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 Figure 1.2: Power generation by source in India in the New Policies Scenario

Figure 1.3: Fossil-Fuel trade balance in India in the New Policies Scenario

Council of scientific and Industrial Research – Central Scientific Instruments Organisation,

(CSIR-CSIO) Chandigarh, is a premier Indian organisation and undertake projects of Optical
design and fabrication, Lasers, Biomedical, Electronics and Chemical Engineering. the
organisation is responsible for research and developments of Heads Up Display (HUD),
assembly installed in cockpits of various aircrafts of IAF. Recent work is done on Light Pipe
system, which is a solar and optics based project. The Optical Devices and Systems department
has all the instruments related to solar like lux-meter, pyranometer etc which gives a better
insight to researcher to do the work. Thus, there is a sound application perspective to this
research.
Solar energy is the most promising and richest source of the energy. Solar energy is energy that
originates directly from the sun. The sun generates the radiations/energy in its core by a process
called nuclear fusion. In a nuclear fusion phenomenon, four hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one
helium atom. The weight of the helium atom is lesser than of the four nuclei that combine to
form it. A small part of the solar radiation reaches the earth.
Today, solar energy has many applications like for water heating purposes for domestic and
industrial use, space heating of buildings, lightning of room by light pipe, lumber drying,
agricultural products drying, solar cooking, solar thermal power generation, and water
distillation. Heating water for domestic purposes is the most economical and easy way of solar
energy utilization. The share of solar energy used for power generation in India is specified in
figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Share of renewable energy capacity and generation in India, 2040

There are a lot of advantages of solar energy. First of all, it is abundant in nature and no cost is
paid to consume it. Secondly, it is clean. It does not create any pollution or ecological imbalance.
It does not generate any harmful waste products to the environment. Third, it is renewable source
of energy. The sun will keep producing energy endlessly for millions of years.
Basically, solar energy is converted into heat energy using SWH and converted into electricity
using solar PV cells. In SWH, the fluid is heated up using solar energy. SWH is the basic unit to
utilize the solar energy for power generation or water heating purposes. Here is a brief about
SWH systems and its description.
1.2 SOLAR WATER HEATER

Solar Water Heater is basically a flat box consists mainly of three components. One is an
insulated storage tank to store both cold and hot fluid, second is a collector tube primarily made
up of borosilicate glass through which fluid/coolant is flowing, third is transparent cover to
gather sun radiations to the tubes. Other components are pipe fitting, insulated lids on both inlet
and outlet, a concentrator depending upon the application. The solar water heater works on the
principle of greenhouse effect; solar radiations incident upon the concentrator and concentrates
towards the collector tube. The solar collector tube is usually evacuated, thus the energy
contained within the solar collector tube is trapped and thus heated up the fluid flow within the
tubes. The collector tube is made up of borosilicate glass with transmissibility in range of 92-
97%. The solar collector tube’s ends are well insulated to avoid heat losses. And also make leak
proof.
SWH system can provide the hot water to an entire family during the summer season. The
exposed area required per person is about 1 m2. An average family of four people therefore needs
a size of about 4 m2.

Figure 1.5: A conventional Solar Water Heater System along with its constituents
1.2.1 TYPES OF SYSTEMS

1.2.1.1 Active SWH system

In active systems, one or more pumps are used to circulate the working fluid or water, i.e. the
water is forced circulate in the system. These systems are slightly more expensive but have many
advantages like: The storage tank can be installed lower than the collector tube; leads to easy
installment of the system and also the pre-existing storage tanks can also be used. This system
exhibits superior efficiency and has high control over the entire system.
There are two types of active solar water heating systems:
 Direct circulation systems
In this system, directly household water is circulated by pumps through the collector tube and
directed into the home pipeline. The system works well in warm climates where it rarely freezes.
 Indirect circulation systems
In this system, a secondary fluid is pumped through the collector tube which after heat up passes
through the heat exchanger and heats up the water which will flow in house to use. This system
is popular in cold climates which are prone to freezing temperatures.

1.2.1.2 Passive SWH system

In passive systems, working relies on heat-driven convection or heat collector pipes to circulate
water or heating fluid in the system. The cost of the passive SWH systems costs less and has
extremely low maintenance. But the passive system has significantly lower efficiency than that
of an active system. Major concerns are overheating and freezing of the fluid. However, passive
systems are more reliable and have longer life.
There are two types of passive solar water heating systems:
 Integral collector-storage passive systems
This type of system performs best in areas where temperature rarely falls below the freezing
point. These also perform well in the households which require significant daytime and evening
hot-water.
 Thermosyphon systems
This works on the phenomenon that the hot water will raise in the system and cold water will
sink down, thus causes a natural circulation. The storage tank should be installed above the
collector tube so that the hot water will rise into the storage tank. This type of system is more
reliable, but needs a rigid design of roof as heavy storage tank is installed above the roof. These
are usually more expensive than later one.

1.2.2 TYPE OF COLLECTORS

Solar collectors or collector tubes captured and retained heat energy from the sun and used it to
heat the flowing fluid. It acts as a house to convert sun radiation into heat energy and a passage
for fluid to flow. Shape, dimension, assembly position, material are the important factors to
select a collector tube. Usually the material used is borosilicate glass, a now a day’s PMMA is
also used.
We know that all the hot objects attain thermal equilibrium with the surrounding by heat loss to
the system because of temperature difference. The heat transfer processes are conduction,
convection and radiation. Basically, the efficiency of a solar collector tube is directly related to
heat losses from the collector surface. In context with the solar collector tube, convection and
radiation are the most important modes of heat transfer. Thermal insulation or vacuum is used to
minimize heat loss from the tube. This is basically a direct manifestation of Second law of
thermodynamics known as the 'equilibrium effect'.
Heat lost will be more rapid if the temperature difference between the hot object and its
surroundings is larger. Heat loss is mainly governed by the thermal gradient between the
temperature of the collector tube outer surface and the ambient temperature. All the three heat
transfer modes: conduction, convection, and radiation occurs more rapidly over large thermal
gradients, known as the 'delta-t effect'.

1.2.2.1 Flat-plate collector (FPC)

Flat plate collectors is a box shaped collector with the glass on the top in the direction of the sun
rays. Mostly flat plate collectors have two horizontal absorbing pipes at the top and bottom,
called headers, and many small vertical pipes connecting them, called risers. The risers are
connected to thin absorber aluminum fins.
Heat-transfer fluid/ water is pumped from the storage tanks or heat exchanger into the collectors'
bottom header, and then travels up through the risers, absorbing heat from the absorber fins, and
then leaves the collector tube from the top header. Instead of such a complex design, a simple
design is used. A single pipe is used which travels up and down in the collector box.
The type of glass used in flat plate collectors is mostly borosilicate glass having transmissibility
from 92-97%. Being tempered, the glass can withstand significant hail without breaking, and for
this reason durability of the flat-plate collectors are more.

1.2.2.2 Evacuated tube collectors (ETC)

In this collector tube, heat losses to the environment have been reduced. As heat cannot cross the
vacuum, a vacuum is created between outer and inner glass tubes. This creates an isolation of the
inner system with surrounding so that it limits the heat loss to the surrounding. The outer surface
of the inner tube is coated with a thermal absorbent layer.
During the full sunshine conditions; FPC’s has higher efficiency than the ETC. However, the
energy output in cloudy or cold weather is more of the ETC. Mostly the material of ETCs are
annealed glass. ETCs also made from "coke glass," which is stronger but has lower efficiency as
transmissibility coefficient is less.

1.2.3 TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS

Solar concentrators are the optical devices which concentrates the sun radiations to a specific
point or line. Generally, the intense radiations results in considerably high temperatures, thus
fluid heats up in relative lesser time and superheated steam thus formed can be used for power
generation in solar thermal plants. So to intensify the sun rays, the concentrators that bundles the
rays into one focal point are used. For the concentration to be efficient, the concentrator should
be directly facing towards the sun rays. There is also a need of tracking system so that
concentrate could follow the sun to catch at most radiations as possible.

