Copyright-3e-edition.

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 [cursus

François G. Brière

Drinking-Water
Distribution, Sewage,
and Rainfall Collection

Third Edition

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 Drinking-Water Distribution, Sewage, and Rainfall Collection, Third Edition
François G. Brière

Editing, proofreading: Susan Usher

Page setting: Martine Aubry
Cover page: Cyclone Design

For information on distribution and points of sale, see our website:

www.pressespoly.ca
Email of Presses internationales Polytechnique: pip@polymtl.ca

We acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through

the Canada Book Fund for our publishing activities.

Government of Québec — Tax credit for book publishing — Administered by SODEC

All rights reserved.

Originally published as Distribution et collecte des eaux, Troisième édition
© Presses internationales Polytechnique, 2012.

For the English translation:

© Presses internationales Polytechnique, 2014.

This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent
of the publisher.

Legal deposit: 4th Quarter 2014 ISBN 978-2-553-01672-1 (printed version)

Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec ISBN 978-2-553-01690-5 (pdf version)
Library and Archives Canada Printed in Canada

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 To my grandchildren
Annie-Jade and Matthieu Gagnon
Gabriel and Noémie Bradette

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Copyright-3e-edition.indd 4 2014-10-21 13:04:51
 DISCLAIMER

In this book, the author presents practical solutions to a variety of problems encoun-
tered in the design, construction and operation of various structures required for
drinking water distribution and rainfall and sewage collection. The author cautions
the reader that no subject is covered exhaustively; this is not the objective of the
book and engineering practice is in such constant evolution that the objective itself
would be unrealistic. Moreover no one is beyond making a mistake, not even the
undersigned! Consequently one must use the equations, tables, graphs and problem
solutions presented in this book cautiously. In all cases the engineer may find it useful
to consult the most recent reference publications of public and technical societies,
and to consult competent engineers or researchers. Asking for guidelines and/or sug-
gestions from manufacturers or dealers is also highly recommended and can be done
without compromising critical evaluation. In summary, it is impossible to gather in
a single reference book all the pertinent and up-to-date information required by the
engineer or the technican working in this field.

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Disclaimer.indd 6 2014-02-26 15:22:44
 FOREWORD

Many books have been written on the design and construction of major civil
engineer­ing projects that aim to tame or use water, such as canals, dams, hydroelec-
tric plants, ports, locks and aqueducts. However, it is rare for an author, even from
academia, to examine the design of projects involving water collection and distri-
bution, and when they do, the result bears little relation to daily engineering work.
This is mainly because the useful, pertinent and practical information about water
networks is held by so many different actors — manufacturers, governmental and
para-governmental organizations, professional associations and researchers — who
are often reluctant to divulge what they know. Even when they do, the information
remains difficult to assimilate because the various documents are not designed to be
complementary; they employ different symbols and respond to eclectic requirements
or very particular needs.
Since its first edition, Drinking Water Distribution, Sewage, and Rainfall Collec­
tion has aimed to fill this void by presenting a coherent knowledge set that helps
to develop the skills required to design and construct high quality water networks
equipped with appropriate materials and accessories to meet population needs at an
acceptable cost.
With this intention in mind, the author introduces us to all the subjects that must
be mastered in order to design and manage a water network: water consumption,
waste­water flow, peak factors, water hammer, the types of pipe available on the mar-
ket, occasional and cyclical pressure surges, culverts, Parshall canals, live and dead
loads (of roads and railways), fire fighting, water and sewer connections, corrosion,
installation of pipes in the ground, including at street intersections, frost, abutments
and reservoirs, pumping stations, valves, fire hydrants, joints, inverted siphons, etc.
To all this is added a chapter on the professional hazards faced by water management
workers and the illnesses for which they are at risk.
Finally, readers will appreciate the entirely new chapter devoted to thermoplastic
pipes.
The author wishes to mention he has chosen to employ an accuracy of 5% for
most of the calculations, data and results in the book.
This book is pedagogical first and foremost as it addresses engineering teachers
and students as well as civil engineering technicians, however it may also be of
inter­est to others concerned with water networks, such as municipal administrators,
bureaucrats and citizens. The broader audience will appreciate its straightforward
presentation and simple mathematical tools.

François G. Brière, eng.

October 2014

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Foreword.indd 8 2014-10-20 10:15:38
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This second edition would not have been possible without the collaboration and the
help of the following persons:
Mr. Pierre Éthier, engineer, who always generously accepted to read and com­
ment my texts, providing me with the benefit of his personal experience and granting
me access to the many documents he uses in his practice.
Prof. Louise Millette, Director of the Department of Civil, Geological and
Mining Engineering at Polytechnique Montréal, which provides financial support
the project and kindly allows me to use the office I had as a professor before my
retirement.
Prof. Michel Soulié, the previous Director of the Department who supported me
in my writing projects.
My colleagues professors of the Environmental Engineering Section,
Mrs. Michèle Provost, Mrs. Sarah Dorner and Mrs. Anouk Desjardins as well as
Mr. Yves Comeau, Mr. Raymond Desjardins et Mr. Benoît Barbeau, who had to put
up with my somewhat disturbing presence during many years.
Prof. René Kahawita who has been kind enough to check the quality of the
English language version of the manuscript.
Mrs. Susan Usher who revised the English version of the book.
Mrs. Constance Forest, previous Director of Les Presses internationales Poly­
technique as well as Mrs. Virginie Vendange, her successor, who supported my pub­
lishing projects.
Mrs. Luce Venne-Forcione, Les Presses’ Project Manager, who knew when to
intervene to identify problems and find rapidly an appropriate solution.
Mrs. Martine Aubry, Les Presses’ Computer Graphics Designer, who took charge
of the numerous corrections and carried out the layout of the book with the profes­
sionalism that is her hallmark.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Disclaimer................................................................................................................. v
Foreword................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. ix
List of Abbreviations and Symbols........................................................................ xxi

