Computers in Human Behavior 25 (2009) 229–232

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Computers in Human Behavior

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Examining psychometric characteristics of the computer anxiety scale

Abayomi A. Arigbabu *
Tai Solarin University of Education, Department of Physics and Mathematical Sciences, P.M.B. 2118, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The psychometric characteristics of the 20-item computer anxiety scale (CAS) were examined in a Nige-
Available online 9 October 2008 rian sample of 181 preservice teachers (62 men and 119 women). Results indicated a two-factor solution,
consistent with those from other studies. The two factors accounted for 41.6% of the total variance in the
Keywords: solution. The internal consistency reliability for the entire scale (.89) was considered conceptually mean-
Computer anxiety ingful. This result suggests that computer anxiety construct, as measured by CAS, appears to be culturally
Psychometric properties and contextually invariant.
Preservice teachers
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Computer anxiety scale
Computer in education
Principal component analysis

1. Introduction (2002) and Markauskaite (2006) found no significant relationship

The advent of computer and information technology in almost
all spheres of human endeavour; as could be observed was accom-
panied with mixed reactions. Particularly, in the field of education,
stakeholders are diametrically on both ends of the divide concern-
ing its acceptance or otherwise. While some hold the view that
computer has come to be an indispensable ally in education, oth-
ers, do not see any need for its introduction and thus continue to
resist this innovation in education. Indeed, Todman (2000) has re-
ported that very many people have negative opinions or exhibit
some level of anxiety towards the use of computer. Attitude to-
wards computer by students and teachers as well as computer
competencies required by them have been addressed by various
researchers For example, (Myers & Halpin, 2002). Also Khine
(2001) found a significant relationship between computer attitude
and its use among preservice teachers. This finding was corrobo-
rated by Yuen and Ma (2002) who, using the Chinese computer
attitude scale for teachers (CAST), found affective attitudes, general
usefulness, behavioural control, and pedagogical use to be signifi-
cant in determining the use of ICT. Kumar and Kumar (2003) re-
ported that most teachers believe that the amount of computer
experience has a positive effect on attitude towards computers.
Jackson, Ervin, Gardner, and Schmitt (2001) indicated that female
users, compared with males, are more inclined to hold negative
reactions to computers and such differences may have resulted
in the different ways of using computers.
Some other studies on computer anxiety and attitudes also in-
cluded the gender dimension. For instance, Margolis and Fisher
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +234 8033507224.
E-mail addresses: arigbabuaa@yahoo.com, arigbabuaa@tasu.edu.ng
for age and gender, and computer attitudes. This finding negates
some earlier ones which suggested significant differences in com-
puter attitudes by gender. For example, Houtz and Gupta (2001)
found that males and female rated themselves on their ability to
use the computer in significantly different ways. It has also been
reported, that males have more experience and make more use
of computers (Balka & Smith, 2000; Brosnan & Lee, 1998).
It is usual to consider the issue of gender in the context of other
user variables such as self efficacy, computer anxiety, and com-
puter experience. For example, Chua, Chen, and Wong (1999) and
Coffin and Mackintyre (2000) in their meta-analyses on the rela-
tionships between computer anxiety, computer attitudes, com-
puter self efficacy and computer experience stated that most
findings usually reinforce the gender effects and suggested that
greater levels of computer experience are associated with lower
computer experience and more positive computer attitudes. Fe-
males usually also have more negative attitudes towards comput-
ers (Durndell & Thompson, 1997) and greater computer anxiety
(McIlroy, Bunting, Tierney, & Gordon, 2001) than males. Research
on computer self efficacy in general also revealed that males on
average tend to acquire computer self efficacy faster than females
(Todman, 2000). To a large part, North and Noyes (2002) felt that
increased use of computers for teaching and learning in schools
has worked against the development of gender differences as re-
ported in previous research, a situation consistent with the use
of computers in the Singapore schools (Teo, 2006).
However, despite the various works already done in the area of
computer anxiety, further research; particularly, across cultures is
still very scanty.
Computer anxiety, termed computer-phobia by Cantrell (1982),
refers to the fear or apprehension experienced by individuals in the