Solar Tracking is of two types: single axis and double axis. In single axis motion is from East to
West to follow the daily movement of the sun across the sky, whereas in dual axis motion is
from East to West and from North to South to exactly track the changing path of the sun.

Solar concentrators are of follow types:

 Parabolic trough

Parabolic trough concentrator is a curved,

mirrored trough which reflects and concentrates
the solar radiation onto the collector tube
containing the fluid, running along the length of
the trough, positioned at the focal point of the
parabolic trough. The trough is parabolic along
one axis and linear in the orthogonal axis as
shown in figure. This configuration does not
require optical lenses.

 Parabolic Dish designs

The parabolic solar dish concentrates the sun's rays on the

heating element of a Stirling engine. The entire unit acts as a
solar tracker. A dish system uses a large, reflective, parabolic
dish (similar in shape to satellite television dish). It focuses
all the sunlight that strikes the dish up onto to a single point
above the dish, where a receiver captures the heat and
transforms it into a useful form.

 Power towers

Power towers are known as 'central tower' power plants or

‘heliostat‘power plants, capture and focus the sun's thermal
energy with thousands of tracking mirrors in roughly a two
square mile field. A tower resides in the center of the heliostat
field. The heliostats focus concentrated sunlight on a receiver
which sits on top of the tower.

 Fresnel reflectors
A linear Fresnel reflector power plant uses a series of long,
narrow, shallow-curvature (or even flat) mirrors to focus
light onto one or more linear receivers positioned above the
mirrors. On top of the receiver a small parabolic mirror can
be attached for further focusing the light. Concentrator
reflectors are straight mirrors with silicone-covered metal
that are angled to capture sunlight rays. To prevent
reflection losses, the mirrors are used in pairs. The angle of
inclination depends on the latitude of the installation.

Luminescent concentrators

Luminescent concentrators refract light in a luminescent film and then channel it to a solar cell.
They do not require mirrors and optical lenses and can concentrate diffuse light. This
concentrator technology does not need tracking.

 Fresnel lens

A Fresnel lens is nothing but essentially a chain of prisms.

Each prism represents the slope of the lens surface, but without
the material of the full body of the conventional singlet. This
front of lens is not smooth but has a rough surface sections
angled differently to increase concentration while bringing
weight and thickness to a minimum. Fresnel lenses can either
be circular, providing a point focus with high concentration
power, or cylindrical providing a line focus with reduced
concentration power. On top of the receiver a small parabolic
mirror can be attached for further focusing the light.

1.3 THE SUN AND THE EARTH

Sun is a large sphere shaped body of diameter 1.39 x 10 9 m, at a distance of 1.5 x 1011 m from
the earth with an effective black body temperature of 5777K. Sun is the major source of energy.
The energy generation process is nuclear fusion, in which four hydrogen nuclei fused to one
helium atom. As the mass of helium atom is less than that of 4 hydrogen nuclei, the energy
equivalent to this mass is emitted into the space. This energy produced is in form of radiations,
specify by Stefan-Boltzman law as:

E = ϵσT4 1.1

Where ϵ-emissivity of the surface, σ- Stefan-Boltzman constant

The earth is oval in shape but considered nearly round, with a diameter of 12.75 x 10 6 m. it has
two motions: one rotate about its own axis with axis inclination of 23.5o. This motion results in
day and night in 24 hours. Second it revolves around the sun once in a year, results in season
formation.

1.3.1 SOLAR RAYS

Sun rays are in form of electromagnetic waves present in space. Electromagnetic wave spectrum
covers range from x-rays having wavelength in 0.01 to 10 nanometer range, to Radio waves
having wavelength of a 1m or more. Optical radiation is spread in between the of X rays and
radio waves, which shows a distinctive mix of wave, Ray and particles properties

Figure 1.6: Electromagnetic Spectrum

While passes through the atmosphere, some portion of UV and infrared rays are absorb. The
maximum intensity occurs at about 0.48micrometer wavelength in visible spectrum. About 6.4
percent of the total energy is contained the UV region (wavelength <0.38); another 48 percent is
contained in the visible region (0.38-0.78) and the remaining 45.6% is contained in infrared
region (wavelength >078)

1.3.2 SOLAR RADIATIONS

Before every yield study, it’s important to understand how solar energy works and which points
are important for the best energy uptake. Solar irradiance is the amount of energy incident i.e.
power per unit area; on the surface of the earth in form of electromagnetic radiations (Solar
Radiation), generally expressed in kWh/m2/day. First of all, the radiation emitted by the sun is a
continuous spectrum, ranging from ultraviolet to infrared through the visible spectrum where it
emits the maximum energy. In traversing the atmosphere, gases and molecules absorb part of
ultra-violet and infrared (IR). So on the surface of the earth, the solar radiation includes 5% UV,
40% of visible light and 55% IR, key holders of the heat. To design a concentrating device or a
collector, we must know the insolation or irradiance data of that particular region so as to
determine the flux generated and the energy collected in the collector.

The following graph represents the energy associated with this spectrum. The irradiance from the
sun is the function of both the wavelength and temperature of the rays as shown.

Figure 1.7: Solar irradiance spectrum from American society for testing and materials (ASTM)

At the outside of earth’s atmosphere a constant called as “solar constant” is defined for solar
energy applications. There are several studies to measure the solar constant with different
results. A term Solar constant, Io; a property of the sun, defined as the average amount of solar
radiations falling on a surface normal to the rays of the sun outside the atmosphere of the earth at
mean earth-sun distance. In the simulation the solar constant value is taken as 1366.1 W/m2 by
Gueymard [20].
The earth moves around the sun on an elliptical orbit. The variation of the earth-sun distance due
to earth’s orbit causes variable extraterrestrial radiation. The dependence of extraterrestrial
radiation on time of year is indicated by below equation

1.2

where Go is the extraterrestrial radiation, measured on the plane normal to the radiation on the
nth day of the year.
Solar radiation at normal incidence received at the surface of the earth is subject to variations due
to atmospheric scattering and atmospheric absorption [23]. Scattering of radiation as it passes
through the atmosphere is caused by interaction of the radiation with air molecules, water (vapor
and droplets), and dust. Absorption of radiation in the atmosphere in the solar energy spectrum is
due largely to ozone in the ultraviolet and to water vapor and carbon dioxide in bands in the
infrared.

Figure 1.8: Rays directed on earth’s surface after scattering and diffusion

So after passes through atmosphere two types of radiations reaches the earth’s surface:
Diffused solar radiation:

The radiations which reaches the earth’s surface after scattering from clouds and other particles
is called diffused radiation. Its intensity is always less.

Direct Beam Radiation

The radiation which directly reaches the earth’s surface without any scattering or reflection is
called direct beam radiation. Its intensity is much higher than diffused radiations.

1.3.3 SOME DEFINITIONS:

 Irradiance, W/m2: The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface, per unit area of
surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance.

 Irradiation, J/m2: The incident energy per unit area on a surface, found by integration of
irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a day. Insolation is a term applying
specifically to solar energy irradiation. The symbol H is used for insolation for a day. The
symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or other period if specified).

 Solar Time (LAT): Solar time in minutes is:

LAT = standard time + 4(Lst – Ll ) + EAT 1.3
where Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone, Ll is the longitude of the location
in question (in degrees west) and EAT is the equation of time (in minutes).

 EAT is calculated using below equation:

EAT=229.2(0.000075+0.001868 cos(B) -0.032077sin(B)-0.014615cos(2B) - 0.04089sin(2B)

where 1.4

n is the day of the year

 Hour Angle (ω): The angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due
to rotation of the earth on its axis. (It is negative in the morning, positive in the afternoon and
zero at noon). Hour angle is calculated using below equation [23]:
ω = (solar time - noon time) x 150 1.5
where solar time and noon times are in hours ( noon time is 12:00 ).