Chapter 1 Background Knowledge Required for the Management

of Drinking Water and Wastewater
Introduction............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Water-Transportation Cycle............................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Surface-Water Utilization Cycle....................................................... 1
1.1.2 Groundwater Utilization Cycle......................................................... 3
1.2 Sources of Drinking Water............................................................................. 4
1.2.1 Surface Water................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Groundwater..................................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Rain Water........................................................................................ 5
1.2.4 Sea Water and Brackish Water.......................................................... 5
1.3 Population-Growth Projection........................................................................ 6
1.3.1 Sources of Information..................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Models for Population Projection..................................................... 6
1.3.3 Population Densities....................................................................... 19
1.3.4 Design Period................................................................................. 19
1.4 Physical Properties of Water................................................................... 20
Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 21
Problems.................................................................................................................. 21

Chapter 2 Hydraulic Characteristics of Flows in Pipes

Introduction............................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Fundamental Equations................................................................................ 23
2.2 Head Loss..................................................................................................... 34
2.2.1 Head Loss Due to Friction in Pipes................................................ 34
2.2.2 Head Loss Due to Various Structures............................................. 35
2.2.3 Computation of Minor Head Loss (Pressure Pipes)....................... 35
2.2.4 Length of Equivalent Pipe (Pressure Pipes)................................... 36
2.3 Computation of Flow When Pipes are not Flowing Full.............................. 38
2.4 Various Typical Uses of Pipes...................................................................... 42
Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 43
Problems.............................................................................................................44

Chapter 3 Volumes and Flows of Drinking Water

Introduction............................................................................................................. 49
3.1 Definitions.................................................................................................... 49
3.2 Average and Suggested Water Consumption................................................ 50
3.3 Water Consumption for Different Purposes.................................................. 55

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3.4 Factors Affecting Consumption Flow Rates................................................. 56

3.5 Computation of Maximum Flow (Peak Flow) and Miminum Flow............. 58
Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 63
Problems.................................................................................................................. 64

Chapter 4 Collection and Distribution of Drinking Water

Introduction............................................................................................................. 67
4.1 Surface-Water Intake.................................................................................... 67
4.1.1 River Intake.................................................................................... 68
4.1.2 Lake Intake..................................................................................... 69
4.2 Groundwater Intake...................................................................................... 69
4.3 Hydraulic and Sanitary Survey..................................................................... 69
4.4 Estimation of Ice Thickness on Surface Water............................................. 70
4.5 Water Intake Design..................................................................................... 73
4.6 Intake Pipe Design........................................................................................ 74
4.7 Raw-Water Reservoir Design....................................................................... 74
4.8 Screens at the Raw-Water Reservoir Entrance............................................. 75
4.9 Low-Lift Pumps........................................................................................... 75
4.10 Water-Treatment Plant and Distribution Reservoir....................................... 77
4.11 High-Lift Pumping Station and Pressure-Reducing Valve........................... 78
4.12 Water Distribution Networks........................................................................ 80
4.12.1 Structure of the Water-Distribution Network.................................. 80
4.12.2 Distribution Networks.................................................................... 81
4.12.3 Distribution Reservoir.................................................................... 83
4.12.4 Pipes Available on the Market: Diameters and Materials............... 89
4.12.5 Burying Depth of Pipes and Freezing Depth in Soil....................... 93
4.12.6 Pipe Protection Against Freezing.................................................... 97
4.12.7 Valves........................................................................................... 101
4.12.8 Fire Hydrants................................................................................ 102
4.12.9 Service Pipes................................................................................ 104
4.12.10 Pipe Joints..................................................................................... 107
4.12.11 Air Valves and Vacuum Valves..................................................... 107
4.12.12 Minimum and Maximum Operating Pressure............................... 108
4.12.13 Flow Velocity................................................................................ 109
4.12.14 Fire-Fighting Requirements.......................................................... 109
4.12.15 Fixed Installations for Fire Fighting ............................................ 112
4.12.16 Hydraulic strategy and deployment on a fire site.......................... 115
4.12.17 Spatial Distribution of Fire Hydrants: Preliminary Approach...... 116
4.12.18 Hazen-Williams Roughness Coefficient....................................... 116
4.12.19 Minor Head Loss.......................................................................... 117
4.12.20 Water Hammer.............................................................................. 117
4.13 Thrust Blocks and Restrained Joints.......................................................... 122
4.13.1 Thrust Blocks................................................................................ 123
4.13.2 Restrained Joints for a Pipe Deviation in a Horizontal Plane....... 126
4.14 Before Bringing a New Pipe Into Service.................................................. 130
4.15 Water Supply in High Riser Buildings....................................................... 130
4.16 Pipes Crossing a Body of Water................................................................. 130

