Chapter II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Being always present in class and getting to school on time are two of the
crucial determining factors of a student’s success, not just as a student but as a person
who will be managing his/her own life in the future. Given the importance of being
punctual, this study aims to explore and find out the factors that affect the punctuality of
UP students. In this chapter, we will be discussing about the background of our study. It
includes facts about tardiness, the different factors that causes it and its effect to the
students as students and as bearer of their own lives in the future. From reliable
research materials like online journals and research papers, we will provide some facts
and theories from authors, teachers and notable people in order to have a concrete
justification of our study.

First, we will give a definition of tardiness and present some theories and facts
about it. Next, we will discuss he various factors that causes the students to come to
school late, the psychological theories, the observation of the teachers and the personal
reasons of the students. Lastly, the effects of tardiness to students, not just to
himself/herself but also to his/her future and to other people, will be discussed.

Tardiness

As UP students, we are expected to perform well with excellence in everything

that we do, most especially in the academic aspect. One factor that dictates the quality
of performance of a student is his/her punctuality that is, getting to school on time or
being tardy. As cited by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor (2011), “lateness” can be defined as
the “situation where an individual arrives after the proper, scheduled or usual time
(Oxford Advance Learners’ Dictionary, 5th ed., 1995), Lauby (2009) puts it as a term
used to describe “people not showing up on time” and Breeze et al. (2010) contributed
by saying that, lateness is synonymous with “tardiness”, which implies being slow to act
or slow to respond, thus not meeting up with proper or usual timing. Lastly, Weade
(2004) defined tardiness as “being late for any measurable length of time past the
stated or scheduled start time for work or school.” In most schools, a student is
considered tardy when he/she is not present when the school bell rings or when the first
teacher starts to give instructional materials for the first subject in the morning class.

One of the most recurring and the most “frustrating problem” that the schools are
having with their students nowadays is tardiness (Sprick and Daniels, 2007). It creates
problems, not just to the students but also to the teachers (Cowan Avenue Elementary
School Community, 2007, para 1). Cowan Crier, the official School Publication of
CAESC, also states that while having “occasional tardy” isn’t a big deal, unfailing
tardiness is and it gives students problems including being ill-prepared for the job
market. According to the results of the study of the U.S. Department of Education on
“truancy”, which is related to tardiness, being present and on time in going to school are
big factors on the “success and behavior” of the students (Zeiger, 2010, para 1). Thus,
it is a lot important to value time and practice being on time while being a student.

According to CAESC (2007) and Zeiger (2010), the most essential learning time
of the day for the students lies in the morning, specifically between 8:00 to 9:30 AM. It is
because the students are most mindful and observant at this time of the day. It is also
the reason why the most important lessons and subject matters are discussed during
this time. So when students are late or are not present during this time of the day, they,
in effect, miss out most of the important lessons to be noted and learned.

Factors affecting Punctuality

Reasons for being late in class and other factors affecting the punctuality if a
student vary. There had been some theories that pointed out that tardiness is caused by
the personality of a person. Santillano (2010) stated that psychological theorists
considered some “personality traits, including low self-esteem and anxiety” as triggering
factors of tardiness (para 2). She also mentioned that while some theorists considered
tardiness as an “inborn quality” since our being early or late is “partially biologically
determined”, which she also agreed, other experts also believed that some people are
“chronically tardy” for the reason that they consciously and unconsciously get good
things from it (para 3).

In the book cited by Santillano, “Never be late again: 7 cures for the punctually
challenged”, the author Diana DeLonzor suggested that some personality traits could
most likely lead to a person being often late. Some of the traits included were
“struggling with self control”, “feeling nervous or uncomfortable with social situations”
and “getting distracted easily” (para 4). Santillano also discussed about the study
conducted by DeLonzor at San Francisco State University in 1997 in which she
surveyed 225 respondents about their habits that makes them late from their
appointments. It was also a test on the personalities of the respondents that affect their
habits. According to the results of DeLonzor’s study, those respondents that were often
tardy apt to be anxious and gets distracted easily.

Nakpodia and Dafiaghor attribute lateness or tardiness to a lot of factors or

causes. Going late to bed and waking up late next morning are the most common. The
authors added film-watching late at night as a cause for tardiness. The student may
forget that he/she needs to be in school the next day. The distance between the
student’s home and school or solely the school’s location is also considered by
Nakpodia and Dafiaghor as a possible cause for tardiness. Not just because it takes
more time to get to school, but according to the authors, the student is susceptible to
more distractions and hindrances along the way. Parent’s untimely tasks and
commands are also reasons that students come late to school. Habitual tardiness can
also be learned from other members of the family, especially from the older ones. Lack
of a firm and consistent policy on punctuality also encourages students to come late at
school since there are no consequences attached to lateness or tardiness. These
causes of tardiness will lead to serious effects.

