TORSION

Fall 2018

Dr. Wenchao Zhou

zhouw@uark.edu
(479) 575-7250

The Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
Learning Objectives
Torque Loads on Circular Shafts
Stress and Strain
Statically Indeterminate Shafts
Design of Transmission Shafts
Plastic Deformation
Residual Stress

2
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Stresses and strains in members

of circular cross-section are
subjected to twisting couples
or torques

Turbine exerts torque T on the

shaft
Shaft transmits the torque to the
generator

Generator creates an equal and

opposite torque T’

Fig. 3.2 (a) A generator provides power at a constant

revolution per minute to a turbine through shaft AB. (b)
Free body diagram of shaft AB along with the driving and
reaction torques on the generator and turbine, respectively.

3
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

Net of the internal shearing stresses is an
internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
Fig. 3.3 Shaft subject to torques T =   dF =   ( dA)
and a section plane at C.

Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the
stresses is not.
Distribution of shearing stresses is statically
indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations.

Fig. 3.24 (a)Free body diagram of section Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads,
BC with torque at C represented by the
representable contributions of small elements the distribution of shearing stresses due to
of area carrying forces dF a radius  from
the section center. (b) Free-body diagram
torsional loads cannot be assumed uniform.
of section BC having all the small area 4
elements summed resulting in torque T.
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Axial Shear Components

Torque applied to shaft produces shearing
stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.

Conditions of equilibrium require the existence

Fig. 3.5 Small element in shaft showing
how shear stress components act. of equal stresses on the faces of the two
planes containing the axis of the shaft.

The existence of the axial shear components is

demonstrated by considering a shaft made up
of slats pinned at both ends to disks.

The slats slide with respect to each other when

equal and opposite torques are applied to the
ends of the shaft.
Fig. 3.6 Model of shearing in shaft 5
(a) undeformed; (b) loaded and deformed.
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Shaft Deformations

From observation, the angle of twist of the shaft

is proportional to the applied torque and to the
shaft length.
 T
L
Fig. 3.7 Shaft with fixed support
and line AB drawn showing
When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of
deformation under torsion loading: a circular shaft remains plane and undistorted.
(a) unloaded; (b) loaded.

Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular

shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.
Fig. 3.8 Comparison of deformations in 6
circular (a) and square (b) shafts.
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Shearing Strain
Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a
torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.

Since the ends of the element remain planar, the

shear strain is equal to angle of twist.

It follows that

L =  or  =
L

Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

c 
 max = and  =  max
L c
Fig. 3.13 Shearing Strain Kinematic definitions
for torsion deformation. (a) The angle of
twist  (b) Undeformed portion of shaft of
radius  with (c) Deformed portion of the
shaft having same angle of twist,  and strain, 7
angles of twist per unit length, .
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Stresses in Elastic Range
Multiplying the previous equation by the shear modulus,

G = G max
c

From Hooke’s Law,  = G , so


=  max
c
The shearing stress varies linearly with the distance
 from the axis of the shaft.
Recall that the sum of the moments of the elementary
forces exerted on any cross section of the shaft must
be equal to the magnitude T of the torque:
 
T =   dA = max   2 dA = max J
c c
The results are known as the elastic torsion formulas,
Fig. 3.14 Distribution of shearing
Tc T
stresses in a torqued shaft;  max = and  =
(a) Solid shaft, (b) hollow J J
shaft. 8
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Normal Stresses
Fig. 3.17 Circular shaft with stress elements at
different orientations.
Fig. 3.18 Forces on faces at 45° to shaft
axis.
Fig. 3.19 Shaft elements with only shear
stresses or normal stresses.
Elements with faces parallel and
perpendicular to the shaft axis are
subjected to shear stresses only. Normal
stresses, shearing stresses or a
combination of both may be found for
other orientations.
Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
F = 2( max A0 ) cos 45 =  max A0 2
F  max A0 2
 45o = = =  max
A A0 2
Element a is in pure shear.
Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
two faces and compressive stress on the
other two.
Note that all stresses for elements a and c
have the same magnitude. 9
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Torsional Failure Modes

Photo 3.2 Shear failure of shaft subject to torque.

• Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle materials are weaker in

tension than shear.
• When subjected to torsion, a ductile specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane perpendicular to the shaft axis.
• When subjected to torsion, a brittle specimen breaks along planes
perpendicular to the direction in which tension is a maximum, i.e., along
surfaces at 45o to the shaft axis.

10
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Angle of Twist in Elastic Range

Recall that the angle of twist and
maximum shearing strain are related,
c
 max =
L
In the elastic range, the shearing strain and
shear are related by Hooke’s Law,
 max Tc
Fig. 3.20 Torque applied to fixed end shaft
 max = =
G JG
resulting angle of twist .
Equating the expressions for shearing strain
and solving for the angle of twist,
TL
=
JG
If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section
changes along the length, the angle of
rotation is found as the sum of segment
Fig. 3.21 Shaft with multiple cross-section rotations
Ti Li
dimensions and multiple loads.  =
i J i Gi 11
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Sample Problem 3.1 SOLUTION:

Cut sections through shafts AB and
BC and perform static
equilibrium analyses to find
torque loadings.

Apply elastic torsion formulas to

find minimum and maximum
stress on shaft BC.
Given allowable shearing stress and
Shaft BC is hollow with inner and outer applied torque, invert the elastic
diameters of 90 mm and 120 mm, torsion formula to find the
respectively. Shafts AB and CD are solid required diameter.
and of diameter d. For the loading shown,
determine (a) the minimum and maximum
shearing stress in shaft BC, (b) the
required diameter d of shafts AB and CD
if the allowable shearing stress in these
12
shafts is 65 MPa.
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Sample Problem 3.1

SOLUTION:
Cut sections through shafts AB and BC
and perform static equilibrium analysis
to find torque loadings.

Fig. 1 Free-body diagram for section between A and B. Fig. 2 Free-body diagram for section between B and C.

 M x = 0 = (6 kN  m ) − TAB  M x = 0 = (6 kN  m ) + (14 kN  m ) − TBC

TAB = 6 kN  m = TCD TBC = 20 kN  m
13
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

Sample Problem 3.1

Apply elastic torsion formulas to Given allowable shearing stress and
find minimum and maximum applied torque, invert the elastic torsion
stress on shaft BC. formula to find the required diameter.

Fig. 3 Shearing stress distribution on cross section. Fig. 4 Free-body diagram of shaft portion AB.

(c24 − c14 ) = (0.060)4 − (0.045)4 

 
J =
2 2 Tc Tc 6 kN  m
 max = = 65MPa =
= 13.92  10− 6 m 4 J  c4  c3
2 2
TBC c2 (20 kN  m )(0.060 m )
 max =  2 = = c = 38.9 10−3 m
J 13.92  10− 6 m 4
d = 2c = 77.8 mm
= 86.2 MPa
 min c1  min 45 mm
= =
 max c2 86.2 MPa 60 mm  max = 86.2 MPa
14
 min = 64.7 MPa  min = 64.7 MPa
 Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Given the shaft dimensions and the applied

torque, we would like to find the torque
reactions at A and B.
From a free-body analysis of the shaft,
TA + TB = 90 lb  ft

which is not sufficient to find the end torques.

The problem is statically indeterminate.

Divide the shaft into two components which

must have compatible deformations,
TA L1 TB L2 LJ
 = 1 + 2 = − =0 TB = 1 2 TA
J1G J 2G L2 J1
Fig. 3.25 (a) Shaft with central applied
torque and fixed ends. (b) free-body Substitute into the original equilibrium equation,
diagram of shaft AB. (c) Free-body
LJ
diagrams for solid and hollow segments. TA + 1 2 TA = 90 lb  ft
L2 J1

15
 Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Sample Problem 3.4 SOLUTION:

Apply a static equilibrium analysis on
the two shafts to find a relationship
between TCD and T0 .

