Development of water resources in Bahrain

A. Basheer and K. Bu Rashid

Ministry of Power and Water
Z. Al Hashimi, A. Al Aradi and B. AlTal
Ministry of Works
M. Al Noaim
Ministry of Housing and Agriculture
M. Al-Ansari
Bahrain Centre for Studies and Research

Summary
The state of Bahrain is an archipelago consisting of over thirty islands. As most of the Arabian
Peninsula, it has an arid to extremely arid climate. Prior to 1925, Bahrain’s population depended entirely on
fresh water from naturally flowing springs in addition to some hand-dug wells.
Mechanised well drilling and abstraction of groundwater was introduced in the early 1930’s along
with the discovery of oil in Bahrain. Over the past 50 years, while agricultural abstraction has fluctuated
around 100 Mm3/year, municipal water consumption has increased substantially from 5 Mm3/year in 1952,
to about 47 Mm3/year in 1980. Up until the late 1970s, the country’s water requirements were met entirely
by groundwater from the Dammam aquifer.
In order to conserve the country’s scarce water resources, the government directed its efforts toward
developing non-conventional sources of water, by constructing a desalination plant in 1974. Additional
plants are being constructed and planned. A sewage treatment plant was also built in the 1980’s, to meet
agricultural water demands.
Water demand in the domestic sector has increased threefold between 1976 and 1986, due to the rise
in the standard of living. Further increases followed at a rate of 6 percent annually to reach 92 Mm3 by the
year 2000. Demand in this sector is expected to reach 174 Mm3/year in 2010.
Agriculture is the greatest water consumer. It was estimated to have consumed 204 Mm3 from the
Dammam aquifer in 1998. It should be noted that studies have estimated the safe yield of the aquifer to be
around 100 Mm3/year. The agricultural sector in Bahrain depends mainly on groundwater resources, as the
average rainfall is less than 80 mm/year. Groundwater resources, however, are not sufficient to meet the
increased demands of agriculture. The deteriorating quality of groundwater, caused by over- extraction,
poses further limitations on its utilization.
The introduction of Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE) plants in Bahrain in the 1990s has made an
alternate source of water for agriculture available. It is imperative that TSE is increasingly used so that
withdrawal from the Dammam aquifer is reduced. The present contribution of TSE is about 14 Mm3. With
the expansion of the existing sewage treatment plant, TSE is expected to reach 60 Mm3 by 2005, and 72
Mm3 by 2008.
The industrial sector relies mainly on desalinated water from seawater or brackish water. The total
requirement of this sector does not exceed 10 Mm3/year and is not expected to increase drastically in the
coming years.
As it is neither economical nor practical to replace the Dammam aquifer as a major water source for
agriculture, withdrawal from the aquifer for domestic and industrial purposes is imperative. Moreover,
additional supplies must come from desalination plants, fed either by seawater or brackish water from the
Umm Er Radhuma aquifer.
The first desalination plant in Bahrain was constructed in 1975, with a production of 8 Mm3/year.
The current capacity of desalination plants in the country is about 73 Mm3/year. Desalinated water is
 Development of water resources in Bahrain

blended with lower quality groundwater for domestic use. However, a greater number of desalination plants
are needed to meet potable water demand and to minimize the withdrawal from the Dammam aquifer.
Water desalination in Bahrain started in Sitra Island with two Multistage Flash Seawater
Desalination units, each with a capacity of 11,500 m3/day (2 x 2.5 million gallons/day "MGD"). In 1984,
the second phase of the Sitra plant was commissioned. In 1984, Phase 3 was commissioned. That phase was
comprised of three identical MSF evaporators; each designed to produce 5 MGD, or 6.8 MGD, at high
temperature operation. In February 1997, Bahrain signed a contract to build the first phase of the Al Hidd
plant. This facility is a dual-purpose plant employing a gas turbine and MSF plant to produce 30 million
gallon per day of desalinated water (4 units x 7.5 MGD) MSF units.
Desalination plants employing reverse osmosis (RO) also play a role in supplying the country with
water. The Ras Abu Jarjur Brackish Water RO Plant is one such plant. It was commissioned in 1984 to
produce 10 MGD. Its construction was followed by Addur Seawater RO plant, which was designed to
produce 10 MGD.
Supply and demand estimates for water resources in Bahrain indicated a deficit of 110 Mm3 in the
year 2000. The water situation in Bahrain is precarious due to heavy extraction rates from the main
groundwater aquifer. Consequently, it is important that proper management and decisive action is taken to
help control water quality deterioration. Furthermore, the scope of demand management should be
reviewed according to the country’s priorities and requirements. Although the country has strong legislation
governing water, the lack of political wills to implement such legislation has led to miscommunication
between decision-makers and consumers. Additional efforts are needed to communicate the seriousness of
the water situation, in order to raise awareness among the different water-using sectors.

