Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
DOI 10.1007/s12520-017-0502-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
Non-destructive spectroscopic investigation of artefacts
from middle Hallstatt period—case study of a stone bead
from Tărtăria I hoard, Romania
Luminița Ghervase 1 & Ioana Maria Cortea 1 & Roxana Rădvan 1 & Corina Borș 2
Received: 23 March 2017 / Accepted: 25 April 2017 / Published online: 16 May 2017
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017
Abstract A stone bead, part of a necklace found in a middle
Hallstatt period—type of settlement—the Tărtăria site in Alba
County, Romania, was investigated following a non-
destructive approach, by means of energy-dispersive X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy. The highly heterogenous object, found together
with numerous bronze and iron objects, appeared to be a va-
riety of chalcedony rich in iron and copper impurities, still
preserving clay minerals from the sedimentary matrix in some
of the areas. Organic molecules found at the surface of the
stone artefact may indicate the presence of a wax or resin
residue, possible evidence of early craft specialization. The
non-destructive protocol applied allowed an in-depth charac-
terization of the artefact, providing important information not
only on the crystal structure but also on the diagnostic impu-
rities present within this peculiar stone bead.
Keywords Archaeological stone bead . X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy . Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy .
Tărtăria hoards . Chalcedony . Organic residues
Introduction
Small artefacts, usually perforated beads, have been used in
many cultures for centuries as adornment in jewellery, as well
* Ioana Maria Cortea
ioana.cortea@inoe.ro
1
National Institute of Research and Development for Optoelectronics
INOE 2000, 409 Atomiștilor St, Măgurele, Ilfov County, Romania
2
National Museum of Romanian History, 12 Calea Victoriei St,
Bucharest, Romania
as a way to trade. Beads have long been an expression of social
status, wealth, gender, and other symbolic attributes (Bar-Yosef
Mayer 2016). Beyond the cultural aspects, such artefacts can
provide information on the migration routes as well, some of the
materials used for the manufacture being specific only for par-
ticular geographical areas (Liu et al. 2012; Zhu et al. 2012).
During human history, an extremely large variety of mate-
rials have been employed to manufacture beads, such as sea-
shells, animal bones, teeth, horns or tusks, wood, glass, fa-
ience, stones, and minerals (Bar-Yosef Mayer & Porat 2008;
Bar-Yosef Mayer 2016). The value of a bead was based on the
craftsmanship required for its production or on the scarcity of
the product from which it was crafted; considering the avail-
able references to date, no chalcedony bead is known to exist
among the artefacts part of bronze hoards assigned to the
HaB 3 –HaC period within the inner Carpathian area
(Petrescu-Dîmbovița 1977; Metzner-Nebelsick 2005). Thus,
the worth of the base material has to be considered within
the specific methods and culture of the time.
Often, depending on the nature, age, condition, and impor-
tance of the object, non-destructive techniques are the preferred
approach to study archaeological findings. Nevertheless, micro-
invasivemethodssuch as laser-inducedbreakdownspectroscopy
(LIBS) or neutron activation analysis (NAA) have proven useful
for characterization of archaeological objects (Simileanu and
Rădvan 2011; Glascock and Neff 2003). From the great variety
of analytical techniques currently available (Papachristodoulou
et al. 2006; Tripati et al. 2010; Bagdzevičienė et al. 2011; Centeno
et al. 2012), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were chosen for this
study, so as to obtain information regarding the elemental and
molecular composition of the stone bead. This analytic approach
did not require any sampling, the integrity of the object being
maintained, a key aspect as most archaeologists and conservators
do not allow any destruction of the artefact.
1842
XRF is a surface analysis technique, used to detect inorganic
materials, containing elements from Na to U. Being a totally non-
destructive technique, it is very suitable for the analysis of archae-
ological findings (Phillips and Speakman 2009; Gauss et al.
2013), especially when in situ measurements are required
(Speakman et al. 2011; Gasanova et al. 2016; Müskens et al.