0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.09.006
230 A.A. Arigbabu / Computers in Human Behavior 25 (2009) 229–232
course or at the thought of using computers (Chua, Chen, & Wong,
1999). Kanfer and Heggestad (1997), have reported that perfor-
mance of participants with higher computer anxiety might be
poorer than those with little or no computer anxiety. This has been
premised on the finding that Computer anxiety is characterized as
an affective response, an emotional fear of potential negative out-
comes which is capable of detracting cognitive resources from task
performance. Arigbabu (2006a) undertook a study of the computer
anxiety of some Nigerian preservice teachers. Results of the study
indicated that computer anxiety construct was invariant with re-
spect to gender, year of study, and group (science/non-science)
students belonged to. In addition, high prevalence of computer
anxiety in the Nigerian sample, relative to those of Germany and
America was found. In a related study Arigbabu (2006b) found
no statistically significant difference in the computer anxiety
exhibited by preservice teachers on a 3-year Nigeria Certificate in
Education (NCE) teacher education programme and those on a 4-
year Bachelor of Education degree programme.
Like mathematics anxiety, various scales have been developed
to measure this construct. Some of these are Oetting’s (1983) com-
puter anxiety scale (COMPAS); Maurer’s (1983) computer anxiety
index (CAI); Loyd and Gressard’s (1984) computer attitude scale;
Marcoulides’ (1985) computer anxiety scale, and Rosen, Sears,
and Weil’s (1987) computer anxiety rating scale.
In the last two decades, psychometric properties of these instru-
ments have been examined and re-examined by various research-
ers (e.g. Campbell & Dobson, 1987; Francis & Evans, 1995; Kluever,
Lam, Hoffman, Green, & Swearingen, 1994). The results of such
studies have been mixed. Advancements in computer, information
and communication technology in recent years have thus necessi-
tated re-examination of the computer anxiety construct. The pres-
ent study is a response along this direction. All the instruments
mentioned were developed in more advanced and developed envi-
ronments, hence another motivation, was to examine whether the
psychometric properties of the CAS (Marcoulides, 1985, 1989;
Marcoulides, Rosen, & Sears, 1985) would be preserved in another
relatively less advanced and less developed context. The popula-
tion of focus here are preservice teachers, tomorrow’s education
leaders. Most studies on computer anxiety have not considered
this group. Assessing the level of computer anxiety held by teach-
ers, and indeed, preservice teachers, is no doubt of great value to
educationists Teo (2008).
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Participants were 181 preservice teachers in a college of educa-
tion in south west Nigeria. This was made up of 40 (22%) in the fi-
nal year and 128 (71%) in the second year of their 3 year
programme (though 22 (7%) did not indicate their year of study,
they were certainly not in the first year as administration was dur-
ing class work in each of the classes). There were 62 (34%) men and
119 (66%) women with ages ranging between 16 and 40 years
(M = 22.5, SD = 2.9). All of them took the mandatory introductory
computer course in the second semester of their first year.
2.2. Instrument and procedure
The computer anxiety scale (CAS) (Marcoulides, 1985, 1989;
Marcoulides et al., 1985) was administered to participants during
school hours, towards the end of the first semester. They were in-
formed about how they had the option not to participate if they so
wished although their unsolicited responses would be highly
appreciated. In the CAS questionnaire, each item was rated on a
5-point Likert-type scale anchored by 1: not at all and 5: very
much. Background information sheet was also included, for
respondents to indicate gender, age, matriculation number, and
subject combination (teaching subjects). Prior to the administra-
tion of questionnaire, detailed explanation about the instrument
was given. They were also assured that there was no right or wrong
answers and that all information would be held in strict
confidence.
3. Results
The reliability and validity of the CAS questionnaire was first
established. To identify the dimensions of the questionnaire,
principal components factor analysis was computed with vari-
max rotation. Kaiser’s (1960) criterion (eigenvalue greater than
1.0 rule) was used to determine the initial number of factors
to be retained for rotation. This was used in conjunction with
