Concorde

For other uses, see Concorde (disambiguation). 1.1 Early studies

Aérospatiale/BAC Concorde /ˈkɒŋkɔːrd/ is a British- The origins of the Concorde project date to the early
French turbojet-powered supersonic passenger jet air- 1950s, when Arnold Hall, director of the Royal Aircraft
liner that was operated until 2003. It had a maximum Establishment (RAE) asked Morien Morgan to form a
speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04 (1,354 committee to study the supersonic transport (SST) con-
mph or 2,180 km/h at cruise altitude), with seating for cept. The group met for the first time in February 1954
92 to 128 passengers. First flown in 1969, Concorde en- and delivered their first report in April 1955.[5]
tered service in 1976 and continued flying for the next 27 At the time it was known that the drag at supersonic
years. It is one of only two supersonic transports to havespeeds was strongly related to the span of the wing.[N 1]
been operated commercially; the other is the Soviet-built This led to the use of very short-span, very thin rectan-
Tupolev Tu-144, which was operated for a much shorter gular wings such as those seen on the control surfaces
period. of many missiles, or in aircraft like the Lockheed F-104
Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Starfighter or the Avro 730 that the team studied. The
Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) team outlined a baseline
[6]
configuration that looked like an
under an Anglo-French treaty. Concorde’s name, mean- enlarged Avro 730.
ing harmony or union, reflects the co-operation on the This same short span produced very little lift at low speed,
project between the United Kingdom and France. In the which resulted in extremely long take-off runs and fright-
UK, any or all of the type are known simply as “Con- eningly high landing speeds.[7] In an SST design, this
corde”, with no definite article the. Twenty aircraft were would have required enormous engine power to lift off
built including six prototypes and development aircraft. from existing runways, and to provide the fuel needed,
Air France (AF) and British Airways (BA) each received “some horribly large aeroplanes” resulted.[6] Based on
seven aircraft. The research and development failed to this, the group considered the concept of an SST unfea-
make a profit and the two then state-owned airlines bought sible, and instead suggested continued low-level studies
the aircraft at a huge discount. into supersonic aerodynamics.[6]
Among other destinations, Concorde flew regular
transatlantic flights from London’s Heathrow Airport and
Paris’s Charles de Gaulle Airport to John F. Kennedy 1.2 Slender deltas
International Airport in New York, Washington Dulles
International Airport and Grantley Adams International Soon after, Johanna Weber and Dietrich Küchemann
Airport in Barbados; it flew these routes in less than at the RAE published a series of reports on a new
half the time of other airliners. Over time, the aircraft wing planform, known in the UK as the “slender delta”
became profitable when it found a customer base willing concept.[8][9] The team, including Eric Maskell, worked
to pay for flights on what was, for most of its career, thewith the fact that delta wings can produce strong vortexes
fastest commercial airliner in the world. The aircraft on their upper surfaces at high angles of attack.[6] The
has been regarded as an aviation icon, while it was also vortex will lower the air pressure and cause lift to be
criticised for being uneconomical, and lacking a credible greatly increased. This effect had been noticed earlier,
market. notably by Chuck Yeager in the Convair XF-92, but its
qualities had not been fully appreciated. Weber suggested
Concorde was retired in 2003 after the type’s only crash
that this was no mere curiosity, and the effect could be de-
in 2000, as well as after a general downturn in the com-
liberately used to improve low speed performance.[9][6]
mercial aviation industry, the September 11 attacks in
2001, and a decision by Airbus, the successor to Aérospa- Küchemann’s and Weber’s papers changed the entire na-
tiale and BAC, to discontinue maintenance support.[4] ture of supersonic design almost overnight. Although the
delta had already been used on aircraft prior to this point,
these designs used planforms that were not much differ-
ent from a swept wing of the same span.[N 2] Weber noted
that the lift from the vortex was increased by the length of
1 Development the wing it had to operate over, which suggested that the
effect would be maximised by extending the wing along

1
2 1 DEVELOPMENT

the fuselage as far as possible. Such a layout would still would cost about £75 to £90 million to develop, and be in
have good supersonic performance inherent to the short service in 1970. The smaller 100 passenger short-range
span, while also offering reasonable take-off and landing version would cost perhaps £50 to £80 million, and be
speeds using vortex generation.[9] The only downside to ready for service in 1968. To meet this schedule, devel-
such a design is that the aircraft would have to take off opment would need to begin in 1960, with production
and land very “nose high” to generate the required vortex contracts let in 1962.[6] Morgan strongly suggested that
lift, which led to questions about the low speed handling the US was already involved in a similar project, and that
qualities of such a design.[10] It would also need to have if the UK failed to respond it would be locked out of an
long landing gear to produce the required angles while airliner market that he believed would be dominated by
still on the runway. SST aircraft.[13]
Küchemann presented the idea at a meeting where Mor-
In 1959, a study contract was awarded to Hawker Sidde-
gan was also present. Test pilot Eric Brown recalls Mor-
ley and Bristol for preliminary designs based on the slen-
der delta concept,[14] which developed as the HSA.1000
gan’s reaction to the presentation, saying that he imme-
diately seized on it as the solution to the SST problem.
and Bristol 198. Armstrong Whitworth also responded
Brown considers this moment as being the true birth of
with an internal design, the M-Wing, for the lower-speed
the Concorde project.[10] shorter-range category. Even at this early time, both the
STAC group and the government were looking for part-
ners to develop the designs. In September 1959, Hawker
1.3 Supersonic Transport Advisory Com- approached Lockheed, and after the creation of British
mittee Aircraft Corporation in 1960, the former Bristol team im-
mediately started talks with Boeing, General Dynamics,
Douglas Aircraft and Sud Aviation.[14]

