EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 1

CHAPTER 1: EMI ANALYSIS

1.1 Concern for Electromagnetic Compatibility

• Goal of EMC engineering is to produce equipment capable of functioning in the

predicted or specified electromagnetic environment and that does not interfere with
other equipment or unduly pollute the environment.
• It achieving this goal, the EMC engineer requires many years of experience and
strong understanding of the basic Electrical Engineering subjects.
• EMC concerns with not only the functionality of the equipment but also on its
reliability.
• The reliability of an equipment may degrade depending on many factors such as
imperfect software (VCD, CD, tape), aging, excessive vibration, drop, water
resistance, high/cold temperature, electrostatic discharge, electrical fast transient /
surge, voltage dip / interruption / variation or EMI emissions.
• Some of the challenges faced by modern industries in achieving EMC for their
products are; increasing features in equipments (or complexity), better performance
(product specification and reliability), higher speed (in digital circuitry), lower cost,
miniature size (more compact design) and short time-to-market (less time for tests).

1.2 Electromagnetic Interference

• The mechanism of interference is caused by the electric and magnetic fields

surrounding the circuit or equipments.
• Electric field exist due to electric charges.
• While Magnetic field is due to electric current or flow of charges.
• The electric and magnetic fields are related by Maxwell’s equations.
• For EMI to exist, there must be a source of emission, a coupling path, and a
receptor (a circuit, unit or system sensitive to the received noise). All three elements
must exist for interference to occur. Removing any one of those three elements can
eliminate interference. However, this is subject to the cost, effectiveness and practical
limitations of removing these elements.
• Two modes of coupling, radiated and conducted, can exist. Radiated coupling occurs
through air between any two interfering equipments/circuits, while conducted
coupling occurs through power lead where undesired high-frequency voltages appear
on power lead of another appliance sharing the same power source.
• In the near field, the radiated coupling may be either a predominantly magnetic (H)
field coupling or an electric (E) field coupling, whereas the coupling in the far field
will be via electromagnetic waves. When the coupling is through magnetic field it is
called inductive coupling, while with electric field its called capacitive coupling.
• When coupling occurs intentionally, like through communication channel, it a desired
phenomenon. However, when coupling occurs unintentionally, this gives rise to
electromagnetic interference (EMI) or noise.
• The effects of EMI are extremely variable in character and magnitude, ranging from
simple annoyance to major disaster. Some examples of the potential effects of EMI
are:
- PC affecting a nearby TV

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 2

- Cellular phone causing aircraft/electric train to move uncontrollably

- Electric motor or automotive ignition causing noise on radio receiver
- Radio broadcast transmitter audible on a cassette player
- Malfunction of medical electronic equipment (e.g., pacemaker)
• By increasing the clock speed in digital circuits, the chances of effecting EMI are
greater. Using faster IC may not be able to solve the problem as the interference
between the subsystems may still occur, or in some instances high-speed circuitry
may also cause malfunction to another apparatus located nearby.
• Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is defined as the capability of two or more
electrical devices to operate simultaneously without mutual interference. EMC can be
further elaborated as follows:
- No part of a circuit may interfere with another part (ex. between a PC and a
video monitor).
- If complete system works correctly in a controlled EM environment, it means
all of its parts are compatible - no Intra-system interference.
- EMC regulations establishes absolute limits for both radiated and conducted
emissions, and the immunity of devices to EMI emissions - inter-system
EMI.
- Emission is defined as interference to other equipment that is located nearby.
- Immunity (or susceptibility) is defined as the ability of equipment to tolerate
inflicted noise.
- The regulations are governed by the FCC (Federal Communications
Commission) in the US and EN (European Norm) in EU.

1.3 EMI Sources

I
L L

M
D ig it a l
C ir c u it

L L
Figure 1.1
• Motors, generators and relays (and in general, any device that switches large
currents) are some common examples of EMI sources.
• This large current, flowing through the inductance L, (inductance of the interconnect
wires) produces a voltage equal to L.di/dt. These voltage spike, or noise spike,
generated during the switching of the current, can cause problems in another circuit
connected through the common power supply lines or ground connections.
• Spark discharges and arcs near contact points in an electric circuit are sources of
interference. These discharges or arcs are radiated as electromagnetic pulse (EMP)

