HSC Biology

9.5 Communication
1. Range of stimuli
 Receptors
The reception of external stimuli is the function of specialized
cells called receptors. Each type of receptor is highly
specialized for a specific type of stimulus.
Photoreceptors in the eye are stimulated by light. There are
two types: rods and cones, the latter are specialised in
discerning colour. These cells can perceive 7 million
variations of color.
Meissner’s corpuscles are specialised cells under the skin
that are responsible for the sense of touch.
Special types of receptors called Hair
Hair-cells of the inner ear
transform sound to nerve impulses.
The skin and the internal tissues hold several million of free
nerve endings which discern pain (nociceptors) and
temperature (thermoceptors).
Chemoreceptors in the nasal passage identify thousands of
different molecules by shape and chemical properties.
The
he gustatory receptors (sense of taste) are specialized
epithelial cells known as chemoreceptors, they recognise
sweet, salty, bitter and sour tastes. Flavours are recognised
by the nasal receptors.
Stimulus--->
> Receptor
Receptor---> Messenger--->
Effector
When a sensory receptor (Receptor) in, say, the skin
detects pain or a change in temperature (Stimulus),
a si
signal is transmitted along a sensory nerve to the
spinal cord.
Messenger path:
The signal is sent up the spinal cord and
through the brain stem to the thalamus (a
sensory processing center deep in the brain).
The impulse (signal) moves to the sensory
cortex of the cerebrum (the part of the brain that
interprets signals from sensory receptors).
The brain then might decide to initiate
movement. This triggers the motor cortex (the
area of the brain that plans, controls, and
executes voluntary movements) to generate an
impulse.
The impulse is sent down the spinal cord and
there to a motor nerve.
The impulse travels along the length of the
motor nerve to the muscle, where it stimulates
muscle movement.
Muscle reacts (Effector)
Revision questions - 1

1) Identify the role of receptors in

detecting stimuli.
2) Explain the response to a stimulus.
3) Identify the range of senses involved in
communication.
2. Visual communication
 Part Function
Lens Focuses light onto the retina
Has photoreceptors - cones and

The Eye
Retina
rods
Pupil Allows entry of light into the eye

Carries vision messages to the

Optic nerve
brain
Coloured part of the eye, changes
Iris
size of the pupil
Sclera Tough, fibrous outer covering
Non reflective layer behind retina
Choroid
with blood vessels
Ciliary body Adjusts focus of lens
Protects the front of the eye and
Cornea
helps with the focusing
Transparent fluid in the anterior
Aqueous humor chamber, gives shape to the
cornea
Fluid inside the eye, jelly-like.
Vitreous humor
Gives shape to the eye.
Part of the skin protects eye and
Conjunctiva
has tear glands
 Light waves
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum
spectrum, which is a large family of waves
that differ from each other in wavelength and frequency but, that all travel in
vacuum at 300,000 km per second.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that move in straight lines and
have wavelengths from kilometers long down to less than a nanometre. Visible
light ranges in wavelength from about 400 nm to 700 nm.
Colours are an illusion created by the brain. There is no colour in the external
world: just different wavelengths or frequencies of a small band of
electromagnetic radiation that is able to stimulate photoreceptors in the eye.
 Different needs - Different eyes.
Most animals see the world differently to humans. For many, the world is seen in
fuzzy shades of gray, others can see in total darkness, or even see beyond the
human visual spectrum. The type of eyes a species develops depends on its
behaviour, evolutionary history and survival needs.