1.4 Ogee planform selected

Küchemann and others at the RAE continued their work

on the slender delta throughout, considering three basic
shapes; the classic straight-edge delta, the “gothic delta”
The HP.115 tested the low-speed performance of the slender that was rounded outwards to appear like a gothic arch,
delta layout. and the “ogival wing” that was compound-rounded into
the shape of an ogee. Each of these planforms had its own
On 1 October 1956 the Ministry of Supply asked Morgan advantages and disadvantages in terms of aerodynamics.
to form a new study group, the Supersonic Transport Ad- As they worked with these shapes, a practical concern
visory Committee (STAC),[11] with the explicit goal of de- grew to become so important that it forced selection of
veloping a practical SST design and finding industry part- one of these designs.[15]
ners to build it. At the very first meeting, on 5 November
Generally one wants to have the wing’s centre of pres-
1956, the decision was made to fund the development of sure (CP, or “lift point”) close to the aircraft’s centre of
a test bed aircraft to examine the low-speed performance
gravity (CG, or “balance point”) to reduce the amount of
of the slender delta, a contract that eventually produced control force required to pitch the aircraft. As the aircraft
the Handley Page HP.115.[10] This aircraft would ulti-
layout changes during the design phase, it is common for
mately demonstrate safe control at speeds as low as 69 the CG to move fore or aft. With a normal wing design
mph, about ⅓ that of the F-104 Starfighter.[12] this can be addressed by moving the wing slightly fore
STAC stated that an SST would have economic perfor- or aft to account for this.[N 3] With a delta wing running
mance similar to existing subsonic types.[6] Although they most of the length of the fuselage, this was no longer easy;
would burn more fuel in cruise, they would be able to fly moving the wing would leave it in front of the nose or be-
more sorties in a given period of time, so fewer aircraft hind the tail. Studying the various layouts in terms of CG
would be needed to service a particular route. This would changes, both during design and changes due to fuel use
remain economically advantageous as long as fuel repre- during flight, the ogee planform immediately came to the
sented a small percentage of operational costs, as it did at fore.[15]
the time.[6] While the wing planform was evolving, so was the ba-
STAC suggested that two designs naturally fell out of sic SST concept. Bristol’s original Type 198 was a small
their work, a transatlantic model flying at about Mach 2, design with an almost pure slender delta wing,[16] but
and a shorter-range version flying at perhaps Mach 1.2. evolved into the larger Type 223 with an ogival wing and
Morgan suggested that a 150-passenger transatlantic SST canards as well.
1.6 Cabinet response, treaty 3

