Waste Water

Overview of the Wastewater Treatment Process
Objective
In this lesson we will learn the following:
 What the different sources of wastewater include.

 What the different steps include in the treatment process.
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 1: The Treatment Plant Operator, Chapter 2: Why
Treat Wastes? and Chapter 3: Wastewater Treatment Facilities, in your textbook Operation of
Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Introduction
This lesson begins the second half of ENV 110. This half of the course is concerned with the
treatment of wastewater. Before beginning this lesson, you should have taken Exam 1 and visited
two water treatment plants to conclude the water treatment portion of the course.
Lessons 1 through 11 considered the water treatment process. Water flows from the source
through the treatment plant and to the consumer. But what happens to the water after it reaches
the consumer?
The second half of this course will concern itself with wastewater - the used water and solids
from a community as well as the storm water which runs off streets and other surfaces during
storms.
You will remember that water is naturally cleaned and reused as part of the hydrologic cycle in
the outside world. In the human world, water is also cleaned and reused. Our wastewater is
channeled to a wastewater treatment plant where it is cleaned and released back into lakes and
rivers. This water reenters the hydrologic cycle and will eventually be pumped back up by
another water treatment plant to be purified and released to customers.
Sources of Wastewater
You can classify wastewater as domestic, industrial, or storm, according to its origin. Domestic
sources include water used for normal activity in homes, businesses and institutions. Domestic
wastewater is readily treatable.
The character of industrical wastewater depends on the type of industry using the water. Some
industrial wastewaters can be treated the same as domestic wastes without difficulty. Others may
contain toxic substances or high percentages of organic materials or solids which make treatment
difficult. In such cases, the industrial plant may have to pretreat its wastewater to remove these
pollutants or reduce them to treatable levels before they are accepted into a publicly-owned
treatment facility.
Storm water often goes to a treatment plant, although it is usually low in pollutants. Great
amounts of storm water can interfere with treatment efficiency in two ways: Storm water may
cause too much dilution of the wastewater. At the same time, it may cause hydraulic overloading
of the plant. In most cases, wastewater systems now call for separate storm sewers.
In the Treatment Plant

In the treatment plant there are many steps involved in treating wastewater. Below is a quick
overview of the possible steps involved. We will learn more about each step as the course goes
on.
The general principle in wastewater treatment is to remove pollutants from the water by getting
them either to settle or to float, and then removing this material. Some pollutants are easily
removable. Others must be converted to a settleable form before they can be removed. Treatment
facilities are designed in stages. Each stage either removes particles from the wastewater or
changes dissolved and suspended material to a form that can be removed. A modern wastewater
treatment plant may include these stages:
 influent
 primary treatment
 secondary treatment
 tertiary treatment
 disinfection and effluent discharge
Influent
Influent is the raw material that has been collected and conveyed to the plant for treatment. It
includes all the water and debris that entered the collection system.
Primary Treatment
To prevent damage to pumps and clogging of pipes, raw wastewater passes through
mechanically raked bar screens to remove large debris, such as rags, plastics, sticks, and cans.
Smaller inorganic material, such as sand and gravel, is removed by a grit removal system. The
ligher organic solids remain suspended in the water and flow into large tanks, called primary
clarifiers. Here, the heavier organic solids settle by gravity. These settled solids, called primary
sludge, are removed along with floating scum and grease and pumped to anaerobic digesters for
further treatment.
Secondary Treatment
The primary effluent is then transferred to the biological or secondary stage. Here, the
wastewater is mixed with a controlled population of bacteria and an ample supply of oxygen.
The microorganisms digest the fine suspended and soluble organic materials, thereby removing
them from the wastewater. The effluent is then transferred to secondary clarifiers, where the
biological solids or sludges are settled by gravity. As with the primary clarifier, these sludges are
pumped to anaerobic digesters, and the clear secondary effluent may flow directly to the
receiving environment or to a disinfection facity prior to release. There are several variations of
secondary treatment, including:
 activated sludge
 trickling filtration
 rotating biological contactors (RBC)
 lagoons and ponds
Tertiary Treatment
Tertiary, or advanced, wastewater treatment is the term applied to additonal treatment that is
needed to remove suspended and dissolved substances remaining after conventional secondary
treatment. This may be accomplished using a variety of physical, chemical, or biological
treatment processes to remove the targeted pollutants. Advanced treatment may be used to
remove such things as color, metals, organic chemicals, and nutrients such as phosphorus and
nitrogen.
Disinfection
Before the final effluent is released into the receiving waters, it may be disinfected to reduce the
disease-causing microorganisms that remain in it. The most common processes use chlorine gas
or a chlorine-based disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite. To avoid excess chlorine escaping
to the environment, the effluent may be dechlorinated prior to discharge. Other disinfection
options include untraviolet light and ozone.
Review
You can classify wastewater as domestic, industrial, or storm, according to its origin. In the
treatment plant there are many steps involved in treating wastewater. The general principle in
wastewater treatment is to remove pollutants from the water by getting them either to settle or to
float, and then removing this material. A modern wastewater treatment plant may include these
stages:
 influent
 primary treatment
 secondary treatment
 tertiary treatment
 disinfection and effluent discharge
Assignment
Work the following crossword puzzle that comes from definitions in your textbook. You may
either print the puzzle out, complete it and mail or fax back to the instructor or you may send an
email with the correct answers numbered accordingly
Quiz
Answer the questions in the Lesson 12 quiz . When you have gotten all the answers correct,
print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor.
Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following question:
 How are racks, screens, comminutors and grit removal used during the
preliminary treatment process?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 4: Racks, Screens, Comminutors, and Grit Removal
in your textbook Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
The First Step
The first step in the treatment of wastewater is known as Preliminary Treatment, which screens
out, grinds up, or separates debris in the wastewater. Sticks, rags, large food particles, sand,
gravel, toys, plastics, and other objects are removed at this stage to conserve valuable space
within the treatment processes and to protect pumping and other equipment from clogs, jams or
excessive wear. Treatment equipment such as bar screens, comminutors (a large version of a
garbage disposal that shreds material), and grit chambers are used on the wastewater as it first
enters a treatment plant. The collected debris is usually disposed of in a landfill. In this lesson we
will describe and discuss each of these processes and their importance in the treatment process.
Screening
Preliminary treatment begins with screening. Screens remove large solids such as rags, sticks,
plastics and similar materials from the wastewater.
Above is a typical bar screen that consists of a series of parallel bars or a perforated screen
placed in a channel. The flow passes through the screen and the large solids are trapped on the
bars for removal. The bar screen may be coarse (2-4 inch openings) or fine (0.75-2.0 inch
openings). The bar screen may be manually cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Manual or
mechanical cleaning is performed frequently enough to prevent solids buildup and reduce flow
into the plant. The water velocity through the screen is very important and should be around 1.5
ft/s. If the velocity decreases below 1 ft/s or slower, grit will drop out of the flow and into the
screening channel.
Shredding
In some plants, shredding devices are installed after the bar screen or as alternatives to screening.
Shredding devices reduce solids to a size that can enter the plant without causing mechanical
problems or clogging. The most common shredder is the comminutor. In this device all of the
wastewater flow passes through the grinder assembly. The grinder consists of a screen or slotted
basket, a rotating or oscillating cutter and a stationary cutter. Solids pass through the screen and
are chopped or shredded between the two cutters. The comminutor will not remove solids that
are too large to fit through the slots, and it will not remove floating objects. The materials must
be removed manually.
Grit Removal
The purpose of grit removal is to remove the heavy inorganic solids, which could cause
excessive mechanical wear. Grit includes sand, gravel, clay, egg shells, coffee grounds, metal
filings, seeds and other similiar materials. There are several devices or proceses used for grit
removal. All of the processes are based on the fact that grit is heavier than the organic solids that
should be kept in suspension for subsequent treatment. Grit removal processes use
gravity/velocity, aeration or centrifugal force to separate the solids from the wastewater.
Gravity/Velocity Controlled Grit Removal
Gravity/velocity grit removal uses a channel or tank to reduce the velocity or speed of the
wastewater to approximately 1 foot per second (fps). As long as the velocity is controlled in the
range of 0.7 to 1.4 fps, the grit removal process will remain effective.
Aerated Systems
Aerated grit removal systems use aeration to keep the lighter organic solids in suspension while
allowing the heavier grit particles to settle out.
Cyclone Degritter
The cyclone degritter uses a rapid spinning motion to separate the heavy inorganic solids or grit
from the light organic solids and discharge them directly to a storage container. Inlet pressure is
a critical control factor for the cyclone grit removal process.
Review
Preliminary treatment screens out, grinds up, or separates debris in the wastewater. Objects are
removed at this stage to conserve valuable space within the treatment processes and to protect
pumping and other equipment from clogs, jams or excessive wear. Treatment equipment such as
bar screens, comminutors, and grit chambers are used on the wastewater as it first enters a
treatment plant. This is a valuable step in the pre-treatment of wastewater.
Assignment
Complete Assignment 13 on Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal. You may do the
Assignment online to get credit or print it out and send it to the instructor.
Quiz
print the page and either mail or fax it to the instructor. You may also take the quiz online and
submit your grade directly into the database for grading purposes.
Sedimentation and Flotation
Objective
In this lesson we will learn the following:
 How does sedimentation fit into the water treatment process?

