Research Methodology

Psy313

Nature of the course Theory+ Practical Paper-III

Full Marks-100

Theory 75+Practical 25

Pass mark: 27, Practical 10

Lect: Theory: 113, 37

Group A (Theory):

Unit: 1 Introduction to the scientific methods

The scientific research- Concept, Objectives of psychological research, Types of research in

science – Basic and applied, steps in scientific research.

What are the causes of aggression and violence? How do we remember things, what causes us to
forget, and how can memory be improved? What are the effects of stressful environments on
health? How do early childhood experiences affect later development? What are the best ways to
treat depression? How can we reduce prejudice and intergroup conflict? Curiosity about
questions such as these is probably the most important reason that many students decide to take
courses in the behavioral sciences. Scientific research provides us with the best means of
addressing such questions and providing answers.

Research in a common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific topic. It is a scientific investigation.

“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. Redman & Mory.

“Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specifically through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.” Advanced learner’s Dictionary.

“Scientific research is a step by step logical, organized and rigorous method to identify problems,
gather data, analyze the data and draw valid conclusions there from”. Sekaran.

A systematic and organized research is known as scientific research. It is a movement from the
known to unknown. It is actually voyage of discovery. Research is an academic activity and as
such the term should be used in a technical sense.

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In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution
to a problem is called research.

The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also called
research.

The research is the process of obtaining the answers to questions: What, Why, When, How,
Where and Who?

"Research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by Ervin Coritana. Library of Congress,

Research is a scientific way of answering questions and testing hypothesis.

Difference between scientific and social research:

Scientific Research. Social Research.

“Scientific research is a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed
relations among natural phenomenon”.
Kerlinger, 1964. The scientific research is
based on certain basic postulates:
 It relies on empirical evidence.
 It utilizes relevant concepts.
 It is committed to only objective
considerations.
 It pre-supposes ethical neutrality.
 It results into probabilistic predictions.
 Its methodology is made known to all
concerned.
 It aims at formulating scientific theories.
“Social research is a systematized investigation
to gain new knowledge about social
phenomenon and problems”. Moser, 1979.
The social research is based on certain basic
postulates:
 It is related with social life.
 It discovers the social facts.
 It explains the relationship among facts.
 It has control over social phenomenon.
 It discloses motivators of social phenomenon.
 It discovers the research techniques.
 It aims to solve social problems.

Psychological researcher generally follows a scientific approach. This involves the logic of
testing hypotheses produced from falsifiable theories. Hypotheses need to be precisely stated
before testing.
 Scientific research is a continuous and social activity, involving promotion and checking
of ideas amongst colleagues.
 Researchers use probability statistics to decide whether effects are 'significant' or not.
 Research has to be carefully planned with attention to design, variables, samples and
subsequent data analysis. If all these areas are not fully planned, results may be
ambiguous or useless.
 Some researchers have strong objections to the use of traditional scientific methods in the
study of persons. They support qualitative and 'new paradigm' methods which may not
involve rigid pre-planned testing of hypotheses.

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 Objectives of psychological research

Objectives of Psychological Research: Researchers conduct research to discover new

knowledge or to verify the existing. The main scope and purpose of research is the exploration,
description, explanation, generalization and prediction of the phenomenon. Scientific research on
behavior has four general goals: (1) to describe behavior, (2) to predict behavior, (3) to
determine the causes of behavior, and (4) to understand or explain behavior.
The objectives of research are to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. They are:

1. Development of knowledge: Every science tries to collect a systematized body of knowledge

about the subject matter that it studied. For this purpose it requires to conduct research in the
relevant topics. The main objective of research is to add the knowledge.
2. Scientific study of social life: Social research is an attempt to acquire scientific knowledge
about the social phenomenon and social facts. The social researcher makes study of the
collective processes, social change, social structure, social processes etc. by collecting
information and formulating into rules.
3. Welfare of humanity: Researcher should not make the study for the sake of study alone, but the
study should be for the human welfare.
4. Classification of the facts: Social research aims to classify facts. They conduct research to
determine the sequences and inter-relationship of facts.
5. Hypothesis testing and theory building: To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables and develop theories also the major scope of psychological research.

Overall, the research has some theoretical and practical objectives. They are:

Theoretical Objectives: Practical Objectives:

 Find out new facts.  Finding the causes of problems.
 Putting theories to test.  Solution of practical problems.
 Clarifying the concepts.  For facilitating administration.
 ntegrating the existing theories.  Reducing costs by alternatives.

Finally, research helps removing ignorance, social welfare, social progress, social control,
development of social sciences etc.