 Declination Angle (ẟ): The angular position of the sun with respect to the equatorial plane at
solar noon. Declination is in the range: -23.45 < ẟ<23.45 (North is the positive direction) and
below equation is used to calculate it [23]:

1.6

 Latitude (Φ): The angular distance from equator plane. Latitude is given in the range:
-90o<Φ<90o. (North is the positive direction.)

 Longitude (L): The angular distance from prime meridian. Longitude ranges from 0° to
180°, either east or west.

 Surface azimuth angle (as): The angle between south and the projection of normal of the
surface on the horizontal ground plane. The direction of an angular displacement from south
to its west is taken as positive. It is in the range -180 < as < 180 .

 Angle of incidence (θ): The angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the normal to
that surface. Equations relating the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface to the
other angles are
1.7

 Zenith angle (θs): The angle between normal of the ground plane and the line to the sun, i.e.
the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.
1.8
 Solar altitude angle (α): It is the vertical angle between the horizontal ground plane and the
line to the sun. It is complement of the zenith angle and given in the range 0 o < α <90o
α = 90o – θs 1.9

 Solar azimuth angle (γs): The angle between south and the projection of beam radiation on
the horizontal ground plane. Direction of an angular displacement from south to west of
south is positive.

Figure 1.9: Solar altitude angle, Solar azimuth angle, Zenith angle w.r.t sun’s position
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, the existing literature on solar water heating systems and solar
collector tube has been reviewed. The findings of various researchers have been reported and
the research gaps have been identified. The main objective of this chapter is to develop an
understanding of the basic design and the performance of solar collector tubes designed so far
and examines the shortcomings of such researches. Research work based on various design and
performance parameters have been listed which lead to the formulation of research objectives in
the next sections. The need and importance of geographical location and weather conditions is
also defined. Also, major analysis techniques and various output parameters studied have been
mentioned which will contribute to the design of experiment for the current study.

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Aadesh et.al. (2016) discusses about various applications of fresnel lens as concentrating device,
and its advantages over conventional solar collector. Thermal analysis and cost analysis of
existing flat plate collector and newly designed solar geyser with Fresnel lens as concentrator is
done. Thermal efficiency of collector tube is analyzed for different weather conditions with
different mass flow rates. Irradiance data is first calculated for a specific region then the effect of
the weather condition and orientation of tube is studied. Validation with analytical calculat ions is
done. It has been found that Fresnel lens increase the beam intensity after concentrating the rays.
Mass flow rate of fluid flowing comes out to be important parameters which affect the efficiency
and outlet temperature. Other parameters found are ambient temperature, geographical location,
weather conditions and material of tube.

Kotb et. al. (2013) attempts to simulate the solar water heater system with parabolic trough
reflector at a specific geographic location for different weather conditions. Hourly profiles of
solar irradiations are found and system is designed for maximum radiation. Weather conditions
which affect the system performance are wind speed & ambient temperature. The variation of
heat transfer for different parameters is analyzed and temperature variation along the length of
the collector and for different time period of the day is collected. Heat transfer modes between
fluid and tube; and between tube and atmosphere are studied. Thus material of the collector tube
also affects the performance considerably.

Zaatri et.al. (2016) uses modeling approach to study different mathematical models of sun to
estimate the solar radiation data at different locations and also the energy collected by
conventional collector tube. 3 different models are compared: These models are Capderou
model, Liu & Jordan model and R.sun model. It is then compared with the experimental data
measured using a pyranometer. Nevertheless, many parameters influences the amount of energy
absorbed by a collector tube situated at a ground (no tilt angle), such as the longitude and latitude
of the location, altitude, tilt angle, collector orientations, temperature of atmosphere and inlet
fluid and humidity of the environment, wind speed, etc. Because the complex influence of these
parameters, the received solar radiation by the collector is a dynamical and a random process.

Padilla et.al. (2011) explains a comprehensive methodology for designing parabolic trough solar
power plants without thermal storage was developed. The methodology is based on the
individual design of different components and subsequent integration of the components into the
whole system. The validation of the results obtained showed that the proposed methodology is
suitable for any location and that an optimum configuration can be achieved by sensitivity
analysis. Padilla also explains the effect of sun’s position and tilt of collector on the performance
of the parabolic trough collector. Variation of sun intensity at different positions, different month
or different location is illustrated using different equations. It also explains the different heat
transfer modes and effect of nusselt number on the outlet temperature of the fluid. Effect of
single and double axis tracking system parameters are also studied on the radiations intensity.

Davis et.al. (2012) studies the optical behavior of the Fresnel lens. The basic optical behavior of
the Fresnel lens is reviewed and the factors which affect the behavior are described. Study
includes the effect of various parameters that must be considered when selecting the design of
the Fresnel lens to be used in a system. Some basic optimization rules are presented which may
facilitate a first order design or feasibility study. F-number, pitch, transmission efficiency,
grooves pattern, inclination, and moiré pattern is studied. Behavior of rays for different
orientations of the lens is described. Depending upon the applications, the parameters of the
Fresnel lens are finalized.
Veeraboina et. al. (2014) studies the natural circulated thermosyphon flat plate solar water
heater. Major devotion is to enhance the heat transfer mechanism in the system. Aluminum
inserts attached to fins to advance the heat transfer phenomenon. Heat collected and outlet
temperature of the fluid were the output parameters. Geographical conditions and heat removal
factor was also considered. Practical experimentation was done to see the real behavior of the
system. Effect of various absorber layers are described in this study. Outlet temperature and
instantaneous efficiency is found out at different time period to predict the performance of the
system. Results are also verified using analytical solutions. It has been found that inserts increase
the efficiency and heat collected in the system.

Xie et. al. (2010) studies the different concentrating applications of Fresnel lens in solar energy
field. Researcher describes the various solar plants running the various countries. Different types
of collectors, or concentrators proposed so far are enlisted and basic function is described.
Concentration advancement by Fresnel lens is studied out of various concentrators over
conventional system. New proposed concentrators are point focused Fresnel lens, line focused
Fresnel reflectors, curved Fresnel lens. A new design of collector tube with periphery covered
with point focus Fresnel lens is proposed. Different materials of lens are studied and PMMA is
finding out to be the best material.

Roldan et.al. (2012) analyze the solar pipes with fluid in pipes to be superheated steam, thus a
system for power generation. CFD analysis of collector pipe is done and temperature of stem
along the length has been studied. The Finite Volume Method (FVM) package FLUENT is used
to implement the model and to perform the investigation. Temperature gradient along the cross
section of the tube is analyzed at 8 different nodes. Experimentation has been done on the setup,
and results have been compared with the simulation results. Simulation results present a good
agreement with measurements. This fact permits to simulate different working conditions for the
particular solar test facility analyzed, but also it permits to modify geometry and properties of the
material used in the absorber tube in order to study the thermal behavior of new absorber tube
prototypes for direct steam generation in parabolic troughs.
Yang et. al. (2011) studies the heat transfer characteristics of the receiver tube uses the
computational fluid dynamics. Molten salt is used as the flowing fluid and heat transfer
characteristic along the length and cross section is studied. Sieder – Tate equation is used to find
the heat transfer coefficient. Effect of nusselt number and Reynolds number has been considered.
Study finds that with the increase in the velocity, the heat flux will increase and weaken on the
heating surface and on the adiabatic surface respectively, but the overall value of the heat flux
remains fixed. The formula of Sieder–Tate is not suitable for the heat transfer performance
computation of a solar tube receiver, because the temperature difference between the molten salt
and the tube wall is large and the physical properties of the molten salt with the temperature
change are also larger.

Zhai et.al. (2009) investigates the performance of solar heating system with linear Fresnel lens as
the concentrating device. This solar collector tube is expected to attain a higher thermal
efficiency at a relatively high temperature level than the conventional flat-plate or evacuated tube
solar collectors. Experimental results show that the thermal efficiency is about 50% when the
conversion temperature (water) is 90 oC. The experimental result shows that the lost energy is
0.578 W/m2 K, which is much smaller than that of conventional evacuated tube solar collector
without concentrating. Study results that he higher the conversion temperature, the better the
performance of Fresnel lens solar collector will be over that of no concentrating collector.