1. Introduction
The State of Bahrain consists of an archipelago of thirty-three low-lying islands with a total area of
about 649 km2. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the Middle East with a population of
about 600,000.
Located in an arid region, the climate of Bahrain is characterized by high summer temperatures,
scant and irregular rainfall, high rate of evaporation, high relative humidity and persistent winds from the
northwest. The monthly rainfall values in Bahrain exhibit a large degree of variability with a mean annual
value of about 72 mm.
The soils of Bahrain are moderate to shallow in depth. The topsoil texture ranges from sand to loamy
sand and the subsoil texture varies from loamy sand to sandy loam. Therefore, their water and mineral
holding capacity is low. Occasionally, the subsoil texture is silty clay loam. Sand and cemented layer of
gypsic or calcic horizon underlie most of the deeper soils. The soils of Bahrain are generally calcareous.
The calcium carbonate in most soil ranges from 15-30%. Most of the soils contain moderate amounts of
gypsum, mainly in the upper 75cm of the soil profile. Bahrain soils have low fertility potential. Organic
matter content is low (1%). The shallow water table has resulted in high soil salinity. Excessive moisture
near the root zone has caused considerable reduction in crop production and has rendered many agricultural
lands unfit for cultivation. Soil salinity is a major problem throughout the island where the water salinity
ranges between 2,500–6,000 ppm.
Until the late 1970s, the country’s water requirements were met entirely by groundwater from the
Dammam aquifer. With the view toward conserving the scarce water resources, the government directed its
efforts toward development of non-conventional sources of water by constructing a desalination plant in
1974. More plants were subsequently added and continue to be added. A sewage treatment plant was built
in the eighties to meet agricultural demands. However, the socio-economic demands of the ever-increasing
population combined with the imposed ceiling on abstraction of groundwater have led to deficiencies in the
water budget. Unlimited abstraction with inadequate recharging results in the increasing salinization of
groundwater and declining water levels, leading to the closure of some of the wells. With the water deficit
reaching 110 mm3 per year by 2000, the state of Bahrain has considered adding extra Multistage Flash
desalination units.

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This country paper discusses the availability and demand for water resources in Bahrain with special
focus on the uses by different sectors. Information is provided about desalination problems and remedies.
Control measures are also suggested to restore ground- water resources.

1.1 Climate
The climate of Bahrain is characterized by high summer temperatures of up to 40°C in July and
August, a mean annual rainfall of 72mm, and a high relative humidity, with a maximum mean monthly
value of 80%. There are persistent winds from the northwest with an average speed of 5 meters per second.
The mean annual class A Open Pan evaporation is about 210 mm per year.
There are significant seasonal variations in the average monthly temperature. The hottest months are
July and August while December, January and February are the coldest months. The monthly temperature
range is between 17.3 and 43.3°C. Rainfall is concentrated during the period from October, November to
May, being more pronounced in January. June and August have no recorded rainfall, while July and
September have only a trace. It is not surprising that the monthly rainfall values in Bahrain exhibit a large
degree of variability.
The mean daily maximum humidity is about 85% throughout the year but mean daily minimum
amounts respond to the higher summer temperatures, dropping to 39 and 40% in May and June,
respectively. The absolute minimum relative humidity is recorded in the month of May, but the months of
April to October can also have periods with low minimum relative humidity. The duration of sunshine
ranges from 11.3 hours during summer days to 7.3 hours in winter days. The mean annual wind velocity is
11.52 km/hr, with a maximum wind velocity of 108 km/hr. This wind velocity was attained in Bahrain in
April 1967, causing complete physical destruction of treatment plants.