Whether an eye can perceive colour or not depends on the type of cells in their
retinas. Rods are primarily concerned witwith distinguishing black/white contrast, and
are specially useful in nocturnal vision.. S
Some eyes adapted to nocturnal habits can
reflect light back through the retina to increase sensitivity to low light (e.g. hyenas).
In mammals cones are the cells responsi sible for colour differentiation. Animals with
no or one type of cones in their retinas cannot perceive colour ( e.g. dogs, cats).
Some retinas are dichromatic (see two colours, as in new world monkeys, horses
and hyenas) others are trichromatic (Humans and most other primates).
Tetrachromatic eyes can perceive UV (be bees, most birds and small mammals e.g. rats
and mice).
Some animals have additional organs that can perceive other forms of radiation.
Snakes have pit organs that can pick up infrared, bats and dolphins can pick up
ultrasound waves. Sharks are able to detect electrical impulses. Homing and
migratory birds pigeons can feel the Earth's magnetic field.
Hunting birds such as the eagle and vulture have outstanding binocular vision.
Some animals can see colour but their eyes are not very discerning of detail.
Sea turtles photoreceptors contain red o oil droplets and can easily pick up reds and
oranges and yellows, but cannot perceive green to violet.
 Eye dissection
i. Examining the eye from the outside: the white part is the sclera, the outer
covering of the eyeball; muscles attached to the sclera control eye movement.
ii. Cut away all the fat and muscle so that the eyeball is exposed. A clear tough
surface called the cornea covers the front of the eye and protects it. If the
cornea is cut a clear fluid oozes out: aqueous humor, which helps give the eye
its shape.
iii. Cut through the sclera and divide the eye in half, right around the middle. The
cornea will be on the front half of the eye. The clear fluid that flows out is
vitreous humor and gives the eye its spherical shape.
iv. The lens looks cloudy, but in life it’s crystal clear. It is a convex lens that
magnifies and focuses and upside down image on the retina. Place it on some
news print to see this effect.
v. In front of the lens notice the ciliary body, the iris and the pupil
vi. The back of the eye is shaped like a bowl and has a thin film: the retina which
contains the photoreceptors.
vii. Under the retina the optic nerve should be visible. It conducts messages from
the retina to the brain.
viii.The shiny, blue-green
green layer is called the tapetum: it assists night vision by
reflecting light back through the retina. Under the tapetum is the black
coloured choroid.
 Revision questions - 2
1) Describe the anatomy and function of the human
eye, including the: conjunctiva; cornea; sclera;
choroid; retina; iris; lens; aqueous and vitreous
humor; ciliary body; optic nerve.
2) Identify the limited range of wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum detected by humans
and compare this range with those of other
vertebrates and invertebrates
3) Describe a first-hand
hand investigation you performed
to examine a mammalian eye.
4) Suggest reasons for the differences in range of
electromagnetic radiation detected by humans
and other animals.
3. Visual defects.
Refraction of light
The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 x 108 ms-1, but
it is lower when it passes through a transparent
material (e.g. 2.26 x 108 ms-1 in water).
The speed of light in a transparent material is
slightl
htly different for each wavelength (dispersion)
this produces the familiar rainbow or spectrum.
The co colour of light does not change when moving
into another material as the eye perceives color
by thehe frequency (which does not change) and not
wavelength.
This slowing
slowing-down is caused by the electrical
fields in the material. When the beam of light
enters the material at an angle, it is bent or
refracted as a result of the decrease in velocity.
The In Index of Refraction of a material shows how
much light slows down.
n = Ca / Cm
(where n is the refractive index; Ca is the speed of
light in air and Cm is its speed in the material)
 Lenses
There are two basic types of lenses: the
convex lens (or converging lens) and
the concave lens (or diverging lens).
The power of a convex lens depends on
its curvature or thickness.
In the eye, the lens is the main focusing
device. But all the transparent parts
(cornea, aqueous humor and vitreous
humor) contribute to the refraction of
light rays as they all have refractive
indices.
The lens in the eye is elastic and its
shape can change under tension or
pressure from the ciliary muscles. This
ability allows it to focus sharply on the
retina distant and near objects
 First Hand Investigation