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Conclusion............................................................................................................ 131
Problems................................................................................................................ 131

Chapter 5 Design of a Drinking-Water Distribution System

Introduction........................................................................................................... 137
5.1 Definitions.................................................................................................. 137
5.1.1 Primary or Arterial Mains............................................................. 137
5.1.2 Secondary Lines or Pipes............................................................. 137
5.1.3 Small Distribution Mains (Local Pipes)....................................... 138
5.1.4 Nodes, Loops and Disaggregated Flow (Consumption)............... 138
5.2 Specific Requirements Related to Network Design.................................... 138
5.2.1 Maximum or Peak Hourly Consumption...................................... 138
5.2.2 Maximum or Peak Daily Consumption During One
or Many Fires............................................................................... 138
5.2.3 Maximum or Peak Daily Consumption During Rupture
of an Arterial Main or a Secondary Pipe....................................... 138
5.2.4 Special Cases................................................................................ 139
5.3 Water-Distribution Network Design........................................................... 139
5.3.1 Obtaining the Mandate................................................................. 139
5.3.2 Survey of Existing Services.......................................................... 139
5.3.3 Survey of the Physical Environment and Identification
of Current and Future Needs......................................................... 140
5.3.4 Identification of Alternatives and Economic Assessment............. 140
5.3.5 Final Choice.................................................................................. 140
5.4 Hydraulic Study of a Water-Distribution System....................................... 140
5.4.1 Initial Selection of Pipe Diameters............................................... 141
5.4.2 Relation Between Flow Rate, Q, and Head Loss, HL,
in a Pipe Under Pressure............................................................... 141
5.4.3 Equivalent Pipe Method............................................................... 142
5.5 Analysis of Water-Distribution Network Using the Wood-Charles
Linearization Methode................................................................................ 147
5.6 Analysis of Water-Distribution Networks Using the Newton-Raphson
Method....................................................................................................... 148
5.7 Analysis of Water-Distribution Networks Using the Hardy-Cross
Method....................................................................................................... 148
5.7.1 Flow Correction in a Loop After One Iteration............................ 149
5.7.2 Step-by-Step Procedure Using the Hardy-Cross Method............. 150
5.7.3 Limitations of the Hardy-Cross Method....................................... 151
5.8 Parallel Water-Distribution Networks......................................................... 151
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 158
Problems................................................................................................................ 158

Chapter 6 Volumes and Flows of Sanitary Sewage

Introduction........................................................................................................... 167
6.1 Definitions.................................................................................................. 168
6.1.1 Sanitary Sewer System................................................................. 168
6.1.2 Storm Sewer System or Storm Water System............................... 168
6.1.3 Combined Sewer System.............................................................. 169

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6.1.4 Pseudo-Sanitary Sewer System.................................................... 169

6.1.5 Foundation Drain Pipes................................................................ 169
6.1.6 Service Connection or Service Pipe............................................. 170
6.1.7 Lateral (or Branch) Sewer, Submain, Main Sewer,
and Trunk Sewer........................................................................... 170
6.1.8 Intercepting Sewer........................................................................ 170
6.1.9 Outfall........................................................................................... 170
6.2 Wastewater Flow in Sanitary Sewers.......................................................... 171
6.2.1 Domestic Wastewater Flow Rates................................................ 171
6.2.2 Industrial Wastewater Flow Rates................................................ 175
6.2.3 Wastewater Flow Rates from Commercial Areas......................... 176
6.2.4 Wastewater Flow Rates from Institutional Facilities.................... 176
6.2.5 Wastewater Flow Rates from Areas Dedicated
to the Community......................................................................... 176
6.2.6 Parasitic Flow Rate....................................................................... 176
6.2.7 Minimum Flow Rates................................................................... 180
6.3 Total Maximum Flow Rates....................................................................... 180
6.3.1 Sanitary Sewage........................................................................... 180
6.3.2 Infiltration Flow Rates.................................................................. 181
6.3.3 Inflow Flow Rates......................................................................... 181
6.4 Maximum sewage flow in sewage service pipe ......................................... 186
6.5 Rehabilitation of Sewage Network............................................................. 187
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 188
Problems................................................................................................................ 188