1.2 Geology
Geologically, Bahrain is a shallow elongated dome characterized by Eocene and Neocene rocks,
which are partly covered by Quaternary sediments and a complex of Pleistocene deposits. The dominant
rocks are limestone and dolomitic limestone with subsidiary marls and shales. The dominant structure is the
north-south axis of the main dome, with minor crossfolds predominantly tilting from NE to SW. In general,
however, the beds are gently inclined towards the coast from the centre of the main island. Jabal al Dukhan
forms the highest point and lies in the center of the island, at an elevation of 122 meters above sea level. It
consists of beds of the Miocene age, laid uniformly on the Eocene strata beneath. This summit is
surrounded by residual hills at elevations ranging from 20-70 meters. These are in turn surrounded by an
interior basin beyond, which lies the inward facing multiple escarpments. The fringes of Bahrain are
covered by more recent marine and aeolian sand dunes, which were derived from the Arabian land
connection across the present Gulf of Salwa. The geological structure has little impact on the relief of the
coastal lowlands due to marine erosion and the extensive cover of recent sediments.

1.3 Soils
In general, the soils of Bahrain are moderate to shallow in depth. The topsoil texture ranges from
sand to loamy sand and the subsoil texture varies from loamy sand to sandy loam. Occasionally, the subsoil
texture is silty clay loam. Most of the deeper soils are underlain by sand or a cemented layer of gypsic or
calcic horizon. The soils of Bahrain are generally calcareous. The calcium carbonate in most soil ranges
from 15-30%. Most of the soils contain moderate amounts of gypsum, mainly in the upper 75 cm of the soil
profile. Bahrain soils have low fertility potential. Organic matter content is low (1%) and it is built up in the
topsoil.
The water holding capacity is very low and the available moisture is about 2-6%. Infiltration rates
are generally high, up to more that 120 mm/hr. Soil salinity is a major soil problem throughout Bahrain.
Most of the agricultural lands are affected by salts, mainly due to the high salinity of the irrigation water
(TDS 2,500-6,000 PPM) as well as from the shallow, saline water table and the absence of adequate
drainage.

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In general, the electrical conductivity (EC) in irrigated soils lies within the range of 4-12 µohm/cm.
Non-irrigated sites have a higher range of EC. The dominant cation is sodium, with its value generally
exceeding the sum of calcium and magnesium. The dominant anion is chloride, which exceeds sulfate. The
pH values usually range between 7-8. Phosphorous availability is relatively low. The soils of Bahrain
appear to be well-supplied with potassium. The available potassium content ranges from 100-200 ppm. In
general, most of Bahrain’s soils are deficient in micro-nutrient elements, while the boron levels are
satisfactory for most crops.

2. Water demand
The demand for water in Bahrain comes from the following sectors: domestic (which includes
municipal and domestic sectors), agricultural and industrial.

2.1 Domestic sector

The rapid industrial development taking place since the 1970s has resulted in a corresponding
increase in population. This was due to the influx of a large number of guest workers needed to sustain the
developments taking place. The rise in the standard of living due to socio-economic development was the
reason for the increased demand for water that rose three times between 1976 and 1986 (Figure 1). Further
increases followed at 6% annually, to reach 92 mm3 by the year 2000. It is expected to reach 174 mm3/year
in 2010. The per capita consumption of water reached the 150-gallon mark (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Domestic water consumption

Per Capita Water Consumption, 1950-2010

250
Consumption (gallon per capita)

200 0.0338x
y = 7E-28e
2
R = 0.9611
150

100

50

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Figure 2. Per capita consumption up to 2010

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2.2 Agricultural Sector

Bahrain depends mainly on imports to feed its population of about 600,000. Self-sufficiency of the
local production is low. The main crops planted are dates, vegetables and alfalfa. Vegetables are mostly
grown during wintertime and very rarely during the long, hot summer months.
Agriculture is mainly dependent on groundwater resources, as the average rainfall is less than 80
mm/year. This poses an enormous burden on the quality of the aquifer. In 1998, a decision was made by the
Government to install water meters, to determine the actual consumption of groundwater. However, as most
of the wells are not metered yet it is difficult to quantify the exact demand from this sector. It would be
more straightforward to survey the area of land used for agriculture. It has been reported (Sarhan 1992) that
about 30 km2 are being used for agriculture. The groundwater resources, however, are not sufficient to meet
the increased demands for agriculture and its deteriorating quality caused by over- abstraction poses
limitations on its utilization (Table 1).
The domestic sector is the highest water- consuming sector and is estimated to have consumed 204
MCM from the aquifer in 1998. It is worth noting that based on geological studies on the recharging of the
aquifer, the safe yield of the aquifer is estimated to be about 100 MCM/year (Zubari et al 1993).
The introduction of Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE) plants in Bahrain in the 1990s, made an alternate
source of water available for agriculture. It is imperative that TSE is used more in order to reduce
withdrawal from the aquifer. The present contribution of TSE is about 14 MCM. With the expansion of the
existing sewerage treatment plant, TSE is expected to reach 60 MCM by 2005 and 72 MCM by 2008
(Figure 3).