an analysis of the scree plot and the percentage of variance ac-
counted for by the factor solution. A five-factor solution was ini-
tially obtained. This was considered inappropriate as one of the
components had just one item. A four-factor solution computed
was also abandoned as one of the factors with only three items
had very low internal consistency reliability (.54). For the three-
factor solution, corresponding eigenvalues for the three compo-
nents were 6.8, 1.5, and 1.3 which accounted for 34.1%, 7.5%,
and 6.3% of the total variance (respectively). This solution was
also jettisoned as the third factor with three items had low
internal consistency reliability (.66). The other two components,
however, had coefficient alpha values of .86 and .73. An exami-
nation of the scree plot of eigenvalues (Fig. 1) gave an indication
suggestive of a two-factor solution.
The two-factor solution was thus computed and this was
found meaningful as the internal consistency values of .88 and
.70 were obtained for components 1 and 2, respectively. The
two factors accounted for 41.6% of the total variance in the solu-
tion. The internal consistency reliability for the entire scale (.89)
was considered conceptually meaningful (Curtis & Singh, 1997)
as it satisfies criteria for the determination of the number of
components to retain. It is remarkable that a number of earlier
studies (Marcoulides, 1985, 1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1991) identified
CAS as comprising of two factors, namely, a general computer
anxiety factor and an equipment factor. The former comprised
items relating to anxiety resulting from direct experiences with
computer technology through the actual use while the later con-
8
7
6
5
Eigenvalue
4
3
2
1
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Component Number
Fig. 1. Scree plot showing number of components and eigenvalues of the
correlation matrix.
 A.A. Arigbabu / Computers in Human Behavior 25 (2009) 229–232
Table 1
Structure coefficients from principal component analysis of the CAS (N = 181)
Scale items Factor 1
4 .70
9 .65
3 .65
2 .65
19 .64
15 .64
18 .63
12 .60
14 .59
1 .58
5 .57
8 .51
17 .50
13 .48
7 .73
16
10
20
11
6 .42
Eigenvalues 6.8
Explained variance, % 34.1
sists of items relating to operating computer equipment. Mar-
coulides, Mayes, and Wiseman (1995) reported very high reli-
ability coefficients (.93–.97) for the two subscales.
It has been suggested by cross-cultural methodologists that the
appropriateness of an inventory developed in one society should
not be taken for granted when used in another (Hui & Triandis,
1985). It is, therefore one of the goals of this study to assess the
validity of a previously proposed two-factor computer anxiety
model on a Nigerian sample. Table 1 presents principal component
analysis loadings, with varimax rotation, for scores obtained in the
present sample. It is seen that the Nigerian data gave a two-factor
solution consistent with that obtained in the other studies Marcou-
lides et al. (1995). The similarity of the result here suggests that the
computer anxiety scale seems to measure what it purports to mea-
sure, even in this new context, thus attesting to the invariance of
the computer anxiety construct (Marcoulides, Stocker, & Marcou-
lides, 2004).
4. Discussion
In this study, the psychometric characteristics of the computer
anxiety scale (CAS) were examined in an entirely different context
and environment. Various studies that examined the psychometric
properties of the CAS have reported a two-factor solution. The need
for cross-cultural investigation of instruments has however been
stressed (Hui & Triandis, 1985). The present study addressed this
in the Nigerian situation and established a two-factor solution with
high alpha value. This thus suggests that the scale is suitable for
use in Nigeria.
Another important aspect of this study was the fact that the
inventory yielded consistent results with the other studies despite
administering it among preservice teachers rather than secondary
school students or university undergraduates (Marcoulides et al.,
2004).The good internal consistency reliability obtained here
(and in other studies) suggests that the instrument would be
found quite handy for lecturers in ascertaining the level of anxiety
their students bring to class. This would then assist in identifying
those who need help and the level of assistance required. Further
investigations across cultures and contexts are, however, still nec-
essary to establish the general suitability of the computer anxiety
scale.
231
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