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Bush, J. E. (2007). Composing and arranging in middle school general music.

General Music Today,​ ​21​(1), 6-10.

This article first stood out to me not because of its author, but, because of key
words “composing and arranging”. When thinking about articles discussing participatory
culture, many authors suggested music creation as the basis for general music
classrooms rather than music consumption or reproduction. While reflecting upon this
information, I quickly began to wonder how practical applying these concepts would
actually become. This article seems to offer opportunities, activities, and extensions for
applying arranging and compositional methods in our middle school general music
classrooms specifically.

Summary:
Similar to many articles we’ve read so far regarding the importance of participatory
music culture within a hybrid classroom, this article expands on practical applications of
composing and arranging in the general music classroom. Though the title suggests
that middle school can serve as an opening avenue for these concepts, high school can
continue the growth of the aspects discussed. The problem of composition being too
advanced is first subsided by offering the fact that composition merely combines many
musical elements in one conscious manner, suggesting that skill level is of no true
importance and can be adjusted based on the difficulty of the composition at hand.
Activities may include:
·​ ​Hearing several variations of a unique work
·​ ​Exploration of notation (both traditional and non-traditional)
·​ ​Exploring harmony based on popular progression (pop vs. blues)
·​ ​Extension via visual arts class
·​ ​Soundtrack for video/moment
One important factor to note is that many of these easy implications for composition can
easily expanded in many different elements of musicianship such as music history or
technology.

Cayari, C. (2015). Participatory culture and informal music learning through video
creation in the curriculum. ​International Journal of Community Music​, 8(1),
41–57.
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This article is a study that examines undergraduate music education students

and how they created music videos through an informal music project. This assignment
was used as an introduction to music education and technology courses.

Summary
The study took place at a Midwestern public university and the data was
collected through 3 different ways. One was observing student’s music video projects,
two, a web survey and three student interviews. The curriculum and project was
positively accepted. The videos created were vastly diverse in styles and multiple types
of technologies were used to create the video. The student’s were being introduced to
informal learning as well as project-based approach. They were also focused upon
participatory culture through the creation of music video allowing the creators to expand
audiences, networks and communities through creating and sharing their videos. They
describe participatory culture as other’s using online resources to learn and share their
knowledge, skills and receive feedback. The undergraduate project was based off of a
project the Cayari used with 6th through 12th grade students. Based off of their
responses students felt proud of the works they created with only slight concerns about
their grading with such an open ended project. Through this project the teacher
becomes a facilitator. Projects like these engage students due to its relevance to the
music they are listening to as well as well as the technology they are interested in
learning about.

Davis, V. W. (2009). The meaning of music education to middle school general

music students. ​Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,​
61-77​.

This source could provide significant insight when considering the rationales and
purposes for secondary music education coming from the students. With all of our
discussion regarding student based curriculum and pedagogy it only makes sense to
gather perspectives from those actually taking any general music course. This research
surveyed students in grades 6-8 general music based off of the Music Meaning Survey
(MMS). Student’s meanings of general music education was divided into four
categories: vocational, academic, belongingness, and agency.

Summary:
This research, conducting throughout Alabama, Arizona, Iowa, Missouri, and South
Carolina, surveyed middle school students through an assessment instrument called the
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Music Meaning Survey (MMS) developed to explore student’s perspectives of

meaningfulness of their own music education. The purpose was to gain a better
understanding of why secondary general music classes matter to students in order to
improve their quality and longevity. Of the 670 responses generated, the study found
that the ‘Vocational’ category was the strongest contributor in regards to student’s
musical meaningfulness. This may suggest that students enrolled in secondary general
music courses are doing so because they are seeking to become more actively
engaged in music throughout their daily lives. Though this may suggest that band, choir,
and orchestra programs do not offer active engagement. By offering courses that reach
the interests of our students, it not only ensures that general music courses are much
more expanded, but offers a greater opportunity to engage in many different types of
music for a lifetime of authentic musicking.

Davis, S. G., & Blair, D. V. (2011). Popular music in American teacher education: A
glimpse into a secondary methods course. ​International Journal of Music
Education,​ ​29(​ 2), 124-140.