2017). In the field of archaeology, researchers have paid much
attention to XRF in provenance studies, based on the idea that
every object has a unique chemical fingerprint which can link it
to the rock it was made from or to the geographical region of origin
(Pillay et al. 2000; Craig et al. 2007). FTIR can offer complex
chemical information regarding the molecular matrix of the
analysed objects, identifying simultaneously both organic and
inorganic compounds. FTIR analysis can provide powerful infor-
mation on inorganic substances as well, allowing exact identifi-
cation on a large range of compounds such as sulphates, carbon-
ates, nitrates, phosphates, or silica (Bagdzevičienė et al. 2011;
Cantisani et al. 2012; Centeno et al. 2012; Cârciumaru et al. 2012).
There are a number of studies focused on historic,
archaeologic, or anthropologic facts regarding ancient beads.
Studies involving analytical techniques were meant to deter-
mine the chemical composition of glass (Sokaras et al. 2009;
Zhu et al. 2012; Robertshaw 2014), gemstones, greenstone
minerals (Middleton et al. 2007; Delgado Robles et al.
2015), and metal (Galli et al. 2011) beads, the information
obtained providing new insights on the technological features
and raw materials utilized during manufacture.
The paper reports the analyses conducted on a special stone
bead, part of necklace made of bronze, bone, and stone beads,
recovered from a recent archaeological discovery, the Tărtăria
deposit in Alba County, Romania (Borș et al. 2014). The ob-
jects part of the Tărtăria I and II bronze and iron object hoards,
uncovered at the Tărtăria–Podu Tărtăriei vest site, were dated
to approximately eighth century B.C. In order to answer some
research questions regarding the manufacturing techniques,
such as how and what they were made of, if they were pro-
duced locally, or what the purpose of the objects found at
Tărtăria was, an interdisciplinary approach involving non-
invasive physico-chemical analysis was carried out.
Archaeological context
The prehistoric site Tărtăria–Podu Tărtăriei vest (Alba
County, Romania) was discovered during large-scale preven-
tive archaeological field investigations (Fig. 1), in the spring
of 2012, occasioned by the construction of the A1 motorway
along the Mureș River valley.
The field research was undertaken by an archaeological team
from the NationalHistory Museum ofRomania.The site is located
north of Tărtăria village (Săliște commune, Alba County), on a
plateau situated on the upper left terrace of the Mureş valley.
During the spring and summer of 2012, an archaeological
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
excavation of about 2 ha was fully investigated, where 269 archae-
ological complexes (mostly from the middle Hallstatt period—the
Basarabi ceramic style) were found. A variety of archaeological
remains have been excavated, e.g. (possible) semi-sunken dwell-
ings, offering pits (with pottery broken in situ), refuse and extrac-
tion pits, but also certain particular vestiges—two ditches marking
the southern and eastern limits of the site, two bronze hoards (com-
prising over 400 bronze and iron objects, dated to the middle
period of the First Iron Age (Ha C1 period–the Bâlvăneşti-Vinţ
series, eighth century B.C), and a collective grave. Also, a large
quantity of Basarabi-type pottery was uncovered, as well as a great
number of metal objects (weapons, tools, and adornments of
bronze and iron). Considering all the data recorded and the pre-
liminary analysis of the very rich archaeological finds from
Tărtăria–Podu Tărtăriei vest, this site can be considered as a very
important one for the middle Hallstatt period in Transylvania and
neighbouring areas.
An interesting find pertaining to Tărtăria I bronze hoard is a
necklace made of bronze, bone, and stone beads, discovered in a
boundary/defence ditch in the southern part of the Middle
Hallstatt period site. The ditch was set up in a natural gully fed
by underground springs, a very high moisture environment. The
necklace was found inside a ceramic vessel, in a phalera, along-
side 300 bronze and iron artefacts of different kinds. This is a
piece comprising three bone rings, a stone bead, five bronze rings
(most probably one being a broken pendant), and 30 bronze
beads of various shapes. Up to now, this necklace has no close
analogies among the finds of the middle Hallstatt period valley in
Transylvania or the neighbouring areas. The exact nature of the
depositional space is not yet clear, as no specific function could be
assigned to the ditch in which the necklace was found. A possible
explanation could be that this space has a votive character, as
there are known connections between moist spaces such as this
one and large votive deposits throughout the history of mankind
(Soroceanu 1995). Figure 2 shows the reconstruction of the neck-
lace, made for a temporary exhibition of the Tărtăria hoards at the
National History Museum in Romania. The necklace was recon-
structed according to the archaeologists’ field notes, but the bone
beads were not included given their state of preservation.
