doi: 10.1111/j.1478-4408.2008.00175.

One-pass process for the continuous dyeing

of polyester⁄unmercerised cotton blends
with disperse⁄reactive dyes. Part 2: Process
modifications to improve the colour yield
of selected reactive dyes on the cotton
component of the blend 
Arshad Mehmood, Duncan A S Phillips,*,à John A Bone,
John A Taylor
Textiles and Paper, School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester M60 1QD,
UK
Email: duncan.phillips.css@btconnect.com

Received: 21 October 2008; Accepted: 14 November 2008

One of the limitations of DyStar’s TTN one-pass continuous dyeing process for dyeing
polyester ⁄ unmercerised cotton blends with disperse and reactive dyes is its inability to achieve heavy
depths economically and part 1 of this study indicated that the limitation could be attributed to the
reactive dye [1]. In this study, the constituents of the pad liquor were varied to determine if the visual
colour yield of selected reactive dyes could be improved. In so doing, it was possible to speculate
whether the low colour yield from some of the reactive dyes used in the TTN process was as a result of
inefficient ‘delivery’ of the dye to the reactive sites on the cotton.

Introduction (TTN) process and investigates whether the poor colour

In the continuous dyeing of polyester ⁄ cellulose blends yields, obtainable from the reactive dyes, can be
with disperse and reactive dyes, ‘pad–dry–thermofix- attributed to a problem of ‘delivering’ the reactive dyes to
chemical pad–steam’ and ‘pad–dry–thermofix (reduction the reactive sites on the cotton.
clear)-pad–dry–bake’ are not often used, with the former,
predominant. Experimental
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, when a trend Fabrics and chemicals
towards shorter runs and greater varieties in (fashion) Unmercerised cotton fabric (100%) (1 ⁄ 1 plain weave)
shades made conventional processing hard to run before and after a mercerisation process and 67:33 woven
efficiently and profitably [2,3], various single-stage (one- polyester ⁄ unmercerised cotton blend were used in this
pass) continuous dyeing processes were introduced for study to assess the colour yield. Eriopon R (anionic
dyeing such blends [4]. Although developments have surfactant agent; Huntsman, UK) was used as a soaping
been made both in the machinery [3] to handle the agent in the washing-off process. Sodium sulphate
shorter runs (to make their processing more cost-effective) (anhydrous, 99% w ⁄ v) and sodium carbonate (anhydrous,
and in the dyestuffs [5–7] used (to meet the fastness >99% w ⁄ v) were obtained from Fisher Chemicals (UK).
requirements), one of the major limitations of a one-pass Sodium hydroxide Reagent ACS was from Acros Organics
process is the limited colour depth that can be achieved (UK), dicyandiamide (99% w ⁄ v) from Aldrich (UK) and
on polyester ⁄ unmercerised cotton blends. The previous borax pentahydrate was obtained from Borax Europe
part of this study [1], which focused on the performance Limited (UK).
of the dyes (disperse ⁄ reactive) used in DyStar’s one-pass
(TTN) continuous dyeing process, showed that it was the Commercial dyes
reactive dyes which were responsible for the difficulty in The various reactive commercial dyes used in this study,
achieving heavy shades, economically. It also suggested as shown in Table 1, were obtained from DyStar
that the level of reactivity of the reactive dyes, most (Germany).
commonly recommended for use in this process, was not
the prime reason for the poor performance. Table 1 Commercial dyes used
This study reports the effect of varying the constituents
of the pad liquor on the colour yield obtained on a Commercial name Category
polyester ⁄ unmercerised cotton blend using the one-pass
Procion Yellow PX-R Monofunctional (MCT) reactive dye
Procion Red PX-4B Monofunctional (MCT) reactive dye
Procion Navy PX-2R Monofunctional (MCT) reactive dye
  For part 1 of this study, see the preceding paper in this issue Levafix Yellow CA Hetero-bifunctional reactive dye
Levafix Red CA Hetero-bifunctional reactive dye
à Present address: Colour Synthesis Solutions Ltd, Hexagon Levafix Navy CA Hetero-bifunctional reactive dye
Tower, Blackley, Manchester M9 8ZS, UK

ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59 53
Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