1.5 Partnership with Sud 1.6 Cabinet response, treaty

While the development teams met, French Minister of

Public Works and Transport Robert Buron was meeting
with the UK Minister of Aviation Peter Thorneycroft,
By this time similar political and economic concerns and Thorneycroft soon revealed to the cabinet that the
in France had led to their own SST plans. In the French were much more serious about a partnership than
late 1950s the government requested designs from any of the US companies.[22] The various US companies
both the government-owned Sud and Nord, as well as had proved uninterested in such a venture, likely due to
Dassault.[N 4] All three returned designs based on Küche- the belief that the government would be funding devel-
mann and Weber’s slender delta; Nord suggested a ramjet opment and would frown on any partnership with a Euro-
powered design flying at Mach 3, the other two were jet pean company, and the risk of “giving away” US techno-
powered Mach 2 designs that were similar to each other. logical leadership to a European partner.[14]
Of the three, the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle won the When the STAC plans were presented to the UK cabinet,
design contest with a medium-range design deliberately a very negative reaction resulted. The economic consid-
sized to avoid competition with transatlantic US designs erations were considered highly questionable, especially
they assumed were already on the drawing board.[17] as these were based on development costs, now estimated
As soon as the design was complete, in April 1960, Pierre to be £150 million, which were repeatedly overrun in the
industry. The Treasury Ministry in particular presented a
Satre, the company’s technical director, was sent to Bris-
tol to discuss a partnership. Bristol was surprised to find very negative view, suggesting that there was no way the
project would have any positive financial returns for the
that the Sud team had designed a very similar aircraft
after considering the SST problem and coming to the government, especially in light that “the industry’s past
very same conclusions as the Bristol and STAC teams in record of over-optimistic estimating (including the recent
terms of economics. It was later revealed that the origi- history of the TSR.2) suggests that it would be prudent
nal STAC report, marked “For UK Eyes Only”, had se- to consider the £150 million [cost] to turn out much too
cretly been passed to the French to win political favour. low.”[22]
Sud made minor changes to the paper, and presented it This concern led to an independent review of the project
as their own work.[18] by the Committee on Civil Scientific Research and Devel-
Unsurprisingly, the two teams found much to agree on. opment, which met on topic between July and September
The French had no modern large jet engines, and had 1962. The Committee ultimately rejected the economic
already concluded they would buy a British design any- arguments, including considerations of supporting the in-
way (as they had on the earlier subsonic Caravelle).[19] As dustry made by Thorneycroft. Their report in October
neither company had experience in the use of high-heat stated that it was unlikely there would be any direct posi-
metals for airframes, a maximum speed of around Mach tive economic outcome, but that the project should still be
2 was selected so aluminium could be used – above this considered for the simple reason that everyone else was
going supersonic, and they were concerned they would be
speed the friction with the air warms the metal so much
that aluminium begins to soften. This lower speed would locked out of future markets. Conversely, it appeared the
project would not be likely to significantly impact other,
also speed development and allow their design to fly be- [22]
fore the Americans. Finally, everyone involved agreed more important, research efforts.
that Küchemann’s ogee shaped wing was the right one.[17] After considerable argument, the decision to proceed ul-
The only disagreements were over the size and range. timately fell to an unlikely political expediency. At the
The UK team was still focused on a 150-passenger de- time, the UK was pressing for admission to the European
sign serving transatlantic routes, while the French were Common Market, which was being controlled by Charles
deliberately avoiding these. However, this proved not to de Gaulle who felt the UK’s Special Relationship with the
be the barrier it might seem; common components could US made them unacceptable in a pan-European group.
be used in both designs, with the shorter range version Cabinet felt that signing a deal with Sud would pave the
using a clipped fuselage and four engines, the longer one way for Common Market entry, and this became the main
with a stretched fuselage and six engines, leaving only the deciding reason for moving ahead with the deal.[23] It was
wing to be extensively re-designed.[20] The teams contin- this belief that had led the original STAC documents be-
ued to meet through 1961, and by this time it was clear ing leaked to the French. However, De Gaulle spoke of
that the two aircraft would be considerably more simi- the European origin of the design, and continued to block
lar in spite of different range and seating arrangements. the UK’s entry into the Common Market.[23]
A single design emerged that differed primarily in fuel The development project was negotiated as an interna-
load. More powerful Bristol Siddeley Olympus engines, tional treaty between the two countries rather than a com-
being developed for the TSR-2, allowed either design to mercial agreement between companies and included a
be powered by only four engines.[21] clause, originally asked for by the UK, imposing heavy
4 1 DEVELOPMENT

penalties for cancellation. A draft treaty was signed on The consortium secured orders (i.e., non-binding op-
29 November 1962.[24] tions) for over 100 of the long-range version from
the major airlines of the day: Pan Am, BOAC, and
Air France were the launch customers, with six Con-
1.7 Naming cordes each. Other airlines in the order book included
Panair do Brasil, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines,
Reflecting the treaty between the British and French Lufthansa, American Airlines, United Airlines, Air In-
governments that led to Concorde’s construction, the dia, Air Canada, Braniff, Singapore Airlines, Iran Air,
name Concorde is from the French word concorde (IPA: Olympic Airways, Qantas, CAAC, Middle East Airlines,
[24][31][32]
[kɔ̃ kɔʁd]), which has an English equivalent, concord. and TWA. At the time of the first flight the op-
Both words mean agreement, harmony or union. The tions list contained 74 options from 16 airlines:
name was officially changed to Concord by Harold
Macmillan in response to a perceived slight by Charles
de Gaulle. At the French roll-out in Toulouse in late
1.9 Testing
1967,[25] the British Government Minister for Technol-
The design work was supported by a preceding research
ogy, Tony Benn, announced that he would change the
programme studying the flight characteristics of low ra-
spelling back to Concorde.[26] This created a nationalist
tio delta wings. A supersonic Fairey Delta 2 was mod-
uproar that died down when Benn stated that the suf-
ified and – as the BAC 221 – was used for flight tests
fixed “e” represented “Excellence, England, Europe and
of the high speed flight envelope,[34] the Handley Page
Entente (Cordiale)". In his memoirs, he recounts a tale
HP.115 also provided valuable information on low speed
of a letter from an irate Scotsman claiming: "[Y]ou talk
performance.[35]
about 'E' for England, but part of it is made in Scotland.”
Given Scotland’s contribution of providing the nose cone Construction of two prototypes began in February 1965:
001, built by Aérospatiale at Toulouse, and 002, by BAC
for the aircraft, Benn replied, "[I]t was also 'E' for 'Écosse'
(the French name for Scotland) – and I might have added at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 made its first test flight
'e' for extravagance and 'e' for escalation as well!"[27] from Toulouse on 2 March 1969, piloted by André Tur-
cat,[36] and first went supersonic on 1 October.[37] The
Concorde also acquired an unusual nomenclature for an
first UK-built Concorde flew from Filton to RAF Fair-
aircraft. In common usage in the United Kingdom, the
ford on 9 April 1969, piloted by Brian Trubshaw.[38][39]
type is known as Concorde without an article, rather than
Both prototypes were presented to the public for the first
the Concorde or a Concorde.[28][29]
time on 7–8 June 1969 at the Paris Air Show. As the
flight programme progressed, 001 embarked on a sales
and demonstration tour on 4 September 1971, which was
1.8 Sales efforts also the first transatlantic crossing of Concorde.[40][41]
Concorde 002 followed suit on 2 June 1972 with a tour
of the Middle and Far East.[42] Concorde 002 made the
first visit to the United States in 1973, landing at the new
Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport to mark that airport’s
opening.[43]