 What zones are present in a sedimentation basin?
 How is sedimentation sludge disposed of?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 5: Sedimentation and Flotation in your textbook
Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants Volume I .
Lecture
Primary Sedimentation
Purpose
Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity of the water is lowered below the
suspension velocity and the suspended particles settle out of the water due to gravity. The
process is also known as settling or clarification .
Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are removed as scum. Wastewater
leaves the sedimentation tank over an effluent weir to the next step of treatment. The efficiency
or performance of the process is controlled by: detention time, temperature, tank design, and
condition of the equipment.
Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their treatment processes. However,
sedimentation may not be necessary in low turbidity water of less than 10 NTU. In this case,
coagulation and flocculation are used to produce pinpoint (very small) floc which is removed
from the water in the filters.
Location in the Treatment Process
The most common form of sedimentation follows coagulation and flocculation and precedes
filtration. This type of sedimentation requires chemical addition (in the coagulation/flocculation
step) and removes the resulting floc from the water. Sedimentation at this stage in the treatment
process should remove 90% of the suspended particles from the water, including bacteria. The
purpose of sedimentation here is to decrease the concentration of suspended particles in the
water, reducing the load on the filters.
Sedimentation can also occur as part of the pretreatment process, where it is known as
presedimentation . Presedimentation can also be called plain sedimentation because the
process depends merely on gravity and includes no coagulation and flocculation. Without
coagulation/flocculation, plain sedimentation can remove only coarse suspended matter (such as
grit) which will settle rapidly out of the water without the addition of chemicals. This type of
sedimentation typically takes place in a reservoir, grit basin, debris dam, or sand trap at the
beginning of the treatment process.
While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the

suspended particles in the water before the water reaches the filters, presedimentation removes
most of the sediment in the water during the pretreatment stage. So presedimentation will reduce
the load on the coagulation/flocculation basin and on the sedimentation chamber, as well as
reducing the volume of coagulant chemicals required to treat the water. In addition,
presedimentation basins are useful because raw water entering the plant from a reservoir is
usually more uniform in quality than water entering the plant without such a holding basin.
The rest of this lesson will be concerned with sedimentation following coagulation and
flocculation. We will consider types of sedimentation basins and parts of a typical sedimentation
basin, as well as the disposal of sludge.
Types of Basins
Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:
Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to

flow horizontally through a long tank. This type of basin is
usually found in large-scale water treatment plants. Rectangular
basins have a variety of advantages - predictability, cost-
effectiveness, and low maintenance. In addition, rectangular
basins are the least likely to short-circuit, especially if the length
is at least twice the width. A disadvantage of rectangular basins
is the large amount of land area required.
Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two rectangular

sedimentation basins stacked one atop the other. This type of
basin conserves land area, but has higher operation and
maintenance costs than a one-level rectangular basin.
Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are

often known as clarifiers . This type of basin is likely to have
short-circuiting problems.
A fourth type of sedimentation basin is more complex. Solids-contact clarifiers , also known as
upflow solids-contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers combine coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation within a single basin. Solids-contact clarifiers are often found in
packaged plants and in cold climates where sedimentation must occur indoors. This type of
clarifier is also often used in softening operations.
Zones
Introduction
All sedimentation basins have four zones - the inlet zone, the settling zone, the sludge zone, and
the outlet zone. Each zone should provide a smooth transition between the zone before and the
zone after. In addition, each zone has its own unique purpose.
Zones can be seen most easily in a rectangular sedimentation basin, such as the one shown
below:
In a clarifier, water typically enters the basin from the center rather than from one end and flows
out to outlets located around the edges of the basin. But the four zones can still be found within
the clarifier:
Inlet Zone
The two primary purposes of the inlet zone of a sedimentation basin are to distribute the water
and to control the water's velocity as it enters the basin. In addition, inlet devices act to prevent
turbulence of the water.
The incoming flow in a sedimentation basin must be evenly distributed across the width of the
basin to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting is a problematic circumstance in which water
bypasses the normal flow path through the basin and reaches the outlet in less than the normal
detention time. We will discuss short-circuiting in the next lesson.
In addition to preventing short-circuiting, inlets control the velocity of the incoming flow. If the
water velocity is greater than 0.5 ft/sec, then floc in the water will break up due to agitation of
the water. Breakup of floc in the sedimentation basin will make settling much less efficient.
Two types of inlets are shown below. The stilling wall, also known as a perforated baffle wall
, spans the entire basin from top to bottom and from side to side. Water leaves the inlet and
enters the settling zone of the sedimentation basin by flowing through the holes evenly spaced
across the stilling wall.
From: Water Works Operator's Manual
The second type of inlet allows water to enter the basin by first flowing through the holes evenly
spaced across the bottom of the channel and then by flowing under the baffle in front of the
channel. The combination of channel and baffle serves to evenly distribute the incoming water.
Settling Zone
After passing through the inlet zone, water enters the settling zone where water velocity is
greatly reduced. This is where the bulk of floc settling occurs and this zone will make up the
largest volume of the sedimentation basin. For optimal performance, the settling zone requires a
slow, even flow of water.
The settling zone may be simply a large expanse of open water. But in some cases, tube settlers
and lamella plates, such as those shown below, are included in the settling zone.
Tube settlers and lamella plates -

Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates.
Floc settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back down into the
lower portions of the sedimentation basin. Clarified water passes
through the tubes or between the plates and then flows out of the basin.
Tube settlers and lamella plates increase the settling efficiency and speed in sedimentation
basins. Each tube or plate functions as a miniature sedimentation basin, greatly increasing the
settling area. Tube settlers and lamella plates are very useful in plants where site area is limited,
in packaged plants, or to increase the capacity of shallow basins.
Outlet Zone
The outlet zone controls the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin - both the amount of
water leaving the basin and the location in the basin from which the outflowing water is
drawn. Like the inlet zone, the outlet zone is designed to prevent short-circuiting of water in the
basin. In addition, a good outlet will ensure that only well-settled water leaves the basin and
enters the filter. The outlet can also be used to control the water level in the basin.
Outlets are designed to ensure that the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin has the
minimum amount of floc suspended in it. The best quality water is usually found at the very top
of the sedimentation basin, so outlets are usually designed to skim this water off the
sedimentation basin.
A typical outlet zone begins with a baffle in front of the effluent. This baffle prevents floating
material from escaping the sedimentation basin and clogging the filters. After the baffle comes
the effluent structure, which usually consists of a launder, weirs, and effluent piping. A typical
effluent structure is shown below:
The primary component of the effluent structure is the effluent launder , a trough which collects
the water flowing out of the sedimentation basin and directs it to the effluent piping. The sides
of a launder typically have weirs attached. Weirs are walls preventing water from flowing
uncontrolled into the launder. The weirs serve to skim the water evenly off the tank.
A weir usually has notches, holes, or slits along its length. These holes allow water to flow into
the weir. The most common type of hole is the V-shaped notch shown on the picture above
which allows only the top inch or so of water to flow out of the sedimentation
basin. Conversely, the weir may have slits cut vertically along its length, an arrangement which
allows for more variation of operational water level in the sedimentation basin.
Water flows over or through the holes in the weirs and into the launder. Then the launder
channels the water to the outlet , or effluent pipe . This pipe carries water away from the
sedimentation basin and to the next step in the treatment process.
The effluent structure may be located at the end of a rectangular sedimentation basin or around
the edges of a circular clarifier. Alternatively, the effluent may consist of finger weirs , an
arrangement of launders which extend out into the settling basin as shown below.
Sludge Zone
The sludge zone is found across the bottom of the sedimentation basin where the sludge collects
temporarily. Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent resuspension of sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin allows the sludge to be easily removed from the tank. The
tank bottom should slope toward the drains to further facilitate sludge removal.
In some plants, sludge removal is achieved continuously using automated equipment. In other
plants, sludge must be removed manually. If removed manually, the basin should be cleaned at
least twice per year, or more often if excessive sludge buildup occurs. It is best to clean the
sedimentation basin when water demand is low, usually in April and October. Many plants have
at least two sedimentation basins so that water can continue to be treated while one basin is being
cleaned, maintained, and inspected.
If sludge is not removed from the sedimentation basin often enough, the effective (useable)
volume of the tank will decrease, reducing the efficiency of sedimentation. In addition, the
sludge built up on the bottom of the tank may become septic , meaning that it has begun to decay
anaerobically. Septic sludge may result in taste and odor problems or may float to the top of the
water and become scum. Sludge may also become resuspended in the water and be carried over
to the filters.
Sludge Disposal
Sludge Composition
The sludge which is found in the bottom of a sedimentation tank is primarily composed of
water. The solids in the sludge are mainly excess coagulant, such as alum. Alum sludge has a
solids concentration of only about 1% when automatically removed from the basin, or about 2%
if manually removed. (The greater solids concentration of manually removed sludge is due to a
small amount of gravity thickening.)
Many options exist for disposal of sedimentation sludge. Here we will discuss disposal in
streams, sanitary sewers, lagoons, and landfills.
Disposal in Streams and Sewers
In the past, sludge and backwash water was typically released into streams and other bodies of
water. However, this practice is becoming much less common and is now well
regulated. Backwash water and sludge can only be released into streams if a discharge permit
has been granted by the NPDES. The NPDES further requires extensive daily monitoring of the
water quality when the sludge is being discharged.
Alternatively, sludge may be piped directly to the sanitary sewer. However, this disposal option
also has its disadvantages. Sludge can cause sewer blockages. In addition, fees charged by the
wastewater treatment plant can be expensive. Releasing sludge into the sewage lines in large
batches makes treatment of the wastewater problematic, so sludge is typically released slowly
over a long time period, which requires a large holding tank at the water treatment plant.
Thickening Sludge
Most of the other alternatives require transporting sludge away from the treatment plant. Sludge
is typically dried before it is trucked away since the greater volume of wet sludge makes it much
more expensive to transport. This drying process is known as dewatering or thickening . Alum
sludge is difficult to thicken, but a variety of devices have been developed to thicken the sludge,
some of which are explained below.
In many cases, the sludge is treated by the addition of polymers to aid in the dewatering
process. Alternatively, the sludge can be heated or frozen and thawed to increase the solids
concentration. Treating the sludge to aid in thickening is known as conditioning the sludge.
Once the sludge has been conditioned, it may be thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, or one of
several other devices.
Lagoons, which are small-volume storage ponds, are the