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 3

that is rich in spectral contents. EMP can cause severe damage or even malfunction
certain electronic devices.
• In any circuits employing high frequency sources, an obvious concern is radiation.
Any binding posts or long pins on the circuit layout can be an efficient source of
radiation, as it acts as a dipole antenna.
• Besides posts and pins, current loop created unintentionally in a circuit layout can be
an efficient radiator (it behaves as a loop antenna).
• EMI sources usually cannot be eliminated. However, interference can be controlled
by altering the attenuation along the coupling path to the receptor, as illustrated by
the following examples:
- RF energy is required for fast processing in a digital computer, however, it is
undesirable for this RF energy to be radiated or conducted outside the computer.
Radio frequency interference (RFI) can be prevented, by confining the RF
energy to its intended circuits within the computer, while blocking this RF
energy from interfering with other parts of the circuits.
- In some cases, RF energy intentionally conducted or radiated outside the device
may undesirably affect some other devices (exp. Nearby cellular base station
affecting a TV). As a counter measure, the RF energy must be prevented from
reaching the device or increasing the device’s immunity at the frequency band.
- However, some apparatus are inherently immune to RFI like toaster & iron, by
its nature.
- There are several remedies possible to reduce this interference. The engineer is
left with the job of choosing the simplest and least expensive method, which
suits the device at hand.
• The good news is practical stray sources are much weaker than deliberate sources.
Also, inadvertent receptors are much less sensitive than intended receptors.
Therefore, interference generally occurs only when the source and receptor are very
close together.
• The reciprocity rule requires that any design that reduces emissions will also reduce
susceptibility at the same operating frequency. It is such, because when radiating
points (posts, pins or loops) are minimized (or suppressed), naturally, the receiver
points (also, the same posts, pins and loops) are also minimized at the same time.
• Equipments those are susceptible to noise, i.e. that equipment which cannot perform
satisfactorily in the presence of noise is less attractive or competitive in business.
• In other cases, some equipments functions acceptably by it-self but emits stray noise,
whereby causing other equipment in the vicinity to malfunction. This gives rise to the
need for EMI emissions to be regulated by law. Manufacturers must meet the EMC
requirements to gain access to the world’s market. Forced market return can tarnish
the company’s reputation.
• The tests required to ascertain the compatibility of equipments is, as stated by
international standards:
- Radiated Emission – the amount of radiated interference by an equipment,
- Conducted Emission – interference, through conduction to other equipment,
- Radiated Susceptibility – the ability of equipment to function as desired in the
presence of radiated interference,
- Conducted Susceptibility – the ability of equipment to function in the presence of
conducted interference.

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 4

• It is desirable to have reduced stray emission and increased susceptibility attended

early in the design stage of a system. Such method is termed as System Approach. It
is much easier to employ, more cost effective and involves fewer packaging & circuit
layout constraints.
• System Approach include:
- Proper circuit layout and grounding – circuit layout is carefully planned, with like
circuits grouped together and sensitive circuits isolated,
- Defensive programming and system design – programming is designed to
inherently introduce redundancy to avoid false data or decision,
- Components selection – components suitable for the interference environment
must be selected,
- Filtering and screening of cables – filtering is introduce to stop interfering signals
from entering circuits, cables and interconnect are shielded from radiated
interference,
- Shielding – Shielding of circuits and components that is susceptible to
interference (or that contributes to radiation) from interference sources.
• Opposite system approach is Crisis Approach. Usually applies to finished circuits,
when it fails to function properly in the presence of interference or the circuit itself
contributes to interference.
• Crisis Approach involves:
- Expensive redesign/rework (hand-wired by skilled technicians) – parts
contributing to interference is redesigned or in some cases reworked by inserting
components such as filters,
- Ineffective shielding ("bandage") – interfering parts are shielded from other
components by shields which can be difficult to implement, expensive and
ineffective in some cases.
• EMI analysis employs the use of both circuit theory and field theory. Characteristics
of EMI analysis are:
- EMI analysis is an inexact science – because of the complexity of practical
hardware, it is impossible to define the geometry of noise sources with the
accuracy to predict interference within -66% to +200%.
- Understanding of the theory behind each EMI control techniques is crucial to
successful application of the techniques in system design.
- The study focuses on simplified geometry to predict the relative coupling noise
(to gain qualitative analysis skill). The understanding achieved can be extended to
more complicated circuits.

1.4 Circuit Theory

• Consider 3 parallel wires as shown below. Two of the wires are signal leads, labeled
1 and 2. The third is a common signal-return lead, labeled G since it is often
connected to ground. If one signal lead carries a high-frequency voltage and currents,
these will be coupled into the other signal lead.

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 5

L M 12
11
C 12 L 22

1 2 1 2 C 2G
C 1G

L G

G G
Figure 1.2
• A coupling path may be defined in terms of stray capacitance, mutual inductance, and
common impedance.
• Any two electrical conductors possess a capacitance between them so long there are
electric fluxes between them.