Types of Research: Research may be classified roughly according to its major intent or the
methods:

1. Basic vs. Applied Research: [

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Basic Research. Applied Research.
Definition: It is also called fundamental or pure Definition: Gathering knowledge that could aid in
research. Gathering knowledge for the sake of the betterment of human destiny is termed applied
knowledge is termed as pure research. or practical research.
Basic research is directed towards finding Applied research aimed at finding a solution for an
information that has a broad base of applications immediate problem facing by the society, industry
and thus, adds to the already existing organized and organizations. Thus, the central aim of applied
body of scientific knowledge. research is to discover a solution for some
Examples: Research concerning some natural pressing practical problems.
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are Examples: Research aimed at certain conclusions
examples of fundamental research. facing a concrete social or business problem is an
Similarly, research studies concerning human example of applied research.
behavior carried on with a view to make Research to identify social, economic or political
generalizations about human behavior are also trends that may affect a particular institution or the
examples of fundamental research. copy research, marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research.
The main motivation is to expand men’s Research on Improve production, cure illness,
knowledge. Research on how did the universe improve energy efficiency etc.
begin?, why people behave differently etc.
Characteristics of Basic Research: Characteristics of Applied Research:
o It is a fundamental, theoretical and pure. o It aims at solving the problems.
o It mainly focuses on exploration of new o It is participatory in action.
knowledge. o It deals with present day situations and
o It constructs the theories. conditions.
o It deals with the critical evaluation and o It does not essentially require hypothesis.
modification on existing. o It collects only problem focused information.
o It has higher academic value. o It is action oriented and problem directed.
o It requires technical judgment and hypothesis o It seeks immediate and practical results.
is necessary. o It aims at changing existing conditions.
o It collects all facts and information so it o It may incidentally contribute to theory.
extends knowledge.
o It is undertaken due to the intellectual
curiosity.
o It lays foundation for applied research.
Importance of Basic Research: Importance of Applied Research:
o It offers solutions to many practical problems o It contributes new facts that enrich the
by developing principles and theories; e.g. concerned body of knowledge. E.g. practical
Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory helps study designed to improve productivity may
formulating incentive schemes. stimulate theoretical analysis of the extension
o It helps to find the critical factors in practical of technology.
problems. o It offers an opportunity to test the validity of
o It develops many alternatives solutions that existing theories.
enable us to choose the best one. o It adds in conceptual clarification e.g. social
o It manufactures more effective and useful responsibility, social structure etc. through the

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models at least cost through the continuous operationalization in research.
research in such field. Computers, radios, o It may integrate previously existing theories
laptops, cell phones etc. are the examples. i.e. solution of a practical problem may require
some integration of theories and principles of
various problems e.g. township development
may integrate town planning.

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 2. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: [
Quantitative Research
Definition: It refers to the systematic, empirical
investigation of any phenomenon via statistical
and mathematical techniques.
The objective of quantitative research is to develop
theories and hypothesis testing.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
Example: Census, study about the production,
Achievement tests, Health of peoples, Education
rate, employment condition etc.
Characteristics:
o Its purpose is to test hypothesis and make
predictions.
o It gathers numerical data.
o It investigates how many and what?
o It asks specific, narrow questions.
o Conducts an inquiry in objective manner.
o Collecting information from large number of
individuals.
o It focuses on statistical analysis.
o It describes trends, comparing group
differences, relating variables.
o Tend to use standard fixed structure and
evaluation criteria.
o It collects data through:
-Application forms.
-Closed ended questionnaire.
-IQ tests.
-Measurements.
-Structured interview and others.
o It studied specific variables.
o Its results are generalizable findings that can
be applied to other populations.
o Finally statistical report with correlations,
comparisons of means and statistical
significance of findings.
Advantages:
o It allows the researcher to measure and analyze
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Qualitative Research
Definition: Qualitative research is dealing with
phenomena that are difficult and impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as, beliefs,
beauty, meanings, attributes, attitudes, interests,
perceptions and symbols.
It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. It
aims at discovering the underlying motives and
desires using in in-depth interviews and
projective techniques for the purposes. It is also
called motivational research.
Example: Research on human behavior- why
people think and do certain things. Attitude and
opinion research.
Characteristics:
o Its purpose is to understand and interpret
social phenomenon.
o It collects data consisting largely of words,
objects or images.
o It investigates how and why?
o It asks broad, general questions.
o Conducts an inquiry in subjective manner.
o Collecting information from small number of
individuals or sites.
o It focuses on text analysis.
o It describes of themes.
o A flexible emerging structure and evaluation
criteria.
o It collects data through:
-Dairy accounts.
-Document review.
-Open ended questionnaire.
-Unstructured interview, observation and
others.
o It studied the whole, not variables.
o Its results are particular or specialized
findings that is less generalizable.
o Finally narrative reports with contextual
descriptions.
o An in-depth understanding of human
behavior.
o It explores reasons behind behavior.
Advantages:
o It enables more complex aspects of a
 data. person’s experience to be studied.
o The researcher is more objective about the o Fewer restrictions are placed on the data to
findings of the research. be collected.
o It can be used to test hypothesis in experiments o Good for exploratory research.
because of its ability to measure data using o Subjects are able to provide response in their
statistics. own words and way.