Chapter 7 Runoff in Urban Areas

Introduction........................................................................................................... 191
7.1 Definitions.................................................................................................. 191
7.2 Rainfall and Runoff in Urban Areas........................................................... 191
7.2.1 Rainfall......................................................................................... 192
7.2.2 Runoff........................................................................................... 192
7.3 Rational Method......................................................................................... 193
7.3.1 Origin and Diffusion..................................................................... 193
7.3.2 Development of the Rational Equation......................................... 193
7.3.3 Mathematical Expression of the Rational Equation...................... 196
7.3.4 Theoretical Basis of the Rational Equation.................................. 196
7.4 Catchment (Watershed).............................................................................. 197
7.5 Return Period (Frequency of Occurence)................................................... 198
7.6 Rainfall Intensity........................................................................................ 198
7.7 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves (IDF Curves).................................. 198
7.8 Time of Concentration................................................................................ 202
7.8.1 Inlet Time of Urban Sub-basins.................................................... 202
7.8.2 Time of Flow in Pipes Flowing Full............................................. 205
7.9 Runoff Coefficient, R.................................................................................. 205
7.9.1 Constant Runoff Coefficient......................................................... 205
7.9.2 Time-Variable Runoff Coefficient................................................ 207
7.10 Relationship Between the Shape of the Watershed and the Runoff............ 210
7.10.1 Watershed Shaped Like an Equilateral Triangle........................... 210

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7.10.2 Watershed Shaped Like a Circle Segment.................................... 213

7.10.3 Rectangular Watershed................................................................. 213
7.10.4 Square Watershed......................................................................... 213
7.10.5 Comments About the Shapes of Urban Watersheds...................... 213
7.11 Limitations of the Rational Equation.......................................................... 214
7.12 Drainage of Parking Lots............................................................................ 215
7.13 Computer Moderls for Simulation of Runoff in Urban Areas.................... 217
7.13.1 The SWMM Family Models......................................................... 218
7.13.2 The HYMO Family Models.......................................................... 218
7.13.3 The ILLUDAS Family Models..................................................... 218
7.13.4 The HEC Family Models.............................................................. 218
7.13.5 The STORM Family Models........................................................ 219
7.14 Synthetic and Historical Storms................................................................. 219
7.14.1 Synthetic Rainfall......................................................................... 219
7.14.2 Historical Rainfall........................................................................ 219
7.15 Limitations of Maximum Runoff in Urban Areas....................................... 219
7.15.1 Delaying Runoff at its Source....................................................... 219
7.15.2 Delaying (or Reducing) Maximum Runoff Using Detention/
Retention Basins within the Sewer System.................................. 220
7.15.3 Delaying Runoff with Vortex Regulator (Hydro-Brake
Regulator)..................................................................................... 221
7.15.4 Double Drainage Networks (Minor and Major Networks)........... 222
7.16 Step-By-Step Procedure for the Design of a Storm System....................... 222
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 223
Problems................................................................................................................ 223

Chapter 8 Design of Sewer Systems

Introduction........................................................................................................... 231
8.1 Types of Collection Systems and Sewers................................................... 231
8.2 Planning Construction of a Sewer System.................................................. 232
8.3 Components of a Sewer System................................................................. 233
8.3.1 Types of Sewer in a Typical Collection System........................... 233
8.3.2 Sewer Manholes and Drop Manholes........................................... 233
8.3.3 Street Inlet.................................................................................... 238
8.3.4 Building Service Connection (Minimum Nominal Diameter:
100 mm)....................................................................................... 238
8.4 Design and Construction of Elements of a Sewer System.......................... 240
8.4.1 Sewer and Drinking-Water Pipe Materials................................... 240
8.4.2 Minimum Diameters of Sewer Pipes............................................ 243
8.4.3 Sewer Pipes with Unusual Shapes................................................ 244
8.4.4 Actual Inner Diameter of Sewer Pipes......................................... 244
8.4.5 Sewer Manhole............................................................................. 245
8.4.6 Sewer-Pipe Alignment.................................................................. 246
8.4.7 Burying Depth of Sewer Pipes..................................................... 246
8.4.8 Slope of Sewer Pipes.................................................................... 247
8.4.9 Various Elements.......................................................................... 248
8.4.10 Strength Classification of Pipes.................................................... 252
8.5 Head loss in a Sewer System...................................................................... 253

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8.5.1 Head Loss in Sewer Pipes............................................................ 253

8.5.2 Head Loss Due to Various Equipment.......................................... 253
8.5.3 Elevation of Sewer Pipes at Sewer Manholes............................... 253
8.6 Sewage (and Drinking Water) Pumping Stations....................................... 253
8.6.1 Types of Pump.............................................................................. 254
8.6.2 Required Power............................................................................ 255
8.6.3 Characteristic Curves of a Pump ................................................. 255
8.6.4 Operation and Equilibrium Curves............................................... 256
8.6.5 Force Mains.................................................................................. 257
8.6.6 Total Head, HT.............................................................................. 257
8.6.7 Water Flow to Be Pumped............................................................ 259
8.6.8 Number and Type of Pumps in Pumping Stations........................ 259
8.6.9 Design of a Pumping Station........................................................ 260
8.6.10 Cavitation..................................................................................... 261
8.6.11 Other Design Considerations........................................................ 261
8.7 Inverted Siphon and Tunnel........................................................................ 262
8.8 Culvert........................................................................................................ 264
8.9 Pipe Installation in Trenches...................................................................... 264
8.10 Sewage Flow Measurements...................................................................... 266
8.10.1 Different Types of Flow Measurement......................................... 266
8.10.2 Registration Devices..................................................................... 266
8.11 Stability of Underground Structures........................................................... 272
8.12 Alternative Sewer Networks....................................................................... 277
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 277
Problems................................................................................................................ 278