simplest device used to thicken sludge. These lagoons
are filled with sludge and the solids are allowed to
settled due to gravity to the bottom of the lagoon while
the clear water is pumped off the top.
After a few months, gravity and evaporation will have reduced the sludge to a 30-50% solid
state. The sludge can then be covered with soil and left on site, or may be trucked to a landfill
off-site.
Drying beds are often used to thicken

sludge destined for a landfill more quickly
than the sludge would be thickened in a
lagoon.
A drying bed is similar in design to a sand filter, with a layer of sand underlain by a layer of
gravel. The sludge is applied to the top of the sand and the water percolates down through the
sand and gravel and is drained away. When the sludge is sufficiently dry, it is carefully removed
from the top of the sand and is trucked to a landfill. When sludge is preconditioned with
chemicals, dewatering in a drying bed may take only a few days or weeks.
Other processes used to thicken sludge include filter presses, belt filter presses, centrifuges, and
vacuum filters. These processes result in sludge with a solids content ranging from 30 to 50%.
Process Control Calculations
As with many other wastewater treatment plant unit processes, process control calculations aid in
determining the performance of the sedimentation process. Process control calculations are used
in the sedimentation process to determine:
 percent removal
 hydraulic detention time
 surface loading rate
 weir overflow rate
 sludge pumping
 percent total solids
Surface Loading Rate
The surface loading rate is the number of gallons of wastewater passing over 1 square foot of
tank per day. This can be used to compare actual conditions with design. (Plant designs generally
use a surface loading rate of 300 to 1,200 gallons/day/ft2.) To view more examples, read on page
136 in your text.
The flow into a clarifier is 4.0 MGD in a tank 90 feet long and 35 feet wide. What is the surface
loading rate?
You will have to convert 4.0 MGD to gal/day, which is 4,000,000 gpd. Then plug in the
numbers:
Weir Overflow Rate
The weir overflow rate is the amount of water leaving the settling tank per linear foot of weir.
The results of this calculation can be compared with design. Normally weir overflow rates of
10,000 to 20,000 gal/day/ft are used in the design of a settling tank.
To view more examples, read page 136 in your textbook.
The circular settling tank is 90 feet in diameter and has a weir along its circumference. This
effluent flow is 2.55 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate in gal/day/foot?
Sludge Pumping
For the plant operator, for process control purposes, knowing the amount of sludge pumped each
day is important. This information is not only important for proper operation of the
sedimentation process, but for sludge treatment processes as well. Such information includes
accurate data regarding the quantity of solids and volatile solids removed from the sedimentation
tank.
The sludge pump operates 15 minutes per hour. The pump delivers 30 gallons/minute of sludge.
Laboratory tests indicate that the sludge is 5.1% solids and 69% volatile matter. How many
pounds of volatile matter are transferred from the settling tank to the digester?
Sedimentation Expected Performance
Primary sedimentation clarifiers can be expected to remove:
Settleable solids 90-95%

Total Suspended Solids 40-60%
BOD5 25-35%
Review
Sedimentation is a process used to remove suspended particles from water using

gravity. Sedimentation may take place in a presedimentation device such as a reservoir, grit
basin, debris dam, or sand trap; or sedimentation may follow coagulation/flocculation and take
place in a rectangular sedimentation basin, a double-deck rectangular basin, a clarifier, or a
solids-contact clarifier.
Sedimentation basins typically have four zones - the inlet zone which controls the distribution
and velocity of inflowing water, the settling zone in which the bulk of settling takes place, the
outlet zone which controls the outflowing water, and the sludge zone in which the sludge
collects. Sludge may be disposed of a in sewer or stream or may be conditioned and then
thickened in a lagoon, drying bed, filter press, belt filter press, centrifuge, or vacuum filter before
being transported to a landfill.
Assignment
Read about surface loading on page 136 of your text and answer the following question
(make sure to read the footnotes): (25 points)
1. The settling tank is 120 feet in diameter and the flow to the unit is 4.5 MGD.
What is the surface loading rate in gallons/day/ft2?
Read about weir overflow rate on page 136 of your text and answer the following question:
(25 points)
2. The settling tank is 120 feet in diameter and has a weir along its circumference.
This effluent flow rate is 2.34 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate in gal/day/ft?
3. Work the following crossword puzzle that comes from definitions in your
textbook. You may either print the puzzle out, complete it and mail or fax back to
the instructor or you may send an email with the correct answers numbered
accordingly. (50 points)
Quiz
Trickling Filters
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following questions:
 What do trickling filters consist of?