Another study was the one conducted by Enamiroro Oghuvbu in Nigeria. The
objective of the study was to determine the causes of the absenteeism and lateness
among the secondary students in Nigeria and to seek for solutions to the growing
problem. According to Oghuvbu (2008), female students are more likely to be late than
male students because of “their involvement in domestic activities by their parents”
(para 7). Also, as cited by Oghuvbu, “distance to school, school discipline, family
background and school location” (Emore, 2005) are some of the common causes for the
tardiness of the secondary students.

Oghuvbu collected the data from a sample size of 17, 417 Nigerian respondents
from 2005-2006. The sample was made up of 20 principals and 50 each from a set of
teachers, parents and students. The means of collecting data was through a thirty-item
questionnaire answerable by either strongly agree (SA), agreed (A), disagree (D), and
strongly disagreed (SD). The questionnaire had four questions, one of which was about
the causes of lateness among the secondary students of Nigeria.

The study revealed that the causes of lateness among the secondary students in
Nigeria were “going late to bed because of watching films and home movies, resulting
into wake up late in the morning, distance to school and keeping friends who are not
students” (Oghuvbu, 2008). These results went consistent with the results of Oghuvbu’s
reference studies which proves that tardiness among students have been a growing
problem and that it is caused, not just because of the students but also because of the
lack of imposing discipline from the parents.

Another research partly studied about tardiness but tackled a specific reason or
factor. A study by Pimentel and Quijada (2011) focused on the frequency of use by the
UP Cebu freshmen students of Facebook and a part of the study tackled about the
effect of the famous social networking site to UP Cebu students’ punctuality and
academic performance.

For their study, Pimentel and Quijada collected 60 respondents and provided
them with questionnaires. The questionnaires contained questions that ask the
respondents about their use of Facebook and its effects. A certain question asked the
respondents if late-night use of Facebook has an effect on their punctuality. According
to the results of the study, three out of 60 respondents are always late, eight said they
are sometimes late, 12 said they are seldom late and 37 said that they never get late
due to late-night use of Facebook. Generally, the results showed that the respondents
are seldom late in class because of late-night use of the social networking site. Ledoux,
as cited by Pimentel and Quijada, said that lack of sleep causes neural malfunctions
and further affects a person’s behavior. In the study’s case, it is a student’s punctuality
that is affected.

Sometimes, it is not solely the students’ fault why they keep on being late in
coming to class. Another factor that could affect the punctuality of a student is the
response of the teachers to tardy students. Sprick and Daniels (2007) stated that the
range of the teachers’ response was “from ignoring them to sending them to office” (p.
21). This variation could lead the students to confusion as to how important it is to be on
time in going to class. Another reason is the lack of motivation. Students who come to
school on time are not given incentives or rewards. Also, responses to tardiness are
lenient, that is nothing is done until the tenth strike or more. Another reason is “giving
the student the impression that they won’t be missing anything if they are late” since in
some classes, no important activities or instructions and no lessons are being done for
first few minutes. Lastly, crowded hallways could create traffic, thus blocking the way of
other students and making it hard for them to pass through.

Effects of Tardiness

Tardiness among students has its own negative repercussions. Nakpodia and
Dafiaghor (2011) emphasized that lateness or tardiness is not just the problem of the
late student but it affects the surrounding people. A student coming late in class
distracts the rest of the students and disrupts the flow of the teacher’s discussion. It is
even a burden to the student/s whom the late students ask for what to catch up with.
The rest of the effects given by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor are about the welfare of the
whole school, its productivity and revenue. Knowing the possible effects of lateness or
tardiness, it is necessary for solutions to be executed.
 Studies have revealed that those students with “perfect or near-perfect
attendance” have good grades compared to those students who misses classes often
and late-comers (Cowan Avenue Elementary School Community, 2007, para
3). Moreover, as mentioned by Zeiger (2010), the results from the survey report
conducted by teachers show that students with high tardiness rates have “higher rates
of suspension and other disciplinary measures” (National Center for Education Statistics
Indicators of School Crime and Safety [NCESISCS] (2007)). It also causes the students
to have behavioral problems and to drop out. Lastly, Zeiger (2010) stated that “Students
who are frequently tardy to school are also more apt to be fired from a job for showing
up late” (para 5).