Most schools are equipped with light boxes, which come with a variety of
lenses and mirrors. For this task at least two lenses are needed with different
focal lengths.
The focal length can be found by passing parallel rays through the lens - the
focus of the lens is where they converge. You can calculate the optical power
of your lenses in diaoptres (a dioptre is equal to the reciprocal of the focal
length measured in metres, the human lens is about 20 dioptres).
A real image of the object can be formed using a convex lens because the light
rays refracted through a convex lens converge to a point.
Using a candle or a light bulb as an object, place it at different distances from
the lens and observe the nature and type of image formed.
Notice that if the object is inside a focal length a real image cannot be formed,
thats why an object held too close to the eyes cannot be brought into sharp
focus
ACCOMMODATION REFLEX
The ciliary muscles which are attached to the lens can
alter its shape in response to changes in the distance of
the object being viewed. The pupil changes in response
to distance and brightness. The ability of the eye to do
this automatically is known as the accommodation
reflex.
Near object: pupil constricts and lens is compressed
and bulges.
Distant object: pupil dilates and lens is pulled thin.
Darkness: pupil dilates.
Brightness: pupil constricts.
Optical power (diopters).
Cornea: 43
Lens (relaxed): 20
Whole eye: 60
Change in power due to accommodation: 8
 Stereoscopic
vision
Because our eyes are separated by
about 65mm, the world seen by each
retina is slightly different. The
difference is great for objects nearby,
but imperceptible for distant things,
like mountains.
A 3D perception of the world is built
up in the brain, which computes the
retinal differences and interprets them
as 3D.
3D vision depends on repeated
corrections for double vision.
Stereoscopic vision begins after
double vision is corrected by eye
movements.
Also, convergence of the eyes
(achieved by the eye muscles) occurs
until double vision is overcome.
 Common eye
defects
With myopia the rays from distant objects
are focused in front of the retina, usually
because the eyeball is too long.
With hyperopia the rays from distant objects
are focused behind the retina, usually
because the lens has lost some elasticity.
 Cataracts
According to the World Health Organization age age-related cataracts are responsible
for nearly 50% of world blindness (about 18 million people, 3.5 million people in
Africa alone). It is after age 60 that most cataracts have a serious impact on
vision. Cataracts are a real problem in poor and developing societies.
A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye or in its envelope. A cataract may
be varying in degree: from slight to complete opacity.
Cataracts are the result of the denaturation of the lens protein, which maybe
caused by: long-term
term exposure to ultraviolet light, exposure to radiation, the
secondary effects of diseases such as s diabetes, hypertension, advanced age and
trauma to the eye. Cataracts have no scientifically proven cure or prevention.
A nuclear cataract,is
t,is located in the center of the lens. A cortical cataract starts
on the outside of the lens and slowly extends to the center. A sub-capsular
cataract begins at the back of the lens.
When a cataract is sufficiently developed to be removed by surgery, the most
common treatment is to surgically remove the lens. Once the lens is removed, it
is replaced with a clear, plastic intra-ocular
ocular lens (IOL), which stays in the eye
permanently. Recent improvements involve the use of multi multi-focal lenses to
enable less dependency on glasses; another new type of IOL blocks both
ultraviolet and blue light rays, which may damage the retina.
Cataract operations are usually performed using a local anaesthetic and the
patient is allowed to go home the same day.
 Revision questions - 3
1) Identify the conditions under which refraction of light occurs
2) Identify the refractive media in the eye.
3) Describe accommodation reflex and explain its importance
4) Compare the change in the refractive power of the lens from rest to
maximum accommodation
5) Distinguish between myopia and hyperopia and outline how
technologies can be used to correct these conditions
6) Explain how the production of two different images of a view can
result in depth perception
7) Describe a first-hand
hand investigation you performed to model the
process of accommodation by passing rays of light through convex
lenses of different focal lengths
8) Describe cataracts and the technology that can be used to prevent
blindness from cataracts to discuss the implications of this
technology for society
 4. Photoreceptors