 How is oxygen controlled in wastewater systems?
 How are the total flow, hydraulic loading, and organic loading calculated?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 6: Trickling Filters in your textbook Operation of
Lecture
Fixed Media Filters
Introduction to Fixed Media Filters
There are many ways to treat sewage and plant designs vary greatly from one site to the
next. But no matter how a plant is designed, the results are the same. Some type of mechanical
or biological treatment of the wastewater occurs. The supernate is drawn off, treated for bacterial
contamination, and aerated before being released. Solid waste is produced from sludge and is
graded for land application or dumping.
In nearly all types of wastewater treatment, the organic waste is consumed by microbial
action. This microbial action can be divided into two categories: free swimming or attached.
Packaged plants and oxidation ditches are an example of the first type of microbial action. The
microorganisms are free-swimming in the water, so they must be cycled through the
system. After being used to break down B.O.D., they are removed from the wastewater in a
clarifier and returned as RAS to the aeration chamber or oxidation ditch.
In contrast, fixed media filters use microorganisms attached to a medium (rocks, plastic, metal,
etc.) The microorganisms stay in place and do not need to be cycled through the
system. Instead, wastewater is circulated past the fixed microorganisms.
A fixed media filter mimics the treatment method used in a healthy stream in which
microorganisms produce a slick coating on rocks and pebbles. This coating of microorganisms
is able to trap and consume B.O.D. and ammonia in the water.
Trickling Filters
Introduction
In most wastewater treatment systems, the trickling filter follows primary treatment and includes
secondary settling tank or clarifier as shown below. The process is a fixed film biological
treatment method designed to remove BOD and suspended solids.
The trickling filter consists of several major components including distribution system, media,
underdrains, effluent channel, secondary settling tank, and recirculation pumps and piping. Each
of these components has one or more purposes.
In operation, wastewater is distributed evenly over the surface of the trickling filter media. As
the wastewater flows over the surface of the media the organisms in the slime remove the
organic matter from the flow.
The organisms aerobically decompose the solids producing more organisms and stable wastes,
which either become part of the zoogleal slime or are discharged back into the wastewater
flowing over the media. The wastewater continues through the filter to the underdrain system
where it is collected and carried out of the filter. At the same time air flows through the filter
(bottom to the top or top to bommtom depending on temperature). Oxygen is transferred from
the air to the wastewater and slime to maintain the aerobic conditions. Periodically the slime on
the media becomes too heavy and portions will be released. This material known as sloughings
is carried out of the filter with the wastewater flow and is removed in the settling tank following
the filter.
Filter media showing biological activities that take place on surface area.
Trickling filters are very efficient at removing B.O.D. and ammonia from wastewater, and they
use a minimal amount of power. The cost to remove B.O.D. is only a few dollars per ton.
Pretreatment
The beginning of the trickling filter treatment process is like pretreatment in a packaged
plant. The wastewater passes through a bar screen to remove large objects. Then the influent is
passed through a grit screen or chamber to remove inorganic materials such as eggshells, corn,
sand, and tissue. The comminutor shreds the solid material into smaller pieces, which allows the
solids to enter the plant without causing mechanical problems or clogging the pumps.
Separator and Digester
At this point, treatment begins to differ from the typical packaged plant treatment. We have
previously discussed treatment systems which use only one clarifier, which is often called a
secondary clarifier. But in many treatment systems, two clarifiers are used. The primary
clarifier follows the grit chamber while the secondary clarifier follows the aerator, oxidation
ditch, trickling filter, or other type of biological treatment.
In the case of a trickling filter system, the water from the grit chamber enters a separator, which
acts as a primary clarifier. Here, organic solids are separated out of the water using changes in
velocity. The mostly liquid portion of the organic matter goes on to the trickling filter while the
mostly solid portion goes to the anaerobic digester.
The anaerobic digester is a closed tank in which anaerobic organisms slowly digest the organic
matter in sludge. These organisms produce methane, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide in the
process. The solids are removed from the tank and sent to a drying bed for eventual land
application while the supernatant is drawn off and sent to the trickling filter.
Operation
The liquid portion of the B.O.D. and ammonia from the separator, as well as the supernatant
from the anaerobic digester, are pumped to the trickling filter. Both the B.O.D. and the ammonia
are required to produce the right growth of microorganisms on the media to provide good
treatment.
The liquid influent is piped to the spray heads at the top of the trickling filter. The force of the
water causes the spray heads to rotate above the media, acting like a sprinkler and evenly
distributing water across the media.
The influent trickles down through the media. The media is covered with a slime of both aerobic
and anaerobic microorganisms. These microorganisms remove the organic matter from the
water. As we have mentioned previously, the microorganisms in a trickling filter are especially
efficient at removing ammonia from the water.
Clarifier, Disinfection, and Aeration
As the water passed through the trickling filter, some of the slime was sloughed off of the filter
bed. In addition, there is still some sludge in the wastewater. These solids are removed when
the water flows from the trickling filter through the secondary clarifier. The solids are sent to the
anaerobic digester.
The supernate from the clarifier (now called effluent) is sent in two directions. Some of the
supernate is re-circulated through the trickling filter to reduce the B.O.D. loading by watering
down the influent. The rest of the clarifier's supernate is chlorinated and de-chlorinate or passed
through a UV light. This disinfection process helps wipe out most of the microorganisms and
the coliform bacteria.
The final part of the treatment process is the step aerator. As the effluent flows over the step
aerator, the dissolved oxygen levels are increased. The water is now ready to be released into a
stream or river.
Recirculation
Factors Influencing Slime Growth
Every organism requires a certain environment in order to grow and thrive. The microorganisms
which make up the slime on a fixed media filter are no exception.
Factors which influence the growth of these microorganisms include pH, concentration of food,
and concentration of oxygen. Their growth can also be restricted by overpopulation, which will
result in a buildup of enzymes and waste in the water and in a lack of space.
Different microorganisms require different environments. For example, the microorganisms

which are best for B.O.D. removal are most efficient at a pH of approximately 7, while the
microorganisms which remove ammonia are most effective at a pH of about 8.
Water Recirculation
An important consideration in the operation of a trickling filter is that the microorganisms (the
zoogleal slime) does not move. They just hang onto the media as slime waiting for the food to
trickle by. To give the microorganisms another opportunity to eat food they missed, operators
recycle clarified effluent. This is called recirculation.
Recirculation is used to reduce the organic loading, improve sloughing, reduce odors and reduce
or eliminate filter fly or ponding problems. The amount of recirculation is dependent on the
design of the treatment plant and the operational requirements of the process. Recirculation flow
may be expressed as a specific flow rate (2.5 MGD). In most cases, it is expressed as ratio (2:1).
The recirculation is always listed as the first number and the influent flow listed as the second
number. Since the second number in the ratio is always 1.0, the ratio is sometimes written as a
single number, namely the initial number, with the 1.0 being dropped.
Trickling filter flows can be recirculated from various points following the filter to various points
before the filter. The most common form of recirculation removes flow from the filter effluent or
settling tank and returns it to the influent of the trickling filter.
Calculations
Total Flow
A number of calculations are useful in the operation of a trickling filter. For example, along with
determining total flow, determining hydraulic loading and organic loading are also important.
For the settling tank, calculating the detention time, surface settling rate, hydraulic loading, and
the sludge pumping rate are important.
The formula below can be used to calculate the total flow, including recirculation:
Total Flow, MGD = Influent Flow × (Recirc. Rate + 1.0)
The trickling filter is currently operating with a recirculation rate of 1.5. What is the total flow
applied to the filter when the influent flow rate is 4.25 MGD?
Total Flow, MGD = 4.25 MGD × (1.5 + 1.0)
Total Flow = 10.63 MGD
Let's consider a plant with an influent flow of 72 mgd and a recirculation of 0.009. The total
flow would be calculated as follows:
Be sure to convert to the correct units, if necessary. I converted 72 mgd to 72,000,000 gpd.
You may have also noticed that I added 0.009 to 1 before I multiplied the total by 72,000,000
gpd. It is very important to always perform any operation within parenthesis before simplifying
the rest of the equation. Otherwise, you will get the wrong answer.
Hydraulic Loading
Now that you know how to calculate the total flow, you can calculate the hydraulic loading. The
hydraulic loading is one of the factors which will influence the performance of the filters. It is
defined as the amount of wastewater applied per day over the surface area of the media. So its
units are gallons/day/square foot.
The following formula can be used to calculate the hydraulic loading of a filter, including
recirculation:
Given a total flow of 3 mgd and a filter area of 7,850 ft2, the hydraulic loading would be:
So the hydraulic loading is 382 gpd/ft2.
Organic Loading
The organic loading also influences the performance of the filter. The organic loading is the
amount of B.O.D. applied to the filter per day per volume of filter media. So the units of organic
loading are typically pounds B.O.D./day/1000 ft3 of media.
The organic loading can be calculated using the formula below. This formula does not include
recirculation, so the flow used is the influent flow rather than the total flow.
The B.O.D. is the concentration of B.O.D. in the filter influent. The units of the filter volume are
"1000 ft3", so a filter with a volume of 7,800 ft3 would have to have the units converted from
"ft3" to "1000 ft3". This conversion is accomplished by dividing the filter volume by 1,000, as
shown below:
So let's calculate the organic loading of a 23,500 ft3 filter with an influent B.O.D. of 200 mg/L,
and a flow of 3 mgd.
So the organic loading of the filter is 213 lbs/day/1000 ft3.

Review
Fixed media filters use microorganisms attached to a medium, mimicking the water treatment
method of nature in a healthy stream. These filters are very efficient at removing B.O.D. and
ammonia from the water.
The typical wastewater treatment process for trickling filters includes a screen, grit chamber,
comminutor or grinding pump, separator or primary clarifier, trickling filter, aerobic or anaerobic
digester, secondary clarifier, chlorination, dechlorination, and aeration.
Some cleaned water is recirculated back from the secondary clarifier into the fixed media
filter. This helps control the microorganisms' environment by decreasing the concentration of
food and increasing the D.O. in the water.
New Formulas Used
To calculate total flow:
To calculate hydraulic loading:
To calculate organic loading:

Assignment
Answer the following questions and send in to you instructor. Each question is worth 25 points.
1. The amount of influent flowing into a wastewater treatment plant is 1 mgd. 10%
of the water is recirculated back from the secondary clarifier to the trickling filter.
What is the plant's total flow?
2. The influent flow of a plant is 50 mgd. The total flow is 62 mgd. What percent
of the water is recirculated?
3. Using the total flow of the plant in question 1, and a filter area of 5,000 ft2, what
is the hydraulic loading of the plant?
4. A plant has the following characteristics: B.O.D. of 140 mg/L, influent flow of 5
mgd, recirculation of 5%, filter volume of 20,000 ft3. What is the organic
loading?
Quiz
Rotating Biological Contactors
Objective
In this lesson we will answer the following question:
 What does Rotating Biological Contactors consist of?

