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Volumetric Analysis
Conversion of Concentration Units
1. Concentrations may be given in a number of different units
[Insert Diagram pg 28]
Balancing Complex Redox Equations
In each half equation
1. Balance atoms other than H and O
2. Balance O atoms by adding H2O to the appropriate side
3. Balance H by adding H+ to the appropriate side
4. Balance charges of both sides by the addition of electrons
To obtain a full redox equation from the half equation
1. Find the lowest common multiple of the number of electrons in each half equation
2. Multiply each half equation so each has the same number of electrons
3. Add the two half equations together
4. Cancel out electrons from both sides
5. Cancel out any other element or compounds common to both sides
Stoichiometry Questions
When given information about only one compound and asked to calculate a particular quantity
1. Write a balanced chemical equation
2. Identify the two compounds relevant to the question
3. Calculate the number of moles of the known substance using
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑀
𝑛 = 𝑐. 𝑣
Convert volumes from mL to L before calculations
4. Use mole ratios to calculate the number of moles of the unknown substance and then use
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5. Change answers to required units
Limiting reagent Questions
Write information about two compounds of which one is in excess
1. Write a balanced chemical equation
2. Identify the compounds that are relevant to the questions
3. Calculate the number of moles of both substances added using,
𝑚
𝑛= (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠)
𝑀𝑀
𝑛 = 𝑐. 𝑣 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠)
4. Comparing the mole ratio of reactants used to the mole ratio in the reaction equation, deduce
which substance is in excess. The substance not in excess is the “limiting reagent”.
5. Use the number of moles of the limiting reagent to calculate the reacting quantity of each
reactant (assuming all of the limiting reagent is consumed)
Other cases

 In the event that neither of the methods used are applied, a possible approach is to compare
the units given with the units required
 Simple conversions may be used
Dilution questions
For dilution equations the following equation is applied
𝑐1 𝑉1= 𝑐2 𝑉2
C1 is the initial concentration of the solution
V1 the initial volume of the solution
C2 is the desired/final concentration of the solution
V2 is the desired/final volume of solution
Correct use of Titration Equipment
Preparing a standard solution |Volumetric Flask|
Standard Solution: A solution with a known concentration which is atmospherically stable
1. Wash and rinse using distilled water
2. Using a funnel, pour the substance into the volumetric flask
3. Rinse funnel and original container into the volumetric flask using distilled water
4. Using distilled water, fill roughly 1/3 and swirl to dissolve the substance
5. Fill below the graduation mark (calibration line) with distilled water
6. Using a teat pipette add distilled water until the bottom of the meniscus lies on the calibration
mark
7. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure that it is homogenous (evenly mixed)
Correct use of a Volumetric Pipette
1. Wash and rinse using distilled water
2. Rinse with solution to be used
3. Using a pipette filler, fill to above the graduation mark
4. Allow the solution to run out until the bottom of the meniscus lies on the graduation mark,
making sure that there are no gas bubbles residing in the pipette
5. Transfer the pipette to a conical flask (previously washed with distilled water)
6. Open the end of the pipette and allow it to drain into the conical flask by the action of gravity
alone. Make sure that the solution runs down the side of the flask and does not splash. The
pipette should be vertical
7. Keeping the pipette vertical and holding the flask at an angle, touch the end of the pipette to
the inside of the flask above the level of the fluid for 10-15 seconds, allowing it to drain
properly
8. Add a couple of droplets of colour indicator into the conical flask if needed
Correct use of a Burette
1. Wash and rinse with distilled water
2. Rinse with the solution to be used, ensuring that every part of the burette has been rinsed.
Allow some solution to run through the tap as well
3. When the tap is closed, fill the burette using a funnel
4. Allow some of the some of the solution to run through the tap before closing it again. This
ensures that the section of burette below the tap is filled. Make sure there is no gas bubbles
residing in the burette
5. Record the initial volume of solution in the burette
6. Perform the titration by allowing the solution to slowly run into the conical flask, swirling the
conical flask as you do so
7. As the end point approaches, slow down the rate of delivery
8. When the end point of titration is reached, record the final volume in the burette
End point of a Titration
 Occurs when the solution in the conical flask first shows a permanent colour change
Using Titration Results
Direct Titrations

 Used to determine the concentration of a particular compound in a solution

 Known volume of the unknown solution is reacted with a standard solution of another
compound
 Standard solution is known as the titrant
 The volume of titrant required to reach the end point of the titration is measured, known as
the titre
 Furthermore the end point is good approximation of the equivalence point and is assumed to
be the same
𝑛 = 𝑐. 𝑣 (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠)
 This equation can be used to calculate the amount of titrant added and hence the amount of
the compound being analysed in the sample. The following equation then calculates the
concentration of the unknown solution.
𝑛
𝐶=
𝑣
Indirect and Back Titrations

 Sometimes it’s not possible to determine the amount of a substance by directly titrating a
solution against a standard solution. In these cases an indirect or a back titration can be used
Indirect Titration

 Involves the addition of excess amounts of a reagent being added to the solution being
analysed
 Reagent converts the substance into a product which can be titred against
 Once the concentration of the product is known, the concentration of the original substance in
the solution can be calculated
Back Titration

 Also involves the addition of excess amounts of a reagent to the solution being analysed
 The amount of the reagent not reacted can be determined by titration
 In doing so this allows the amount of reagent that has reacted to be calculated
 Hence this allows the concentration of the substance in the original solution to be calculated.
Chromatography
Adsorption and Chromatography
Adsorption chromatography: Methodology used to separate the components of a mixture by causing
them to travel at different rates through a fixed matrix (stationary phase) whilst being carried by an
appropriate liquid or gas (mobile phase). Furthermore it is the attraction of molecules to the surface of
a solid, forming a thin film over the surface.
Principles of Chromatography
Chromatography: The process used for identifying and quantifying components in many different
types of mixtures
In order to perform chromatography, there are two main components

 Mobile Phase (gas or liquid)

 Stationary Phase (solid, gas or liquid)
o These must be of different polarity
 This is because the mixture to be separated will contain components of varing
polarities, such that each component will be attracted to the stationary and
mobile phase in varying degrees
 Those that are more strongly attracted to the mobile phase will move over the stationary phase
at a greater rate than those that are more strongly attracted to the stationary phase
o Hence each component will travel at different rates to the other
o All the components of the mixture will pass over the stationary phase
o Each component can be identified in using a set of standards
There are many different types of chromatography, depending on the states of the mobile and the
stationary phases
The rate of movement of any component along a stationary phase is determined by

 The structure/polarity of the component

 Polarities of the mobile and stationary phase
 Molecular mass of the component
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)