 Prokaryotic cells lack a defined nucleus, but have a region in the cell, termed the nucleoid,

in which a single chromosomal, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule is located.

 nucleoid: the irregularly-shaped region within a prokaryote cell where the genetic
material is localized

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal membrane-bound
structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus, but, instead, generally have a single
chromosome: a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of the cell called the
nucleoid. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the plasma membrane.
The composition of the cell wall differs significantly between the domains Bacteria and Archaea,
the two domains of life into which prokaryotes are divided. The composition of their cell walls
also differs from the eukaryotic cell walls found in plants (cellulose) or fungi and insects (chitin).

There are some key ingredients that a cell needs in order to be a cell, regardless of whether it is
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. All cells share four key components:

1. The plasma membrane is an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding
environment.

2. Cytoplasm consists of the jelly-like cytosol inside the cell, plus the cellular structures suspended
in it. In eukaryotes, cytoplasm specifically means the region outside the nucleus but inside the
plasma membrane.

3. DNA is the genetic material of the cell.

4. Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesize proteins.

A prokaryote is a simple, single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
Most bacteria are, however, surrounded by a rigid cell wall made out of peptidoglycan, a polymer
composed of linked carbohydrates and small proteins. The cell wall provides an extra layer of
protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. Many bacteria also have
an outermost layer of carbohydrates called the capsule. The capsule is sticky and helps the cell
attach to surfaces in its environment.
flagella are whip-like structures that act as rotary motors to help bacteria move.
Fimbriae are numerous, hair-like structures that are used for attachment to host cells and other
surfaces.
 Bacteria may also have rod-like structures known as pili, which come in different varieties.
The basic answer is that as cells become larger, it gets harder for them to exchange enough
nutrients and wastes with their environment.
If the cell grows too large, its membrane will not have enough exchange capacity (surface area,
square function) to support the rate of exchange required for its increased metabolic activity
(volume, cube function).
For instance, compartments called lysosomes, which act as recycling centers for the cell, must
maintain an acidic pH in order to dispose of cellular waste. Similarly, structures
called peroxisomes carry out chemical reactions called oxidation reactions and produce
hydrogen peroxide, both of which would damage the cell if they weren’t safely stored away in
their own “room.”

What are the key features of eukaryotic cells? Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have:

1. A membrane-bound nucleus, a central cavity surrounded by membrane that houses the cell’s
genetic material.

2. A number of membrane-bound organelles, compartments with specialized functions that float

in the cytosol. (Organelle means “little organ,” and this name reflects that the organelles, like the
organs of our body, have unique functions as part of a larger system.)

3. Multiple linear chromosomes, as opposed to the single circular chromosome of a prokaryote.

Eukaryotic cells are much more complicated than those of prokaryotes. They are packed with a
fascinating array of subcellular structures that play important roles in energy balance,
metabolism, and gene expression.
The cell nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information
and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and
is commonly the most prominent organelle in a cell.
The primary functions of the nucleus are to store the cell’s DNA, maintain its integrity, and facilitate
its transcription and replication.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in biology, a continuous membrane system that forms a series of
flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and serves multiple functions, being
important particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins .
The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and secretory proteins.
The ribosomes attached to the rough ER synthesize proteins by the process of translation.
Rough ER is named for its rough appearance, which is due to the ribosomes attached to its outer
(cytoplasmic) surface.
Smooth ER, by contrast, is not associated with ribosomes. The smooth ER has a wide range of
functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol are necessary for the construction of cell membranes.
Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi complex or Golgi body, membrane-
bound organelle of eukaryoticcells (cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series
of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for
transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the cell
nucleus. While many types of cells contain only one or several Golgi apparatus, plant cells can
contain hundreds.

Golgi apparatus(or complex, or body, or ‘the ‘Golgi’) is found in all plant and animal cells and is
the term given to groups of flattened disc-like structures located close to the endoplasmic
reticulum.

The number of ‘Golgi apparatus’ within a cell is variable. Animal cells tend to have fewer and
larger Golgi apparatus. Plant cells can contain as many as several hundred smaller versions.

The Golgi apparatus receives proteins and lipids (fats) from the rough endoplasmic reticulum. It
modifies some of them and sorts, concentrates and packs them into sealed droplets called
vesicles. Depending on the contents these are despatched to one of three destinations:

Destination 1: within the cell, to organelles called lysosomes.

Destination 2: the plasma membrane of the cell
Destination 3: outside of the cell.

Ribosome, particle that is present in large numbers in all living cells and serves as the site
of proteinsynthesis. Ribosomes occur both as free particles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
and as particles attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes capable of

breaking down all types of biological polymers—proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates,
and lipids. Lysosomes function as the digestive system of the cell, serving both to degrade
material taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself.

Mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion) are often called the powerhouses or energy factories of
the cell. Their job is to make a steady supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main
energy-carrying molecule. The process of making ATP using chemical energy from fuels such as
sugars is called cellular respiration, and many of its steps happen inside the mitochondria.
A chloroplast is a type of plant cell organelle known as a plastid. Plastids assist in storing and
harvesting needed substances for energy production. A chloroplast contains a green pigment
called chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

The basic answer is that as cells become larger, it gets harder for them to exchange enough
nutrients and wastes with their environment. To see how this works, let’s look at a cell’s surface-
area-to-volume ratio.

If the cell grows too large, its membrane will not have enough exchange capacity (surface area,
square function) to support the rate of exchange required for its increased metabolic activity
(volume, cube function).

As cells get larger, it also takes longer to transport materials inside of them. These considerations
place a general upper limit on cell size, with eukaryotic cells being able to exceed prokaryotic
cells thanks to their structural and metabolic features—which we’ll explore in the next section.

An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a

cell. Organelles are embedded within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. In the
more complex eukaryotic cells, organelles are often enclosed by their own membrane.

the key difference between plant and animal cells lies in the structural differences. Plant cells
are rectangular wheres animal cells are round and plant cells contain chloroplasts, a cell wall, and
vacuoles while animal cells do not.

Eukaryotic Cell Structures

The endoplasmic reticulum is only one component of a cell. The following cell structures can also
be found in a typical animal eukaryotic cell:

 Centrioles - cylindrical groupings of microtubules found in animal cells but not plant cells.
They help to organize spindle fibers during cell division.
 Chromosomes - genetic material consisting of DNA and formed from
condensed chromatin.
 Cilia and Flagella - protrusions from a cell that aid in movement and cellular locomotion.
 Cell Membrane - a thin, semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm and
encloses the contents of a cell. It protects the integrity of the interior of the cell.
 Cytoskeleton - a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm that helps support the cell
and aids in organelle movement.
 Golgi Complex - composed of groupings of flattened sacs known as cisternae, the Golgi
generates, processes, stores, and ships cellular products.
 Lysosomes - membrane-bound sacs of enzymes that digest cellular macromolecules.
 Mitochondria - organelles that provide energy for the cell by performing cellular
respiration.
 Nucleus - houses chromosomes and controls cell growth and reproduction.
  Peroxisomes - tiny structures that detoxify alcohol and use oxygen to break down fats.
 Ribosomes - organelles responsible for protein assembly and production via translation.

Vacuoles are storage bubbles found in cells. They are found in both animal and plant cells but
are much larger in plant cells. Vacuoles might store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might
need to survive. They can even store waste products so the rest of the cell is protected from
contamination.