British Airways Concorde in early BA livery at London-Heathrow

Airport, in the 1980s

At first, the new consortium intended to produce one

long-range and one short-range version. However,
prospective customers showed no interest in the short-
range version and it was dropped.[24]
Concorde’s first visit to Heathrow Airport on 1 July 1972
An advertisement covering two full pages, promoting
Concorde, ran in 29 May 1967 issue of Aviation Week & While Concorde had initially held a great deal of cus-
Space Technology. The advertisement predicted a market tomer interest, the project was hit by a large number of
for 350 aircraft by 1980 and boasted of Concorde’s head order cancellations. The Paris Le Bourget air show crash
start over the United States’ SST project.[30] of the competing Soviet Tupolev Tu-144 had shocked
2.1 General features 5

potential buyers, and public concern over the environ-

mental issues presented by a supersonic aircraft – the
sonic boom, take-off noise and pollution – had produced
a shift in public opinion of SSTs. By 1976 four nations
remained as prospective buyers: Britain, France, China,
and Iran.[44] Only Air France and British Airways (the
successor to BOAC) took up their orders, with the two
governments taking a cut of any profits made.[45]
The United States cancelled the Boeing 2707, its rival
supersonic transport programme, in 1971. Observers
have suggested that opposition to Concorde on grounds
of noise pollution had been encouraged by the United
States Government, as it lacked its own competitor.[46]
The US, India, and Malaysia all ruled out Concorde su-
personic flights over the noise concern, although some Concorde flight deck layout
of these restrictions were later relaxed.[47][48] Professor
Douglas Ross characterised restrictions placed upon Con- For high speed and optimisation of flight:
corde operations by President Jimmy Carter's administra-
tion as having been an act of protectionism of American • Double delta (ogee/ogival) shaped wings[8]
[49]
aircraft manufacturers. Concorde flew to an altitude of
68,000 ft (20,700 m) during a test flight in June 1973.[50] • Variable engine air intake ramp system controlled by
digital computers[57]
Concorde had other considerable difficulties that led to its
dismal sales performance. Costs had spiralled during de- • Supercruise capability[58]
velopment to more than six times the original projections, • Thrust-by-wire engines, predecessor of today’s
arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977 (equivalent FADEC-controlled engines[57]
to £128.87 million in 2015).[51] World events had also
dampened Concorde sales prospects, the 1973 oil crisis • Droop-nose section for better landing visibility
made many airlines think twice about aircraft with high
fuel consumption rates; and new wide-body aircraft, such For weight-saving and enhanced performance:
as the Boeing 747, had recently made subsonic aircraft
significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk op- • Mach 2.04 (~2,179 km/h or 1,354 mph) cruising
tion for airlines.[52] While carrying a full load, Concorde speed[59] for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic
achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while drag minimum although turbojet engines are more
the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4 efficient at higher speed[60] ) Fuel consumption at
pm/g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6 pm/g. [53] Mach 2.0 and at altitude of 60,000 feet (18,000 m)
An emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper was 4,800 gallons per hour (22,000 L/h).[61]
airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to
• Mainly aluminium construction for low weight and
question Concorde’s market suitability.[54]
conventional manufacture (higher speeds would
have ruled out aluminium)[62]
• Full-regime autopilot and autothrottle[63] allowing
2 Design “hands off” control of the aircraft from climb out
to landing
2.1 General features • Fully electrically controlled analogue fly-by-wire
flight controls systems[55]
Concorde is an ogival delta winged aircraft with four
Olympus engines based on those employed in the RAF’s • High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000
Avro Vulcan strategic bomber. It is one of the few com- lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic components,[64] tripled
mercial aircraft to employ a tailless design (the Tupolev independent systems (“Blue”, “Green”, and “Yel-
Tu-144 being another). Concorde was the first air- low”) for redundancy, with an emergency ram
liner to have a (in this case, analogue) fly-by-wire flight- air turbine (RAT) stored in the port-inner elevon
control system; the avionics system the Concorde used jack fairing supplying “Green” and “Yellow” as
was unique because it was the first commercial aircraft to backup.[65]
employ hybrid circuits.[55] The principal designer for the • Complex Air data computer (ADC) for the auto-
project was Pierre Satre, with Sir Archibald Russell as his mated monitoring and transmission of aerodynamic
deputy.[56] measurements (total pressure, static pressure, angle
Concorde pioneered the following technologies: of attack, side-slip).[66]
6 2 DESIGN