This study focuses upon students in American University who are in a secondary
general music methods classroom and their investment in the informal learning process.
They are using the informal learning process in order to create a pedagogical plan in
order to incorporate popular music in the classroom.

Summary
In the study the instructor talks about the three steps in order to have meaningful
engagement experiences. One is disequilibrium, two breaking down existing barriers;
and three-student transformation. The students in this methods class are engaging in
informal learning process to better understand popular music and music making.
Students became aware of the importance of music that is rooted in students culture in
order to create a musical connection, as well as how popular music and how aural and
informed musical process encourage students to engage in personal musical
expression. Step one of having a meaningful engagement experience is disequilibrium,
which is the lack of equilibrium or stability. In an informal learning setting disequilibrium
is common and they explain that educators need to be okay with it happening in order
for students to learn and grow. This provides students to construct their own
understanding in a meaningful way to them. In conclusion the teachers in training
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learned how to approach popular music in classrooms and the importance of providing
students with a choice.

Kang, S., & Yoo, H. (2016). Korean percussion ensemble (samulnori) in the
general music classroom. ​General Music Today​, ​29(​ 3), 4–11.

The article builds on the scholarship of general music today, and combines it with
the structure of a Korean percussion ensemble. The idea is to teach general music
through korean rhythmic structures, improvisation, composition, and performance.
Students can use the rhythms to write their own songs or use call and response
exchanges between them and their classmates. It gives an example lesson plan with
how a class would look and what the objectives and materials are. It also gives an
example procedure.

Summary:
The article introduces the cultural background and instructional methods of Korean
percussion ensembles as an approach to teaching upper-level general music. The
authors build off the idea that korean rhythmic structures allow for student
improvisation, composition, and performance. Instructors can begin teaching this
concept by allowing students to explore the unique percussion instruments and their
sounds. The article gives examples of the “greeting” and “ending” rhythms that
traditional korean players play to open and close music. Students can then collaborate
with a song writing experience where they write their own lyrics to the rhythms of some
of the excerpts. A teacher may explain that Korean music has reflected the society at
the time. Therefore, students can have the opportunity to connect the music to their own
culture and everyday lives.

Kratus, J. (2016). Songwriting: A new direction for secondary music education.

Music
Educators Journal,​ ​102​(3), 60-65.

The use of songwriting courses in the secondary general music classrooms can
provide adolescents with personal musical experiences. The article discusses
curriculum development, instructional procedures and assessments when introducing
songwriting to a general music curriculum.

Summary:
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This article discusses the purpose of including a songwriting class that focuses
on composition and performance of songs. The article discusses the importance of
teaching songwriting. It allows student to reconnect student’s musical experiences in
and out of school. Songwriting allows students to connect with their own culture and
personal feelings. This class also provides an opportunity for students who want to learn
instruments like ukulele, guitar and keyboard to do so. Songwriting is also a way for
adolescents to address social and psychological needs. Lastly a songwriting class can
provide students with a musical skill they can use throughout their lifetime. Within the
songwriting classroom educators take on a new way of developing musical growth in
students. A teacher will now be helping students along their creative process, directing
and refining student’s musical ideas instead of their own. In order to have a successful
songwriting class teachers must maintain a healthy and safe environment in order for
students to be comfortable expressing their feelings. One concern teacher’s have in a
songwriting class is how to assess a students song. This article suggests three levels of
assessment. One is supportive, while encouraging students to describe what they
specifically like in other songs. The next is to be descriptive, in order to highlight what
was unique as well as acknowledge specific choices the composer did. Lastly
prescriptive, which is when students and teachers provide the songwriter with ways to
improve.

Reimer, B. (1965). A new curriculum for secondary general music. ​Bulletin of the
Council for Research in Music Education,​(4), 11-20.

Reimer gives an example of a secondary general music curriculum and

discussed the issues concerning the limited music classrooms that are offered in
secondary schools. He views believes that general music should involve music
appreciation for students who do not want to perform or compose. He emphasizes the
importance of educators wanting to reach all students through music.