Webvision at the University of Utah has stunning graphics,

time lapse photography, microscopy and animations
http://webvision.med.utah.edu/index.html
 Photorec
eceptors
The retina is the light sensitive part of the eye. Its surface is coated with
two types of photoreceptors: about 125 million rods and 6 million cones.
The central retina is cone-dominated,
dominated, whereas the peripheral retina is
rod-dominated.
dominated. Thus in central retina the cones are closely spaced and
the rods fewer in number between the cones. The foveal pit is an area
where cone photoreceptors are concentrated at maximum density with
exclusion of the rods.
Photoreceptors sense the light. They translate the light signal into an
electrical signal, then through various neurones, pass electrical signals
through the optic nerve to the brain.
Strangely, the rods and cones are not found at the front (closest to the
light) of the retina, but instead, they are located behind a number of
different neurones near the pigmented layer found at the far back of the
retina.
The rods are slower in their response to light and are sensitive to very
low levels of light and cannot see color. At very low light levels, the eye
perceives things in B&W. Peripheral rods are effective in detecting
motion.
The retina contains three types of cones - S,L and M. Each contain
different light sensitive pigments that responds to different wavelengths
of light.
Photorec
eceptors
 Photorec
eceptors
Red (L, for Long
ong wavelengths) cones are mostly stimulated by light in the redred-
yellow spectrum.. Green (M) cones are mostly stimulated by light in the yellow
yellow-
green spectrum. Blue (S) cones are mostly stimulated by light in the blue violet
spectrum.
The eye can translate any wavelength of the visible spectrum with just these
three types of cones into all the colours we “see”.
Because vision relies on differentiating contrasts there are two kinds of
photoreceptors (of each type) clustered together
together- ON and OFF receptors. The
former are stimulated by the presence of light the latter by its absence.
 Rhodopsin
Rhodopsin is the pigment found in the membranous discs of rod cells. It is
responsible for both the formation of the photoreceptor cells and in the
perception of light. It is formed by the protein, opsin combining with the
compound: retinal.. Retinal is produced in the retina from Vitamin A.
Rhodopsin most strongly absorbs green-blue
green (498nm) light and therefore
appears reddish-purple,
purple, which is why it is also called "visual purple". It is
responsible for monochromatic vision in the dark.
Rhodopsin breaks down when struck by light, and this chemical change
triggers the conduction of nerve impulses.
Brief periods are needed to allow the opsin and the retinal to reconstitute the
rhodopsin. This accounts for the short delay in adjustment a person feels
upon entering a darkened room. Closing the eyes is a natural reflex that allows
faster reconstitution of rhodopsin.
Colour Vision Deficiencies.
Colour vision deficiencies (CVD) can be
congenital or acquired. Congenital CVD means
that the CVD is present at birth and is inherited
while acquired CVD occurs secondary to eye
disease. Congenital CVD comprises of ~8 % of
males and ~0.5% of females.
People with normal colour vision are called
trichromats. Monochromats are typically totally
colour blind and may have one cone pathway in
addition to the rod pathway (for any perception
of colour at least two cone channels are
necessary). Dichromats have a cone
photopigment missing, therefore, they only have
two cone channels.
Dichromats can be of three types depending
which cone channel they are missing.
By far the most common dichromats have the M
cone missing and are know as redred-green colour
blind (they cannot easily distinguish between
them). this is a sex
sex-linked genetic trait.
Vision in Insects
Insect have compound eyes which are made up of
repeating units, in some cases over 40,000
individual units to a single eye. These units are
called the the ommatidia.
Each omommatidium consists of: a lens ; a transparent
crystalline cone; light
light-sensitive visual cells
arrangeded in a radial pattern and pigment cells which
separate
ate the ommatidium from all its neighbors so
that it functions as a separate visual receptor.
The composite of all their responses is a mosaic
image — a pattern of light and dark dots. It is not
known how the insect brain puts these dots
together.
Some insects are able to distinguish colours.
Others do not have the required minimum of two
pigments.
In the honeybee, four of the visual cells in each
ommatidium respond best to yellow
yellow-green light (544
nm); two respond maximally to blue light (436 nm)
and the remaining two respond best to ultraviolet
light (344 nm). So bees have an extended spectral
range as shown previously.
Other types of visual organs
Ocelli - these are accessory eyes, 2 to 3 in number,
that do not form an image, but just gather light.
Usually found in insects at the top and front of head
between the compound eyes. Ocelli respond to
large, sudden changes in light intensity
Pin-hole
hole camera eyes have the advantage of infinite
depth of field. However, depending on the size of
the aperture, the image may be distorted with a fish-
fish
eye effect. The mollusk Nautilus has this type of
eye.
Jellyfish have even simpler 'eyes: just a simple
photo-sensitive
sensitive spot for some, others have lappets
which are are also used as a sense of touch, smell,
and gravity.
The octopus eye has many features that are similar
in structure to that of the vertebrate eye, but these
structures evolved independently and are therefore
analogous structures, not homologous structures.
Any similarities are examples of convergent
evolution.
How do animals use
colo
our for
communic
unication?
 How do animals use colour for
communic
unication?