Table 1. Aquifer system and its contribution to agriculture

Aquifer 1952 1971 1992 1997
Dammam-Neogene 48 69 136.05 139.00
Rus-UmAlRudhma 6.1 6.1
Gross quantity 48 69 142.15 145.10
Total quantity from Damamm – Neogene 63.20 125.80 194.16 206.02
Percentage agricultural use 76 76 70 66

350
Total
300

Agriculture received
Consumption (Mm3/yr)

250
by Aquifer

200

150

100 STP

50

0
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

Figure 3. The contribution of sewerage treated effluent and aquifer abstraction on

agricultural demand: 174 Mm3/year in 2010.

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Table 2. Aquifer and traditional water supply

Aquifer 1952 1971 1992 1997
Dammam-Neogene 63.20 125.80 194.16 206.002
RUS- Umm ErRadhuma 2 2 36.82 36.91
Total 65.10 127.80 230.98 242.93

As in all developing countries, farming and agriculture in Bahrain have been affected due to
urbanization. The lands that could be cultivated are gradually being used for other development activities.
This has been caused by harsh environmental conditions, rapid development in other industries, laborers
obtaining higher incomes and better working conditions, and the failure to apply advances in science and
technology to agriculture, thereby resulting in low production. It is anticipated that urbanization and more
acceptance and use of TSE will reduce the withdrawal of groundwater for agriculture (Table 2).
Agricultural lands
Historical findings reveal that agriculture in Bahrain was very prosperous during early days.
Cultivated areas fluctuated between 15,300 ha around the year 2000 BC and 4,600 ha around the year 650
BC. In recent years the cultivated area decreased gradually, while the population continued rising rapidly.
The per capita cultivated area has decreased from 0.036 ha in 1924 to about 0.006 ha in 1989, thereby
exacerbating the problem of self-sufficiency in food products. Studies show that for a period of 13 years
(between 1956 and 1969) very little change has taken place in agricultural areas. In the early seventies and
later, sporadic residential compounds as well as direct encroachment caused by the horizontal expansion of
existing settlements resulted in the decrease of agricultural land area from 6,460 hectares in 1956 to about
4,070 hectares in 1988. This represents a reduction in the ratio of total land area from 9.6% to 5.9% (Figure
4).
Population
Bahrain is one of the most densely populated countries in the Middle East (i.e. 600 inhabitants per
km2). The latest general population census carried out in 1990, indicated that the total population was
503,000, of which 336,200 (67%) are Bahraini by nationality. Seven percent of the employed were engaged
in agriculture and fisheries. However, migration from the agricultural sector to other sectors of
development is still going on. Figure 5 shows the trend of the agricultural labour force from 1959-1990. It
is clear that the agricultural work force has declined sharply within the last thirty years.

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Figure 4. The condition of agricultural land since the 1960s

Courtesy Hameed AbdulGhafar- Ministry of Finance and National Economy –Lecture in August 2001

AGRICULTURAL LABOR FORCE (1959 - 1990 )

1,000,000

100,000

10,000

1,000

100

10

1
1959 1965 1971 1974 1978 1990
YEAR

AGRICULTURAL LABOR WORKFORCE TOTAL WORK FORCE

Figure 5. Agricultural labour force

2.3 The Industrial sector

With rapid development since the 1970’s, the water requirement of the industry has kept pace.
However, as legislation prohibits industries from using the water from Dammam aquifer, they rely mainly
on desalinated water, either from seawater or brackish water. The total requirement of this sector does not
exceed 10 MCM/year and is not expected to increase drastically in the coming years.

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 Development of water resources in Bahrain

3. Water resources
At present, Bahrain’s water demand is met by three sources: groundwater desalinated water and
treated sewage effluent. About 70% of the total water demand is met by the island’s groundwater resources.
The agriculture sector is the main groundwater consumer and consumes about 63% of the groundwater
abstracted. As the volume of desalinated water produced is not adequate to meet the entire domestic
demand, it is mixed with groundwater and pumped into the water mains. Further, the mixing with
groundwater provides the necessary minerals. About 34% of the total groundwater withdrawn is used for
domestic blending. Treated sewage effluent provides an additional source that can be used for irrigation.
However, it is not utilized to its full capacity, and only 20% of the treated effluent is used, mainly on
experimental farms, landscaping and certain industrial uses.