Benitez et.al. (2010) presents a study on an advanced concentrator optic comprising a Fresnel
lens as primary optical device and a secondary optical element, both with broken rotational
symmetry, an optic producing both the desired light concentration with high tolerance (high
acceptance angle) as well as an excellent light homogenization by Köhler integration
phenomenon. The concentration and Köhler integration functions are achieved by the lower
surface of the Fresnel lens together with the upper surface of the SOE. The proposed system
concentration acceptance angle products, CAP and CAP*, are the highest among the
concentrators based on flat Fresnel lenses considered here, and are also superior to other designs
studied. The irradiance uniformity obtained by the designed concentrator is excellent, without the
chromatic aberration which is normal in other Fresnel concentrators.
Xie et.al. (2011) investigates a high concentrating imaging Fresnel solar collector tube with
different shapes of the cavity receivers was developed and its behavior was analyzed. Absorber
tube is made of very small diameter copper tubes wind around the periphery of the cavity
receiver. The collector efficiency factor and collector heat removal factor were find out for the
different cavity receivers to find out heat transfer mechanism and to propose an effective way to
evaluate the performance of linear Fresnel solar collector and determining the optimal shape of
the cavity. the Experimental results gave nearly similar thermal efficiency as find out by the
simulation results. Both the experimental results and the numerical computations indicate that
there was the optimum receiver shape: conical cavity receiver, with higher thermal efficiency
and lower heat loss than others.

Xie et.al. (2012) investigates the thermal performance of the collector tube with efficiency and
heat removal factor as the process parameters using different cavity receivers. Experimental data
and simulation results of about 8 cavity receivers are compared. The results show that the
collector efficiency factors and collector heat removal factors of Fresnel lens solar collector
using conical cavity receiver are higher than the other studied cavities. Study investigates that
under given operation conditions, the optimum aperture diameter of the cavity, the optimum
inside diameter of the receiver tube and the optimum vertex angle of the cross section through
the symmetric axis of the receiver are 80 mm, 15 mm and 60o, respectively.

Ayompe et.al. (2013) analyze the solar water heating system with heat pipe evacuated collector
tube using field data. Solar radiation data for particular location in Dublin is collected. Energy
collected for different months is calculated. Different sky conditions are investigated to study the
system performance. Maximum temperature of outlet fluid is analyzed for different time periods.
It has been found that May month comes to be the hottest month results in higher thermal
efficiency and January been the least. Study shows that the geographical location considerably
affects the system output.
Kabeel et.al. (2017) in this paper studies the thermal efficiency of glass evacuated collector tube
with different refrigerators and filling ratio as the variables. The effect of the tilt angle of the
evacuated tube, mass flow rate of the fluid on thermal performance of the evacuated solar tube
collector was examined to obtain the optimum tilt angle and flow conditions during the
experiments period. Solar irradiance is calculated for different local hours. The effect of filling
ratio for the two types of refrigerant R22 and R 134a on the thermal efficiency of collector tube
is analyzed.

Khakrah (2013) studies the PTC parabolic reflector solar heating system at different absorber
orientations. Solar intensity data is collected for carried orientations of parabolic mirror. The
effect of orientation, wind speed, ambient temperature and solar intensity is studied on the outlet
fluid temperature and heat transfer coefficients.

2.2 Research Gap

The major research gaps identified from the review of the existing literature are:

 No work is done on the optimization or the new design of collector tubes, only concentrating
lens are modified.
 Concentration ratio and acceptance angle are very important parameters in field of
concentrating the sun radiations. But not much work is done on these parameters.
 Optical behavior is not well understood behind the ray behaviors. Also the TIR losses and
diffraction losses are least considered in the studies.
 Study on the basis of material of optical lens is not done considerably, so different material
properties can be optimized for optimum solar heating.
 Sky models and sun conditions for simulation of collector tube has not been explored much.
 Physics behind the Fresnel groves pattern, its concentrating performance is now well
understood so far.
 Diffused sun radiation is least taken while simulation, mainly work is done using direct beam
radiations.

CHAPTER 3

MODELING AND SIMULATION OF SWH

 In this chapter, the proposed design is described. A description of design and
simulation of collector tube and different softwares used is given. The process parameters
involved, output parameters and design conditions are specified. This chapter after explaining
the objectives is basically divided into three parts where concept validation, solar radiation
simulation and thermal simulation are separately explained.

3.1 PROBLEM FORMULATION:

To design a universal collector tube so as to enhance the optical and thermal performance of the
solar water heater system.

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:

As we derived out the literature gap and problem formulation, our major objective of the
research is to increase the concentration ratio using the concentrating devices so as to enhance
the acceptance angle also. Also design should be such that the TIR and diffraction losses should
be minimum. The need of tracking system should be eliminated. As discussed in literature
survey, work is going on to improve the efficiency of the heat storage systems. The optical
means is one of the application which can be used for non imaging applications. Currently the
thermal storage system is integrated with external optical system(concentrators) such as fresnel
lens etc thus resulting in lot of problems like variation in acceptance angle, need of optimum
tracking system, TIR, diffraction and thus lower the efficiency of the heat storage systems. Also
there are a lot of other problems such as dust accumulation, alignment, positioning etc. A single
integrated solution with the thermal storage device such as solar collector pipe will solve all the
problems. The collector tube needs the modification to achieve the maximum thermal and optical
efficiency.

3.3 PURPOSED DESIGN AND CONCEPT VALIDATION

3.3.1 CONCEPT:

The water pipe is designed in such a way that the pipe has optical lenses as its part at the outer
periphery and fabricated as a single piece. Thus the losses are negligible and the high efficiency
is obtained. These lenses will act as concentrators and will enhance the concentration ratio and
also as lenses are part of the collector tube, acceptance angle is more and there is no need of
tracking system at all. In application of thermal power generation, we can also use this integrated
collector tube along with the primary optical element eg parabolic trough to further enhance the
optical and thermal performance of the system. In this case, the optical lenses on the periphery
act as secondary optical elements. Thus this integrated tube will act as a universal collector tube
which can be used in any solar heating system to enhance the performance depends on the
application.

Proposed Design:

Figure 3.1: 2D detailed drawing of Purposed design

Dimension of the Collector tube:

Length of Collector Tube 500mm

External Diameter 50mm

Internal Diameter 44mm

Material Borosilicate Glass

Table 3.1: Dimensions of Collector Tube

3.3.2 PROCESS PARAMETERS:

This is the initial design based on the concept. Optical lenses are fabricated on the periphery of
the collector tube. From the literature survey it has been found that important parameters which
will affect the system performance are no. of lens on the periphery, radius of optical lens,
thickness of tube, material of the collector tube, flow rate of the fluid. Effects of these parameters
on system performance are discussed as follows:

 No. of lens:
No. of lens on the periphery of the collector tube is the most important parameter. It directly
affects the system performance. No. of lens contributes to the directed rays pattern in the tube
after passing through the lens. More the no. of lens more uniformly the rays distribute in the
fluid. Also the diffraction and TIR losses reduce by increasing the no. of lens.

 Radius of the lens:

Radius of the optical lens is another important parameter. It directly affects the focal length
of the lens. More the radius, lesser be the focal length and vice-versa. It regulates the F-
number parameter the lens, which is the ratio of focal length to diameter of lens.

 Thickness:
Thickness of integrated tube is another parameter which affects the system performance.
More the thickness more the area directed to the sunlight thus more rays can be captured the
tube thus high thermal output, but if thickness is increased, more the distance to travel by
rays in glass, thus more absorption losses and higher chances of TIR.
 Material:
Material of the lens is also an important parameter of the system. Both the optical and
thermal behavior of the sun rays depend the properties of the material it passes through like
refractive index, transmissibility, absorbity, thermal conductivity etc.