Mating - courtship rituals

Camouflage - as predators or prey

Warning - I'm poisonous! Keep away!

Imitation - I could be poisonous! Better keep
away

Scare Tactics - Look at my huge eyes, wait till
you see the rest!

Hypnotic effect - Cuttle fish during hunt.

Hiding - octopus ink
 Revision questions - 4
1) Describe photoreceptor cells.
2) Describe the differences in distribution, structure
and function of the photoreceptor cells in the human
eye
3) Outline the role of rhodopsin.
4) Identify the three types of cones.
5) Describe colour blindness in humans.
6) Compare and describe the nature of photoreceptor
cells in mammals, insects and in simple light
receptors in one other animal.
7) Describe and analyse the use of colour for
communication in animals and relate this to the
occurrence of colour vision in animals
5. Sound
 Sound's good.
Sound is a good way for animals to communicate because it is easy
to produce, it carries long distances, it works during the day or
night and it is easily recognisable in tone, pitch and loudness.
Barriers that are impenetrable to light will transmit sound waves.
Sound will travel around corners and is reflected from solid
surfaces.
Sound will travel in air, water, rock and steel but cannot travel in
vacuum.
Almost every sound brings a message, as it can be associated to
the thing or organism that produced it. Some are pleasant, others
are unpleasant, still others can be frightening.
For many animals sound is crucial to their being able to find a mate
and reproduce.
For humans our ability to talk has been one of the more significant
aspects of our evolution. We can pass on information, express our
emotions, warn others of danger, we can sing for pleasure, laugh in
delight or scream in distress.
Some sounds are frightening to almost all organisms as warning of
impending danger, others are music to our ears.
 Sound waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. They need a medium to travel and unlike
light generally travel faster in denser media. The speed of sound is about 340
m/s in air (at sea level) and about 1500 m/s in water.
Sound waves are formed by the vibration of objects. Areas of compression
and areas of rarefaction of the medium are formed and travel from the source.
The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance between two similar and
adjacent points in the wave e.g. the distance between two adjacent
compressions.
The pitch of a sound wave is its frequency (Cycles per second i.e. 1 Hz = 1
cycle per second). This is the same as the frequency of the vibrating object.
Loudness is the amplitude (depends on the displacement of the vibrating
source) of the wave.
 Investigating sounds
The best way to visualise sound waves is to produce a trace on a cathode ray
oscilloscope or CRO.
This can be done by connecting a microphone to the CRO and adjusting the
input so that a nice uniform wave is shown on the screen when ,say, Middle
Middle-C
(261.63 Hz) tuning fork is stuck gently near the microphone.
A set of tuning forks of different frequencies is useful to determine frequency
and pitch relationships.
Some schools have an oscillating- signal generator, which when connected to
a loudspeaker can produce sounds of many frequencies, and is a most useful
tool for this experiment.
Note; the wavelengths shown on the screen are only relative to the
wavelengths of the sound produced. The wavelength of a wave is given by the
relation ship:
v=fλ
Where v is the velocity (343 m/s at sea level); f is the frequency in Hz and λ is the
wavelength in m
The larynx Humans make sounds in two different
ways:
by passing air through a small
aperture between the vocal folds
(vocal cords).
by vibrating the vocal folds at a
frequency determined by the tension
in the muscles that control them
(high tension makes the frequency
higher and hence the pitch higher)
The vibration releases pulses of air
into the vocal tract.