The stone bead (temporary inv. no. MNIR TPTv 12203)
was chosen for this study, being the only one of this type
discovered at this archaeological site. The hemispherical red-
dish stone bead (Fig. 3), probably made by polishing and
perforation, has 1 cm external diameter and appears smooth,
with no visible degradation marks on the surface.
Methodology
XRF measurements
XRF measurements were performed using TRACER III
energy-dispersive XRF spectrometer by Bruker Elemental,
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
Fig. 1 Map showing the location of Tărtăria archaeological site, in Alba County, Romania
equipped with a Rh X-ray target. Tube settings were adjusted
using Bruker X-Ray Ops software. Two measurement condi-
tions were employed: setup 1 (40 kV high voltage, 10.60 μA
current intensity, 60 s acquisition time, in ambient air, no
filter), which allows a reasonable representation of all ele-
ments from the energy range between 1 and 40 keV, and setup
2 (15 kV high voltage, 25 μA current intensity, in vacuum,
15 s acquisition time, no filter), which enables a more accurate
detection of lower atomic number elements.
Fig. 2 Reconstruction of the necklace (a), with detail on the stone bead
(b)
1843
As indicated by Forouzan et al. (2012), in order to com-
pensate for the lack of uniformity of the artefact, which would
be expected when using non-destructive techniques, analyses
were performed on several parts of the sample. Four areas
were chosen on the two sides of the stone bead, as can be seen
in Fig. 3: areas P1 and P2 were on the light-coloured side,
while P3 and P4 were on the darker, reddish side.
Instrument stability was checked using a Duplex 2205
stainless steel alloy. Spectra were acquired using the
S1PXRF software (Bruker AXS Handheld Inc.) and proc-
essed with Spectra version 7.4 (Bruker AXS MA) and
Origin 8 (OriginLab Corporation, USA).
Fig. 3 Analysis areas on the two sides of the stone bead
1844
FTIR measurements
Infrared spectra were recorded in attenuated total reflectance
(ATR) mode with a PerkinElmer Spectrum Two FTIR spec-
trometer. Spectra were acquired in the mid-infrared region
4000–400 cm−1, at a resolution of 4 cm−1 by averaging eight
scans. Analysis was carried in situ, by direct contact between
the sample and the ATR crystal (Pike Technologies GladiATR
accessory). In terms of data processing, a smooth factor was
applied and the second derivative profile was calculated. Data
were processed with Essential FTIR v3.5. Measurements were
performed on the same analysis areas as for the XRF analysis.
Results and discussion
The XRF spectra recorded in both setups are shown in Fig. 4.
Data interpretation must consider the fact that the chemical
composition of archaeological objects, which have been bur-
ied in soil for various periods of time, can be altered by the
contact with the soil matrix, to the extent that it could no
longer be representative for the original object. Even more,
this is an important aspect when using surface analysis tech-
niques, such as the XRF, which have limited penetration
depth, in order to characterize objects with patina/corrosion/
foreign materials. The recorded spectra show that Cu and Fe
are the major elements found at the surface of the sample,
while for Si, K, Ca, and Pb, lower intensities were detected.
Aside from the major elements, a close look at the spectra
revealed several trace elements: Al, Ti, Mn, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr,
Fig. 4 XRF spectra of the stone bead. a Setup 1—40 kV, 10.60 μA, 60 s, air, no filter. b Setup 2—15 kV, 25 μA, 15 s, vacuum, no filter
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
Ba, P, S, As, Nb, Bi, and possibly Sn and Re. It might appear
strange to discover metals such as Cu, Fe, and Pb as major
elements in a stone object, but one must take into consider-
ation the fact that metals have higher sensitivity to X-rays as
compared to non-metals and metalloids. Though less likely,
the high metal contribution could be due to the degradation
products of nearby bronze objects. Several literature studies
have addressed the role of soil features in the surface enrich-
ment of archaeological objects (Paterakis 2003; Mezzi et al.