 Flow Rate:
Thermal performance of the system depends on the flow rate of the fluid as the heat transfer
directly influences buy the flow rate of the fluid. More the flow rate lesser will the heat
transfer across the specific volume of the fluid thus lowers the temperature increment of the
fluid.

3.3.2.1 PARAMETERS SELECTED:

Ray simulation is done using Trace-Pro software for dimension fixing and to study the
parameters effect on the system performance.

Sr. Parameter Levels Value

No.

1 No. of lens 8 7,10,12,15,18,20,25,30

2 Radius of Lens 3-5(varied) Variables

3 Thickness 1 3mm

4 Material 1 Glass

Table 3.2: Process Parameters

8 levels are considered for the 1st parameter: no. of lens. These levels are decided on the basis of
manufacturability with the constraint that thickness must be constant. No. of lens taken are:
7,10,12,15,18,20,25,30

Radius of the optical lens is varied continuously as per manufacturing constraint and output
parameter is analyzed for specific no. of lens; thus optimum radius is found.
Thickness is considered to be constant as otherwise input directly increase or decrease and
enhancement of the energy or flux generation cannot be determined correctly. Thus thickness of
new design keeps equal to conventional tube thickness.

From literature survey it has been found that the best materials for the performance of the lens
are borosilicate glass and PMMA. These both have high transmissibility coefficient and good
thermal characteristics. Based on the availability material chosen is borosilicate glass with
transmission coefficient 0.97 (97%).

3.3.3 RAY SIMULATION

3.3.3.1 Software selection

The main motive of this study is to analyse the performance of solar collector tube to concentrate
the sun radiations inside the tube on fluid. This study assesses a simulation approach for
evaluating the performance and to recognize the key parameters of a collector tube influencing
on sunlight transmission performance. In today’s scenario, there are open-source as well as
proprietary sun light/lightning design software’s available on the internet. Among the all lighting
software’s, Radiance, Focus Track, Vectorworks Spotlight and TracePro are well known
software(Wikipedia 2017). These softwares are generally used for analysing photometric, 3D
modelling and building the information of the model. These softwares are generally used by
importing the models from CAD files. Then the properties of material, types of source and their
related files are given into the lighting design software. As this procedure is done, the irradiation,
flux and energy obtained from the model on screen or on a detector is calculated. The output of
this measurement is usually indicated using coloured graphs or numbers.

For the simulation of daylight component, the software made by lambda research called as
TracePro was used. TracePro software has following input and output parameters

• It allows creating a physical model, specifying orientation and location, setting optical
parameters

• User can create optical source as surface source, grid source and ray files
• It traces rays of source over a model to calculate illuminance on system

• Result analysis by graphs and numbered values

• Reporting of result

 SOLID MODEL

TracePro geometries are made by importing CAD files, or by making solid model directly into
TracePro. We can adjust imported model using the move, rotate, scale, and orientation
operations for solid geometries and sweep and revolve operations for surfaces via the user-
friendly, 3D CAD interface. Tools inside TracePro allow the user to insert primitive solids such
as pipes, blocks, cones, and spheres. Tracepro software allows the user to use utilities such as 2-
Dimension and 3-Dimension profile for sketching the geometries. The models inside TracePro
are visualized by solid rendering, photorealistic rendering, silhouette and wireframe views in
visualization feature. This feature also allows rotating the geometry in space, zoom and other
manipulation technique.

Figure 3.2: Tracepro Tool box Menu

 OPTICAL PROPERTIES

An extensive variety of material and surface properties are exist to relate the objects and surfaces
with real models. For a particular element or surface, optical properties that user can apply
includes Refractive index, absorption coefficient, aperture diffraction as well as transmittance
and reflectance coefficients, absorption, surface and volume scatter, polarization, gradient index.
It can be also possible to give the unavailable properties of material and surfaces in TracePro
database by editing own properties of particular company’s materials and coatings in TracePro
database.

 LIGHT SOURCES

TracePro programming simulates the appropriation of different lighting measures, for example,
luminous intensity, irradiance/illuminance, and flux of a model or at chosen surfaces by Tracking
Rays utilizing the Monte Carlo technique. Moreover, TracePro's Surface Source Property editor
allows specifying angular and spectral distribution data specify from a manufacturers datasheet.

Ray can be defined by following three type of sources:

1. Grid – This type of source specifies spatial and angular beam profile. It also defines the
weighting, polarization state, and degree of polarization of source.

2. Surface – surface source specifies angular scattering from one or more than one surfaces of a
solid object using flux, or irradiance. Surfaces can also be defined as blackbody or gray body
surfaces.

3. Ray File –in ray file source predefined ray tables consisting of XYZ starting points and
direction vectors, wavelength data, and the initial flux value for each ray are able to save in text
format. These Ray files can be again retrieved for other simulations also.

 RAY TRACING

Reverse Ray tracing

In Reverse ray tracing, the rays are released from the model created in software or end point and
drawn back all through the model to the light source with a certain number of reflections from
the surface. However, in reverse ray tracing the chances of ray striking to the light source are
very less, which makes reverse ray tracing almost impossible to sample the rays of the light
source. The simulation is a difficult one since light bounced by reflection or refraction can come
from any random direction. So the light source doesn’t know from where the rays coming from
except in the case of direct rays or unobstructed rays.

Forward Ray tracing

In this study forward ray tracing method was used because of its easiness and precision, its
capacity to handle direct component of the source and its ability to simulate a great number of
light reflections with minimum simulation time. In the case of forward ray tracing, the rays are
sent by the light source through multiple reflections on a model to find out illumination on a
particular point in a space. In simulation whenever light strikes on a model they are subject to
follow optical laws of absorption, reflection, scattering, diffraction, refraction. As the rays
propagated through the object the system saves the data of optical flux related to individual ray.

 ANALYSIS

TracePro delivers a complete set of tools to view and analyse results of the ray-trace includes
following:

1. Irradiance/illuminance maps demonstrate irradiance incident, absorbed, or exiting a chosen

surface. It also provides an Option for controlling the output, and it allows exporting results to a
text format or a bitmap format.

2. Luminance/Radiance Maps are able to seen as true color plots based on which wavelengths are
traced.

3.3-D illuminance graph maps the input flux on the chosen surfaces or objects. This feature also
gives the ability to smooth the plot as well as to apply gradient feature to see continuous
variation.

4. Candela plots give information about luminous intensity in candela. Candela plots are of
different types viz; rectangular candela plot, Rectangular iso-candela, and polar candela

5. Incident Ray Tables gives the tabular output of each ray fall on a chosen surface. Ray History
Tables give you complete history of every ray incident on selected surface
3.3.3.2 Simulation of Collector Tube

Ray analysis is done using TracePro software. Model is made in Solid-works software and then
upload in TracePro, a source is then defined by giving the ray pattern, wavelength of the rays and
irradiance value. Material of the collector tube, concentrating lens, fluid medium is defined. a
screen is defined on which the output is analyzed.

3.3.3.2.1 Mathematical model

To describe the optical and thermal performance of the collector tube a mathematical model is
developed. In order to simplify the analysis, following assumptions are made:

1. The thermo-physical properties for the collector tube materials are independent of the
temperature and operating conditions.
2. Material is assumed to be both isotropic and homogeneous.
3. The variations in both kinetic and potential energies for the heat transfer fluid are negligible.
4. Lens is assumed to be ideal and free from any fabrication errors.
5. The transmittance, reflectance and absorbance coefficient of the collector tube are considered
to be constant and do not vary with the incident rays direction.
6. Sun model is assumed to have equal rays for all wavelengths with different flux.
7. The end side of collector tube, which is exposed to ambient condition, is adiabatic.
8. Vacuum in the collector tube, as the air thermal capacity is small.