A study conducted by Barbara Lee Weade on 2004 tried to "determine if school

tardiness is a predictor of work tardiness" (Weade, 2004). It provided a lot of literature
that observes correlations and factors affecting a student's tardiness. As cited by
Weade, the 3rd most common cause for the failure of a student is "excessive tardiness
and unexcused absences" (Ligon and Jackson, 1988). "Inconsistency of school rules"
(Britt, 1988) and situations such as “crowded halls, limited opportunities for social
interaction, irrelevant course content, and teacher indifference” (Damico et al., 1990)
are also factors that affect a student's attendance and punctuality. As mentioned by
Weade, personal values, financial security and lack of parental guidance (Payne, 2001)
as well as family background (Featherstone et al., 1992) influence tardiness and
absences of students.

Weade gathered data from the schools of participating students. First and
foremost, she asked consent from the students and their parents in order to gain
permission to collect their school records. She collected and studied the attendance and
punctuality records of these students based on the number of unexcused absences and
minutes of tardiness. Her study showed that among high school students, the grade
point average is correlated with absences and tardiness. This means that students with
better attendance and punctuality have higher grade point averages and vis-à-vis. Her
study was also able to show that attendance and punctuality of students are not
consistent throughout the year. There were more absences and tardiness at the latter
part of the year. Gender has also shown to be a non-factor in the attendance and
punctuality of high school students.

The study was very comprehensive in its subject matter. It tackles not just
school tardiness but its implications on work tardiness. It shows that "students who are
on-time for school classes are also likely to be on-time at work while students who are
tardy frequently at school will probably also be tardy at work" (Weade, 2004). The study
requires a lot of data but Weade was able to gather a sufficient amount. Though some
possible correlations were not established, it is outside the scope of this research.

Due to the fact that tardiness has been giving negative effects on the students
nowadays, the most important thing to do is to develop a firm, consistent and functional
policy that addresses late students. There must be defined sanctions and penalties for
late students. Nakpodia and Dafiaghor (2011) stated that school administrators must
lead by example. They should be punctual in their own meetings and classes to avoid
students to think that being late is just alright since even the authoritative persons are
doing it. They should as well teach it and integrate it in every lesson. The effort on the
remedy on lateness or tardiness does not start and end with the school. It must begin
with the parents of the students and the government must take part as well.
Transportation must be improved in order to avoid students getting stuck in traffic or
encountering other obstacles down the streets.

Some schools have already started finding solutions that would effectively
minimize and/or eliminate tardiness among students. One of the solutions made by
some schools is implementing tardiness policies, wherein they take steps in
approaching the students and parents for them to solve the problem. CAESC has their
policy worked this way. Other schools initiated interdisciplinary curriculum that
integrates discipline and conduct in academics. Cordogan (as cited by Weade, 2004),
said that a school in Chicago, Illinois adapted a similar curriculum and yielded positive
results. Students under the interdisciplinary program exhibited more positive behaviors
from students not from the curriculum. Interdisciplinary students showed less absences
and tardiness, as well as higher grades. Other schools made smaller academic changes
such as developing personality works and cooperative learning activities, such as
creation of portfolios and tutorial to younger students. These taught the students better
goal-setting, decision making skills and time management. In return, students under
these behavior modification programs yielded less tardiness and higher grades.

To summarize, many studies have shown the reasons and factors that may
contribute to the tardiness of a student. One of the mentioned reasons of tardy students
was waking up late in the morning, which can also be attributed to late-night activities,
such as social networking, watching movies and television shows, as well as untimely
academic and domestic errands. As proven by several studies, sometimes, it’s not also
the act of the student that leads to his/her tardiness. The heavy traffic, the teachers, the
school surroundings and policies may also serve as influences to the tardiness of
students.

Many studies have also shown the effects of tardiness on the students, the
teachers, the school and the society. According to these studies, the tardiness of a
student consumes his/her learning time as well as disturbs other students and teachers.
The tardy student also poses as a threat to the school as an educational and
professional institution and the student may be one of the less productive members of
the society.

A lot of studies as well gave testimonies to effective remedies on tardiness.

These studies promoted integration of personality development and interdisciplinary
programs into school curriculum to aid students enhance positive behavior and
personality leading to the decrease of tardiness.

Our study intends to find out the tardiness of UP Cebu students and the reasons
and factors that may influence this tardiness.