Hydrolysed derivatives of the parent reactive dyes
Hydrolysed derivatives of the two yellow dyes, to aid
compound identification in HPLC studies, were prepared
by dissolving 1–2 g of the parent dyes in 2 N sodium
carbonate (100 ml) at 80 C. The resultant compounds
(isolated by salt addition to the neutralised reaction
mixture) were confirmed by mass spectrometry, with
molecular ions at m ⁄ z 826 (M – H)) for Procion Yellow
PX-R and 838 (M – H)) for Levafix Yellow CA. HPLC
retention times of the hydrolysed species were noted and
then used in the identification of dye species (hydrolysed
and reactive) present on the fabric at any given time
during the dyeing process (Table 2).
Table 2 HPLC retention times for a parent and hydrolysed forms
of Procion Yellow PX-R and Levafix Yellow CA
Parent reactive Hydrolysed reactive
dyes dyes
Molecular Retention Molecular Retention
Dyes weight time (tR min) weight time (tR min)
Procion 845 3.2 827 1.4
Yellow PX-R
Levafix 921 3.2 839 1.3
Yellow CA
Extraction of unfixed reactive dye from the fabric
Fabric (2 g) was chopped into small pieces and heated to
80–90 C with vigorous stirring in 25 ml of deionised
water for 40–60 min. The pH of the liquor was
maintained at 6.5 using a mixed phosphate buffer
solution [2 parts potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2PO4) + 1 part disodium hydrogen phosphate
(Na2HPO4)].
One-pass continuous dyeing processes for reactive dyes
on cotton
Dyeing methods for conventional and one-pass (TTN)
continuous dyeing processes and the washing-off of
unfixed reactive dyes were the same as mentioned in the
part 1 of the study [1]. Identification of the unfixed dye
species (both hydrolysed and the reactive form), extracted
from the dyed fabric, were carried out by HPLC, using the
gradient method also described in part 1 [1] (Table 3).
Results and Discussion
Influence of borax on the colour yields of reactive dyes
in the TTN process
In DyStar’s one-pass TTN continuous dyeing process, a
temperature of 210 C is employed to achieve the
maximum colour yield from the disperse dyes on the
polyester component of the blend. However, it renders an
undesired side effect on the cotton component by turning
it yellow, leading to a dulling of the shade. To prevent
this, borax (10 g ⁄ l) is recommended to be added to the
pad liquor of the TTN process [8]. It is also said to be
beneficial for the yield of the disperse dyes [8].
To assess its influence on the colour yield of the
reactive (Procion PX and Levafix CA) dyes, the colour
yields of reactive dyes on 100% unmercerised cotton
were assessed, with and without the addition of borax
(10 g ⁄ l) to the pad liquor.
The pH of the pad liquor containing borax was higher
(9.0–9.2) than that without (8.0–8.6) and this increase in
the pH of the pad liquor might have been expected to be
beneficial for fixation of the reactive dyes. The number of
ionised cellulose groups (Cell-O)) would increase with an
increase in pH and, hence, the rate of the fixation
reaction (Scheme 1).
However, unexpectedly, a significant (13–27%)
reduction in colour yield was observed (Figure 1) by
adding borax to the pad liquor of the reactive dyes. It has
been shown that, although the pH of the pad liquor
containing borax was higher than the pad liquor with no
borax, the pH of the fabric after the dyeing process was
conversely lower. This observation was supported by a
blank dyeing (Table 4) and suggested that the buffering
action of borax hindered the increase in pH during the
dyeing process, when conversion of sodium bicarbonate
to sodium carbonate (Scheme 2) would otherwise
increase the pH on the fabric [9] [Borax is among the
least alkaline of many buffers and its stoichiometry

Table 3 Application conditions and dyeing auxiliaries used in one-pass continuous dyeing processes for reactive dyesa

Baking ⁄
Drying time ⁄ thermofixation pH of
Process Substrate temperature time ⁄ temperature pad liquor Alkali Humectants

One-pass conventional 100% 1 min at 110 C 1 min at 150 C 8.5–10.0 Sodium carbonate Urea (50–100 g ⁄ l)
continuous unmercerised (0–10 g ⁄ l) +
dyeing process cotton sodium bicarbonate
for Levafix CA dyes (10 g ⁄ l)
One-pass conventional 100% 1 min at 110 C 1 min at 160 C 11.0–11.5 Sodium carbonate Urea (100–150 g ⁄ l)
continuous unmercerised (10–15 g ⁄ l)
dyeing process cotton
for Procion PX dyes
One-pass (TTN) 100% 1 min at 110 C 1 min at 210 C 8.0–9.0 Sodium bicarbonate Dicyandiamide
continuous dyeing unmercerised (10–20 g ⁄ l) (15 g ⁄ l)
process for Levafix cotton
CA and Procion
PX reactive dyes

a In addition, 10 g ⁄ l borax was added to the pad liquor of the one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process, as recommended by DyStar

54 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59
 Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

X X X
N N N
– –
Dye N N + Cell-O Dye N N Dye N N + Cl
H H O-Cell H
N N N
CI Cl O-Cell
Scheme 1