• Fully electrically controlled analogue brake-by-wire Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593, a development of the
system[67] Bristol engine first used for the Avro Vulcan bomber, and
developed into an afterburning supersonic variant for the
• Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for BAC TSR-2 strike bomber.[72] Rolls-Royce’s own engine
centre-of-gravity (CofG) control at the approach to proposed for the aircraft at the time of Concorde’s initial
Mach 1 and above with no drag penalty.[68] design was the RB.169.[73]
• Parts made using "sculpture milling", reducing The aircraft used reheat (afterburners) at take-off and to
the part count while saving weight and adding pass through the upper transonic regime and to supersonic
strength.[69] speeds, between Mach 0.95 and Mach 1.7. The after-
burners were switched off at all other times.[74] Due to jet
• No auxiliary power unit, as Concorde would only engines being highly inefficient at low speeds, Concorde
visit large airports where ground air start carts are burned two tonnes of fuel (almost 2% of the maximum
available.[70] fuel load) taxiing to the runway.[75] Fuel used is Jet A-1.
Due to the high thrust produced even with the engines at
idle, only the two outer engines were run after landing for
2.2 Powerplant
easier taxiing and less brake pad wear - at low weights af-
ter landing the aircraft would not remain stationary with
all four engines idling requiring the brakes to be continu-
ously applied to prevent the aircraft moving.
The intake design for Concorde’s engines was especially
critical.[76] The intakes had to provide low distortion lev-
els (to prevent engine surge) and high efficiency for all
likely ambient temperatures to be met in cruise. They had
to provide adequate subsonic performance for diversion
cruise and low engine-face distortion at take-off. They
also had to provide an alternate path for excess intake air
Close up of during engine throttling or shutdowns.[77] The variable in-
engine nozzles of production Concorde G-AXDN. The take features required to meet all these requirements con-
nozzle consists of tilting cups. sisted of front and rear ramps, a dump door, an auxiliary
inlet and a ramp bleed to the exhaust nozzle.[78]
As well as supplying air to the engine, the intake also sup-
plied air through the ramp bleed to the propelling nozzle.
The nozzle ejector (or aerodynamic) design, with variable
exit area and secondary flow from the intake, contributed
to good expansion efficiency from take-off to cruise.[79]
Engine failure causes problems on conventional subsonic
Concorde’s aircraft; not only does the aircraft lose thrust on that side
intake ramp system schematics but the engine creates drag, causing the aircraft to yaw
and bank in the direction of the failed engine. If this had
happened to Concorde at supersonic speeds, it theoreti-
cally could have caused a catastrophic failure of the air-
frame. Although computer simulations predicted consid-
erable problems, in practice Concorde could shut down
both engines on the same side of the aircraft at Mach
2 without the predicted difficulties.[80] During an engine
failure the required air intake is virtually zero so, on Con-
corde, engine failure was countered by the opening of the
auxiliary spill door and the full extension of the ramps,
Concorde’s
which deflected the air downwards past the engine, gain-
intake ramp system
ing lift and minimising drag. Concorde pilots were rou-
Main article: Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
tinely trained to handle double engine failure.[81]
Concorde’s Air Intake Control Units (AICUs) made use
Concorde needed to fly long distances to be economically
of a digital processor to provide the necessary accuracy
viable; this required high efficiency. Turbofan engines
for intake control. It was the world’s first use of a digital
were rejected due to their larger cross-section produc-
processor to be given full authority control of an essen-
ing excessive drag. Turbojets were found to be the best
tial system in a passenger aircraft. It was developed by
choice of engines.[71] The engine used was the twin spool
2.4 Structural issues 7