10 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Presented in chapter 2 is a synthesis of

research that supports the evaluation of the attendance policy and attendance program of Newport
News Public Schools. Included in the chapter is a historical overview of attendance, the importance of
attendance, overview of Newport News Public Schools, theoretical framework, causes or predictors of
student absenteeism, descriptions of related attendance policies/ programs, and a review of
perceptions and attitudes about attendance policies/programs as indicated by literature review.
Historical Overview Early homesteading laws allowed the settlers free land on which to build schools.
Schooling was perceived as the key to success for individuals and to the excellence of society (Mitchell,
1993). Free and compulsory education came to England and Wales following the Elementary Education
Acts of 11 1870 and 1876, although not always on a full time basis. The Education Act of 1918 finally
abolished half time schooling, and made elementary education entirely free and compulsory until the
end of the term after the child's fourteenth birthday. Nevertheless, in most parts of the United States
the problem of illegal absence dates from 1876 (Galloway, 1985). In the 1850s urban schools suffered
from an extremely high turnover of students. Many students were needed at home to do many of the
chores, especially if they lived on a farm. Other students worked outside of the home to help support
the family. Poor attendance was a problem to teachers and parents well before school attendance
became compulsory (Pallister, 1969). Pallister notes that enthusiasm for education varied with the
standards of the school; good schools quickly obtaining the support of parents, and similarly bad
schools, least in the eyes of parents, quickly losing support. School administrators were immediately
faced with new concerns considering that in 1900 only 6 percent of Americans had a diploma (Wise,
1994;Kay, 1991). It is clear that attendance rates varied little between 1904 and 1938, except in 1920
when lower average attendance followed the social upheaval of the First World War. Galloway noted
that there is little evidence that attendance rates over the last ten to fifteen years (1970-1985) differ
very much from those earlier in the century (Galloway, 1985). Even with the increased 12 attendance
and the increased graduation rates over the last 100 years, education is relatively the same. A glaring
example of this is the release of students for farm work in extremely industrialized society. Our culture
has changed but the reasons for excused absences have not changed (Wise, 1994). School attendance
was a problem before education became free and compulsory, and based on the researcher's
knowledge and experience as an educator, it has continued to be one ever since. The researcher notes
that attendance figures can be interpreted in different ways. There is little evidence that school
attendance rates have changed noticeably throughout the twentieth century. Importance of Attendance
Government officials, teachers' groups, and individual parents all have voiced their concerns over the
need to develop policies and practices to counteract the problems facing our nation's schools today such
as the dropout rate, drug abuse, and declining education performance (Bernstein, 1990). Poor school
attendance arouses strong feelings in teachers, parents, members of the educational support services,
educational administrators, politicians, and pupils. These strong feelings are expressed in different and
often 13 contradictory ways, depending on the individual's own perspective (Galloway, 1985). The
statistics related to school absenteeism are staggering. Each school day, 2,500,000 students are
reported absent from school. The dropout rate is estimated at 27 percent nationally and over 45 percent
in some cities. The 27 percent dropout rate equates to 65 busloads of students who leave United States
schools each week and do not return. In a year's time, 700,000 students will be lost. In two years, the
number will exceed one million (Person, 1990). The Virginia Department of Education has created a
system for better and more accountable schools through what is now called the Outcome Accountability
Project (OAP). This program establishes the criteria for how schools and school divisions will be held
accountable for meeting the commitment of improving learning for all. The data from the OAP provides
a framework for analyzing the school district by breaking the whole into some of its parts. The
attendance data for secondary students provided by the OAP for the State of Virginia indicates that 66
percent of students in grades 9-12 during the school year '95-'96 were absent 10 days or less from
school. The OAP data further lists Newport News Public Schools as having 55 percent of its grades 9-12
students absent 10 days or less from school (OAP Report, 1997). The school philosophy, in general, is
one that stresses to teachers, pupils, and parents the importance of 14 regular school attendance. This
is because it is the belief that only through regular school attendance can students progress
academically at a successful rate (Jett & Platt, 1979). Attendance is part of a pupil's cumulative record. It
is important that good school attendance habits be established for later years when pupils seek
employment (Jett & Platt, 1979). Jett and Platt conclude that attendance and its importance should be
taught to students. Basic to that philosophy is the belief that poor student attendance and truancy are
some of the first signs of decay of a school and school system. Therefore, it is incumbent upon educators
to do all they can to promote good school attendance habits among their pupils. Anyone who has
skipped or had to repeat a grade, has been placed in or excluded from a special program, or has been
denied academic credit because of absences knows the importance of local school policies. While
scholarly attention has tended to focus on federal and state education policy, those who attend and
work in schools realize that their lives can be affected greatly by policy made at the school and district
level (Duke and Canady, 1991). Guba (1984) identifies eight distinct conceptions of policy. They include
the following: Policy is an assertion of intents or goals. Policy is the accumulated standing decisions of a
governing body, by which it regulates, 15 controls, promotes, services, and otherwise influences matters