2012; Fernandes et al. 2013), explaining how the surrounding
burial site’s features can influence an archaeological item.
Furthermore, as noted by Liu et al. (2012), in case of objects
with patina layer, the behaviour of the elements from this layer
is also affected by the heterogeneity of the original material.
The first setup, which allows a fair detection of all elements
from 1 to 40 keV, evidenced some specific trace elements that
had not been evidenced in the bronze beads (Rădvan et al.
2016), such as the Nb, Rb, and Zr (Fig. 4a), all of which might
be linked to chalcedony. Their presence could be important, as
sometimes, data analysis is focused not on the major elements,
but on discovery and interpretation of the trace elements in a
sample. Such trace elements can be used, when dealing with a
larger number of samples, to identify common features and
possibly trace down the origin of the samples. Along with the
stone bead, a soil sample, taken from the Tărtăria site, was
analysed using this setup, after being passed through a sieve in
order to eliminate larger particles and impurities, and ground.
The soil sample used as control has lower background and
scattering, due to the improved measuring conditions (homo-
geneity and thickness of the sample). The soil had an inverse
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849 1845

ratio of Fe and Cu, with Fe Kα peak being more intense than
the Cu Kα, as opposed to the stone’s spectra, which showed
higher Cu lines as compared to the Fe lines. Trace elements
such as Ti, Ni, Mn, K, Pb, Ca, Zr, Zn, and Sr were also found
in the soil sample. However, further analyses, such as neutron
activation analysis, should be conducted.
The second experimental setup is optimized for the detec-
tion of low atomic number elements, offering a more accurate
picture of their distribution. As can be seen in Fig. 4b, Si has
an important weight in the elemental distribution, more than K
or Ca, as was inferred by the results obtained using the first
setup. Some of the elements found in the sample, such as Al,
Si, K, and Ti, could indicate the presence of clay, as suggested
by Centeno et al. (2012). This could also be an indication of a
terrigenous input due to the long time the object has spent
buried in the ground.
The relative intensity of the XRF-identified elements is
presented in Table 1, which lists the major (ma) and minor
(mi) elements, together with the trace (tr) and minor-trace
elements (m.t.). Although direct comparison between the soil
matrix and the stone cannot be made, the relative elemental
ratios between the minor and major components for each sam-
ple allow a clear distinction between them.
Variations were found in the intensity level of the elements,
e.g. Fe levels were higher on the reddish areas (areas P3, P4),
for both setups. In the case of ceramic and glass jewellery,
their colouration can be related to the manufacturing process
(Zhu et al. 2012), but in the case of stone artefacts, the colour
reveals the features of the source material and, possibly, the
depositional environment. This means that the red coloration
associated with high Fe contribution could be due either to the
intrinsic nature of the rock (presumed to be chalcedony), the
soil features, or to post-depositional processes from nearby
metal objects. When dealing with such objects, the best ap-
proach for a thorough evaluation would be take a sample from
the artefact and grind it, in order to make it more homogenous
(Homsher et al. 2016). However, sampling is not always pos-
sible, and in such case, several analyses should be performed
in several locations on the sample and the results should be
discussed based on the mean values. Based on the elemental
normalized net count rates from the four analysed areas, ana-
lytical percent deviations from the mean values were calculat-
ed for each element. The highest deviations were found for Ca
(48%), Fe (41%), Nb (34%), Cu, P (25%), Ba (23%), Pb
(22%), K (21%), and S (20%). The high deviations found
confirm that the investigated artefact is very heterogeneous,
having micro-scale elemental variability.
FTIR spectra of analysed areas are presented in Fig. 5.
Measurements taken in ATR mode provide an average chem-
ical composition on the outer layer of the object: penetration
depth around 0.20–0.60 μm (Ekgasit and Padermshoke 2001).
As can be seen from the spectra, all analysed areas are char-
acterized by a similar absorption pattern: small absorptions
above 3600 cm−1, sharp bands in the 3000–2800 cm−1 region,
weak bands respectively within the fingerprint region with a
maximum absorption peak, extremely broad, centred around
1000 cm−1. From the four analysed areas, only two of them
show a better resolved spectrum, situation most likely related
to experimental factors (a better optical contact). It should be
emphasized that the analysis was carried out at the surface of
the artefact, without sampling, at low pressure, in order not to
induce any damage or internal stress within the stone bead.