25 21.1 and polyamide under acidic dyeing conditions [11]. It

20 18.4 17.8 18.1 was first used in a one-pass continuous dyeing process
16.8
15 15.6 for fixing Procion T dyes to the cotton component of a
K/S values

13 14.25
15
polyester ⁄ cotton blend. Procion T dyes were introduced
9.5
10 6.4 by ICI in 1977 and were based on a phosphonic acid
5.4
5
reactive group [12]. In the fixation of these dyes, the role
of dicyandiamide was not entirely as a flux (humectant),
0 as it was believed to interact with the reactive group of
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy
the dye to produce an intermediate (phosphonic acid
Procion PX dyes Levafix CA dyes
anhydride), followed by a subsequent reaction with
10 g/l borax, pH 9.0–9.2 No borax, pH 8.0–8.6
cellulose to give a dye covalently bonded to the cellulose
Figure 1 Influence of borax on the colour yield of reactive [11].
(monofunctional and hetero-bifunctional) dyes obtained on There is some evidence for the loss of dicyandiamide
unmercerised cotton processed under one-pass (TTN) continuous under high temperature conditions, as such
dyeing conditions
carbodiimides are known to either decompose or
polymerise on heating [11]. Hence, to determine if the
Table 4 Effect of borax on the pH of the pad liquor and the flux (dicyandiamide) could be augmented to improve the
fabric processed using the one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing colour yield on the unmercerised cotton, its influence on
conditions
the colour yield of a series of reactive dyes (applied to
100% unmercerised cotton) was assessed at heavy depth
Pad liquor containing 10 g ⁄ l bicarbo-
(40 g ⁄ l) of shade.
nate + 15 g ⁄ l dicyandiamide + 2 g ⁄ l
wetting agenta As can be seen in Figure 2, the presence of
dicyandiamide (15 g ⁄ l, recommended [8] in the modified
pH No borax With borax (10 g ⁄ l) TTN process) produced a modest (ca. 10%) improvement
in the colour yield of the reactive dyes (Figure 2). Indeed,
pH of pad liquor 8.6 9.2 when unwashed fabric, after being dyed by the modified
pH of fabric after 10.0 9.6 one-pass TTN process, was repadded through a 50 g ⁄ l
dyeing process solution of dicyandiamide, even although a little unfixed
dye was lost to the dicyandiamide pad liquor, a further
a Wetting agent was Albaflow Pad (Huntsman Chemicals) improvement in colour yield (2–20%) was observed
(Figure 3), particularly in the case of Procion Yellow PX-
R. This was probably as a result of improvement in the
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
penetration ⁄ diffusion of the dyes into the cotton.
Scheme 2
19.62 20.3
(Na2O:B2O3 = 1:2) means that it releases equimolar 20 17.59 17.62
16.75
amounts of the weak (Lewis) acid, boric acid and its 14.45 14.58
15 13.1
conjugate base, the tetrahydroxy borate anion, B(OH)4),
K/S values

10.5
conditions suited for good buffering action [10]]. 9.1
10
Hence, the buffering action of borax would have been 6.21 6.55
beneficial for disperse dyes but deleterious for reactive 5
dyes and because of its detrimental effect on the colour
0
yields of reactive dyes, all further work in this study was
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy
carried out without the addition of borax to the pad liquor.
Procion PX dyes Levafix CA dyes
Influence of dicyandiamide on the colour yields of Without dicyandiamide 15 g/l dicyandiamide
reactive dyes applied by a modified* one-pass (TTN)
Figure 2 Influence of dicyandiamide (15 g ⁄ l) on the visual
continuous dyeing process
colour yield of reactive dyes (monofunctional and hetero-
The use of dicyandiamide (carbodiimide) had been bifunctional) by the modified one-pass TTN process
reported in several publications relating to the fixation of
phosphonated or carboxylated dyes onto cellulose, wool Although earlier work [1] showed that increasing the
level of reactivity of the reactive dyes by a factor of 5
* 10 g/l borax was added to the pad liquour of the one-pass gave no significant improvement in colour yield, the
(TTN) continous dyeing process, as recommended by Dystar current studies have suggested that the colour yield on

ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59 55
Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