within its sphere of authority. Policy is guide to discretionary action. Policy is a strategy undertaken to
solve or ameliorate a problem. Policy is sanctioned behavior. Policy is a norm of conduct characterized
by consistency and regularity in some substantive action area. Policy is the output of the policy-making
system. Policy is the effect of the policy-making and policy-implementing system as it is explained by the
client. The researcher believes that each of the above conceptions by Guda has some value for the study
of school district and school policy. Duke and Canady (1991) refer to school policy as any official action
taken at the district or school level for the purpose of encouraging or requiring consistency and
regularity. They further state that the definition implies intentionality on the part of those developing
policy. Pizzo (1983) refers to school policy as fitting into an ecology of public policies. In other words,
where the operation of pubic schools is concerned, a range of policy 16 sources can be identified. Pizzo
further states that policies are derived from Congress, the Department of Education, the courts, state
legislatures, intermediate agencies, school boards, and school-based personnel. To understand
educational policy in the United States, it is necessary to understand each of these policymaking entities
and the relationships among them. Duke and Canady (1991) identify three reasons to study policy. First,
many of the education policies likely to have a direct effect on the lives of students, parents, and
teachers are local school policies. A state legislature may pass legislation concerning the allocation of
resources for education, but the legislation does not become meaningful for clients, patrons, and
employees until local policy decisions determine how the available resources will be utilized. Second,
schools serving similar groups of students can differ greatly in areas such as student achievement,
attendance, dropped rate, teacher morale, and school climate. The third reason to study school policies
according to Duke and Canady (1991) is the fact that the number of locally developed policies is likely to
increase in the future. Interest in shared decision making, teacher empowerment, school-site
management, and the restructuring of schools suggests that the locus of educational policymaking may
be shifting. Duke and Canady point out that ample justification exists for the systematic study of local
school policy. Such 17 study promises to shed light on school effectiveness, the process of school
improvement, and local control of education. In addition, Duke and Canady state as interest in at-risk
students grows, questions need to be raised regarding the extent to which local school policies enhance
or impede these youngsters’ chances for success. So frequent and so complicated have problems related
to student attendance become that many school systems consider them to be separate from other
discipline problems. This fact may be explained, in part, by the relationship between school attendance
and state aid to education and the link between attendance and a student’s constitutional right to an
education. Attendance rules include those pertaining to unexcused absence from school and class,
tardiness, and leaving school without permission. Since, by law, students must attend school up to the
state-mandated school-leaving age, attendance-related issues for local policymakers do not concern
rules so much as the consequences for absenteeism and attendance practices (Duke and Canady, 1991).
In recent years, school policymakers concerned about the relationship between the time spent in school
and student learning have begun to condone denying course credit and awarding failing grades for
chronic absenteeism. The number of absences resulting in denial of credit or a failing grade usually
ranges from 10 to 24 in a semester (Sedlak et al, 1986). According to Eastwold (1989), the truant is likely
to be 18 a boy and to be in the eleventh or twelfth grade. The student is truant more often as the year
progresses, and skip some classes more often than others. He says he skips because he dislikes the
classes or considers them to be too boring to attend. However, he does not necessarily intend to drop
out of school. This student may have a job, or may have been asked by parents to work at home or care
for children. Rood (1989) views absenteeism as a constant interruption of the learning process. The
more absences a student accumulates, the less he or she can be expected to adequately participate in
and understand classroom activities. Rood continues by stating that it is no secret that the skill levels of
many high school students have declined while absenteeism continues to increase. He writes that on an
average Monday, many urban high schools have an absence rate of more than 30 percent. It is common
for many secondary students to miss 20 to 90 days of school in an academic year. Rood (1989), Levanto
(1975), and Hegner (1987) have identified the following characteristics of non-attenders: Age –
absenteeism increases as a student progresses through high school. Gender – in the first three years of
high school, girls will have higher rates of absenteeism than boys will. Race – minority students are more
likely to be 19 absent than whites. School success – students with higher grades and/or IQs have better
attendance. Program – students in college preparatory programs are present more often than those in
vocational, general, or business programs. Family setting – students from a one-parent family have
poorer attendance rates than those from the more traditional family. School involvement – participants
in a variety of co-curricular activities will generally be in attendance more often than will non-
participants. Eastwold (1989) indicates that some researchers believe that truancy problems can be
blamed on ineffective school attendance policies. In some cases the costs in time and energy to enforce
compulsory education statutes seem to outweigh the benefits. As a result schools will develop policies
that devote the most energy to those students expected to have the best chance of success. Eastwold
(1989) indicates that the burden of reducing truancy rates rests primarily with schools, and a message
that can be drawn from the research is that schools can affect truancy rate whenever they give high
priority to effective attendance policies. Eastwold identified the most effective policies as those that