 Where are they located in the treatment process?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 7: Rotating Biological Contactors in your textbook
Lecture
Rotating Biological Contactors
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a fixed film biological secondary treatment device.
The basic process is similar to that occurring in the trickling filter. In operation, a media,
consisting of a series of circular disks mounted side by side on a common shaft is rotated through
the wastewater flow.
The surface of the disk is covered with a biological slime similar to that on the media of a
trickling filter. RBC units are usually installed in a concrete tank so that the surface of the
wastewater passing through the tank almost reaches the shaft. This means that about 40% of the
total surface area of the disks is always submerged. The shaft continually rotates at 1 to 2 rpm,
and a layer of biological growth 2 to 4 mm thick is soon established on the wetted surface of
each disk. The organisms in the slime assimilate (remove) organic matter from the wastewater
for aerobic decomposition. The disk continues to rotate, leaving the wastewater and moving
through the air. During this time, oxygen is transferred from the air to the slime. As the slime
reenters the wastewater, excess solids and waste products are stripped off the media as
sloughings. These sloughings are transported with the wastewater flow t a settling tank for
removal.
Typically, a single contactor is not sufficient to achieve the desired level of treatment, so a group
of contactors are used in series. Each individual contactor is called a stage and the group is
known as a train. Most RBC systems consist of two or more trains with three or more stages in
each. One major advantage of the RBC system is the level of nitrification that can be achieved if
sufficient stages are provided.
During operation, observations of the RBC movement, slime color, and appearance are helpful in
determining system performance; that is, they can indicate process conditions. If the unit is
covered, observations are usually limited to that portion of the media that can be viewed through
the access door. The following may be observed:
 Gray, shaggy slime growth - indicates normal operation

 Reddish brown, golden shaggy growth - nitrification
 White chalky appearance - high sulfur concentrations
 No slime - severe temperature or pH changes
In regard to typical performance, a well-maintained, properly operated RBC typically produces a

high quality effluent with BOD at 8-95% and Suspended Solids Removal at 85-95%. The
process may also reduce the levels of organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen significantly if
designed for this purpose.
Advantages
Advantages offered by RBCs include:
 Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface.
 RBCs are capable of handling a wide range of flows.
 Sloughed biomass generally has good settling characteristics and can easily be
separated from the waste stream.
 Operating costs are low because little skill is required in plant operation.
 Short retention time.
 Low power requirements.
 Elimination of the channeling to which conventional percolators are susceptible.
 Low sludge production and excellent process control.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of RBCs include:
 Requirement for covering RBC units in northern climates to protect against

freezing.
 Shaft bearings and mechanical drive units require frequent maintenance.
Review
The basic process of a RBC is similar to that occurring in the trickling filter. In operation, a
media, consisting of a series of circular disks mounted side by side on a common shaft is rotated
through the wastewater flow. The shaft continually rotates at 1 to 2 rpm, and a layer of biological
growth 2 to 4 mm thick is soon established on the wetted surface of each disk. The organisms in
the slime remove organic matter from the wastewater for aerobic decomposition. Typically, a
single contactor is not sufficient to achieve the desired level of treatment, so a group of
contactors are used in series. Each individual contactor is called a stage and the group is known
as a train. There are many more advantages to using RBCs than disadvantages.
Assignment
Answer the following questions and send in to your instructor. Each question is worth 25 points.
(You will find the answers in your textbook)
1. Describe the rotating biological contactor process and discuss how it works.
2. Why should debris, grit, and suspended solids be removed before the wastewater
being treated reaches the RBC unit?
3. What water quality indicators would you test for in the effluent from an RBC
treatment plant?
4. How do the slime growths (biomass) on the plastic media look under (a) normal
conditions, and (b) abnormal conditions?
Quiz
Activated Sludge
Objective
 What are the principles of the activated sludge process and the factors that
influence them.
 What are the calculations used in the process.
 How is it different from the other possible treatment processes available.
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 8: Activated Sludge in your textbook Operation of
Lecture
Biological Treatment Processes
To this point the biological systems discussed include trickling filters and rotating biological
contactors. These systems are effective unit processes in treating wastewater. However, trickling
filters and RBCs are termperature sensitive, remove less BOD, and trickling filters cost more to
build than activated sludge systems. Although they are more expensive to build, the activated
sludge systems are much more expensive to operate because of the need for energy to run pumps
and blowers.
Activated Sludge Process
Activated sludge refers to biological treatment processes that use a suspended growth of
organisms to remove BOD and suspended solids. As shown below, the process requires an
aeration tank and a settling tank.
In addition, support equipment, including return pumps, waste pumps, flow measurement
devices for return and waste, as well as equipment to provide aeration (mixers and/or blowers) is
also required.
Note: Activated sludge processes may or may not follow primary treatment. The need for
primary treatment is determined by the process modification selected for use. All activated
sludge systems include a settling tank following the aeration tank.
Primary effluent (or plant influent) is mixed with return activated sludge to form mixed liquor.
The mixed liquor is aerated for a specified length of time. During the aeration the activated
sludge organisms use the available organic matter as food producing stable solids and more
organisms. The suspended solids produced by the process and the additional organisms become
part of the activated sludge. The solids are then separated from the wastewater in the settling
tank. The solids are returned to the influent of the aeration tank (return activated sludge).
Periodically the excess solids and organisms are removed from the system (waste activated
sludge). Failure to remove waste solids will result in poor performance and loss of solids out of
the system over the settling tank effluent weir.
There are a number of factors that affect the performance of an activated sludge treatment
system. These include:
 temperature
 return rates
 amount of oxygen available
 amount of organic matter available
 pH
 waste rates
 aeration time
 wastewater toxicity
To obtain desired level of performance in an activated sludge system, a proper balance must be
maintained between the amount of food (organic matter), organisms (activated sludge) and
oxygen (dissolved oxygen).
Activated Sludge Modifications

Many activated sludge process modifications exist. Each modification is designed to address
specific conditions or problems. Such modifications are characterized by differences in mixing
and flow patterns in the aeration basin, and in the manner in which the microorganisms are
mixed with the incoming wastewater.
The major process modifications of the activated sludge process are:
1. conventional
2. tapered aeration
3. complete mix
4. step aeration
5. contact stabilization
6. extended aeration
7. pure oxygen systems
Conventional Modification
This configuration requires primary treatment, has the influent and returned sludge enter the tank
at the head end of the basin, mixing is accomplished by the aeration system, and provides
excellent treatment. On the downside, this modification requires large aeration tank capacity,
higher construction costs, high initial oxygen demand, and is very sensitive to operation
problems, such as bulking.
Tapered Aeration
The tapered aeration system is similar to the conventional activated sludge process. The major
difference is in the arrangement of the diffusers. The diffusers are close together at the influent
end where more oxygen is needed. Toward the other end of the aeration basin, the spacing of the
diffusers is increased.
Step Aeration
In step aeration, the returned sludge is applied at several points in the aeration basin. Generally,
the tank is subdivided into three or more parallel channels with around-the-end baffles, and the
sludge is applied at separate channels or steps. The oxygen demand is uniformly distributed.
Complete Mix Aeration
In complete mix aeration the influent and the returned sludge are mixed and applied at several
points along the length and width of the basin. The contents are mixed, and the mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) flows across the tank to the effluent channel. The oxygen demand and
organic loading are uniform along the entire length of the basin.
Contact Stabilization
In contact stabilization, primary treatment is not required. The activated sludge is mixed with
influent in the contact tank where the organics are absorbed by microorganisms. The MLSS is
settled in the clarifier. The returned sludge is aerated in the reaeration basin to stabilize the
organics. The process requires approximately 50% less tank volume and can be prefabricated as
a package plant for flows of 0.05 to 1.0 MGD. On the downside, this system is more complicated
to control because many common control calculations do not work.
Extended Aeration Activated Sludge
Extended aeration does not require primary treatment. It utilizes a large aeration basin where a
high population of microorganisms is maintained. It is used for small flows from subdivisions,
schools, etc. Prefabricated package plants utilize this process extensively. It ha a channel inthe
shape of a race track, with rotors being used to supply oxygen and maintain circulation.
Typically the process produces high-quality effluent and less activated sludge. (Oxidation ditch
is a variation of extended aeration process).
Pure Oxygen Systems