the Electronics and Space Systems (ESS) division of the face had to be covered with a highly reflective white paint
British Aircraft Corporation after it became clear that the to avoid overheating the aluminium structure due to heat-
analogue AICUs fitted to the prototype aircraft and devel- ing effects from supersonic flight at Mach 2. The white
oped by Ultra Electronics were found to be insufficiently finish reduced the skin temperature by 6 to 11 degrees
accurate for the tasks in hand.[82] Celsius.[92] In 1996, Air France briefly painted F-BTSD
Concorde’s thrust-by-wire engine control system was also in a predominantly blue livery, with the exception
[93]
of the
developed by Ultra Electronics. [83] wings, in a promotional deal with Pepsi. In this paint
scheme, Air France was advised to remain at Mach 2 for
no more than 20 minutes at a time, but there was no re-
2.3 Heating problems striction at speeds under Mach 1.7. F-BTSD was used
because it was not scheduled for any long flights that re-
[94]
Air compression on the outer surfaces caused the cabin to quired extended Mach 2 operations.
heat up during flight. Every surface, such as windows and
panels, was warm to the touch by the end of the flight.[84]
Besides engines, the hottest part of the structure of any 2.4 Structural issues
supersonic aircraft, due to aerodynamic heating, is the
nose. The engineers used Hiduminium R.R. 58, an alu-
minium alloy, throughout the aircraft due to its familiar-
ity, cost and ease of construction. The highest tempera-
ture that aluminium could sustain over the life of the air-
craft was 127 °C (261 °F), which limited the top speed
to Mach 2.02.[85] Concorde went through two cycles of A
heating and cooling during a flight, first cooling down
as it gained altitude, then heating up after going super-
sonic. The reverse happened when descending and slow-
ing down. This had to be factored into the metallurgical
and fatigue modelling. A test rig was built that repeat-
edly heated up a full-size section of the wing, and then
cooled it, and periodically samples of metal were taken
for testing.[86][87] The Concorde airframe was designed
for a life of 45,000 flying hours.[88]
B
98 C
95 C
94 C
105 C
93 C
92 C
100 C

127 C 94 C 92 C 91 C

97 C

Ma = 2

Concorde skin temperatures

C
Owing to air compression in front of the plane as it trav-
elled at supersonic speed, the fuselage heated up and
expanded by as much as 300 mm (almost 1 ft). The most
obvious manifestation of this was a gap that opened up
on the flight deck between the flight engineer's console
and the bulkhead. On some aircraft that conducted a re- Fuel pitch trim
tiring supersonic flight, the flight engineers placed their
caps in this expanded gap, wedging the cap when it shrank Due to its high speeds, large forces were applied to the air-
again.[89] To keep the cabin cool, Concorde used the fuel craft during banks and turns, and caused twisting and dis-
as a heat sink for the heat from the air conditioning.[90] tortion of the aircraft’s structure. In addition there were
The same method also cooled the hydraulics. During su- concerns over maintaining precise control at supersonic
personic flight the surfaces forward from the cockpit be- speeds. Both of these issues were resolved by active ra-
came heated, and a visor was used to deflect much of this tio changes between the inboard and outboard elevons,
heat from directly reaching the cockpit.[91] varying at differing speeds including supersonic. Only
Concorde had livery restrictions; the majority of the sur- the innermost elevons, which are attached to the stiffest
8 2 DESIGN

area of the wings, were active at high speed.[95] Addition- of Concorde’s fuselage
ally, the narrow fuselage meant that the aircraft flexed.[57]
This was visible from the rear passengers’ viewpoints.[96]
When any aircraft passes the critical mach of that par-
ticular airframe, the centre of pressure shifts rearwards.
This causes a pitch down force on the aircraft if the cen-
tre of mass remains where it was. The engineers de-
signed the wings in a specific manner to reduce this shift,
but there was still a shift of about 2 metres. This could
have been countered by the use of trim controls, but at British Air-
such high speeds this would have dramatically increased ways Concorde interior. The narrow fuselage permitted
drag. Instead, the distribution of fuel along the aircraft only a 4-abreast seating with limited headroom
was shifted during acceleration and deceleration to move
the centre of mass, effectively acting as an auxiliary trim
Concorde’s high cruising altitude meant passengers re-
control.[97]
ceived almost twice the flux of extraterrestrial ionising
radiation as those travelling on a conventional long-haul
flight.[102][103] Upon Concorde’s introduction, it was spec-
2.5 Range ulated that this exposure during supersonic travels would
increase the likelihood of skin cancer.[104] Due to the
To fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean, Concorde re- proportionally reduced flight time, the overall equivalent
quired the greatest supersonic range of any aircraft.[98] dose would normally be less than a conventional flight
This was achieved by a combination of engines which over the same distance.[105] Unusual solar activity might
were highly efficient at supersonic speeds,[N 5][57] a slen- lead to an increase in incident radiation.[106] To prevent
der fuselage with high fineness ratio, and a complex wing incidents of excessive radiation exposure, the flight deck
shape for a high lift-to-drag ratio. This also required car- had a radiometer and an instrument to measure the rate
rying only a modest payload and a high fuel capacity, and of decrease of radiation.[103] If the radiation level be-
the aircraft was trimmed with precision to avoid unnec- came too high, Concorde would descend below 47,000
essary drag.[8][97] feet (14,000 m).
Nevertheless, soon after Concorde began flying, a Con-
corde “B” model was designed with slightly larger fuel
capacity and slightly larger wings with leading edge slats 2.7 Cabin pressurisation
to improve aerodynamic performance at all speeds, with
the objective of expanding the range to reach markets in Airliner cabins were usually maintained at a pressure
new regions.[99] It featured more powerful engines with equivalent to 6,000–8,000 feet (1,800–2,400 m) eleva-
sound deadening and without the fuel-hungry and noisy tion. Concorde’s pressurisation was set to an altitude at
afterburner. It was speculated that it was reasonably pos- the lower end of this range, 6,000 feet (1,800 m).[107]
sible to create an engine with up to 25% gain in effi- Concorde’s maximum cruising altitude was 60,000 feet
ciency over the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593.[100] (18,000 m); subsonic airliners typically cruise below
This would have given 500 mi (805 km) additional range 40,000 feet (12,000 m).
and a greater payload, making new commercial routes
A sudden reduction in cabin pressure is hazardous to all
possible. This was cancelled due in part to poor sales
passengers and crew.[108] Above 50,000 feet (15,000 m),
of Concorde, but also to the rising cost of aviation fuel in
a sudden cabin depressurisation would leave a "time of
the 1970s.[101]
useful consciousness" up to 10–15 seconds for a condi-
tioned athlete.[109] At Concorde’s altitude, the air den-
sity is very low; a breach of cabin integrity would re-
2.6 Radiation concerns sult in a loss of pressure severe enough so that the plas-
tic emergency oxygen masks installed on other passenger
jets would not be effective and passengers would soon
suffer from hypoxia despite quickly donning them. Con-
corde was equipped with smaller windows to reduce the
rate of loss in the event of a breach,[110] a reserve air sup-
ply system to augment cabin air pressure, and a rapid de-
scent procedure to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude.
The FAA enforces minimum emergency descent rates for
aircraft and noting Concorde’s higher operating altitude,
concluded that the best response to pressure loss would be
External view a rapid descent.[111] Continuous positive airway pressure
2.9 Brakes and undercarriage 9