have the following elements: 20 Expectations and outcomes are clear and well publicized Policies are
followed consistently by everyone Students are held responsible for their actions. Parents are involved.
If revision of the district/building attendance policy seems a necessary part of the solution, there is no
dearth of literature dealing with the subject. School authorities generally utilize one of these types of
policies: Policies that attempt to provide incentives for good attendance. Policies that dispense punitive,
administrative consequences, such as detentions or suspensions. Restrictive and punitive policies that
penalize students academically by withholding credit or lowering grades when a number of
predetermined absences is reached (Rood, 1989). Overview of Newport News Public Schools Based
upon the attendance reports of Newport News Public Schools, student daily attendance has averaged 92
percent over the past 10 years. Newport News Public Schools attendance data for 1995-1996 reveal
secondary student attendance 11 percent below the state average of 66 percent. The 1995-1996
dropout rate for the school division was 1 21 percent higher than the reported state percentage of 5
percent. Newport News Public Schools minority dropout rate 1995-1996 equals the state's 7 percent.
Over the past five years attendance, the dropout rate, and the minority dropout rate have been worse
than the state average (OAP, 1996). The school board, superintendent, central office administrators,
building based administrators, teachers, parents, and community leaders have kept the issue of student
attendance at the forefront of their agenda throughout the years. However the problem that faces a
majority of the school divisions around the country has not escaped Newport News Public Schools. In
1996 the combination of appointed school board members and elected school board members listened
to small groups of teachers and interested community members regarding the development of an
attendance policy more stringent than the current attendance policy of Newport News Public Schools.
The small group of teachers wrote school board members letters in support of a more stringent
attendance policy. The lobbying by a small group of teachers and the interest by certain appointed
board members prompted many conversations between board members, the superintendent, and
administrative staff. The superintendent charged the assistant superintendent of administrative and
alternative services with the task of developing a draft attendance policy and attendance program 22
that could be given to the school board for possible consideration. The assistant superintendent of
administrative and alternative services formulated an attendance committee to assist his staff in writing
a draft attendance policy that could be brought before the school board for consideration. The
attendance committee consisted of school board members, central office administrators, principals,
teachers, parents, and community leaders. The attendance committee members were given the charge
of exploring a policy that would hold students accountable for missing classes or school. The charge was
approved by the superintendent and the assistant superintendent of administrative and alternative
services. The attendance committee submitted a draft attendance policy and attendance program to the
school board for their consideration. The school board discussed the draft attendance policy and
program many times during school board work sessions before adopting the proposed attendance
policy. The attendance policy and program were adopted by the board in 1996 for full implementation
during the 1996-1997 school year. After the school board approved the proposed attendance policy,
funding the attendance program became a priority issue. During the budget process, the overall
attendance budget was reduced to assist the superintendent with the task given to him by the city
manager to lower the 23 school division budget. With reduced funding for the attendance program, the
assistant superintendent of administrative and alternative services submitted a recommendation to the
superintendent to reallocate available attendance resources to the high school. The superintendent
accepted the recommendation. The recommendation was submitted by the superintendent to the
school board for board approval. The school board approved the reallocation of attendance resources
for the 1996-97 school year. The assistant superintendent of administrative and alternative services
reallocated seven attendance officers to the high schools from the elementary and middle schools. Each
high school was allocated an attendance clerk with the responsibility of managing the attendance
program data collection. During the summer of 1996 the appointed school board members’ term of
office ended. The appointed school board members were replaced by elected school board members.
Later during the summer months, the superintendent of Newport News Public Schools decided to
accept a position in another school division. The elected school board appointed an interim
superintendent who later was appointed as superintendent of schools. The school board wanted to
know if the new attendance policy and attendance program made a difference in the 24 attendance of
high school student attendance. The newly appointed superintendent struggled with providing the
school board with a definite answer because the attendance data had been analyzed only by looking at
raw data collection. The superintendent requested the assistant superintendent of administrative and
alternative services to provide him with a data analysis that could provide information to the school
board. This data could determine if the new attendance policy and attendance program had effected
positively high school attendance. The assistant superintendent of administrative and alternative
services retired before the data analysis of attendance was completed. The superintendent appointed
an individual from outside of the school division as assistant superintendent of administrative and
alternative services. The newly appointed assistant superintendent of administrative and alternative
services was asked by the superintendent to provide him with data that could assist him in explaining
the effectiveness of the new attendance policy and attendance program. The newly appointed assistant
superintendent could not generate a study done by the school system on its attendance policy or