Oxygen is diffused into covered aeration tanks. A portion of gas is wasted from the tank to
reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide. The process is suitable for high-strength wastes
where space may be limited. Special equipment for generation of oxygen is needed.
Operation
Operation of the activated sludge process requires more operator control than the other treatment
processes discussed. The operator must adjust aeration, return rates and waste rates to maintain
the balance of food, organisms and oxygen. Operators must observe operation of the aeration
basin to check on mixing pattern, type and amount of foam (normally small amounts of crisp
white foam), color of activated sludge (normally dark, chocolate brown), and odors (normally
musty or earth odor). In regard to the settling tank, observations include flow pattern (normally
uniform distribution), settling, amount and type of solids leaving with the process effluent
(normally very clean).
In process control operations, sampling and testing are important. Testing may include
settleability testing to determine the settled sludge volume; suspended solids testing to determine
influent and mixed liquor suspended solids, return activated sludge solids, and waste activated
sludge concentrations; determination of the volatile content of the mixed liquor suspended solids;
dissolved oxygen and pH of the aeration tank; BOD and/or COD of the aeration tank influent and
process effluent; and microscopic evaluation of the activated sludge to determine the
predominant organism.
Activated Sludge Process Control Calculations
Activated sludge process control calculations may include determination of the thiry- and sixty-
minute settled sludge volume (SSV30 and SSV60), sludge volume index (SVI) and pounds of
waste activated sludge removed from the process.
Settled Sludge Volume

Here is a sample problem using the above formula:
A 2,000 mL sample of activated sludge is allowed to settle for thirty minutes. At the end of the
settling time the sludge volume is 1,100 mL. What is the thirty-minute settled sludge volume
(SSV30)?
Sludge Volume Index
Sludge volume index is a quality indicator. It reflects the settling quality of the sludge. As the
SVI increases, the sludge settles slower, does not compact as well, and is likely to result in more
effluent suspended solids.
Here is a sample problem using the formula above:
The sample used in the previous example (SSV) has an MLSS concentration of 2,800 mg/L.
What is the SVI?
Waste Activated Sludge
Control of the activated sludge process requires accurate information on te quantity of solids
removed from the process as waste activated sludge.
The operator wastes 0.44 MGD of activated sludge. The waste activated sludge has solids
concentration of 5,840 mg/L. How many pounds of waste activated sludge are removed from the
process?
Review
Activated sludge refers to biological treatment processes that use a suspended growth of
organisms to remove BOD and suspended solids. Primary effluent (or plant influent) is mixed
with return activated sludge to form mixed liquor. The mixed liquor is aerated for a specified
length of time. During the aeration the activated sludge organisms use the available organic
matter as food producing stable solids and more organisms. The suspended solids produced by
the process and the additional organisms become part of the activated sludge. The solids are then
separated from the wastewater in the settling tank. The solids are returned to the influent of the
aeration tank (return activated sludge).
Assignment
1. A 1,500 mL sample of activated sludge is allowed to settle for thirty minutes. At

the end of the settling time the sludge volume is 1,240 mL. What is the thirty-
minute settled sludge volume?
2. Calculate the SVI from the problem above if the sample used has an MLSS
concentration of 2,950 mg/L.
3. The operator wastes 0.52 MGD of activated sludge. The waste activated sludge
has solids concentration of 5,975 mg/L. How many pounds of waste activated
sludge are removed from the process?
accordingly.
Quiz
Stabilization Ponds
Objective
 What are the different types of ponds used in wastewater treatment?