Summary:
In 1965, 67% of elementary schools in America have allotted time set in the curriculum
for general music. In High Schools it goes down to 23%. After 6th grade, music
education is largely confined to performing groups. The idea of the “song sing”
approach seems to continue in high school general music courses. The main purpose of
public school music education is to develop every child’s potential to understand and
appreciate music. The objectives of a newly defined musical course would be to help
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students build a logical pattern of concepts about music and experiences with music.
The class would involve reading, listening, and analyzing music.

Sanderson, D. N. (2014). Music class offerings beyond bands, choirs, and

orchestras in nebraska high schools. ​University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Nebraska.

Summary:
This study, conducted in Nebraska throughout much of 2013 and 2014, was to survey
and profile the secondary general music courses currently offered (not band, choir, or
orchestra: ​non-BCO​) in comparison with location, demographic, size, and perception.
The purpose of questioning these concepts was to improve courses available for the
roughly 60% of students who chose not to take music courses throughout their high
school careers. Participants consisted of 518 Nebraska high school music teachers
who first answered a questionnaire regarding department size, population, location,
staffing, and music course offerings. Studies showed that 71.3 % reported that some
type of non-BCO music was currently being offered. Of these Music Theory (48.9%)
was the most common, followed by music appreciation (27.7%), guitar (26.6%), music
technology (16%), music history (10.6%), class piano (6.4%), and finally composition
classes (3.2%).

Tobias, E. S., Campbell, M. R., & Greco, P. (2015). Bringing curriculum to

life. Enacting project-based learning in music programs. ​Music Educators
Journal​, ​102​(2), 39–47.

The author is a firm believer of the idea that project-based learning captures
student interest, provokes critical thinking, and offers student-centered learning in a
music classroom. Tobias describes projects as activities, tasks, and rehearsal
strategies. When considering general music education, this source may be helpful to
reference. It gives a table on how to apply pedagogical principles to a project for
elementary, middle, and high schools. It gives project ideas and how the practices might
look in a music classroom. The projects revolve around community music, music
history, and the emotional aspect of music.

Summary:​ The main idea of the article is to introduce project based learning as a
teaching strategy for music educators and discusses projects in relation to assessment,
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curriculum, and standards. Project based learning stems from the idea that real life
problems capture student interest and facilitate critical thinking. 3 designs for projects in
elementary, middle, and high school are included. It encourages students to look at
music in a real- life context. He suggests when designing a project, ask one or two
generative questions. Then a teacher should scope out resources and practicality of the
project. Then, sketch out what the project is including the key concepts, skills, and
questions.

Elementary: In a third grade music classroom students sketch an imaginary city.

The teacher asks where music for celebrations or ceremonies would be heard in their
city. The teacher then plays excerpts of music and asks where in the city the students
would hear this sort of music. Then asks further questions. “Why do you think this
makes a good graduation piece?” “What instruments are being played?” and “What
feelings are in the music?”
Then the class is assigned to make a song that would play at an event in their city.

Middle:A sixth grade class is designed to make a presentation about music and
culture. An example includes an app, “Music of the American Revolution.” Their
presentation includes main menus, submenues, and musical/historical content. Some
students presented on Latin American Dance Music, and musical responses to natural
disasters.

High School: In addressing the question, “How might people respond to their
worlds through music?” a teacher had students create imaginary arts organizations.
Some improvised music to nature, others formed an ensemble and collaborated with the
media club to make a documentary on climate change. The students share their
completed projects with the school and community.

Tobias, E. S. (2015). Crossfading music education: Connections between

secondary students’ in-and out-of-school music experience. International ​Journal
of Music Education, 33(​ 1), 18-35.

Summary:
The article discusses informal and formal music making and teaching. The author notes
that many researchers have different viewpoints on what informal means some saying
that formal pedagogy is when someone has taken the role of the teacher, thereby
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defining everyone else as the student. Others view informal as music making at home
or outside of school. The study looks at a secondary general music classroom where
participants wrote their own music and how it affects their musical engagement outside
of school. They did a single study case on a four week class project in a songwriting
and technology class based in a suburban high school. The teacher took a hands off
approach to the project and rarely instructed. The assignment was to refine and submit
a recording of an original song. Because the assignment was so vague, findings
suggest that the transition from in school and out of school music making was very
smooth. For example, a student would learn a riff from a Youtube video at home. The
students used popular music as inspiration for what they were creating. What they were
listening to outside of school played a role into the music they created, and these past
experiences helped them teach each other. For example, a student didn't know what a
bridge was so another student referenced a Daft Punk song and said where the bridge
was in it.