attendance program. To assist the school division, the superintendent and assistant superintendent of
administrative and alternative services agreed that a study of the attendance 25 policy and attendance
program was needed to provide data for utilization by the school division(See Appendix C). Theoretical
Framework Previous research studies by De Leonibus (1978) suggest that student absenteeism and lack
of motivation are intertwined. Educators have begun to investigate the theories of motivation in order
to apply them to create policies in an attempt to reduce the problem of student absenteeism (De
Leonibus, 1978). Motivation is usually considered as being related to human needs, which in turn
motivates behavior. The classical management view of motivation is based on the belief that people
need money, so if the employer pays them well, they will be motivated to work hard. Conversely, those
who are lazy are penalized by receiving a lower pay rate. The premise behind this theory is that a carrot
(incentive of extra pay) and stick (penalty of lower pay) will motivate the worker to do the job well
(Owens, 1987). As further explained by Owens (1987), once the lowest order of needs on the hierarchy
is met, a higher order need appears and the individual has a desire to satisfy that need. The hierarchy of
needs as used in Maslow's theory of motivation are as follows: basic physiological needs (food, water,
shelter); security and safety; social affiliation; 26 esteem; and self-actualization (Owens, 1987). Ames
(1990) views motivation as a process aimed at creating motivational thought patterns that contribute to
self-regulating action. Students are motivated for different reasons. Motivation isn't synonymous with
achievement, but a positive feeling of self-worth that is a strong motivational construct. Ames defines
self-worth as an expectation or belief that one is capable of performing a specific task, organizing and
carrying out required behaviors in a situation. Glasser (1990) in his work on what he deems to be the
quality school has created what he refers to as the control theory. This theory is based on the belief that
no one can make anyone do anything--it is the job of the manager (teacher) to make it easy for the
workers (students) to see a strong connection between what they are asked to do and what they believe
to be worth doing. Glasser makes an industrial analogy between school and the workplace, stating that
school should be made relevant and interesting because bored workers won't produce high quality
work. According to Glasser (1990), there are two different management styles; boss-management and
lead-management. Boss-management style is based on coercion and leadmanagement on cooperative
action. Effective teachers manage students without coercion. Coercion begets coercion, which turns the
students into adversaries thus reducing the 27 opportunity to motivate. Glasser (1990) further explains
his control theory by stating that all motivation comes from within oneself and not from outside.
However, what happens outside has a lot to do with what one chooses to do, but the outside events
don’t cause the behavior. All one gets from the outside is information. Shanker (1990) adapted the
principles of economics to the theories of student motivation. The free market theory (capitalism) and
the theory of the planned or command economy (communism), according to Shanker, can be utilized in
directing people toward action. Shanker further stated that school incentives are aligned incorrectly and
teachers are not rewarded for improving student outcomes. The students have only one incentive--a
diploma. Shanker writes that incentives do work; they are a major motivator of the behavior of
individuals and systems. School should be designed to use competition and teamwork to achieve
established goals. Shanker writes just as in a free market system, this will result in a high level of
production. All of the motivational theories discussed showed the common elements of the importance
of intrinsic sense of belonging and self-worth to motivation. Individuals need to feel a sense of
achievement and are motivated by extrinsic acknowledgements of this achievement (Person, 1990). 28
Causes or Predictors of Student Absenteeism According to Woog (1992), three theoretical categories
identify the causes or predictors of student attendance specifically are: those which identify the cause of
the absenteeism with the student or his/her family characteristics, those which identify the student's
social or economic environment as the causal factor, and those which examine the effect of various
school characteristics as influential in the absentee rate of students. The 1977 Educational Research
Service report identifies age, IQ, achievement, religion, and co-curricular activities as associated with
various rates of absenteeism. Older students, students living with one parent, students with lower IQ
scores, students with lower grades, students who did not participate in school activities, and non-Jewish
students all were noted to have higher absentee rates than did their counterparts. Galloway (1985)
reports that frequently absent students have a fear of teachers or specific subjects. He also reports that
the families of absent students were noted as scoring much higher on measurements of familial stress.
Both of Gallaway's reports identified an unfavorable parental attitude toward school as a significant
influence on the absence rate of their children. Galloway's (1985) research showed excessive absentees
29 as students whose families had experienced financial problems or whose parents experienced poor
health. Galloway suggests that the poor economic condition of the family may generate a negative
attitude toward school either because the family needs the student to work and contribute to the family
income or because education is not perceived to be an avenue to increased economic status. The largest
factor in the average daily attendance of a school is generated from influences which occur
independently of the school's organizational or attendance policy characteristics(Petzko 1990). Petzko's
research concluded that student's absenteeism is related to familial or cultural characteristics. School
climate and organization characteristics of the school have also been suggested as predictive factors in
student absenteeism (Woog 1992). The Education Research Services Report (1977) suggests that