Analytical Equations:

Using Snell's law and basic radiance theorem:

Suppose we have a beam of radiance, L1, passing through a medium with refractive index N 1,
falling onto dA from solid angle dΩ1 inclined at θ1 w.r.t. dA,

Ray Intensity after passing through the collector tube:

L2 = L1 (N2/N1)2 3.1
The power is given by:

Φ = ∫ ∫ L(r,n) dA cosθ dΩ 3.2

where L(r,n) is the source radiance of the point r in the direction of unit vector n.

Concentration Ratio of optics is given by:

Sin 2  Br
Cn 2
3.3
Sin 2  Bs

where 2α is acceptance angle, Φ angle substitute by concentrator to receiver screen; B r,Bs are the
brightness at receiver and concentrator respectively

 Inputs Outputs

Sr. No. Parameters Value Sr. No. Parameters

1 Rays pattern Parallel 1 Maximum irradiance

2 Material Borosilicate glass 2 Avg. irradiance

3 Input irradiance 400W/m2 3 Flux

4 No. of Rays 1000 4 Emissivity

5 Concentration Ratio

Table 3.3: Input and Output parameters for simulation

Parameters:

Thickness is kept constant and no. of lens and radius of lens is varied to obtain optimum
combination. 8 levels for no. of lens are taken and radius is continuously varied to obtain best
combination.
Sr. No. Parameter Levels Value

1 No. of lens 8 7,10,12,15,18,20,25,30

2 Radius of Lens 3-5(varied) Variables

3 Thickness 1 3mm

4 Material 1 Glass

Ray analysis is done with above operating and design conditions and parameter as stated. The
irradiance directed on collector tube is direct irradiance not global irradiance as scattering of rays
from environment particles, clouds etc is not considered and only direct radiations from source is
simulated.

3.3.3.2.2 Ray Pattern

Conventional collector tube is analyzed using direct beam radiations of intensity 400W/m2. From
ray pattern it has been found that the focus of incident rays after passing through tube lies outside
the collector tube. Thus a part of energy cannot be utilized by the fluid, thus system exhibits
lower thermal efficiency.

Flux generated, and maximum and average irradiance data is shown in Appendix A.

7 lens 10 lens 12 lens

 15 lens 18 lens 20 lens

25 lens 30 lens Existing

Figure 3.3: Ray pattern of different combinations (cross-section view)

From the ray patterns and the data of irradiance get from the simulation, it is clearly visible that
in existing tube rays concentrate outside the tube, thus results in lower temperature gradient or
lower solar irradiance. After the application of optical lens on the periphery it is found that now
rays concentrates inside the collector tube thus increase the irradiance or flux generated.
Irradiance value for each no. of lens is plotted against varied radius and best optimum solution is
found, taken care both the irradiance value and the pattern made by that design. Thus we got 7
optimum designs for respective no. of lens. Now, Concentration ratio achieved in these designs
is calculated. From these 7 best combinations, final design is selected based on the maximum
irradiance achieved in system and for minimum loss criteria.

3.3.4 RESULTS
 460

450

440
10
Avg. Irradiance

430 12
420 15
18
410
20
400
25
390 30

380
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Radius

Figure 3.4: Plot of Avg. Irradiance for different combinations of design parameters

4.3

4.2
concentration ratio

4.1

3.9

3.8

3.7

3.6
10 12 15 18 20 25 30
no. of lens

Figure 3.5: Plot of Concentration Ratio vs 7 best chosen designs

As seen from the results, 15 no. of lens with 12mm radius gives optimum results. Now
dimension of the integrated system is fixed. Now simulation of the integrated collector tube is
done to study the performance behavior of the tube.
3.4 GLOBAL RADIATION SIMULATION FOR SOLAR COLLECTOR

3.4.1 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

Solar analysis is done on Solar Emulator tool in Trace-Pro software.

Solar Utility – analyzes solar collector systems using dialogs to specify geographical location,
period of sun travel with uniaxial tracking, and user defined irradiance for both direct and
indirect sun contribution. Analysis output includes irradiance and candela maps, with total flux
and efficiency over time on the target.

Figure 3.6: Solar emulator module with Analysis tab

Solar Emulator toll provides source modeling based on:

 Direct and indirect solar radiation, including atmospheric scattering

 Latitude, longitude, and elevation
 Date and time
  User-selectable wavelengths
 User-defined parameters also include step intervals, wavelength, entrance pupil, solar
irradiance, number of rays to be traced
 Irradiance and candela mapping
 Total collected energy reported in graphical and tabular formats over calculated period
 Flux Report based upon sun position
 SunTracking
 Aim to Sun
 Google Maps positioning
 Turbidity
 Fully cloudy through sunny definitions specified per period
3.4.2 Simulation:

Design Conditions:

L 500mm Tube material Glass No. of Lens 15

Do 50mm Refractive index 1.51872 Radius of Lens 12mm

Di 44mm α, absorption 0.0020857 Thermal Conductivity 1300W/m2K

Fluid Water Transmittance 0.997

Table 3.4: Design conditions of purposed Collector Tube

Geographic location for solar data in Solar Emulator is set for CSIR-CSIO, Chandigarh with
geographic location illustrate in Figure.

Sun Condition:
Solar Constant: 1366 W/m2

Wavelength 0.38-0.72 um (31samplings)

Sky model: Igawa all-sky model

Sky Condition: Clear Sky

Illuminance Turbidity: 2.5

Table 3.5: Sun conditions for solar radiation simulation

Both the conventional and concentrating collector tube is simulated for Global Solar Irradiations
on daily basis for each month to find out hottest and coldest month as shown in figure 3.8 & 3.9;
and the maximum and minimum energy absorbed by the fluid and flux generated per day in the
collector tube for simultaneous radiations. This is the energy which actually absorbed by the
fluid. This energy data can be used to find out the thermal performance of the collector i.e. the
temperature increment achieved by the fluid while passing through the collector tube with a
definite mass flow rate using equation Q =m.c p(Tout - Tin).

Figure 3.8 & 3.9 illustrates the average global solar irradiance falls on collector tube installed on
prescribed location for different months for a full day for both designed and conventional
collector tube; showing December been the smallest sunshine month with lower irradiance and
June being largest sunshine month with highest irradiance value. On an average the solar
irradiance value is 256.5 W/m2. It has been seen that during solar noon time irradiance achieved
is maximum as radiations directly normally on the earth with least scattering and diffraction.
Figure 3.7: Monthly Profile for Global Solar Radiation for Concentrating Collector Tube

Figure 3.8: Monthly Profile for Global Solar Radiation for Existing Collector Tube

3.4.3 RESULTS
The concentrating Solar Collector Tube with the design conditions shown in table 1. The
collector tube is located in CSIR-CSIO, Chandigarh as location described in table 5 and
subjected to Sun and Sky conditions as in Table 6 for all the months. The simulator presented
herein run for collector tube starts from 5a.m. to 7p.m. to cover the sunshine period.

210
200
190
Avg. energy collected

180
170
160
existing
150
140 15 lens
130
120
110
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
Month

Figure3.9: Monthly distribution of Avg. energy collected in collector tube

21

19
Maximum Flux

17 existing
15 lens
15

13
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
month

Figure 3.10: Monthly distribution of Flux generated in collector tube

Figure 3.10 illustrates the comparison of monthly distribution of average energy collected in the
collector tube. Maximum energy collected is 206Wh in month of June and lowest in December
with 113Wh energy. The energy collected in concentrating Collector tube is more than the
existing conventional tube; means more radiation enters the tube and concentration ratio
achieved is higher; thus fluid will heat at faster rate.

Figure 3.11 illustrates the comparison of monthly distribution of Flux generated in the collector
tube. Maximum Flux generated is 20W in month of June and lowest in December with 14W flux.
The flux generated in Concentrating Collector tube is more than the existing conventional tube,
means more heat will generate in the tube and fluid will heat at faster rate.

The simulation is done for Global Solar Irradiations which include both the direct solar
irradiations and diffused irradiations. At noon, when sun is at the top, most of the rays falls on
tube are direct irradiation as scattering is least at noon and maximum at sunrise and sunset time.
Concentrating lens on periphery allow these diffused radiations also to concentrate inside the
tube and reduce the TIR losses. This is also a major reason to fabricate lenses on whole periphery
rather than on a small portion which is subjected to direct sun rays.