Chapter 9 Hydraulic Design of Sanitary, Storm

and Combined Sewer Systems
Introduction........................................................................................................... 281
9.1 Hydraulic Design of Storm-Sewer Systems............................................... 281
9.1.1 Computation of the Maximum Flow Rate at the Discharge
of an Urban Sub-basin.................................................................. 281
9.1.2 Design of a Reinforced Concrete Sewer System Receiving
Storm Flow from Many Urban Sub-basins................................... 284
9.2 Design of Sanitary Sewer Systems............................................................. 294
9.2.1 Average, Maximum, and Minimum Sanitary Flow Rates
in a Sanitary Sewer....................................................................... 294
9.2.2 Design of a Sanitary Interceptor for Two Sanitary Sewer
Systems......................................................................................... 299
9.2.3 Design of a Sanitary Interceptor for a Sanitary Sewer System
and a Combined Sewer System.................................................... 303
9.3 Location of Street Inlets............................................................................. 307
9.3.1 Maximum Distance Between Two Street Inlets When
Longitudinal Street Slope is Equal to or Greater Than 0,5%........ 308
9.3.2 Maximum Distance Between Two Street Inlets
When Longitudinal Street Slope is Less Than 0,5%.................... 309
9.3.3 Other Criteria to Be Considered for Street Inlet Location............ 311
9.4 Location of Pipes in Streets........................................................................ 311

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9.4.1 Location of Sanitary and Storm Sewer Pipes in Streets............... 311

9.4.2 Location of Drinking-Water Pipes in Streets................................ 312
9.4.3 Installation of pipes at intersections............................................. 315
9.5 Culverts...................................................................................................... 323
9.5.1 General Hydraulic Characteristics................................................ 323
9.5.2 Water Velocity Within Culverts for Maximum Flow
(Design Flow)............................................................................... 327
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 327
Problems................................................................................................................ 330

Chapter 10 Disease and Other Risks Related to Water

Introduction........................................................................................................... 341
10.1 Diseases contracted by Contaminated Water Consumption of Through
Skin Contact with Polluted Water, Drowning and Disinfection................. 341
10.1.1 Diseases Contracted Through Consumption of Contaminated
Drinking Water............................................................................. 341
10.1.2 Diseases Contracted Through Skin Contact
With Polluted Water...................................................................... 343
10.1.3 Diseases Contracted by Breathing Contaminated Water
Droplets........................................................................................ 346
10.1.4 Drowning...................................................................................... 346
10.1.5 Diseases Contracted in Swimming Pools and Spas...................... 346
10.1.6 Water Disinfection With Chlorine (Chlorination)......................... 347
10.2 Gases and Vapors That Endanger the Health and Life of Sewer Workers.. 347
10.3 Lead, Aluminium, Fluor and Copper.......................................................... 349
10.3.1 Lead.............................................................................................. 349
10.3.2 Aluminum..................................................................................... 350
10.3.3 Fluorine........................................................................................ 350
10.3.4 Copper.......................................................................................... 350
10.4 Other Risks Encountered by Water-Management Workers......................... 350
10.5 Personal Hygiene Guidelines...................................................................... 351
10.6 Protecting Against Diseases Caused by Viruses, Bacteria, Protozoa,
and Worms.................................................................................................. 351
10.6.1 Vaccination................................................................................... 351
10.6.2 A Few Minutes of Large-Bubble Boiling Water........................... 351
10.6.3 Avoid Skin Contact With Untreated Fresh Water
in Warm Climates......................................................................... 352
10.7 Gas Concentration in Mixtures................................................................... 352
10.8 Aqueous Concentration.............................................................................. 354
10.9 Microbiological analysis............................................................................ 354
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 354
Problems................................................................................................................ 354

Chapter 11 External Loads on Underground Pipes and Selection

of Pipes to Sustain These Loads
Introduction........................................................................................................... 357
11.1 Classification of Loading Conditions......................................................... 358
11.1.1 Trench Conditions........................................................................ 358

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11.1.2 Embankment Conditions.............................................................. 359