Summary:
Multiple studies were done on musical achievement in a secondary school system.

Study 1: The study centered around a course called, Masterpieces of Music Literature.”
Musical achievement was measure of the students in this course and compared to a
performance group. Assessments were collected through observation, examination,
interviews, and questionnaires. The two classes seemed to have received the same
musical growth, but the literature course was highly favored among parents and
students. Study 2: An objective of the University of Iowa was to provide training for
secondary-school teachers who were interested in teaching music as an academic
subject. It was discovered one of the major problems facing music education was lack
of information and knowledge that the teachers had about 20th century music (the
music of the time). Study 3: A listening skills study was done where materials were
provided to train students to listen to music intelligently. The study concluded that
seventh graders can be taught skills relating to rhythm, tonality, form, texture, and tone
color regardless of their musical experience.

Overall, the music education of youth in America is centered around participation

in performings groups. There are few music classes that offer a general education
course in music. It also states that a performance oriented musical education generally
neglects concepts of cultural and historical aspects of music. General music programs
must be purposeful and related to the present day needs of the youth.
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VanWeelden, K. (2011). Accommodating the special learner in secondary general

music class. ​The National Association for Music Education,​ ​Volume(​ Issue)
39-41.

Summary:
One of the core principles of the IDEA is that these students engage with other students
in general education classrooms as much as possible (Least Restrictive Environment)
meaning that inclusion within the secondary general music classroom must be
prioritized. This article was centered around seven both practical and rational
“educational supports” that could potentially encourage both the inclusion and growth of
exceptional students within the secondary general music classroom. Each of these
seven supports were critically thought out to benefit more than one learner via different
modalities and types of learner (aural, visual, kinesthetic).
1. Written words: key words to be emphasized throughout a lesson
2. Icons: pictures or symbols that represent words emphasized throughout a lesson
3. Color coding: concept of color is paired with icons/written words
4. Other visual aids: objects/pictures/movements that provide opportunity for
exploration
5. Assistive and supportive technology: adaptive devices to improve learning and
communication
6. Echoing: students repeat words orally
7. Peer mentoring: pairs exceptional student with another member for extra help
Though I do appreciate the content of this article, it seems as though many of these
thoughts would definitely best be used both simultaneously and interchangeably,
suggesting that the best approach towards the secondary general music classroom
setting is a multitude of approaches than one “be-all-solve all”.

Wise, S., Greenwood, J., & Davis, N. (2011). Teachers' use of digital technology in
secondary music education: illustrations of changing classrooms. ​British
Journal
of Music Education,​ ​28(​ 2), 117-134.
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Technology has had a massive influence on music and has now transformed
individuals approach musical activities. Music technology has started transforming some
of the secondary general music classrooms. In this article we hear about music
teachers in New Zealand in regards to digital technology and how it is impacting their
music classrooms.

Summary
The use of technology in classrooms has dramatically increased over the past 12
years. The students now in the classrooms have been surrounded by technology as
they grew up and have been using it in all different forms of their daily lives. A challenge
they describe is finding ways to move technology from just being an add on to the
curriculum but rather apart of the curriculum. They talk about the importance of keeping
pace with the outside world and their developments in technology. The author describes
music technology as “any situation in which electronic technology is used to control,
manipulate or communicate effectively” (4). By moving from teacher-centered to
student-centered learning activities teachers will have an easier time implementing
Information and communication technologies (ICT). The teacher’s participating in the
study had a general acceptance for the technology incorporated in the classroom and
saw that it led to high levels of student engagement and success. Teachers had their
students use the software in order to compose music, as well as use the technology to
find podcasts and other material relevant to what they were studying. These teachers
used technology to serve traditional needs for teaching music but as well as enhance
the learning experience.