3.5 THERMAL SIMULATION OF SOLAR COLLECTOR

Now the design and dimensions of integrated collector tube is finalized. We are done with
optical simulation of the collector tube. The energy collected with global radiation in Chandigarh
location is found out. To study the performance of new collector tube, a major area to study is
thermal performance of the collector tube. As the application of SWH is in thermal area, we need
to find out its thermal behavior. Important parameters to study are increment in thermal
efficiency and fluid outlet temperature of specified time period. Input parameters are mass flow
rate of the fluid, weather conditions i.e. input radiations intensity to the collector tube.

&
3.5.1 SELECTION OF SOFTWARE

Software selected for thermal analysis is Comsol 5.0

 Procedure:

For thermal analysis, first of all compatible software is to be selected in which we can add all the
required modules like: optics, heat transfer, fluid flow, ray optics.

Then modeling is done in software or software should be compatible to import the solid model
from Solidworks.

Next step is to specify the material to different parts of the model and specify their properties.

Now add the different input parameters to the software like fluid flow rate, radiations intensity,
outlet temperature and pressure, ambient temperature, fluid inlet temperature.

Specify the output parameters required from the analysis like: fluid outlet temperature,
temperature along the length, pressure variation, velocity variation, ray pattern.

Then the data is analyzed and thermal efficiency is determined.

 Comsol 5.0

From the generation of model geometries to post-processing simulation results, version 5.0a of
COMSOL Multiphysics® and its discipline-specific add-on modules offer significant efficiency
and productivity enhancements The CAD Import Module now supports the Parasolid® file
format from Siemens PLM Software throughout the CAD import process, making v5.0a more
robust and efficient than in previous versions as well as more interoperable with third-party
engineering and scientific applications. The CAD Import Module also now runs on the
Macintosh.

Efficiency enhancements in the Heat Transfer Module v5.0a greatly improve non-isothermal
flow and convective heat transfer simulations as well as provide better stabilization for modeling
free convection and heat transfer in turbulent flows. Simulations of heat and flow in electronic
cooling, free convection, and Two-phase flow simulation of boiling water using the Two-Phase
Flow, Phase Field application mode. In heat conduction applications, you can now run
simulations of unbounded domains through the infinite elements technique.
COMSOL Multiphysics Heat Transfer Module, external radiation sources can be defined in 3D
for all physics user interfaces via the new solar position option. You can easily define the
direction and intensity of the sun’s incident radiation based on the latitude and longitude
position on the Earth, the date, and the time with this new option.

Figure 3.11: Comsol window for sun data input

The refractive index parameter has also been implemented to enable modeling of radiation
through glass, water, and other media with a refractive index different than 1.0. Additionally,
Radiative heat transfer between thin structures is now possible when surface-to-surface
radiation is used together with the Thin Conductive Shell user interface. This is great news for
those involved in heat transfer projects

 Selection of modules:

Below figure shows the user interface of the Comsol 5.0 with required module of heat transfer,
Geometrical optics and Laminar flow.

In Definations/Geometry1: Solid model of collector tube is made. Using extrude command.

In Definations/materials: Materials to parts are specified. Fluid taken is water, tube and lens
material is borosilicate glass, properties given in Appendix
Then Heat transfer in Solids module is specified. Heat transfer equations are selected. Heat flux,
insulation, source is defined

EQUATIONS

In geometrical optics, rays are defined, their path, originating source, intensity is defined.
Transmissibility, absorbity relation along with optical behavior is defined by equations.

EQUATIONS

3.5.2 MODELING OF COLLECTOR TUBE

Now software is selected and modules are defined. Now the solid model of both existing and
deigned collector tube is made.

As seen in figure, outer curved portion is tube along with concentrating optical lens. Inner side of
tube is fluid, which is water in this case and surrounding is given the air characteristics.
 Figure 3.13: 3D solid model of Collector tube

Material Description

 Collector Tube: Borosilicate Glass

 Fluid: Water
 Surrounding: Air

[Material specification describes in Appendix B]

Design Conditions:

L 500mm Tube material Glass No. of Lens 15

Do 50mm Refractive index 1.51872 Radius of Lens 12mm

Di 44mm α, absorption 0.0020857 Thermal Conductivity 1300W/m2K

Fluid Water Transmittance 0.997 Tambient 20oC

Table: 3.6 design inputs for modeling and simulation

3.5.3 PROCESS PARAMETERS:

Software is selected and model is made. Material and all other input parameters are defined.
Before running the simulation, parameters are found which will affect performance of the
system. Then varying these parameters study is done to study effect of these parameters on the
system performance. From the literature survey it has been found that important parameters
which will affect the system performance are mass flow rate of the fluid, weather conditions
(irradiation). Effects of these parameters on system performance are discussed as follows:

 Mass Flow Rate:

Important parameter affects the system performance is mass flow rate of the fluid. High mass
flow rate results in lower heat transfer thus lower outlet temperature of the fluid and vice-
versa.
 Weather conditions:
Another important parameter affects the system performance is weather condition. In winter
heat flux subjected to collector tube is loess, so system efficiency will lower down, whereas
in summer thermal efficiency is very high.

Sr. Parameter Levels Value

No.

1 Mass flow rate (Kg/sec) 3 0.005, 0.0075, 0.01

2 Flux (W/m2) 3 Summer(800), 500,

Winter(200)

Table 3.7: Process Parameters

3.5.4 SIMULATION

Now the part is modelled and material is specified. Process parameters are finalised. now ray
prperties and heat tarnsfer equations are added to the module. temperature of fluid and tube, ray
trajectories, volume, pressure, isothermal contours are added as output parameters in the
software. Solar radiation, ambient temperature, and mass flow rate are added as global variables.
then mesh structure is generated and elements shape is tetrahedral. Now simulation is run for all
the possible combinations of the selected process parameters. Output parameter fluid outlet
temperature is analysed.
Figure 3.14: WireFrame Model

Figure 3.15: mesh generation of collector tube (tetrahedral elements)

Simulation Run

Now simulation is run for both existing and designed collecto tube. temperature of fluid flowing
along the length, temperature along the cross section both are analyzed.
Figure 3.16: Ray trajectories projected on the Collector Tube

 Ray Pattern after striking the collector tube along with temperature gradient

Figure 3.17: Ray pattern along cross section

 Temperature Gradient along the cross-section of the tube:

Figure 3.18: temperature gradient along the cross section

 Temperature along the length

Figure 3.19: Temperature variation along the length

3.5.5 RESULTS

Summer Conditions
323
Temperature (oC)

319

existing 0.005
315
new 0.005
exis 0.002
311
new 0.002

307

303
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 3.20: Fluid outlet temperature along the length for summer
 Winter Conditions
309
Temperature (oC) 308

307 exis 0.005

new 0.005
306
exis 0.002
305 new 0.002
304

303
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 3.21: Fluid outlet temperature along the length for winter

Thermal Efficiency
100
Thermal efficiency

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Winterr Summer
designed tube 68 73.7
existing tube 64.3 68.4

Figure 3.22: plot of thermal efficiency for different conditions

It has been found that the temperature of fluid attained is higher when subjected to deigned tube.
Also with increase in mass flow rate decrease the temperature as heat transfer reduces.

Maximum thermal efficiency attained for designed tube using equation is 73.7% in summer
while 68% in winter.
 CHAPTER 4
VALIDATION THROUGH CLASSICAL APPROACH

In this chapter, results from analytical equations are found to validate the results from
solar radiations and thermal simulation using different softwares. Now whether the results
follow the real pattern or not is to be validate. Fabricating a real model is bit costly as there is a
need to fabricate a new die as the cross section of tube is not circular, also it will consume more
time. So I validate my results through classical approach using optical and heat transfer
equations obtained from literature survey.