Apply a kinematic analysis to relate the

angular rotations of the gears.
Find the maximum allowable torque on
each shaft – choose the smallest.
Two solid steel shafts are
connected by gears. Knowing Find the corresponding angle of twist for
that for each shaft G = 11.2 x each shaft and the net angular rotation
106 psi and that the allowable of end A.
shearing stress is 8 ksi,
determine (a) the largest torque
T0 that may be applied to the end
of shaft AB, (b) the
corresponding angle through
16
which end A of shaft AB rotates.
 Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Sample Problem 3.4

SOLUTION:
Apply a static equilibrium analysis on Apply a kinematic analysis to relate
the two shafts to find a relationship the angular rotations of the gears.
between TCD and T0 .

Fig. 2 Angles of twist for gears B and C.

Fig. 1 Free-body diagrams of gears B and C.

rB B = rCC
 M B = 0 = F (0.875 in.) − T0 B =
rC
C =
2.45 in.
C
 M C = 0 = F (2.45 in.) − TCD rB 0.875 in.

TCD = 2.8 T0  B = 2 .8  C
17
 Statically Indeterminate Shafts

Sample Problem 3.4

Find the corresponding angle of twist
Find the T0 for the maximum for each shaft and the net angular
allowable torque on each shaft – rotation of end A.
choose the smallest.
Fig. 5

Fig. 3 Free-body
diagram of shaft AB. Fig. 4 Free-body diagram
of shaft CD.
A/ B =
TAB L
=
(561lb  in.)(24 in.)
(
J ABG  (0.375 in.)4 11.2  106 psi
2
)
TAB c T (0.375 in.)
 max = 8000 psi = 0 = 0.387 rad = 2.22o
J AB  (0.375 in.)4
2 TCD L 2.8 (561lb  in.)(24 in.)
C / D = =
T0 = 663 lb  in. (
J CDG  (0.5 in.)4 11.2  106 psi
2
)
TCDc 2.8 T0 (0.5 in.)
 max = 8000 psi = = 0.514 rad = 2.95o  A = 10.48o
 (0.5 in.)4
( )
J CD
2
 B = 2.8C = 2.8 2.95o = 8.26o
T0 = 561lb  in. T0 = 561lb  in  A =  B +  A / B = 8.26o + 2.22o 18
 Design of Transmission Shafts

Principal transmission shaft Determine torque applied to shaft at

performance specifications are: specified power and speed,
- power P = T = 2fT
- Speed of rotation P P
T= =
 2f
Designer must select shaft
material and dimensions of Find shaft cross-section which will not
the cross-section to meet exceed the maximum allowable
performance specifications shearing stress,
without exceeding  max =
Tc
allowable shearing stress. J
J  3 T
= c = (solid shafts )
c 2  max
J
=
 4 4
c2 2c2
(
c2 − c1 = )
T
 max
(hollow shafts )

19
 Stress Concentrations

The derivation of the torsion formula,

Tc
Fig. 3.26 Coupling of  max =
shafts using (a) bolted J
flange, (b) slot for
keyway. assumed a circular shaft with uniform
cross-section loaded through rigid end
plates.
The use of flange couplings, gears and pulleys
attached to shafts by keys in keyways, and
cross-section discontinuities can cause stress
concentrations
Experimental or numerically determined
concentration factors are applied as
Tc
 max = K
J