E
E
d

-
V εA
E= and C =
d d

M 12
i1 I

V
H
V S ~ V o V o= M . d i1 / d t
12
+
-

Figure 1.3
• Any current path links its own magnetic flux and therefore has a self-inductance.
Furthermore, any two current paths possess a mutual inductance when the magnetic
flux links both paths.
• In the three wire configuration (in the previous page), Capacitance (C), self-
inductance (L) and mutual inductance (M) are all function of wire diameter, spacing,
permittivity and permeability of the insulator.
• By joining any two of the three leads at the ends, a long, narrow closed current loop
is formed. Loop-1 is formed when we connect lead-1 to lead-G at both ends of the
cable. Lead-2 and lead-G forms loop-2.
• Definition of mutual inductance, M = transformer action

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 6

M12 = Φ12 / I1 where Φ12 = flux linking circuit-2 due to current in circuit-1
• Since lead-G forms part of each loop, we cannot define mutual inductance between G
and lead-1 or -2. The only meaningful mutual inductance is between leads-1 and 2.
• In practice, calculating the magnitudes of stray capacitance and inductance is often
quite difficult, even for simple geometries. It requires the use field theory with some
approximations.
• In circuit theory, stray capacitance and inductance are considered as lumped
elements. But in reality, they are distributed - lumped element analysis can be used
only if physical dimensions are small compared to wavelength.
t1 ∆x
I t2
Io+ ∆ I t3
Io

I1 I2

+
V s ~
-

I1 I2

I(x ) R ∆x L∆x I+ ∆I

V (x ) G ∆x C ∆x V +∆V

∆x

Figure 1.4
• If the size conditions described before are not satisfied, however, then circuit theory
provides little or no information about the coupling path.

1.5 Field Theory

• Instead of describing capacitance between two conductors we define the electric field
E as a function of position in space. Similarly, instead of inductance, we define the
magnetic field H. This approach is more general and applicable to all geometry, with
varying difficulty depending on the geometry.
• Figure 1.5 shows the E and H fields at the conductor ends, although it really exists
continuously along them.
• It is evident that some of this electric field emanating from lead-1 intersects lead-2.
This corresponds to C12 and C2G in figure 1.2.
• Some of the magnetic field generated by the current flowing in loop-1, links loop-2.
This flux corresponds to the sum of the mutual inductance M12 and self-inductance LG
in figure 1.2.
• The circuit theory quantities of voltage and current can be calculated through
mathematical integration of E and H, respectively.

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EMG 4076: Electromagnetic Interference 7

1 2 1 2
E-field
H-field

G
G

Figure 1.5
• Due to the difficulty associated with complex geometries, analytical expression
(satisfying Maxwell’s equations and boundary conditions) cannot be obtained for
these structures. Such cases require the use of series approximations. However, to
achieve high degree of accuracy, computational complexity increases and requires
long computing time.
• If wire length is short (compared to wavelength), no field variation along the wire
occurs. Thus, in such cases, Field Theory and Circuit Theory will yield similar
results.
• On the other hand, if lengths are much larger than wavelength, then mathematics
associated with field theory (Far field) becomes simpler (E/H ratio equal 377 ohms).
• In the far field, achieving a near exact solution is often possible with field theory.
Also, in this circumstances circuit theory solutions are not usable, antenna theory, a
method by which RF energy coupled from the source circuit into free space, and
from free space into receptor gives accurate results.

1.6 Analysis Example

• Lets conduct a simple analysis of the three-wire configuration of figure 1.2. We’ll
make some assumptions to simplify the calculations. (A thorough analysis of the
three-wire configuration will be undertaken in chapter 2).
• Say an ac voltage of V1G is applied between lead-1 and lead-G. Then a voltage V2G
will be capacitively coupled onto lead-2.
• Assume the termination impedance on lead-2 is very high, V12 is given by:
1

+
C 12 2
V 1G
C 1G
- C V
2G 2G

G
C12 ⋅V1G
V 2G
=
C12 + C2 G

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Figure 1.6
• Now, lead-1 and lead-2 is shorted to lead-G at the far ends, and if source V1 is in
series with loop-1, then V2 will be the inductively coupled voltage in loop-2. V2 is
given by:
L11 RL1
I1

M12
L22 RL2 Assume
V1 ~
RL2 arbitrary large
I2=0 RL1 negligible
- +
V2
LG

M 12 + LG
V 2
L11 + LG V 1
=

Figure 1.7
• -
If we can calculate, measure, or estimate the capacitance and inductance, then the
coupling factor can be found.
• The alternative approach involves field theory. We must find mathematical functions
for the fields that satisfy Maxwell’s equations and the boundary conditions. If E and
H fields at all points are known, the voltages and currents throughout the circuit can
be calculated.
• If wire length is short, there will be no field variation along the wires, and the
conductors behave as a lumped capacitance and inductance. Field theory will then
yield similar results to circuit theory.
• However, ff the dimensions involved are electrically large, Field Theory is the only
way to analyze the behavior of the circuit.

Chapter 1: EMI Analysis