Analysis of the second derivative profile allowed a better
discrimination of features occurring in the overlapping fre-
quency regions (Fig. 6).
Characteristic infrared vibrations of silicates (Smith 1998)
are observed within the fingerprint region, the peaks centred
around 795, 777, 693, and 510 cm−1 indicating the presence of
quartz crystals. Silicates are also characterized by a very in-
tense and broad absorption band that usually appears between
1200 and 1000 cm−1 due to the Si–O–Si asymmetric stretch.
This band can be clearly distinguished only in the case of
P1—peak centred at 1090 cm−1. For the other three analysed
areas, the absorption in the 1200–900 cm−1 region is extreme-
ly broad causing overlap of the absorption peaks that fall
within this region.
Phosphates and sulphates are also characterized by a broad and
strongabsorptionwithin1100–1000cm−1 that furthercomplicates

Table 1 Elements identified by

means of XRF spectroscopy Setup 1 Setup 2

P1 Cu (ma), Fe (mi), K, Ca, Pb, Si, Ni, Sr, Ti (tr), Al, S, Cr, Cu (ma), Fe, Si, K (mi), Ca, Al, Ti (tr), Pb,
Mn, Zn, Rb, Zr, P, Nb, Sn (m.t.) Zn, Mn, Cr, S, P (m.t.)
P2 Cu (ma), Fe (mi), K, Ca, Si, Pb, Ni, Ti, Sr (tr), Al, S, Cr, Cu, Fe, Si, K (mi), Ca, Al, Ti (tr), Pb, Zn,
Mn, Zn, Rb, Zr, Nb, Sn, Sb (m.t.) Mn, Cr, S, P (m.t.)
P3 Cu (ma), Fe (mi), K, Si, Pb, Ni, Ca, Ti (tr), Al, S, Cr, Mn, Cu (ma), Fe, Si, K (mi), Ca, Ti, Al (tr), Pb,
Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, P, Sn, Sb, Nb (m.t.) Zn, Mn, Cr, S, P (m.t.)
P4 Cu (ma), Fe (mi), K, Ca, Pb, Ni, Si, Ti, Sr (tr), Al, Cr, Mn, Fe (ma), Cu, Si, K (mi), Ca, Al, Ti (tr), Pb,
Zn, Rb, Zr, Nb, Sn, Sb (m.t.) Rb, Zn, Mn, Cr, S (m.t.)
Soil Fe, Cu (ma), Ti, Ni, Mn, K, Pb, Ca, Zr, Zn, Sr (tr), Rb, Cr, –
Si, Sn, Nb (m.t.)
1846
Fig. 5 FTIR spectra of the analysed stone bead areas
the discrimination analysis but since other diagnostic bands are
missing (secondary bands such as bending vibrations found in the
560–610 cm−1 region), we can exclude these contributions.
Carbonate peaks (1466 cm−1 C–O stretch, 870 cm−1 C–O
out-of-plane bend) were identified as well as other complex an-
ionic groups—see the weak bands at 679 and 656 cm−1 that may
be ascribed to the presence of metal ions(Vasilache et al. 2011).
Fig. 6 FTIR spectra (P4) togeth-
er with corresponding second de-
rivative profile
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
Traces of iron oxides are seen in all analysed areas, the
colour variations of the stone being linked with the amount
and nature of the iron oxide chromophore (Helwig 1998).
Characteristic IR vibrations of ferric oxide were found around
720, 690, 580, and 520 cm−1, best seen in P3.
Peaks around 690 and 790 cm−1 can be linked to the sym-
metric stretch of Si–C (Levent et al. 2015), while vibration
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2018) 10:1841–1849
Fig. 7 FTIR spectra of the
sedimentary matrix (a) and some
bronze artefact (b) found within
the same archaeological site;
analytical peaks of interest are
marked
peaks in the lower part of the spectrum, below 570 cm−1, may
be ascribed to the non-volatile impurities present within the
minerals (Levent et al. 2015). The broad peak at ca. 3400 cm−1
can be assigned to free OH stretching (structural water).