The vocal tract acts as a 'megaphone' or
resonator that transmits sound from the
'voice box' into the air outside.
The air in the tract vibrates more readily
at some frequencies than others, which
can varied by moving tongue and lips.
The size of the voice box and the
thickness of the vocal folds will produce
different types of voices e.g. larger folds
produce deeper voices
 Other animals
Most tetrapods have voice boxes similar to mammals.
Male frogs have a vocal sac that balloons out during vocalization
vocalization.
The bat larynx is large and reinforced with bone, allowing a high tension on the
vocal chords to be maintained and hence very high frequency sounds to be
produced.
The dolphin is able to generate sound in the form of clicks, within its nasal
sacs, situated behind the melon (a lens
lens-shaped fatty area just below the
blowhole). The melon acts as a lens which focuses the sound into a narrow
beam that is projected in front of the animal.
Songbirds blow air through a constriction of the tracheal aperture, in a similar
fashion that human lips are constricted during whistling.
Insects do not have vocal cords. They produce sounds by using different body
parts to make vibrations. Crickets rub their forewings together, cicadas vibrate
special organs called tymbals, locusts rub their legs against their wings. The
buzz of a fly or the whine of a mosquito is an incidental sound produced by
their wings
The three main ways fishes produce sounds are by rubbing together skeletal
components; using sonic muscles that are located near their swim bladder or
by quickly changing speed and direction while swimming.
 Revision questions - 5
1) Explain why sound is a useful and versatile form of
communication
2) Explain how sound is produced.
3) Outline the structure of the human larynx and the associated
structures that assist the production of sounds.
4) Describe a first-hand
hand investigation you performed to identify the
relationship between wave-length,
length, frequency and pitch of a
sound
5) Compare some of the structures used by animals to produce
sound.
6. vibrations
 Hearing in animals
Mammals
• There are many similarities
in the basic hearing
processes in all mammals.
• Sound pressure waves
entering from the outer ear
cause the tympanic
membrane to vibrate. The
vibrations are transferred
via the ossicles to the inner
ear.
• The function of the inner ear
is to change the sound into
electrical signals that the
brain processes
• The cochlea is a spiral-
shaped chamber within the
inner ear that transforms
sound waves into nerve
impulses.
Fish
• Fishes have two independent
but related sensory systems:
inner ear and the lateral line.
• Fish have bones in the inner
ear, called otoliths, which are
much denser than water.
• Fishes can use the lateral line
system to detect acoustic
signals at low frequencies
• Sensitivity to sound differs
among fish species. One
factor affecting this is the
proximity of the inner ear to
the swim bladder.
• The swim bladder resonates
in reaction to passing sound
waves.
• Fishes that have swim
bladders that are connected
directly to the inner ear have
better hearing sensitivity
Insects
• Not all insects can hear sounds but
some can hear sounds beyond
human range.
• Insects hear through one of four
different ways. The most common
is the tympanum.
• Tympanal organs always occur as
paired organs, they are composed
of a thin membrane stretched
across an air space and a neurone
pathway to the nervous system.
• The location of the tympanal
organs varies from the thorax to
the front legs
• The other three ways are
1) Johnston's Organ,
2) Auditory Hairs
3) The Pilifer (unique to moths this
organ has an optimum frequency is
between 30 and 70 kHz. It allows
moths to hear the echolocation
calls of bats.
Hearing thresholds
 Part Function
Collects sound waves and funnels them
Pinna to the inner ear. Important in direction
finding.