11.1.3 Construction in Tunnels................................................................ 359
11.1.4 Transition Width of a Trench........................................................ 359
11.2 Variables and Symbols Used in this Chapter.............................................. 360
11.3 Loads on Pipes Due to Backfill Material and Natural Soil-Trench
Conditions.................................................................................................. 362
11.3.1 Rigid Pipes................................................................................... 362
11.3.2 Flexible Pipes (Trench and Positive Projecting Installation)........ 365
11.4 Loads on Rigid Pipes Due to Backfill: Embankment Conditions............... 366
11.4.1 Positive Projecting Embankment Conditions............................... 366
11.4.2 Negative Projecting Embankment Conditions.............................. 368
11.4.3 Zero Projecting Embankment Conditions..................................... 371
11.5 Forces Due to Concentrated Live Loads on Pipes...................................... 372
11.5.1 Theoretical Computation of Forces Due to Live Loads................ 372
11.5.2 Practical Computation of Forces Due to Highway Live Loads.... 374
11.5.3 Railroad Live Loads..................................................................... 381
11.6 Forces on Pipes Due to Horizontal Dead Loads Uniformly
Distributed and Symmetrical With Respect to the Pipes............................ 384
11.7 Cumulative Effect of Dead Load and Live Loads on Buried Pipes............ 385
11.8 Bearing Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Pipes........................................ 386
11.9 Minimum Dimensions of Trenches Vertical Cross Sections....................... 387
11.9.1 Slopes of Trench Walls................................................................. 387
11.9.2 Width of the Bottom of the Trench and Thickness
of Pipe Bedding............................................................................ 387
11.10 Pipe Bedding (Laying Out of Trench Bottom)........................................... 388
11.10.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe: Traditional Installation....................... 389
11.10.2 PVC Thermoplastic Pipes (According to Manufacturers)............ 394
11.10.3 Ductile Iron Pipes (According to Manufacturers)........................ 394
11.11 Backfill Material......................................................................................... 395
11.12 New Approach for the Computation of Forces on Rigid Reinforces
Concrete Pipes............................................................................................ 395
11.12.1 Positive Projection Embankment Installation............................... 395
11.12.2 New Standard Installations........................................................... 396
11.12.3 Bedding Factors for Dead Loads, (Lf )CM....................................... 397
11.12.4 Bedding Factors for Live Loads................................................... 398
11.12.5 Weight of Water in Pipes.............................................................. 398
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 407
Problems................................................................................................................ 408

Chapter 12 Thermoplastic Pipes (Flexible): Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

and Polyethylene (PE or HDPE)
Introduction........................................................................................................... 413
12.1 Identification of thermoplastic pressure pipes............................................ 414
12.2 Internal Hydraulic Pressure and Hoop Stress............................................. 414
12.3 Relation Between DR/SDR, Nominal Pressure, pN and Pressure Rating.... 416
12.4 Classification of Pipes According to C900 and C905 Standards
of American Water Works Association (AWWA)....................................... 416
12.5 Temperature’s Effects on PVC Pipes.......................................................... 417

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12.6 Frequent Cyclic Surge Pressure.................................................................. 422

12.7 Subsidence (Deflection) of the Crown of Thermoplastic (PVC) Pipes....... 423
12.8 Outside diameters of some PVC pipes....................................................... 430
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 431
Problems................................................................................................................ 432

Chapter 13 Corrosion of Pipes and Various Accessories

Introduction........................................................................................................... 435
13.1 Preliminary Definitions.............................................................................. 435
13.2 Consequences of Corrosion in Pipes and Other Accesories....................... 436
13.3 The Four Conditions for Corrosion to Occur............................................. 436
13.4 Nature of the Corrosion.............................................................................. 437
13.5 In Aqueous Environments Iron May Always Be Corroded........................ 438
13.6 Bacterial Enhancement of Corrosion.......................................................... 438
13.7 Factors that Favor Corrosion in Aqueous Environments............................ 439
13.8 Causes of External Pipe Corrosion............................................................. 439
13.9 Decay in Cement Materials........................................................................ 439
13.10 Strategies to Control Corrosion in Water Distribution and Water
Collection Networks................................................................................... 440
13.11 Cost of Protection Against External Corrosion.......................................... 441
13.12 Usefulness of External Protection Against Corrosion................................ 441
13.13 Cathodic Protection.................................................................................... 441
13.14 Design......................................................................................................... 443
Conclusion............................................................................................................ 445
Problems................................................................................................................ 445

Answers to Problems ........................................................................................ 447

Appendix A Flowing Conditions Graphs for Various Sewer Pipes................... 465
Appendix B Graphs of the Hydraulic Capacity of Concrete Culverts of
Various Diameters........................................................................ 469
Appendix C Units............................................................................................. 479
Appendix D Grids for the Computations of Storm and Sanitary
Sewer Systems.............................................................................. 481
Appendix E Water Supply for Public Fire Protection....................................... 485
Bibliography....................................................................................................... 507
Index.................................................................................................................... 511

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Abbreviations
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
ACPA American Concrete Pipe Association
AQTE Association québécoise des techniques de l’eau
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWWA American Water Works Association
AWWARF American Water Works Association Research Foundation
BNQ Bureau de normalisation du Québec
CA Canadian
CPV (PVC) Chlorure de polyvinile; Polyvinile Chloride
DJG Degré-jour de gel (freezing degree-days)
GM General Motors
HDB Hydrostatic Design Basis
HD-PE High Density Polyethylene
HDS Hydrostatic Design Stress
IBM International Business Machine
ILLUDAS Illinois Urban Drainage Area Simulation
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NBC National Building Code
NFPA National Fire Protection Agency
OCPA Ontario Concrete Pipe Association
OMS Organisation Mondiale de la santé
STORM Storage, Treatment and Overflow Runoff Model
SWMM Storm Water Management Model
US United States