The compositional data obtained points towards a microcrys-
talline silicate material, possibly some variety of chalcedony
(Levent et al. 2015). Despite the abundance of features identified
in the spectra, an exact identification of the silicate mineral(s)
present within the material is difficult though, the highly charac-
teristic peaks related to lattice vibrational modes of inorganic ions
appearing below 300 cm−1 (Delgado Robles et al. 2015).
Another aspect that has to be considered in analysis is
given by the complex surface chemistry of silica (Smith
1998). The native silica surface will react upon exposure to
its environment (especially moisture) and form Si–OH
(silanol) bonds. In this kind of rocks, the total hydroxyl con-
tent can be differentiated into molecular water and chemically
bound silanols, these types of water accounting for up to
2 wt% (Schmidt and Frohlich 2011). The bands seen within
the 3700–3200 cm−1 region could be linked with O–H
stretching bands of surface silanols, but since other diagnostic
peaks are missing (silanol Si–O stretch 940 cm−1, Si–O–Si
bend respectively around 450 cm−1), we could ascribe the
small absorptions above 3600 cm−1 to Al–O–H bands of clay
minerals, most likely smectites (see the small bump at
3620 cm−1, best observed in P3 and P4). Clay minerals from
the kaolinite family might also be present given the band
around 3690 cm−1. All these clay minerals come from the
1847
sedimentary matrix, as shown by the analysis carried out on
the soil sample coming from the same archaeological site
(Fig. 7 (a)).
Besides the already discussed features, spectra registered
on the stone bead show the presence of organic material: ab-
sorption bands in the 3000–2800 cm−1 range (aliphatic C–H
stretch groups), bands within 1600–1540 cm−1 (possible aro-
matic ring C–C stretch, C–O stretch), 1450–1370 cm−1 (C–H
deformation), 1740 cm−1 (C=O stretch), respectively (Vahur
et al. 2011). The peaks observed at 2920 and 2850 cm−1 cor-
respond to the symmetric and asymmetric vibration modes of
aliphatic C–H groups that may suggest the presence of humic
acids. This hypothesis is not consistent though as no evidence
of such compounds were found within the control soil sample.
Ancient organic remains on archaeological samples are not
uncommon, solid evidence of various organic materials used for
different functions being reported in the literature (Regert et al.
2001). The presence of the abovementioned bands could there-
fore be ascribed to a resin (Vahur et al. 2011) or to a wax residue
(Regert etal. 2001). Similar findings werereported byBaronetal.
(2016), which found beeswax remains on Bronze Age moulds.
This hypothesis seems to be sustained; the same bands centred
at 2850, 2920, and 2960 cm−1 being identified within the spectra
registered on some of the bronze artefacts found within the archae-
ological site (see Fig. 7 (b)). Although the exact role of these ma-
terials is not exactly understood, the use of such organic com-
pounds during crafting (Wright et al. 2008) or perhaps with a sym-
bolic or ritual role can be presumed.
1848
Conclusions
Physico-chemical and molecular analyses were performed on
an eighth century B.C. stone bead, from the Tărtăria deposit in
Alba County, Romania. X-ray fluorescence and Fourier trans-
form infrared spectroscopy analysis allowed the characteriza-
tion of the outer layer of the bead, showing a highly inhomo-
geneous artefact. Via the combined analysis, it was possible to
infer specific information regarding the chemical structure of
the object, results pointing towards a cryptocrystalline silicate
principally composed of microscopic crystals of quartz. The
predominant quartz structures identified by infrared spectros-
copy together with the coloration given by the iron and copper
impurities, as identified by X-ray spectroscopy, sustain the
idea that the bead is made of a variety of chalcedony. As
shown via FTIR data, the stone bead preserves in some of
the areas of clay minerals, and possible traces of calcite, con-
tributions from the sedimentary matrix. Organic residues
found within the FTIR spectra of the artefact offer interesting
perspectives regarding the origin and possible materials used
during crafting or possible evidence of burial symbolism and
ritual.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant of the
Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNDI-
UEFISCDI, PN II-PT-PCCA-2013-4-1022.
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