The ear Tympanic

membrane
(or eardrum) sound waves cause this
membrane to vibrate.
Pick up and magnify the vibrations from
Auditory
the eardrum and transmit them to the
ossicles
oval window
Is connected to the stapes ossicle and
Oval
transmits the vibrations into the liquid-
window
filled cochlea
Contains perilymph, membranes and
Cochlea
vital organs for the conversion of
vibrations into electrical impulses
Because liquids are not compressible
Round the round window is needed to relieve
window the pressure waves caused by the oval
window
The sensory organ of the ear, is
Organ of
composed of a complex of membranes
Corti
and sensory or hair cells.
Auditory Carries messages generated in the ear
nerve to the brain for interpretation
Ensures equal pressure on both sides of
Eustachian
tympanic membrane thus avoiding
tube
damage
The path of sound
 The mechanism of hearing
Inside cochlear tube there are three tubes: the S Scala vestibuli; the Scala media and
the Scala tympani.
The fluid in the Scala vestibuli is set in m
motion by the vibration of the stapes on the
oval window. The vibrations travel into the fluid of the upper tube of the Cochlea
and around the tip of the organ into the fluid of the lower tube. The pushing or
pulling of the oval window is dampened by vibration in the round window.
The partition between the Scala
cala tympani and the Scala media is the Basilar
membrane. The auditory receptor cells,, or Hair cells (not real hair but have Cilia at
their tops) are found on this membrane.
The motion of the fluid in the cochlear tubes sets the Basilar membrane in motion,
generating traveling waves along its length. When the Basilar membrane moves, it
stimulates the Hair cells, which then send signals about sounds to the brain along
the auditory nerve.
 The mechanism of hearing
The Basilar membrane is wide and thin at the top of the Cochlea, and narrow but
thick at the base. A sound wave in the cochlear fluid produces a peak amplitude or
height of displacement of the membrane' e's vibration at a certain point along its length
sound High frequencies cause a peak near the
determined by the frequency of the sound.
base and low frequencies toward the top.
In addition, the Hair cells,, which sit on an epithelial ridge called the Organ of Corti on
the Basilar membrane,, are also tuned to particular frequencies. Each Hair cell
responds best to sound of a given frequency.
A gelatinous membrane sandwiches the Hair cells between itself and the Basilar
membrane.. The complex, relative movements of these two membranes activate the
Cilia of hair cells, causing the cells to undergo a change in the electrical potential
across their cell membranes.
When specific changes occur in this electrical state, neurotransmitter molecules are
released from the bottom of the hair cells. The Cilia are essential in transducing the
mechanical energy of the Basilar membrane into electrical changes in the Hair cells.
Locating a sound source
A noise on the left of the head arrives about 1 ms earlier to the left ear
than to the right one. Also, the head acts as a sound barrier, so the
sound is a little louder in the left ear. Hence the two signals differ in
timing and intensity.
This processing of these differences is carried out in the superior olivary
nucleus (SON) of the brainstem. Axons coming into the SON from the
cochlear nuclei connect successively across a linear series of SON
neurones. Each neurone here gets messages from cochlear neurones in
both ears.
In order to fire a signal to higher brain centers, neurones in the SON
must receive simultaneous messages from the two cochlear nuclei.
Hence, when signals from the two axons coincide the SON neuron it
fires. Through experience, we learn that when this particular neurone
fires, the sound originated from a certain particular angle to the head.
Neurones in another part of the SON use the intensity rather than timing,
they respond best when the sound intensity on one side of the head
exceeds that on the other by a certain amount.
It is hard to differentiate sounds coming from directly in front from those
originating directly behind as both sounds are equal distance from the
two ears. The shaping of the Pinna helps with this differentiation.
 Technology
Hearing aids amplify sound and hence are suitable for people who have some
hearing loss. They do not not help people with total hearing loss due to inner
ear damage (caused by disease, trauma or genetic reasons).
All hearing aids have a microphone to pick up sounds, a battery
battery-powered
amplifier to increase their volume, and a means of transmitting the sound to
the ear. Most transmit the sounds through a small speaker placed in the ear
canal, and no surgery is required. Others, which require surgical implantation,
transmit sounds directly to the ossicles or to the skull.
The cochlear implant is an electronic device that is for people with profound
hearing loss in both ears. The implant bypasses the non
non-functioning inner ear
hair cells by converting the sounds we hear to electronic impulses that directly
stimulate the inner ear nerve endings.