4.1 SUMMER CONDITIONS: 21ST JUNE (EQUINOX)

 Declination angle:

ẟ = 23.45 x Sin {(360/365) x (284+n)} = 23.45; [n = 172 for 21 st June]

 EAT = 9.87o Sin (2B) – 7.53o Cos (B) – 1.5o Sin (B)
& B = (n-1) (360/364)
= 169.12
Thus EAT = 3.57 min

 LAT = 12h + [4 x (std. longitude – longitude of location) + EAT]

= 11h 36.51min

 ω = (Solar Noon – Time) x 15o

= 9.33o
 Angle of incidence of solar radiations:

= 0.9331

θ = 21.09o

= 0.98197

θs = 10.89o

 Solar Flux Incident on Collector

= 0.9502

= 0.9308

= 0.0138

Total Flux incident on collector tube:

= 1238.95

 Transmissibility and absorbity

-For direct incident sun beam:

Angle of refraction = = 13.71o,

θ2 = 21.09o

= 0.0506
 = 0.0347

= 0.9036

= 0.9329

= 0.9182

= 0.869

-For diffused sun radiations:

Angle of refraction = = 34.58o

θ2 = 59.5o

= 0.178

= 0.0011

= 0.698

= 0.998

= 0.848

= 0.812

 Incident Flux absorbed by the Collector tube

= 1014.27 W/m2
 Collector tube heat transfer coefficient and heat loss factor

From literature survey:

Heat transfer coefficient between glass and water = 10W/m2

Thus, Heat loss factor = F’

= 0.921

Fluid flow conditions:

Mass flow rate: 0.005Kg/sec

Tinlet = 30oC

Area of collector = 0.25m2

4.1.1 EXISTING COLLECTOR TUBE:

Heat gained by the fluid:

= 210.38 W

= 42.12 W

Now this heat energy increase the temperature of the flowing fluid

∆T = 7oC

Thermal efficiency of the collector

= 67.9%
4.1.2 DESIGNED COLLECTOR TUBE:

Heat gained by the fluid:

= 373.48 W

Now this heat energy increase the temperature of the flowing fluid

∆T = 13oC

Thermal efficiency of the collector

= 73.4%

4.2 WINTER CONDITIONS: 21ST DECEMBER (EQUINOX)

 Declination angle:

ẟ = 23.45 x Sin {(360/365) x (284+n)} = -23.45; [n = 356 for 21st December]

 EAT = 9.87o Sin (2B) – 7.53o Cos (B) – 1.5o Sin (B) = 17.075 min
& B = (n-1) (360/364)
= 351.09

Thus EAT = 17.075 min

 LAT = 12h + [4 x (std. longitude – longitude of location) + EAT]

= 12h 4.57 min

 ω = (Solar Noon – Time) x 15o

= 1.452
 Angle of incidence of solar radiations:

= 0.929

θ = 21.69o

= 0.992

θs = 7.2o

 Solar Flux Incident on Collector

= 0.9364

= 0.9308

= 0.0138

Total Flux incident on collector tube:

= 256.194 W/m2

 Transmissibility and absorbity

-For direct incident sun beam:

Angle of refraction = = 14.089o,

θ2 = 21.69o

= 0.0512
 = 0.0343

= 0.9025

= 0.9336

= 0.9181

= 0.865

-For diffused sun radiations:

Angle of refraction = = 30.54o

θ2 = 50.5o

= 0.119

= 0.0033

= 0.7873

= 0.9934

= 0.8903

= 0.831

 Incident Flux absorbed by the Collector tube

= 226.78 W/m2
 Collector tube heat transfer coefficient and heat loss factor

From literature survey:

Heat transfer coefficient between glass and water = 10W/m2

Thus, Heat loss factor = F’

= 0.921

Fluid flow conditions:

Mass flow rate: 0.005Kg/sec

Tinlet = 30oC

Area of collector = 0.25m2

4.2.1 EXISTING COLLECTOR TUBE

Heat gained by the fluid:

= 45.38 W

= 3.12 W

Now this heat energy increase the temperature of the flowing fluid

∆T = 1.8oC

Thermal efficiency of the collector

= 64.3%
4.2.2 DESIGNED COLLECTOR TUBE

Heat gained by the fluid:

= 65.38 W

Now this heat energy increase the temperature of the flowing fluid

∆T = 3.9oC

Thermal efficiency of the collector

= 67.8%

So results found are nearly equivalent to those achieved by the simulation. Thus the results
obtained are true and the real system will perform near to these results.
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 CONCLUSION

On the basis of the results obtained from this study, follow conclusions can be drawn:

 Application of optical lens on the periphery of the collector tube results in increasing the
concentration ratio and higher acceptance angle.
 Concentrating the sun rays on the collector tube results in higher irradiance and thus higher
flux generates inside the collector tube, thus higher temperature gradient is achieved.
 Geographical location, weather conditions and orientation of the tube has considerable effect
on the system performance.
 Lower mass flow rate of fluid results in higher fluid outlet temperature and vice-versa.
 Finalized design: 15 no. of lens with 12mm radius with outer tube diameter be 50mm and
inner tube diameter of 44mm results in achieving 73.7% efficiency in summer (21st June)
while 68% efficiency in winter (21st December).

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

There is a scope of future investigations as well which are as follow:

 Designed collector tubes can be used for power generation by converting fluid into steam
if the length of collector tube is considerably increased.
 Wind speed, tube material can be considered as the process parameters and performance
of SWH can be analyzed.
 Heat loss factor can also be taken as a parameter and study to minimize it to achieve
optimum efficiency.
 Comparison and evaluation of different collector tube designs on the basis of other
parameters like quality, reliability etc. as the support structure and other system
constituents has a major role in functioning.
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 Appendix

Appendix A

no. of input maximum avg. incident

Type lens radius irradiance irradiance irradiance Flux Emissivity rays
Existing 0 25 400 1256.1 425.83 9.1554 83.231 896
7 10 400 1839.6 460.65 9.6737 69.098 870
7 11 400 1840 460.52 9.6112 69.071 821
7 12 400 1855 460.46 9.5596 69.069 770
7 13 400 1813.5 449.46 9.4387 67.419 750
7 14 400 1826.2 448.6 9.4205 67.289 735
10 12 400 1580 454.63 9.5472 68.194 739
10 13 400 1579.3 455.65 9.5686 68.347 740
10 14 400 1597.4 448.48 9.4182 67.273 724
12 12 400 1492.4 427.53 8.9781 64.129 694
12 13 400 1464.9 430.63 9.0433 64.595 714
Modified Tube

12 14 400 1465 424.76 9.0312 63.745 704

15 11 400 1693.7 449.42 9.4199 66.428 732
15 12 400 1695.5 449.53 9.4402 67.429 735
15 13 400 1694.8 445.23 9.3816 66.32 730
15 14 400 1696.8 443.03 9.3035 66.454 722
15 15 400 1696.3 441.63 9.2961 66.4 721
18 5 400 1572.5 408.44 8.5772 61.266 682
18 8 400 1598.9 423.31 8.8896 63.497 693
18 9 400 1577.7 425.12 8.9275 63.768 707
18 10 400 1571.3 422.71 8.8769 63.407 699
20 8 400 1681.7 439.56 9.312 66.814 718
20 9 400 1709.6 447.09 9.3888 67.063 729
20 10 400 1711.7 447.38 9.395 67.107 734
20 11 400 1712.9 447.1 9.389 67.064 727
25 5 400 1237.1 424.51 8.8307 63.076 701
25 6 400 1199.1 429.2 9.0132 64.38 714
25 7 400 1202.5 437.33 9.1838 65.599 726
25 8 400 1262.2 436.23 9.1608 65.434 713
30 5 400 1386.8 422.85 8.8799 63.428 697
30 7 400 1547.6 435.25 9.1403 65.288 712
30 8 400 1559.7 436.79 9.1726 65.519 715
Irradiance and Flux values for different combinations of collected tube
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