 What are the process control calucations needed for pond operation?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 9: Wastewater Stabilization Ponds in your textbook
Lecture
Introduction to Sewage Ponds
Introduction
Ponds are probably one of nature's most economical ways of treating sewage and producing a
highly purified effluent (end product.) The degree of treatment provided by ponds depends upon
the type and number of ponds used. Ponds can be used as the sole type of water treatment or can
be used in conjunction with other forms of wastewater treatment.
The beginning of this lesson will be concerned with raw sewage stabilization ponds in particular
and with the requirements which must be met when building sewage treatment ponds in
general. The second half of the lesson will consider other types of ponds used in wastewater
treatment.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Ponds have many advantages and disadvantages compared to treatment in plants. Both have to
deal with aeration of the water being treated, but in ponds, oxygen is transferred directly into the
water across the surface area without the need for any equipment. A plant, in contrast, must
install an aerator to add oxygen to the water.
The natural method of aeration used by a sewage pond takes much longer than an aerator does to
add oxygen to the water. As a result, ponds treat sewage much more slowly than package plants
do. The minimum detention time of a pond is 45 days . In contrast, a package plant has a two to
four hour detention time. And, since ponds must hold the wastewater much longer than package
plants do, the ponds must also have a much larger area to retain the sewage.
If the time and area are available, sewage ponds are very economical facilities to
maintain. Package plants require frequent monitoring for various parameters such as ammonia
and B.O.D. In contrast, ponds require only one visit per day to monitor pH and D.O.
Requirements
Sewage ponds are very simple to construct. A bulldozer is used to remove soil from the ground
and create a basin in which water can collect. However, the pond and surrounding area must be
planned in such a way that the human and natural environments surrounding the pond are not
damaged.
The first requirement of a sewage pond is that it must be surrounded by a berm (a mound or wall
of earth) or an embankment (a raised structure to hold back the water, such as that shown in the
photograph at the beginning of this lesson). The berm or embankment prevents storm water
from running into the pond. Without a berm, a heavy storm could cause the sewage pond to
overflow and send untreated sewage out into the surrounding area.
The soil in which a pond is built must be impermeable. This will prevent the sewage from being
absorbed into the ground and from leaking pollutants into the area.
A pond must be completely fenced to keep unwanted visitors out. In addition, the area around
the fence must be mowed to keep out vermin which could dig holes into the sides of the
pond. Tree growth must be restricted near the pond since roots could enter the pond and provide
a way for sewage to escape if the trees died.
Sewage ponds must be encircled by a windbreak, which usually consists of a row of pine
trees. The windbreak will prevent the pond's odors from disturbing the nearby residents and will
also make the area aesthetically pleasing.
The depth of the pond is another important factor. The pond must be greater than two feet deep
at all parts to exclude plant growth. Plants growing at the edge of a pond will create areas of still
water in which mosquitoes will lay their eggs. But at depths of over six feet, anaerobic
conditions occur, so regulations stipulate that the depth of a sewage pond can be no more than 5
feet.
Health of the Surrounding Environment
The final requirement which must be met when constructing sewage ponds is to be sensitive to
any streams or rivers into which the effluent from the pond will be released. This entails
knowing the classification of the stream, whether the stream contains any endangered species,
and whether there are any existing contaminants in the stream.
One way of protecting the surrounding environment is by adding a finishing pond. A finishing
pond , also known as a polishing pond , is like a finishing school - it prepares the water to go
out into the world. The finishing pond is installed between the sewage pond and the stream as
shown below.
One of the largest problems when water is released directly from a sewage pond into a stream is
algae . Sewage ponds are perfect environments for these one-celled plants. Food is readily
available, as is moisture and sunlight, so algae grow quickly and become quite numerous.
When water from a sewage pond, rich in algae, is released directly into a stream the stream can
be harmed. The large quantities of algae use up the water's oxygen at night or during an algal
bloom (when the algae reproduce very quickly). Without the oxygen they need to survive, the
fish in the stream die.
A finishing pond can eliminate this problem. Finishing ponds are usually stocked with fish, such
as carp, which eat the algae in the water. Finishing ponds also allow the quality of the effluent to
be monitored before it is released into the stream. As a result, streams being fed by finishing
ponds tend to be healthier than those fed directly from sewage ponds.
Types of Ponds by Location
Introduction
Ponds can be classified based upon their location in the wastewater treatment process and on
what type of waste they receive.
Whether wastewater is being treated in a pond or in another type of treatment facility, it follows
the same general path. First, the water passes through a series of pretreatment processes
including screening and shredding the sewage. Next, the wastewater receives primary
treatment which allows some of the solid matter to settle out. From primary treatment, the
wastewater moves to secondary treatment where biological processes convert the remaining
organic matter into a form which is easier to remove from the wastewater. Treatment may stop
after secondary treatment or may continue with tertiary treatment , which reduces the nutrient
content of wastewater to prevent algae blooms in the body of water into which the effluent will
be released.
The raw sewage stabilization pond, which we explored in depth in the last section, is a primary
treatment pond. After water has been treated in a raw sewage stabilization pond or in some other
type of primary treatment facility, the water can move on to an oxidation pond, which is a type of
secondary treatment. Finally, a polishing pond is a type of tertiary treatment.
These three types of ponds can be used in a series, as shown in the picture above. Alternatively,
they may be used in conjunction with primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment in a wastewater
treatment plant. The wastewater may receive primary treatment in the treatment plant then
receive secondary treatment in an oxidation pond. Or the wastewater may receive primary and
secondary treatment in a treatment plant and tertiary treatment in a polishing pond.
Raw Sewage Stabilization Pond
The raw sewage stabilization pond is the most common type of pond. It is a primary treatment
facility which receives wastewater which has had no prior treatment (except screening or
shredding.)
Like any other primary treatment facility, the purpose of the raw sewage stabilization pond is to
settle out most of the solids in the water. In addition, aerobic, facultative, and anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter begins in this pond. Oxygen is provided by diffusion from the
surface of the pond and from photosynthesis by the algae in the pond. All of these processes
occur over the minimum 45 day detention time during which the water stays in the stabilization
pond.
As shown in the previous section, the stabilization pond consists of an influent structure, berms
or walls surrounding the pond, and an effluent structure designed to permit selection of the best
quality effluent. The normal operating depth of the pond is 3 to 5 feet.
The raw sewage stabilization pond is designed to receive no more than 50 pounds of BOD 5 per
day per acre. The biochemical oxygen demand , or BOD 5 , is the amount of organic matter
which can be biologically oxidized in 5 days at 20°C in the dark. This is a way of measuring
how much organic matter is in the water.
The quality of the water discharged from a stabilization pond will depend on the time of
year. During the summer, the pond removes most of the BOD 5 but not very much of the
suspended solids. In contrast, during winter months, the pond will have poor BOD 5 removal
but excellent suspended solids removal. In either case, the water is usually transferred from the
raw sewage stabilization pond to some type of secondary treatment facility.
Oxidation Pond
Water from the stabilization pond or from primary settling tanks of a treatment plant flows into
the oxidation pond . In this pond, additional settling of solids and biological treatment of
organic matter in the water occurs. Some of the fecal coliform in the water is also removed.
The oxidation pond is very similar in design to the stabilization pond.
Polishing Pond
We have already dealt with polishing ponds to some extend in the last section. These ponds,
also known as finishing ponds, receive water flowing from the oxidation pond or from some
other secondary treatment systems. Here, additional BOD 5 , solids, fecal coliform, and some
nutrients are removed from the water.
Polishing ponds have a much shorter detention time than stabilization ponds since they rely
entirely on biological processes and no settling occurs here. Water remains in polishing ponds
for only 1 to 3 days. A greater detention time may result in an increased concentration of
suspended solids in the effluent.
In addition, polishing ponds are typically deeper than the other types of ponds, usually operating
at a depth of 5 to 10 feet.
Types of Ponds by Processes
Aerobic Ponds and Aerated Ponds
Ponds can also be classified based on the type of processes occurring within the pond. The types
refer to the three types of respiration which we treated in more depth in the lesson on oxygen.
An aerobic pond is a pond in which oxygen is present throughout the pond. All biological
activity in the pond is aerobic decomposition. This type of pond is not widely used because,
without some type of aeration, the lower portions of a pond tend to lack oxygen and to host
anaerobic bacteria, as shown in the picture below. This is why the mud on the bottom of a pond
smells like sulphur when it is stirred up. A pond would have to be very shallow in order to host
only aerobic decomposition without any aeration.
One way of maintaining aerobic processes throughout the pond is to add oxygen to the water
using mechanical or diffused air systems. Ponds which add oxygen to the water in this way are
known as aerated ponds . Aerated ponds allow the depth of the pond and/or the acceptable
loading levels to be increased. The mechanical or diffused aeration systems can be used to
supplement natural oxygen production or to replace it.
Facultative Pond
The typical pond shown above, with an aerobic zone near the surface and an anaerobic zone near
the bottom, is a facultative pond. Like a facultative bacteria, a facultative pond can carry out
both aerobic and anaerobic processes based on the presence or absence of oxygen. This is the
most common type of pond.
Oxygen is present in the upper portions of the pond, so aerobic processes occur here. there is no
oxygen present in the lower levels of the pond, so the processes here are anaerobic or anoxic
(lacking sufficient oxygen.)
The facultative pond must have a balance between photosynthesis and aerobic decomposition as
shown in the picture below.
Oxygen is added to the water in two ways. The wind and the surface area prompt oxygen to
diffuse into the water from the air. Algae also produce oxygen during photosynthesis when the
sun is present.
The oxygen is then used up by bacteria in the aerobic portion of the pond. These bacteria use
oxygen to break down organic matter suspended in the water. In turn, the bacteria produce the
carbon dioxide which the algae use in photosynthesis.
Some of the solids settle to the bottom of the pond. These solids are broken down by anaerobic
bacteria which produce methane or hydrogen sulfide.
Anaerobic Pond
The final type of pond is the anaerobic pond . No oxygen is present in this type of pond, so all
biological activity within an anaerobic pond is anaerobic decomposition. Wastewater is not
usually treated in anaerobic ponds, but these ponds are used to treat high strength industrial
wastes.
Pond Process Control Calculations
Wastewater operators and treatment managers use various process control operations to
determine the state of operation (status) of the pond. These operations include determining pond
area, pond volume, flow rate, hydraulic detention, hydraulic loading, population loading, and
organic loading.
Pond Area in Acres
Pond Volume in Acre Feet

Flow Rate in Acre-feet/Day
Hydraulic Detention Time, Days
Normally in the range of 30-120 days
Hydraulic Loading, inches/day
Organic Loading
Review
When compared with other wastewater treatment systems involving biological treatment, a pond
treatment system is the simplest to operate and maintain. Pond operation and maintenance
activities include collecting and testing samples for dissolved oxygen and pH, removing weeds
and other debris (scum) from the pond, mowing the berms, repairing erosion, and removing
burrowing animals. Dissolved oxygen and pH levels in the pond will vary throughout the day.
Normal operation will result in very high dissolved oxygen and pH levels due to the natural
processes occurring.
The three types of ponds based on location within the treatment process are raw sewage
stabilization pond (primary treatment), oxidation pond (secondary treatment), and polishing or
finishing pond (tertiary treatment). The four types of ponds based on type of respiration are
aerobic pond (oxygen present throughout the pond; aerobic respiration), aerated pond (oxygen
artificially introduced; aerobic respiration), facultative pond (oxygen present in upper portions of
the pond; aerobic and anaerobic respiration), and anaerobic pond (no oxygen present; anaerobic
respiration; used to treat high strength industrial wastes).
Assignment
Work the following crossword puzzle that comes from definitions in your textbook. You may
either print the puzzle out, complete it and mail or fax back to the instructor or you may send an
email with the correct answers numbered accordingly.
Quiz
submit your grade directly into the database for grading purposes
Disinfection
Objective
 What is disinfection?
 What methods can be used to disinfect water?
Reading Assignment
Along with the online lesson, read Chapter 10: Disinfection and Chlorination in your textbook
Lecture
Introduction to Disinfection
Control of Waterborne Diseases
As mentioned, wastewatr contains many types of human enteric organisms that are associated
with various waterborne diseases. Typhoid, cholera, paratyphoid, and bacillary dysentery are
caused by bacteria and amebic dysentery is caused by protozoa. Disinfection refers to selective
destruction of disease-causing organisms in the water supply or in wastewater effluent.
Wastewater, after secondary treatment to remove BOD and solids, may still contain large
numbers of microorganisms. Some of these organisms may be pathogenic and may cause
epidemics if discharged to receiving waters. Wastewater treatment must reduce the possibility of
this happening. As with other steps of treatment, there are many processes available to achieve
disinfection. The most widely used process is chlorination. Other processes include ultra-violet
(UV) light, ozonation, and bromine chloride additions.
Chlorination of the water supply has been practiced since about 1850. Presently, chlorination of
both water supply and wastewater effluent is an extremely widespread practice for the control of
waterborne diseases. However, chlorination may result in the formation of chlorinated
hydrocarbons, some of which are known to be carcinogenic. Therefore, either dechlorination or
alternate methods of disinfection are used. Only the chlorination process is discussed in this
lesson.
Chlorination
Chlorination, which follows all other steps of treatment, reduces the population of organisms in
the wastewater to levels low enough to ensure that pathogenic organisms will not be present in
sufficient quantities to cause disease when the wastewater is discharged.
In use, chlorine is added to the wastewater to satisfy all chemical demands. When these initial
chemical demands have been satisfied, chlorine will react with substances such as ammonia to
produce chloramines and other substances which, although not as effective as chlorine, have
disinfecting capability. This produces a combined residual that can be measured using residual
chlorine test methods. If additional chlorine is added, free residual chlorine can be produced.
Due to the chemicals typically found in wastewater, chlorine residuals are normally combined
rather than free residuals. Control of the disinfection process is usually based on maintaining
total residual chlorine of at least 1.0 mg/L for a contact time of at least 30 minutes at design
flow.
Certain factors affect the disinfection process. These include residual level, contact time, and/or
effluent quality. Failure to maintain the desired residual levels for the required contact time will
result in lower efficiency and increased probability that disease organisms will be discharged.
Chlorination Chemicals
Chorine used in the disinfection process normally is in the form of hypochlorite (similar to that
used for home swimming pools) or free chlorine gas.
Chlorine Gas
Chlorine can be added to the water as a gas. Once the chlorine enters the water, it produces
hypochlorous acid (NaOH) and the disinfectant HOCl. This is the most concentrated form of
chlorine, being 99.9% concentrated.
Chlorine gas is difficult to handle since it is toxic, heavy, corrosive, and an irritant.
Hypochlorites and Bleaches