The implant consists of an external part made up of a microphone, a sound
processor and an internal part that must be surgically implanted.
The
he sounds heard through an implant are different from the normal hearing
sounds, and have been described as flat and synthetic. This is because the
implant has only a few electrodes, which cannot match the complexity of
normal hearing with about 15,000 Hair cells.
 Revision questions - 6
1) Outline and compare the detection of vibrations by insects, fish and mammals
2) Describe the anatomy and function of the human ear.
3) Outline the path of a sound wave through the external, middle and inner ear
and identify the energy transformations that occur
4) Describe the relationship between the distribution of hair cells in the organ of
Corti and the detection of sounds of different frequencies
5) Outline the role of the sound shadow cast by the head in the location of sound
6) Describe the structure of a mammalian ear and relate the function of its
structures.
7) Outline the range of frequencies detected by humans compare this range with
two other mammals, discussing possible reasons for the differences identified
8) Evaluate a hearing aid and a cochlear implant.
7. Nerves
A nerve contains bundles of nerve fibers,
Nerves
either axons or dendrites, surrounded by
connective tissue.
The actual nerve cell is the neurone.
Neurones carry out the functions of the
nervous system by conducting nerve
impulses. They are highly specialized and
do not reproduce, hence cannot be
replaced if damaged.
Neurones have three main parts: the cell
body (similar to other types of cells but
lacks centrioles); dendrites (cytoplasmic
extensions, or processes, that project from
the cell body) that receive signals from
other neurones; and the axon which carries
messages away from the cell body.
Many axons are surrounded by a
segmented, white, fatty substance called
the myelin sheath. Myelinated fibers make
up the white matter in the CNS, while cell
bodies and un-myelinated
myelinated fibers make up
the gray matter.
The neurone
Each individual neurone in the
bundle has its own contact points
(synapses) with other cells at each
end.
Some neurone axons are wrapped
in a layer of myelin which enables
nerve impulses to travel more
quickly.
Nerve impulses moving towards a
cell body travel along a dendrite,
those moving away from a cell
body travel along an axon.
The impulses travel along
neurones as tiny waves of
electricity.
Threshold potential
The electrical changes that result in
an impulse are caused as sodium
ions move into the neurone
(electrochemical impulse).
Once the signal has been
transmitted, potassium ions move
to the outside of the cell to restore
the original charge of the neurone.
A neurone only 'fires' if the stimulus
produces a voltage in excess of the
threshold potential.
This is called the threshold of
reaction. The intensity of the signal
is related to the number of neurones
firing, not to the electrical potential
generated.
Coordination
of behaviour
Most form of behaviour involves
at least three steps: sensory
perception; assessment and
motor function. e.g picking up an
object.
In some cases, called reflex
arches, motor function follows
immediately the sensory
perception e.g. touching
something hot.
For an example, let's look at the
seemingly simple task of drinking
a cup of tea.
More complex behaviour may
involve many senses, thought
processes and motor action e.g
playing a musical instrument.
 First hand investigations
Stained, prepared slides and/or electron
micrographs.
1) If these are not available, an Internet
image-search will be just as valuable
and more instructive as the different
parts of the neurone are labeled
2) A good activity is to construct a
model of a neurone and attach a
table explaining the function of each
part.
3) A cardboard cut-out supported on
thin foam can be quite effective.
Mammalian brain and/or model of a
human brain.
1) Lamb's brains are available from
butchers but they usually just
consist of the cerebrum (the brain
stem and cerebellum are removed by
the slaughter house)
2) A model of the brain can be
purchased, but these are usually
very expensive
3) Again an Internet search may provide
the best, most practical and easily
available alternative.
 Revision questions - 7
1) Outline the nature of a nerve.
2) Describe the structure an function of a neurone.
3) Define and explain the term threshold and graphically
represent a typical action potential
4) Explain, using specific examples, the importance of correct
interpretation of signals by the brain for the coordination of
animal behaviour
5) Describe a first-hand
hand investigation you performed using
stained prepared slides and/or electron micrographs to
gather information about neurones and nerves
6) Describe a first-hand
hand investigation you performed to examine
an appropriate mammalian brain or model of a human brain
to gather information to distinguish the cerebrum, cerebellum
and medulla oblongata and locate the regions involved in
speech, sight and sound perception.
perception