Fig. 3.28 Plot of stress concentration factors

for fillets in circular shafts. 20
 Plastic Deformations

With the assumption of a linearly elastic material,

Tc
 max =
J
If the yield strength is exceeded or the material
Fig. 3.29 Distribution of shearing involved is a brittle materials with a nonlinear
strain for torsion of a circular
shaft. shearing-stress-strain curve, these relationships
cease to be valid.
Shearing strain varies linearly regardless of material
properties. Application of shearing-stress-strain
Fig. 3.30 Nonlinear, shear stress-
curve allows determination of stress distribution.
strain diagram.
The integral of the moments from the internal
stress distribution is equal to the torque on the
shaft at the section,
c c
T =   (2 d ) = 2   2 d
0 0
Fig. 3.31 Shearing strain distribution for
shaft with nonlinear stress-strain response.
21
 Plastic Deformations
Elastoplastic Materials
At the maximum elastic torque,
J L Y
TY =  Y = 12 c3 Y Y =
c c

As the torque is increased, a plastic region


( =  Y ) develops around an elastic core (  =  Y )
Y
L Y
Y =



2 c3 1 − 1 Y3  
4 T 1 − 1 Y3 
T= Y =
3

4
c 
3 3 Y

4
c3 
As Y → 0, the torque approaches a limiting value,
TP = 43 TY = plastic torque
Fig. 3.34 Stress-strain distribution for
elastic-perfectly plastic shaft at different
stages of loading: (a) elastic, (b) Valid only for a solid circular shaft made of an
impending yield, (c) partially yielded, elastoplastic material. 22
and (d) fully yielded.
 Plastic Deformations
Residual Stresses
Plastic region develops in a shaft when subjected
to a large enough torque.
When the torque is removed, the reduction of stress
and strain at each point takes place along a straigh
line to a generally non-zero residual stress.
On a T- curve, the shaft unloads along a straight
line to an angle greater than zero. Residual
Fig. 3.37 Shear stress-strain response
for loading past yield reversing until stresses found from principle of superposition
compressive yield occurs. Tc
 =
m   ( dA) = 0
J

Fig. 3.38 Torque-angle of twist response

for loading past yield, followed by Fig. 3.39 Superposition of elastic-plastic state (a) plus linear elastic
unloading. unloading (b) equals residual (c) sharing stress distributions. 23
 Plastic Deformations
Concept Application 3.8/3.9
SOLUTION:
Solve Eq. (3.29) for Y/c and evaluate
the elastic core radius

Solve Eq. (3.15) for the angle of twist

Fig. 3.36 Loaded circular shaft. Evaluate Eq. (3.16) for the angle which
A solid circular shaft is subjected the shaft untwists when the torque is
T = 4.6 kN  m
to a torque at each removed. The permanent twist is the
end. Assuming that the shaft is difference between the angles of twist
made of an elastoplastic material and untwist
with G = 77 GPa and  Y = 150 MPa
Find the residual stress distribution by a
determine (a) the radius of the
superposition of the stress due to
elastic core, (b) the angle of twist
twisting and untwisting the shaft
of the shaft. When the torque is
removed, determine (c) the
permanent twist, (d) the
distribution of residual stresses. 24
 Plastic Deformations
Solve Eq. (3.15) for the angle of twist
SOLUTION:
Solve Eq. (3.29) for Y/c and  Y Y
=  =
evaluate the elastic core radius Y c Y c
 1 Y3  Y 
1
 3 Y =
TY L
=
( )
3.68  103 N  m (1.2 m )
( )
T
T = 3 TY 1 − 4 3  
4 =  4 − 3 
 c  c  TY  JG 614  10-9 m 4 (77  10 Pa )

J= 1 c 4
2
= 1
2
(25 10 m)−3 Y = 93.4  10−3 rad
93.4  10−3 rad
= 614  10−9 m 4 = = 148.3  10−3 rad = 8.50o
0.630
TY c  J
Y =  TY = Y  = 8.50o
J c

TY =
(
150  106 Pa )(614 10−9 m 4 )
25  10−3 m
= 3.68 kN  m
1
Y  4.6  3
= 4 −3  = 0.630
c  3 . 68 
Y = 15.8 mm 25