Chlorine can also come in a liquid form, known as hypochlorite or bleach . These liquids work
in the same general method as chlorine gas, by producing the disinfectant HOCl. They are all
much less concentrated than chlorine gas.
Hypochlorites have the disadvantage that they may decompose in strength over time while in
storage. Temperature, light, and physical energy can all break down the hypochlorites before
they are able to react with pathogens in water.
We will discuss three types of hypochlorites below - sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite,
and commercial bleach.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is up to 12% chlorine. Like chlorine gas, it produces NaOH and
HOCl when introduced to water.
You may remember calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2 ), also known as HTH, from the water
treatment portion of this course. This is the type of chlorine which is used in swimming
pools. Calcium hypochlorite is 65-70% concentrated.
The concentration of commercial bleach varies depending on the brand. Chlorox bleach is 5%
chlorine while some other brands are 3.5% concentrated.
Chloramines
When hypochlorites are mixed with ammonia, the result is a chloramine . The ammonia and
chlorine are mixed at a ratio of 4:5 to 1.
Chloramines are weaker than chlorine, but are more stable, so they are often used as the
disinfectant in the distribution lines of water treatment systems. Despite their stability,
chloramines can be broken down by bacteria, heat, and light.
Chloramines are effective at killing bacteria and will also kill some protozoans, but they are very
ineffective at killing viruses.
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide , ClO2 , is a very effective form of chlorination since it will kill
protozoans, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and viruses that other systems may not kill. In addition,
chlorine dioxide oxidizes all metals and organic matter, converting the organic matter to carbon
dioxide and water.
Chlorine dioxide is generated on site, and it has the disadvantages that it is very costly and
requires a great deal of technical expertise. The operator must monitor the chlorite in a chlorine
dioxide system.
Chlorine dioxide also has other disadvantages. It is dangerous around activated carbon, it can
produce odors, and it is corrosive.
Types of Disinfection
In the past, wastewater treatment practices have principally relied on the use of chlorine for
disinfection. The prevalent use of chlorine has come about because chlorine is an excellent
disinfecting chemical and, until recently, has been available at a reasonable cost.
However, the rising cost of chlorine coupled with the chemical's toxicity to fish and other biota
and the production of potentially harmful chlorinated hydrocarbons has made chlorination less
favored as the disinfectant of choice in wastewater treatment.
As a result, future wastewater treatment may see an increased use of ozone or ultraviolet (UV)
light. Both types of treatment are effective disinfecting agents and leave no toxic residual. In
addition, ozone will raise the dissolved oxygen level of water.
The use of both UV light and ozone as disinfectants will be considered individually. However,
since chlorine continues to be used extensively as a disinfectant, we will mainly be concerned
with the practice of chlorination.
Other Methods of Disinfection
Ozone
Oxygen in the air (O2) is composed of two oxygen molecules. Under certain conditions, three
oxygen molecules can be bound together instead, forming ozone (O3).
Ozone has many advantages as a disinfectant. It kills all pathogenic organisms by a direct effect
on their DNA. Disinfection occurs 30,000 times faster than with chlorine, so a prolonged contact
time is unnecessary. There is no harmful residual left in the system.
The disadvantages of an ozone disinfection system are a corrosive nature, a high cost for the
initial set-up, and a high electricity consumption.
UV Light
Ultraviolet, or UV, light is light outside the range usually detectable by the human eye. It can
be used to deactivate protozoans so that they can't reproduce and to significantly reduce the
bacteria in water.
The primary disadvantage of UV light is a high operating cost. In addition, anything which
blocks UV light from reaching the water will result in a lack of treatment.
Process Control Calculations
There are several calculations that are useful in operating a chlorination system. These include
chlorine feed rate, chlorine dose, and chlorine demand.
Chlorine Feed Rate
Here is an example using the equation above:
The chorine dose is 7.25 mg/L and the flow rate is 3.25 MGD. What is the feed rate for chlorine
in pounds per day?
Chlorine Dose
Here is an example using the equation above:
The scale indicates that the plant has used 332 pounds of chlorine during the past twenty-four
hours. The flow for the same period was 5.27 MGD. What is the dose of chlorine applied to the
wastewater in milligrams/liter?
Chlorine Demand
Demand, mg/L = Dose, mg/L - Residual, mg/L
Here is an exaple using the equation above:
If the chlorine residual for the previous example was 1.3 mg/L, what was the chlorine demand?
Demand, mg/L = 7.6 mg/L - 1.3 mg/L
Demand, mg/L = 6.3 mg/L
Review
Disinfection is the act of killing the pathogenic organisms in water. This prevents the spread of
waterborne diseases.
Chlorination is the most widespread form of disinfection. Chlorine can be added to water in
various forms - chlorine gas, hypochlorites and bleaches, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide.
Use of ozone and UV light for disinfection may become more widespread in the future as a result
of the many disadvantages of chlorine.
Assignment
1. The chlorine dose is 6.58 mg/L and the flow rate is 2.85 MGD. What is the feed
rate for chlorine in pounds per day?
2. The scale indicates that the plant has used 275 pounds of chlorine during the past
24 hours. The flow for the same period was 4.85 MGD. What is the dose of
chlorine applied to the wastewater in mg/L?
3. If the chlorine residual for the previous problem was 1.8, what was the chlorine
demand?
accordingly.
Quiz

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Overview of the Wastewater Treatment Process

In this lesson we will learn the following:

 What the different sources of wastewater include.

In the Treatment Plant

Racks, Screens, Comminutors and Grit Removal

In this lesson we will answer the following question:

The First Step

Sedimentation and Flotation

In this lesson we will learn the following:

 How does sedimentation fit into the water treatment process?

Location in the Treatment Process

While sedimentation following coagulation/flocculation is meant to remove most of the

Three common types of sedimentation basins are shown below:

Rectangular basins are the simplest design, allowing water to

Double-deck rectangular basins are essentially two rectangular

Square or circular sedimentation basins with horizontal flow are

From: Water Works Operator's Manual

Tube settlers and lamella plates -

Disposal in Streams and Sewers

Lagoons, which are small-volume storage ponds, are the

Drying beds are often used to thicken

Process Control Calculations

Surface Loading Rate

Weir Overflow Rate

To view more examples, read page 136 in your textbook.

Primary sedimentation clarifiers can be expected to remove:

Settleable solids 90-95%

Sedimentation is a process used to remove suspended particles from water using

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

 What do trickling filters consist of?

Fixed Media Filters

Introduction to Fixed Media Filters

Separator and Digester

Clarifier, Disinfection, and Aeration

Factors Influencing Slime Growth

Different microorganisms require different environments. For example, the microorganisms

Total Flow, MGD = 4.25 MGD × (1.5 + 1.0)

Total Flow = 10.63 MGD

So the organic loading of the filter is 213 lbs/day/1000 ft3.

New Formulas Used

To calculate total flow:

To calculate hydraulic loading:

To calculate organic loading:

Rotating Biological Contactors

In this lesson we will answer the following question:

 What does Rotating Biological Contactors consist of?

Rotating Biological Contactors

 Gray, shaggy slime growth - indicates normal operation

In regard to typical performance, a well-maintained, properly operated RBC typically produces a

Advantages offered by RBCs include:

Disadvantages of RBCs include:

 Requirement for covering RBC units in northern climates to protect against

In this lesson we will answer the following questions:

Biological Treatment Processes

Activated Sludge Process

Activated Sludge Modifications

The major process modifications of the activated sludge process are:

Complete Mix Aeration

Extended Aeration Activated Sludge

Pure Oxygen Systems

Activated Sludge Process Control Calculations

Settled Sludge Volume