Latin symbols
SI unit Unit of
measurement
A area; cross-sectional area m ha
2

Aimp fraction of the area of a sub-basin made

of supposedly impermeable surfaces ‒
Ap contact surface pipe-soil m2 m2
Β coating factor
B wathershed ‒
Cc , Cd , Cn , Cs load coefficient ‒
C C Chezy’s coefficient ‒
Cfire fire flow coeffcient ‒
CHW Hazen-Williams’ coefficient ‒
d diameter m mm, cm, inch
d average thickness of the ice layer m cm
d backfill depth under the pipe mm
dequ equivalent pipe diameter m mm
dnom nominal diameter m mm

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 xxii List of Abbreviations and Symbols

SI unit Unit of
measurement
dout outside diameter m mm
DL lag factor ‒ ‒
Ds volumetric mass of dry soil kg/m3 kg/m3
DJG freezing degree-days ºC-day ºC-days
DR/SDR dimension ratio ‒
E modulus of elasticity kN/m2 lb/in2
Eꞌ modulus of soil reaction kN/m lb/in2
2

E1, E2 equilibrium in 1, 2 ‒
E f efficiency %
E80, E85 railroad live load 80 000 lbs, 85 000 lbs
f Darcy-Weisbach’s friction factor ‒
f friction factor ‒
fφ factor, function of soil
F anode form factor
F factor ‒
F force N kN, lb
F c force due to backfill and other
dead loads on the pipe N/m
Fres net (resulting) force N kN
FS friction
Ft , Ftot total force N
Fv force due to a live load N/m2 lb/in2
F v water modulus of elasticity kN/m 2
N/m2
g acceleration due to gravity or m/s or
2

gravitational constant 9,81 m/s2

G freezing index °F-d, °C-d
h height of water m
h freezing depth m inch, ft
h e water level at the inlet (entrance) m
h o water level at the outlet m
H head m ft
H head loss m of water/100 m,
kPa/100 m,
m of water
Hc depth of mid diameter of the pipe m m
HL head loss in a pipe of length L m of water, kPa
(HL)equ head loss in the equivalent pipe m of water, kPa
Hm minor head loss m
HT total head m ft
Htot total head loss m of water, kPa
HDB hydrostatic design basis kPa kPa, lb/in2
HDS hydrostatic design stress
I moment of inertia of a surface m3 in3
I rain intensity mm/h, inch/h
I impact factor ‒
Im electric current, magnesium anode A mA

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 List of Abbreviations and Symbols xxiii

SI unit Unit of
measurement
Is modified freezing index ºC-d
Iz electric current, zinc anode A mA
IDF Intensity-Duration-Frequence
kg frozen soil thermal conductivity W/m-ºC W/m-ºC
K decreasing growth constant a-1
K a arithmetic growth constant a-1
K g geometric growth constant a-1
K L coefficient of the structure ‒
Kn factor f (trench) ‒
l throat width of the Parshall flume mm, m ft, in
L length m mm, cm, km
L soil latent heat of fusion kJ/m3 kJ/m3
Lb thrust block length m m
Lc latent heat of fusion of ice kJ/kg kJ/m3
Lequ length of the equivalent pipe m mm
L f bedding factor ‒
LT length of sewer inlet in the curb m ft
LL liquid limit % %
ln base e logarithm ‒
log base 10 logarithm ‒
m uniformly distributed horizontal load kg kg/m2
m b mass of the backfill kg kg/m
mp mass of the pipe kg kg/m
m w mass of the water kg kg/m
n Manning’s coefficient, Kutter’s coefficient ‒
n number of time periods ‒
n number of moles ‒ ‒
n thermal exchange factor air-soil ‒
NR Reynolds number ‒
p pressure Pa kPa
pA pressure at A kPa kPa, lb/in2
pL pressure at elevation L kPa ft/in2
pMS maximum operating pressure kPa kPa, lb/in2
pN nominal pressure kPa kPa, lb/in2
ps surge pressure kPa kPa, lb/in2
pSC cyclic overpressure kPa lb/in2 (psi)
pSO casual overpressure kPa lb/in2 (psi)
P live load kg
P population ‒
PC pressure class kPa kPa, lb/in2
PF peak factor ‒
PFmax maximum peak factor ‒
PFmin minimum peak factor ‒
PR pressure rating kPa kPa, lb/in2
Q flow rate m /s m3/d, L/s, L/d
3

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 xxiv List of Abbreviations and Symbols