3.1 Groundwater resources

The system which provides the groundwater in Bahrain is composed of three main aquifers,
originally termed the A, B and C, approximately corresponding to the Alat and Khobar member of the
Dammam Formation and the Rus-Umm ErRadhuma carbonate, respectively. The system extends beneath
the Gulf from Saudi Arabia, and the general hydrogeological picture is of Bahrain as a major discharge area
of the Eastern Arabian aquifer complex. A conceptual schematization of the aquifer systems is shown in
Figure 6.
West Bahrai n E ast Bahrai n

Ag ricultural R O Pla nt feed wa ter

+ Dome stic + Industri al
+ Industri al
Neogene

Qu at ernary
A 2500 - 4500 mg/l
Alat

Khobar 1
B 2000 - 4000 mg/l
6,000 mg/l Orange M arl
2
2
Sharks T oot h Shale
12000 mg/l R us

Rus Anhydrite

40,0000 mg/l
C
U mm Er R adhuma
2
100,000 mg/l

AQUIFE R 1 SEA WA T ER IN TRUS ION Aruma Shale

Aruma
AQUIT ARD 2 SALIN E WATE R U PFL OW

Figure 6. Presentation of different aquifers and their water quality

Courtesy Dr.Waleed Al.Zubari – Gulf University

The Dammam Formation (Alat and Khobar Carbonates) is a partly dolomitic carbonate sequence
with subordinate marls and shales. The Alat is mainly white, finely crystalline limestone, about 15 to 25 m
thick, with distinctive basal orange colored mark. It contains the best quality groundwater (TDS of about
2,000 PPM) but it has a fairly low hydraulic conductivity, in the range of 2 to 6 m3/day. The Khobar Unit
consists of white, buff and brown limestone, dolomite limestone and dolomites. The thickness of this unit is
normally about 40 m and provides high yielding wells from which most of the groundwater is extracted.
Hydraulic conductivity varies between 15 and 200 m3/day and TDS varies from 2,000 to over 5,000 PPM.
The high hydraulic conductivity is largely due to secondary joints and fissures enlarged by solution, where
the upper Khobar contains a band, up to 10 m thick which is full of large openings and is extremely porous.
The lower boundary of this aquifer system is formed by basal shales of the Dammam and Rus shales and
anhydrites.

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The Umm Er Radhuma Formation consists mainly of gray, chalky, detrital and calcarous limestones.
The thickness varies from 115 m to 300 m. The carbonate sequence is normally porous and permeable,
particularly in its middle part. The salinity of groundwater is greater than 8,000 ppm, which makes it
unsuitable for conventional use. The lower boundary of the aquifer is formed by the shaly members of the
Umm Er Radhuma Formation as well as the topmost Aruma shales. The Rus anhydrites and shales, when
present, form a confining upper boundary, but where anhydrite is absent from the section, the residual Rus
chalky limestones form an upward extension of the Umm Er Radhuma aquifer. In the center of the Bahrain
pericline, where the non-anhydritic Rus outcrops, the aquifer is unconfined. Agricultural and domestic
water supplies in Bahrain are drawn entirely from the Dammam aquifer whereas limited industrial use is
confined to the brackish Rus-Umm Er Radhuma water.
The Khobar aquifer is the only major source of relatively low salinity groundwater, and the overall
pattern is of salinity increase towards the south and east. Even the best of the Dammam groundwater
contains about 2500 to 3500 ppm of TDS, scarcely approaching international potable water quality
standards. On standard irrigation quality criteria, all Dammam groundwater would be considered
hazardous, having high sodium adsorption ratios, commonly in excess of 10, with excessive chloride levels.
However, Khobar groundwater of up to TDS 4,000 ppm is successfully used to grow moderately salt-
tolerant crops. Apparently, the harmful effects of such hazardous water are somewhat ameliorated by the
high gypsum content of the soil. Further, highly permeable sandy soils and the practice of over-irrigation
prevents harmful salt build-up in the plant root zone. The brackish and saline water of the Rus-Umm Er
Radhuma system is unusable except for such industrial purposes as plant cooling. However, even then,
there are problems, as this water is often highly corrosive.
As a result of the increase in the abstraction rate, significantly due to the increase in population,
along with expansion in agriculture, the groundwater levels began to drop. This is associated with an
increase in salinity. Various efforts were made to control the critical deterioration of the water situation. The
efforts reached its peak in 1994 when a decree was passed to restrict the daily water consumption to 70
million gallons per day, to be supplied from both desalination plants and groundwater.

