for occupation and
agricultural activities.
The study of river terraces has a long tradition
within physical geography and geomorphology,
and the mapping of river valleys into active
Holocene surface bounded by fleets of relict
Pleistocene terraces (i.e., t0 , t1 , t2 , t3 , etc.)
is among the earliest traditions in landform
mapping. Unfortunately, this rather simplistic
perspective does not recognize geomorphic vari-
ability during the Holocene and the formation
of low Holocene terraces, or effective terraces
created during the Anthropocene. Earlier – and
 F L U V I A L DEPOS ITIONA L PROC ES S ES AND L A ND F OR MS
persistent – ideas concerning the origin of
terraces attempted to “fit” each specific fluvial
terrace to a glacial cycle, an idea that originated
in central Europe with the study of Rhine River
terraces in relation to glaciation in the Alps. This
conceptual framework was also applied in North
America, especially in relation to continental
ice sheets, sea level fluctuation, and Mississippi
River terraces. Modern ideas concerning the
origin of river terraces recognize a greater range
of climatic variability across the oxygen isotope
record, changes in sediment load, and especially
tectonic controls.
Fluvial deltas
Deltas form at the terminus of a watershed
where a river discharges into a standing body of
water, and result in coastal environments with
considerable geomorphic and biological diver-
sity. The classification of deltas is based upon
their morphology, which primarily relates to
their planform geometry. The shape of a delta is
determined by the style of deltaic sedimentation,
with three controls on sedimentation being tides,
waves, and fluvial regime, with the latter control
being defined by river discharge and sediment
load. Fluvial deltas are located within lakes and
marine settings having low wave energy or tidal
range relative to fluvial inputs. Fluvial deltas are
characterized by an elongated channel, which is
formed as a prograding river mouth advances into
a receiving basin. Fluvial delta evolution occurs
in association with river mouth progradation,
and especially includes river mouth bifurcation
and the formation of distributary branches
and subdeltas created by crevasse events during
flooding, which collectively form a delta lobe.
The process of delta lobe formation is ini-
tiated upon the debouching of sediment at a
river mouth, which abruptly results in sedi-
ment sorting and deposition. Sediment sorting
at the river mouth produces deltaic sedi-
mentary facies comprising three distinctive
depositional units: (i) bottom-set – horizontal
bedding consisting of soft fine-grained cohesive
deposits derived from the suspended load;
(ii) fore-set – inclined bedding consisting of
coarse-grained deposits derived from bedload;
and (iii) top-set – horizontal bedding consisting
of medium- to fine-grained deposits derived
from overbank processes with organic material
representative of wetland and marsh environ-
ments (Bridge 2003). Continued river mouth
progradation results in dense coarse-grained
fore-set bedding burying and compacting soft
bottom-set bedding, producing a distinctive
coarsening-up vertical sedimentary sequence
which defines deltaic facies.
Floodplain deposits and pedogenesis
Understanding the development of floodplain
soils in relation to sedimentary parent material
requires consideration of sediment structure,
floodplain hydrology, weathering, and bioturba-
tion. The length of time for which sedimentary
structure is preserved depends not only on pri-
mary sedimentology, particle size, and bedding,
but also on pedogenic regime. Floodplains are
often considered a single depositional envi-
ronment, but pedogenic characteristics vary
spatially, away from the channel. A soil catena,
for example, may occur along the natural levee
profile, which represents a systemic topographic
transition from higher well-drained channel bank
margin to lower and poorly drained backswamps.
Sandy sediment structure is usually preserved
longer than fine-grained muddy bedding,
with individual sedimentary laminae possibly
7
F L U VI AL DEP O SI TI O NA L P RO C E S S E S AN D L A ND F OR MS
destroyed after a year or so because of bio-
turbation by plants and burrowing organisms,
especially in the humid tropics. Soils developing
on thicker, sandier, and well-drained surfaces
of channel bars and natural levee crests fre-
quently have oxidized and leached horizons with
abundant manganese nodules and iron oxide
stains. These soils may have medium to stiff,
mottled gray, tan, and brown silty clay, sandy
clay, or silty sand, and overlay darker fine-grained
soils with considerable organic matter, devel-
oped in floodplain bottoms. The most common
soil profile along a channel cutbank is an A-C
horizon, which occurs because of insufficient
time for eluvial (E) or illuvial (B) horizons to
develop. High rates of overbank sedimentation
result in floodplain topsoil typically lacking dark
organic matter. With increasing distance from
the active channel, however, the maturity of
soils increases, as does bioturbation. Soils within
poorly drained flood basins typically lack strat-
ification and have better developed illuvial (Bt)
horizons. Backswamp soils are frequently gleyed
(iron reduction) because of a persistent high
water table. In the case of a high water table,
the plant root zone is near the surface, whereas
in floodplains with high seasonal fluctuation
in the water table the root zone extends much
deeper, which reduces the preservation of thinly
laminated sedimentary structure.
Conclusions
Fluvial deposits are associated with a diverse
range of surficial environments and have been
important to humans for millennia for settle-
ment, agriculture, and natural resources. Because
of their sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic
influences, in an era of global environmental
change it remains essential to understand the
8
fundamental controls influencing Earth’s fluvial
sedimentary processes.
SEE ALSO: Fluvial erosional processes and
landforms; Geomorphic hazards;
Geomorphological mapping and geospatial
technology; Rivers and streams; Water resources
and hydrological management
References
Aalto, R., L. Maurice-Bourgoin, T. Dunne,
et al. 2003. “Episodic Sediment Accumula-
tion on Amazonian Flood Plains Influenced by
El Niño/Southern Oscillation.” Nature 425:
493–497.
Bridge, J.S. 2003. Rivers and Floodplains: Forms, Pro-
cesses, and Sedimentary Record. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cazanacli, D., and N.D. Smith. 1996. “A Study of
Morphology and Texture of Natural Levees –
Cumberland Marshes, Saskatchewan, Canada.”
Geomorphology, 25(1–2): 43–55.
Florsheim, J.L., and J.M. Mount. 2003. “Changes
in Lowland Floodplain Sedimentation Processes:
Pre-disturbance to Post-rehabilitation, Cosumnes
River, CA.” Geomorphology, 56(3–4): 305–323.
Gomez, B. 2006. “The Potential Rate of Bed-Load
Transport.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences USA, 103(46): 17170–17173.
Harvey, A.M. 2002. “The Role of Base-Level Change
in the Dissection of Alluvial Fans: Case Studies
from Southeast Spain and Nevada.” Geomorphology,
45(1–2): 67–87.
Hudson, P.F., and F.T. Heitmuller. 2003. “Local- and
Watershed-Scale Controls on the Spatial Variability
of Natural Levee Deposits in a Large Fine-Grained
Floodplain: Lower Pánuco Basin, Mexico.” Geo-
morphology, 56(3–4): 255–269.
Nanson, G.C., and J.C. Croke. 1992. “A Genetic
Classification of Floodplains.” Geomorphology, 4(6):
459–486.
Pizzuto, J.E. 1987. “Sediment Diffusion during Over-
bank Flows.” Sedimentology, 34(2): 301–317.
 F L U V I A L DEPOS ITIONA L PROC ES S ES AND L A ND F OR MS

Further reading Saucier, R.T. 1994. Geomorphology and Quaternary

Geologic History of the Lower Mississippi Valley. Vicks-
burg, MS: Waterways Experiment Station, US
Knighton, D. 1998. Fluvial Forms and Processes: A New
Army Corps of Engineers.
Perspective. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

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