SI unit Unit of
measurement
Q d daily flow rate m /s m3/d, L/s, L/d
3

(Qd)avg average daily flow rate for a year m3/s m3/d, L/s, L/d
(Qd)max maximum daily flow rate for a year m3/s m3/d, L/s, L/d
(Qd)min minimum daily flow rate for a year m3/s m3/d, L/s, L/d
Qdom domestic flow rate m3/s m3/d
(Qdom)avg average annual domestic flow rate m3/s m3/d
(Qdom)max maximum annual domestic flow rate m3/s m3/d
(Qdom)min minimum annual domestic flow rate m3/s m3/d
Q f flow in pipe flowing full m3/s L/s
Q h hourly flow rate m3/s m3/h, L/s
(Qh)avg average hourly flow rate for a year m3/s m3/h, L/s
(Qh)max maximum hourly flow rate for a year m3/s m3/h, L/s
(Qh)min minimum hourly flow rate for a year m3/s m3/h, L/s
Q i inflow m3/s m3/d
Qinf infiltration flow rate m3/s m3/d
Qmax maximum flow rate m3/s L/s
Qmax normal normal maximum runoff flow m3/s m3/d, L/s, L/d
Qmin minimum flow rate m3/s L/s
Qpar parasitic flow rate m3/s L/s
(Qsan)avg average annual sanitary flow rate m3/s m3/d
(Qsan)max maximum annual sanitary flow rate m3/s m3/d
(Qsan)min minimum annual sanitary flow rate m3/s m3/d
r average inside radius mm in, mm
r growth rate of the population by
time period hundredth/y
rsd settlement ratio ‒ ‒
R runoff coefficient ‒
R soil electric current resistance ohm/m ohm/cm
R stiffness kg/mm-mm lb/in-in
Remer emergency storage m3
Requ equilibrium reserve (service storage) m3
Rfire fire-fighting storage m3
Rh hydraulic radius m
Rmax maximum storage m3
Rmin minimum storage m3
Rp storm sewage network ‒ ‒
Rprod production storage m3
Rrecom recommended storage m3
Rs passive resistance of soil N/m lb/m
R s sanitary sewage network ‒ ‒
R T runoff coefficient of a sub-basin ‒
s slope % %
S saturation population ‒
S x longitudinal street slope % %
SDR standard dimension ratio (See DR) ‒ ‒

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 List of Abbreviations and Symbols xxv

SI unit Unit of
measurement
SF safety coefficient (factor) ‒
STR short term (pressure) rating kPa kPa, lb/in2
STS short term stress kPa kPa, lb/in2
t time s min, h, d, y
tc time of concentration s min
te inlet time s min
t f flowing time in pipe min min
tr round trip time min min
v velocity m/s
v width mm, m
v f velocity in pipe flowing full m/s
v j pressure wave velocity in pipes m/s ft/s
vmin minimum velocity m/s
v o water velocity in gutter m/s ft/s
V correction factor
w width mm, m
wtr width of the trench m mm
(wtr )trans transition width of a trench m mm
Wꞌ live loads kn/m2 lb/in2
We soil water content
WP wetted perimeter m

Greek symbols
SI unit Unit of
measurement
γ specific weight kN/m2 lb/in2
δ insulation depth m ft
δ backfill height over insulation m ft
Δ difference ‒
ΔY crown deflection % %
η dynamic (absolute) viscosity of water N·s/m2 or Pa·s
η/ρe kinematic viscosity m2/s m2/s
θ angle rad °
θ deviation angle rad °
λ coefficient
ρ density kg/m3
ρ e water density kg/m3
σ standard deviation
σ correction factor
ϕ friction angle rad °

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 Chapter

1
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED
FOR THE MANAGEMENT
OF DRINKING WATER AND WASTEWATER

INTRODUCTION
This book focuses on water and its transportation through water intake systems,
distribution networks and sewage collection networks. This chapter gives a gene-
ral overview of the use of water and some of the treatments it undergoes. It also
discusses population-growth projection methods used to determine the water
flows and volumes required for networks and installations design. First, we deal
with water-transportation cycles, then we discuss sources of drinking water;
lastly, we present population-growth projection models.

1.1 WATER-TRANSPORTATION CYCLE

Water used for consumption is basically:
• surface fresh water found in lakes and waterways;
• groundwater, often highly mineralized.

1.1.1 Surface-Water Utilization Cycle

Figure 1.1 shows the utilization cycle of surface water described in this section.
First, fresh water is collected from a lake or river using various techniques,
ranging from a simple pipe submerged in a river to a collection tower, equipped
with selective intakes at different depths, installed in a lake or deep reservoir. In
some cases, a dam must be built to retain water and regulate river flows, espe-
cially when these are minimal.
Collection systems (channels or pipes) transport raw water toward the targe-
ted communities. If the water is not potable, it goes through a treatment plant be-
fore being distributed to consumers. However, even if the water source is of good
quality, disinfection must be performed (in Québec, chlorination is mandatory.)

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 2 Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Surface-water utilization cycle

When water is suitable for consumption, a distribution network consisting of

pipes under pressure brings the water to the community, all the way to consumers’
taps. After water has been used, it loses its quality and becomes wastewater. The
sewage system is then used to evacuate wastewater from the community.
Wastewater is sent to a treatment plant to avoid pollution of the environment.
This allows cities located downstream from points of discharge to use water for
different purposes, including drinking. Treated water is sent back to the environ-
ment through a pipe called the outfall, whose role is to ensure the best possible
dilution into waterways.
Finally, in a river, the water is subjected to a natural self-purification pro-
cess in which residual organic and microbial pollution is gradually and partially
reduced.
When treated wastewater is discharged into a river or a lake, however, it may
reach a water intake before the self-purification process is complete. Reasons for
this short circuit may be that the treated wastewater does not mix well with the
surrounding waters because of either different densities or the hydraulic charac-
teristics of the body of water. As a result, the water intake may be abnormally
contaminated.

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