3.2 Treated sewage effluent (TSE)

The need to reduce groundwater abstractions has prompted the Government to consider the use of
treated sewage effluent as an additional source of water for agricultural purposes. Accordingly, Tubli
sewage treatment works was constructed in 1983, with an initial supply of 22 Mm3/year. Presently, the
Tubli treated outflow is around 42 Mm3/year. Although re-cycling of wastewater will expand in the future
to produce an ultimate supply of about 70 Mm3/year by 2010, only 20% of the present treated outflow is
being utilized and the rest is discharged into the sea. Use of TSE on a wider scale has not been accepted
socially, based on religious and psychological grounds. There are also concerns against widespread use due
to health reasons. Therefore, efforts are needed to promote the use of treated sewage effluent in the
agricultural sector. The Tubli wastewater treatment plant includes an extended aeration activated sludge
process for secondary treatment, followed by dual media filtration and disinfection by chlorination or
ozonation for tertiary treatment. The Tubli facilities were designed constructed and are now operated with
the objective of recycling both the treated effluent and the stabilized sewage sludge.
Preparations were in place for the Bahrain Sewage Project since 1975. The inhabitants who benefited
from the project now represent 65% of the current population of Bahrain. Work is underway to fulfill the
needs of most areas of the island.
The Sewage and Drainage Directorate reviewed the 1998 comprehensive strategic plans for the
treatment of sewage. The study covers a phased plan through the year 2010. The Directorate is currently
undertaking maintenance and operation of sewage and drainage networks, at a cost of BD 255 million,
which consists of 10 effluent treatment sub-stations. The Tubli Effluent Treatment Plant and North Sitra
Industrial Estate Plant are two of the major permanent plants in Bahrain (Table 3).
There are also 350 pumping stations spread throughout Bahrain and 1,940 km of sewage and
drainage pipes. In addition, the Directorate carried out the project of recycling effluents after ozone
treatment, to produce 40,000 m3/day, used for different agricultural and irrigation purposes.

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Table 3. Treatment centres in Bahrain

3
Area Population Capacity m /day Operational date
served
Nuwaidrat 6460 1760 1980 Anaerobic bond
Tubli 45000 124000 1982 Activated sludge
Asker 1250 288 1982 Activated sludge
Demistan 650 130 1985 Activated sludge
North Sitra 25000 5800 1985 Activated sludge
Sukhair 1679 504 1986 Activated sludge
Jaw 1500 408 1988 Activated sludge
Hasra 1988 Biological Contact
West Alba 3000 900 1994 Activated sludge
Jeddah 100 25 1997 Activated sludge
West Riffa 250 1999 Activated sludge

3.3 Desalinated water

As it is neither economical nor practical to replace the Dammam aquifer as a major source of water
for agriculture, it is necessary to reduce withdrawal from the aquifer for the domestic and industrial sectors.
Additional supplies must inevitably come from desalination plants, fed either by seawater or brackish water
from the Umm Er Radhuma aquifer. The first desalination plant in Bahrain was constructed in 1975, with a
production of 8 Mm3/year. The current capacity of the desalination plants in the country is about 73
Mm3/year. The details are shown in Table 4. The desalinated product is then blended with lower quality
groundwater to make up the domestic requirement. However, more desalination plants are required to keep
pace with the potable water demand and minimize the withdrawal from the aquifer. It is worth mentioning
that the entire country's requirement was met by groundwater until 1975.
Water desalination in Bahrain began in 1976, with two 11,500 m3/day (2 x 2.5 million gallons/day
"MGD") Multistage Flash seawater desalination units in a dual purpose plant at Sitra. In 1984, the second
phase of the Sitra plant was commissioned, consisting of a 25 MW Gas Turbine with a waste heat recovery
boiler and a 5 MGD MSF evaporator as part of the Phase 2 expansion. In 1984/85, Phase 3 was
commissioned, comprised of three identical MSF evaporators, each designed to produce 5 MGD, or 6.8
MGD, at high temperature operation.
In February 1997, Bahrain signed a contract to build the first phase of the Al Hidd plant, which is a
dual-purpose plant employing a Gas turbine and an MSF plant. The designed capacity of the first phase is
280 MW and 30 MGD of desalinated water (4 units x 7.5 MGD) MSF units.
Sitra Phase 1 consists of two desalination plants with a design capacity of 11,500 m3/day each. Each
plant is designed for maximum brine temperature of 90 oC and a performance ratio of 6.0. Each evaporator
consists of 15 stages, a single pass heat input section (brine heater) and a de-aerator. Stages 13 -15
represents the reject section. The heating steam to the brine heater is provided by means of pass-out
turbines, or directly from the generating plant via the H.P reducing station.