staff/student relationship, quality of instruction, curriculum standards, and attendance procedures may
affect absenteeism. Duke and Meckel (1980) studied two California high schools and identified five
organizational variables potentially related to student attendance. Duke and Meckel conclude that
division of labor, micro-level decision making, rewards and sanctions, macro-level decision making,
training, and selection play a large part in the cause of attendance problems at the two schools. 30 An
investigation by Greene (1963) attempted to determine if a significant difference existed between
students having favorable and unfavorable attendance records and whether absenteeism varied
significantly between economically advantaged and disadvantaged school communities. A variety of
assessment instruments were used to compare the top and bottom 10 percent of attendance in two
economically distinct high schools. Greene found that in both schools favorable attenders earned
consistently higher marks than unfavorable attenders. In the economically disadvantaged school,
favorable attendance was associated reliably with high IQ scores, high socio-economic status, and
parental opinion of the school. Greene concluded that absenteeism is a behavior which is individually
symptomatic of an unfavorable adjustment between the learner and the educational and social
environment in which he/she is functioning. Description of Related Attendance Policies/Programs The
decisions that are made when attendance policies are formed and the administering of these policies
sometimes makes the idea of compulsory attendance an expensive one (Woog, 1992). Woog further
suggests that administrators are confronted frequently by differing philosophies of teachers as they try
to enforce attendance policies in a consistent 31 manner. Teachers who do not feel a need to state,
review, and implement age-appropriate attendance expectations make the implementation and
administration of an attendance policy difficult for administrators. Woog (1992) reports that students
also will not comply with policies. Woog further reports that rewards and/or consequences used in the
attendance policies can be adjusted and improved in an attempt to reduce school attendance problems.
Attendance policies address excused and unexcused absences and truancy. Numerous school district
policies have a grade or course credit consequence for unexcused attendance. Academic sanctions deny
the offender course credit or grade after a number of unexcused absences have been collected and
deemed excessive. Bredahl (1981) discusses the effects of a new attendance policy in a rural school of
540 students. Students earned a credit if they satisfactorily completed course requirements and if they
had regular attendance. If students were absent for more than 15 days, they would not receive credit
for the course. Bredahl (1981) reports that the absence rate was reduced by 30 percent. The results of
the implementation showed a decrease in the failure rate and also an increase in the attendance rate.
Suprina (1979) reported that there was a drastic decline in the amount of class cutting as a result of the
32 implementation of an attendance policy that withdrew a student from a class after three unexcused
absences. Suprina (1979) discussed another policy which instituted a mandatory failing grade upon the
seventh unexcused absence in a quarter. Suprina explained that parents were informed after the third,
sixth, and seventh absences. Also a review board was established for appeal purposes. Suprina (1979)
reports that the new policy implementation led to attendance being increased on an average of six
additional school days per student, with failing students gaining an average of 10 school days. In the fall
of 1974 a West Chicago high school established attendance as a top priority in the school. Daily calls
were made to parents on all absences. Disciplinary consequences were initiated towards any student
who had an unverified absence. Incentives were established for good attendance, including use of a
student lounge, an unscheduled class period, off-campus lunch, and early dismissal. Attendance was
charted and weekly meetings were held with all personnel involved in the attendance procedures
(DuFours, 1983). Attendance increased from 87 percent in 1974 to 97 percent in 1982. DuFours (1983)
further reports that improvement in attendance appeared to improve climate, attitude, and
achievement. Perceptions/Attitudes of Attendance 33 The performance or effectiveness of parents is
affected by varying family conditions, the changing structure, mobility of family and poor socio-
economic circumstances. However, even where two parents are present in the home, they may not be
effective parents. The character of the parents themselves, their family attitudes and attitudes towards
their children, especially in the exercise of parenting skills, and their attitude towards and involvement
in school, especially in support for the child, convey strong messages (Harte, 1995). The parents' skills in
the home and their attitudes towards the child in the school and towards school in general are linked to
attendance performance. Parents of students with low attendance rates are often described as being
only nominally interested in school, as rarely inquiring about studies, as never budgeting home study
time, as fearing school and as avoiding teacher-parent interviews (Harte, 1995). Summary An important
aspect of students' access to education is the amount of time actually spent in the classroom. When
students are absent from school, arrive late, or cut class, they are reducing their opportunities to learn.
Furthermore, when students disrupt classes by being late or 34 frequently absent, they interfere with
other students' opportunities to learn. Perhaps most importantly, the habits of consistent and on-time
attendance are habits that will serve young people well in their future work lives (National Center for
Education Statistics, 1996). The literature described the history of attendance in the public school
system while validating the importance of good school attendance. The literature continued by
describing a clear picture of attendance issues in Newport News Public Schools followed by theoretical
frameworks, and causes or predictors of students’ absenteeism. The literature concluded with a
description of related attendance policies/programs and perceptions and attitudes of school
attendance. Chapter Three will describe the methodology used in this evaluation study.