20.53 unmercerised cotton in the one-pass (TTN) continuous

18.16 20.3
20 17.59 18.58 17.62 dyeing process.
13.51 14.45 14.63
K/S values

15
10.5 Influence of humidity on the colour yields of reactive
10 6.95
6.55 dyes applied by the modified one-pass (TTN) continuous
5 dyeing process
Comparison of the visual colour yield
0
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy Access of a reactive dye molecule to a reactive site of the
Procion PX dyes Levafix CA dyes fibre is as vital as its propensity to react with the
15 g/l dicyandiamide present in the original dye pad liquor cellulosate anion, generated within the fibre. Such access
Unwashed fabric padded through 50 g/l dicyandiamide depends both on the size ⁄ shape of the dye molecule itself
solution and the adsorptive tendency of the material, to which the
dye is applied. In continuous dyeing processes, when the
Figure 3 Increase in visual colour yields of reactive dyes on
unmercerised, dyed cotton, when repadded through 50 g ⁄ l padded cloth is heated in the drying system, the rate of
dicyandiamide solution and fixed using the modified TTN loss of water from the material increases with increasing
process temperature. The relationship between the rate of rise of
temperature and the rate of loss of water is a significant
unmercerised cotton could be increased (particularly in factor that affects the penetration of the applied dyestuff,
the case of Procion Yellow PX-R) by improving the as rapid disappearance of moisture can result in
penetration of the dyes into the unmercerised cotton immobilisation ⁄ precipitation on the fibre surface, rather
fibre. Therefore, further work was carried out to than diffusion into the fibre. To determine if insufficient
determine if poor diffusion of the reactive dyes into the diffusion of a given reactive dye was the reason for its
cotton was the major reason for the low colour yield on poor performance in the (modified) one-pass (TTN)

(a) (b) 25
18
16 20
Visual colour yield

14
Visual colour yield

12 15
10
8 10
6
4 5

2
0
0 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Depth applied, g/l
Depth applied, g/l
Pad–dry–bake process
Pad–dry–bake process
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
+ 25% humidity
+ 25% humidity
(c)
25

20
Visual colour yield

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Depth applied, g/l

Pad–dry–bake process
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
+ 25% humidity

Figure 4 Comparison of visual colour yields of reactive dyes (a) Procion Yellow PX-R, (b) Procion Red PX-4B and (c) Procion Navy
PX-2R obtained by three different continuous dyeing processes on unmercerised cotton (see Experimental section for details)

56 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59
 Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

(a) (b)
14 25

12
20

Visual colour yield

Visual colour yield

10
15
8
6 10
4
5
2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Depth applied, g/l Depth applied, g/l

Pad–dry–bake process Pad–dry–bake process

Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax) Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax) Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
+ 25% humidity + 25% humidity
(c)
30

25
Visual colour yield

20

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Depth applied, g/l
Pad–dry–bake process
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
Modified one-pass (TTN) continuous process (no borax)
+ 25% humidity

Figure 5 Comparison of visual colour yields of reactive dyes (a) Levafix Yellow CA, (b) Levafix Red CA and (c) Levafix Navy CA
obtained by three different continuous dyeing processes on unmercerised cotton (see Experimental section for details)

continuous dyeing process, moisture (25%) was injected noticeable improvement in colour yield (Table 5). HPLC
during the drying stage, with a view to enhancing dye analysis of the dye species present on the fabric after the
diffusion. This is the basis of DyStar’s Econtrol TTN dyeing process (Table 5) indicated that, at 40 g ⁄ l dye
process [13]. The build-up of a series of reactive dyes on applied, 31–35% of Procion Yellow PX-R was still
unmercerised cotton by such a process was compared with available in reactive form, even after increasing both the
that obtained from a conventional pad–dry–bake process. drying and thermofixation time (60–90 s) in the presence
As can be seen in Figures 4 and 5, the addition of of 25% humidity. A similar study of Levafix Yellow CA
25% added humidity at the drying stage of the modified (based on the same chromophore as Procion Yellow PX-
one-pass TTN process resulted in an increase in the R) suggested that the parent dye, despite being almost
colour yield of two of the three monofunctional Procion fully utilised in the dyeing process exhibited a marginally
PX dyes, up to the level obtained by the conventional higher fixation efficiency (56%) than Procion Yellow PX-R
pad–dry–bake process; the colour yield of the (47%). This study suggested that improvement in the
bifunctional Levafix CA dyes increased to levels higher colour yield of Procion Yellow PX-R may require the dye
than that obtained by the pad–dry–bake process. This to exhibit both superior diffusion properties and a higher
dramatic increase in visual colour yield would appear to reactivity under the fixation conditions.
be the result of improved diffusion of the reactive dyes
into the cotton as well as an increase in the temperature Comparison of the fixation and visual colour yield of
on the fabric, another factor which would aid the reactive dyes on unmercerised and mercerised cotton
fixation of the reactive dyes during the drying stage of Attaining heavy depths of shade on polyester ⁄ mercerised
the process [13]. cotton blends is regarded as being less of a problem than
However, the colour yield of Procion Yellow PX-R, on a polyester ⁄ unmercerised cotton when dyed by the
although improved, was still inferior to that obtained by one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process. Mercerised
the pad–dry–bake process (Figure 4) and further cotton exhibits higher visual colour yield as a result of
increases in time (from 60 to 90 s) at both the drying and properties imparted by the mercerisation process, such as
thermofixation stages also failed to show any further lustre and adsorptivity [14].

ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59 57
Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

Table 5 Reactive dye species present on unmercerised cotton after addition of 25% humidity during the drying stage of the modified
one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process

Process conditions % Dye unfixed

Dye applied Drying at 110 C Thermofix Parent reactive Hydrolysed

(40 g ⁄ l) + 25% moisture (s) at 210 C (s) K ⁄ S values % Dye fixed dye (%) dye (%)

Procion Yellow PX-R 60 60 13.1 47 35 18

60 90 13.3 48 32 20
90 90 13.4 49 31 20
Levafix Yellow CA 60 60 11.0 56 <2 42
60 90 10.8 55 <2 43
90 90 10.4 52 <2 46

58 59 60 60 80 80
53
58 57 58 59 56 80
76 75
Percentage fixation

60 49

Percentage fixation
50 44 45 47 444646 70 58 59 59 60
60 54 57
40 33 44 46
50
30 40
20 30
10 20
0 10
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy 0
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy
Unmercerised cotton Mercerised cotton
Procion PX dyes Levafix CA dyes
Pad–dry (60 s at 110 °C) – thermofix Unmercerised cotton Mercerised cotton
(60 s at 210 °C) – wash off
0% moisture at the drying stage Figure 8 Comparison of fixation yields of a series of reactive
15% moisture at the drying stage dyes (applied at 40 g ⁄ l) on mercerised and unmercerised cotton
25% moisture at the drying stage
on addition of 25% moisture at the drying stage of the modified
one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process
Figure 6 Increase in percentage fixation yield of Procion PX
dyes (applied at 40 g ⁄ l) on mercerised and unmercerised cotton
in the presence of 0, 15 and 25% added humidity during the
drying stage of the modified one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing mercerised cotton (Figure 8). These results clearly
process suggested that the addition of humidity at the drying
stage of the (modified) one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing
process enhanced the diffusion of dye molecules into the
100
79 80 81 80 unmercerised cotton fibre leading to almost equal fixation
Percentage fixation

74 76 71 76 75
80 66 69 efficiency on both mercerised and unmercerised
62 56 57
60 49 54 45 substrates.
40 33 However, even in the presence of 25% added humidity,
20
the visual colour yield (K ⁄ S) on unmercerised cotton was
still lower (9–27%) than that on mercerised cotton
0
Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy (Figure 9), despite the fixation efficiency being almost the
Unmercerised cotton Mercerised cotton same. This anomaly is attributed to factors such as the
Pad–dry (60 s at 110 °C) – thermofix relative opacities, refractive indexes, shapes and size of
(60 s at 210 °C) – wash off the fibres, as well as the location of the dye within the
0% moisture at the drying stage fibres [15–20].
15% moisture at the drying stage
25% moisture at the drying stage

30 28
Figure 7 Increase in fixation yield of Levafix CA dyes (applied at 25.3 25.8 25.5
40 g ⁄ l) on mercerised and unmercerised cotton in the presence 25 20.6 22.1
18.6 20
of 0, 15 and 25% added humidity during the drying stage of the
K/S values

20 16.3 16.6
modified one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process 13.5
15 12.1
10
Figures 6 and 7 indicate that the addition of 15% 5
moisture, at the drying stage, increased the fixation 0
efficiency of the reactive dyes (both Procion PX and Yellow Red Navy Yellow Red Navy
Procion PX dyes Levafix CA dyes
Levafix CA) on both unmercerised and mercerised cotton
fibres. However, this increase in fixation yield on the Unmercerised cotton Mercerised cotton
unmercerised cotton was much more pronounced than on
Figure 9 Comparison of visual colour yields of a series of
the mercerised cotton and, indeed, on increasing the
reactive dyes (40 g ⁄ l) on mercerised and unmercerised cotton
humidity level from 15% to 25%, the per cent fixation on with addition of 25% moisture at the drying stage of the
unmercerised cotton now was almost equal to that on the modified one-pass (TTN) continuous dyeing process

58 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59
 Mehmood et al. Improvement in fixation yield of reactive dyes

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3. H-U von der Eltz, J.S.D.C., 101 (1985) 168.
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of that on mercerised cotton, if humidity (ca. 25%) is Dystar, Germany.
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ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 53–59 59