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Table 4. The desalination plants and their current status

Desalination Plants Capacity in Remarks
3
Mm /yr
Sitra combined power and water MSF plant 42 The oldest distiller and power plant are to be
refurbished to extend their remnant life to 2010
Ras Abu Jarjur brackish water RO plant 17 An efficient operating plant and expected to
continue to beyond 2005.

Ad-Dur seawater RO plant 17(Now 5 Mm3/y) Under rehabilitation to bring it to designed

production
3
Hidd Seawater MSF Phase 1 50 Mm /year available from 3/2000
3
Hidd Seawater MSF Phase 2 50 Mm /year Will be available from 2005
3
Hidd Seawater MSF Phase 3 50 Mm /year Will be available from 2010

Based on the data in Table 4, the amount of aquifer withdrawal will be estimated considering the
demand from all the sectors. As the aquifer recharge is estimated to be about 100 Mm3/year, the deficit will
consist of the excess to be pumped.

4. Water cost
The cost of water in Bahrain depends on the processes and availability of the plant in operation. The
RAS Abujarjur Reverse Osmosis plant produced permeate at a cost of 0.225 fils/m3 (1998) and 0.248
fils/m3 (1997). The MSF had produced desalinated water at a cost of 198 fils/m3. The challenges with
reverse osmosis plants are associated with their membranes, pretreatment chemicals and electricity
requirements. Currently, due to the low productivity of the Addur plant, resulting from technical problems,
the cost of water from this plant is higher than at other installations. It is hoped that the unit water cost will
drop to more reasonable rates following rehabilitation of the plant.

5. Recommended actions
Bahrain’s water resources problem is a result of the limited natural water resources available, and the
over-abstraction in the Dammam aquifer, in an attempt to satisfy the state's increasing water demands. The
over-extraction has led to fallen aquifer heads, which permit saline intrusion into the aquifer. Water use
analysis based on the most probable future conditions, water saving measures, public awareness, and
alternative sources of water are key elements in planning the development of such limited water resources.
Planning for the development of water resources should ensure that no isolated, irreversible plan for
part of the system is implemented if it may limit future freedom of choice. The cost of water resources
control measures should also be minimized. Guidelines should be provided for a systematic planning
process that can be adopted in arid regions, where water resources are not only limited but also
mismanaged.

6. Conclusions
The water situation in Bahrain is moving into a critical phase due to heavy abstraction from the
aquifer. Proper management and decisive action must be taken to stop the deterioration in the water quality.
Demand management should be reviewed according to the priorities and requirements. Measures that are
and could be taken to reduce demand in Bahrain are:
• Use of universal metering with an appropriate tariff system
• Reduction of unaccounted-for water
• Reduction of sprinkler and garden watering demand
• Increase use of tertiary effluent for public garden watering
• Public education in appropriate use of water

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 Development of water resources in Bahrain

Bahrain has developed good legislation but lacks the political will to implement these laws. This
results in miscommunication between the decision-makers and the consumers. Extra efforts must be made
with the consumers, to deliver the message of water shortage and the means of mitigation.

7. References
Al-Zubari W., Al-Ansari M. Water Deficit in Bahrain in the Shadow of Extension Project–Internal Report,
1999.
Khater et al. Water Situation in Bahrain–Internal Report, 1999.
Al.Ansari et al. Country Report, GCC Greenery Symposium, Japan, 1995.
BoRashid, K. Lecture, Bahrain, February, 2000.
AbdulGhafar, A. Lecture notes, August, 2001.
Ansari, M., Al-Noami, M. Forecasting Water Requirement beyond Millennium, Conference to Combat
Desertification, King Saud University, Riyadh, February, 2000.

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