would have delivered pressurised oxygen directly to the over the subsonic aeroplanes you can see
pilots through masks.[110] all these 747s 20,000 feet below you almost
appearing to go backwards, I mean you are
going 800 miles an hour or thereabouts faster
2.8 Flight characteristics than they are. The aeroplane was an absolute
delight to fly, it handled beautifully. And
remember we are talking about an aeroplane
that was being designed in the late 1950s –
mid 1960s. I think it’s absolutely amazing and
here we are, now in the 21st century, and it
remains unique.
— John Hutchinson, Concorde Captain, “The
World’s Greatest Airliner” (2003)[119]

2.9 Brakes and undercarriage

Concorde performing a low-level flypast at an air show in August

1981

While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly

from New York to Paris, the average supersonic flight
time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours.
Concorde had a maximum cruise altitude of 18,300 me-
tres (60,039 ft) and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02,
about 1155 knots (2140 km/h or 1334 mph), more than
twice the speed of conventional aircraft.[112]
With no other civil traffic operating at its cruising alti-
tude of about 56,000 ft (17,000 m), dedicated oceanic
airways or “tracks” were used by Concorde to cross the
Atlantic. Due to the nature of high altitude winds, these
SST tracks were fixed in terms of their co-ordinates, un- Concorde main
like the North Atlantic Tracks at lower altitudes whose undercarriage
co-ordinates alter daily according to forecast weather pat-
terns (jetstreams).[113] Concorde would also be cleared in
a 15,000-foot (4,600 m) block, allowing for a slow climb
from 45,000 to 60,000 ft (18,000 m) during the oceanic
crossing as the fuel load gradually decreased.[114] In regu-
lar service, Concorde employed an efficient cruise-climb
flight profile following take-off.[115]
The delta-shaped wings required Concorde to adopt a
higher angle of attack at low speeds than conventional Tail bumper of
aircraft, but it allowed the formation of large low pres- Concorde G-BOAG at the Museum of Flight in Seattle
sure vortices over the entire upper wing surface, main-
taining lift.[116] The normal landing speed was 170 miles Because of the way Concorde’s delta-wing generated lift,
per hour (274 km/h).[117] Because of this high angle, dur- the undercarriage had to be unusually strong. At rotation,
ing a landing approach Concorde was on the “back side” Concorde would rise to a high angle of attack, about 18
of the drag force curve, where raising the nose would in- degrees. Prior to rotation the wing generated almost no
crease the rate of descent; the aircraft was thus largely lift, unlike typical aircraft wings. Combined with the
flown on the throttle and was fitted with an autothrottle to high airspeed at rotation (199 knots indicated airspeed),
reduce the pilot’s workload.[118] this increased the stresses on the main undercarriage in a
way that was initially unexpected during the development
The only thing that tells you that you're and required a major redesign.[120] Due to the high angle
moving is that occasionally when you're flying needed at rotation, a small set of wheels were added aft to
10 3 OPERATIONAL HISTORY