Disadvantages:
o It does not study things in a natural setting or
discuss the meaning things have for different
people.
o A large sample of the population must be
studied for accurate results.
o It ignores the context of study.
Disadvantages:
o It is very difficult to determine the validity
and reliability of linguistic data.
o More subjectivity involved in analyzing the
data.
o Data overload and time consuming.

3. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research: [

Descriptive Research Analytical Research

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact
finding inquiries for the description of current
phenomenon. It is used to describe characteristics
of a population or phenomenon being studied.
The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
It is also called ex-post facto research and
statistical research.
The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables. It also
includes attempts by researchers to discover causes
of behaviors. It uses comparative and correlational
methods.
For example: Research on frequency of shopping,
composition of the society, workforce diversity
etc.
It uses facts or information already available,
and analyzes these to make a critical evaluation
of the material.
Analytical research is a specific type of
research that involves critical thinking skills
and the evaluation of facts and information
relative to the research being conducted.
A variety of people including students, doctors
and psychologists are widely used analytical
research during studies to find the most relevant
information. From analytical research, a person
finds out critical details to add new ideas to the
material being produced.
For example: Theory testing, motivational
research ,research on human behavior etc.

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: [

Conceptual Research [ Empirical Research [
It uses abstracts, ideas or theories to develop new It explores cause and effect relationships of the
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 concepts or reinterpret existing ones. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Conceptual research focuses on the concept or
theory that explains or describes the phenomenon
being studied. What causes disease? How can we
describe the motions of the planets? What are the
building blocks of matter? The conceptual researcher
sits at his desk with pen in hand and tries to solve
these problems by thinking about them. Conceptual
analysis is a popular method of research in social
sciences, and philosophy and psychology.
Example: Theory testing, motivational research etc.
phenomenon through systematic observation
and experiment. It relies on experiment or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
It is data based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
It is also called experimental type of research.
It collects first hand data.
Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis. It is mostly used in scientific
studies.
Example: Impact of alcohol and smoking in
health. Impact of practice in learning. Impact
of stress, anxiety in performance. Impact of
chemicals in production.etc.

5. Other Types:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on
either the purposes of research or the time required to accomplish the research.

 One time or longitudinal Research: One time research is confined to a single time period
whereas longitudinal research is carried on over several time periods.
 Field setting, Laboratory and Simulation Research: It is depending upon the environment
in which it is to be carried out.
 Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Such research follows case study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic casual relations. It uses very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.
 Exploratory vs. Formalized research: The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypothesis rather than their testing. Whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypothesis to be tested.
 Historical Research: It is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons or groups at any
particular time. It provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends. It uses existing
information. It provides evidence of ongoing trends and problems. It is time consuming in
nature.
 Conclusion oriented and Decision oriented Research: While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the inquiry as he /she proceeds and
is prepared to conceptualize as he/she wishes.
Decision oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research
is an example of decision oriented research. It is a scientific method of providing executive
department with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.
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 Research Process: (Steps)

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carryout research
and the desired sequencing of these steps:

Review Concepts
& Theories

Define Review Formulate Design Data Data Report

Research of Hypothesis Research Collection Analysis & Writing
Problem Literature Conclusion.
3. 4. 5. 7.
1. 2. 6.
3
Review Previous Source: Kothari C.R.
Research Findings

References:

McBride, D. M. (2013). The Process of Research in Psychology. Los Angeles: SAGE

Publications.

Palmer, E. L. (2004). Applied research. In W. E. Craighead & C. B. Nemeroff (Eds.), The

Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
& Sons.

Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.).
New York: Harper & Row.

McBride, D. M. (2013). The Process of Research in Psychology. Los Angeles: SAGE

Publications.

Stanovich, K. (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology: 8th Edition. Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Popper, K. (1959). The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books, New York, NY.

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