prevent tailstrikes. The main undercarriage units swing

towards each other to be stowed but due to their great
height also need to retract telescopically before swing-
ing to clear each other when stowed.[121] The four main
wheel tyres on each bogie unit are inflated to 232 lb/sq
in (1,600 kPa). The twin-wheel nose undercarriage re-
tracts forwards and its tyres are inflated to a pressure of
191 lb/sq in (1,320 kPa), and the wheel assembly carries a
spray deflector to prevent standing water being thrown up
into the engine intakes. The tyres are rated to 250 mph
(400 km/h). The starboard nose wheel carries a single
disc brake to halt wheel rotation during retraction of the
undercarriage. The port nose wheel carries speed gen-
Concorde landing at Farnborough in September 1974
erators for the anti-skid braking system which prevents
brake activation until nose and main wheels rotate at the
same rate. tal for maximum visibility. Upon landing the nose was
Additionally, due to the high average take-off speed of raised to the five-degree position to avoid the possibility
[125]
250 miles per hour (400 km/h), Concorde needed up- of damage.
graded brakes. Like most airliners, Concorde has anti- The US Federal Aviation Administration had objected to
skid braking – a system which prevents the tyres from los- the restrictive visibility of the visor used on the first two
ing traction when the brakes are applied for greater con- prototype Concordes and thus requiring alteration before
trol during roll-out. The brakes, developed by Dunlop, the FAA would permit Concorde to serve US airports;
were the first carbon-based brakes used on an airliner.[122] this led to the redesigned visor used on the production
The use of carbon over equivalent steel brakes provided and the four pre-production aircraft (101, 102, 201, and
a weight-saving of 1,200 lb (540 kg).[123] Each wheel has 202).[126] The nose window and visor glass, needed to en-
multiple discs which are cooled by electric fans. Wheel dure temperatures in excess of 100 °C (212 °F) at super-
sensors include brake overload, brake temperature, and sonic flight, were developed by Triplex.[127]
tyre deflation. After a typical landing at Heathrow, brake
temperatures were around 300–400 °C (572–752 °F).
For landing Concorde required a minimum of 6,000 feet
(1,800 m) runway length, this in fact being consider- 3 Operational history
ably less than the shortest runway Concorde ever actually
landed on, that of Cardiff Airport.[124] See also: Concorde aircraft histories

2.10 Droop nose

3.1 Scheduled flights
Main article: Droop-nose

Concorde’s drooping nose, developed by Marshall

Aerospace,[125] enabled the aircraft to switch between
being streamlined to reduce drag and achieve optimum
aerodynamic efficiency, and not obstructing the pilot’s
view during taxi, take-off, and landing operations. Due
to the high angle of attack, the long pointed nose ob-
structed the view and necessitated the capability to droop.
The droop nose was accompanied by a moving visor
that retracted into the nose prior to being lowered.
When the nose was raised to horizontal, the visor would
rise in front of the cockpit windscreen for aerodynamic
streamlining.[125]
The official handover ceremony to British Airways of its first
A controller in the cockpit allowed the visor to be re- Concorde occurred on 15 January 1976 at Heathrow Airport
tracted and the nose to be lowered to 5° below the stan-
dard horizontal position for taxiing and take-off. Follow- Scheduled flights began on 21 January 1976 on the
ing take-off and after clearing the airport, the nose and London–Bahrain and Paris–Rio de Janeiro (via Dakar)
visor were raised. Prior to landing, the visor was again routes,[128] with BA flights using the Speedbird Con-
retracted and the nose lowered to 12.5° below horizon- corde call sign to notify air traffic control of the air-
3.1 Scheduled flights 11

Air France Concorde at JFK Airport in 2003

Concorde in Singapore Airlines livery at Heathrow in 1979

Air France Concorde at CDG Airport in 2003

Air France Concorde (F-BTSD) short-lived promotional Pepsi
livery, April 1996
The ban came to an end on 17 October 1977 when the
Supreme Court of the United States declined to overturn
a lower court’s ruling rejecting efforts by the Port Author-
ity and a grass-roots campaign led by Carol Berman to
continue the ban.[131] In spite of complaints about noise,
the noise report noted that Air Force One, at the time a
Boeing VC-137, was louder than Concorde at subsonic
speeds and during take-off and landing.[132] Scheduled
service from Paris and London to New York’s John F.
Kennedy Airport began on 22 November 1977.[133]
In 1977, British Airways and Singapore Airlines shared
a Concorde for flights between London and Singapore
International Airport at Paya Lebar via Bahrain. The
aircraft, BA’s Concorde G-BOAD, was painted in Sin-
Concorde in Zürich Airport in 1998 gapore Airlines livery on the port side and British Air-
ways livery on the starboard side.[134][135] The service was
discontinued after three return flights because of noise
craft’s unique abilities and restrictions, but the French us- complaints from the Malaysian government;[136] it could
ing their normal call signs.[129] The Paris-Caracas route only be reinstated on a new route bypassing Malaysian
(via Azores) began on 10 April. The US Congress had airspace in 1979. A dispute with India prevented Con-
just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due corde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace,
to citizen protest over sonic booms, preventing launch so the route was eventually declared not viable and dis-
on the coveted North Atlantic routes. The US Secre- continued in 1980.[137]
tary of Transportation, William Coleman, gave permis- During the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew Concorde
sion for Concorde service to Washington Dulles Interna-
twice weekly to Mexico City’s Benito Juárez International
tional Airport, and Air France and British Airways simul-
Airport via Washington, DC, or New York City, from
taneously began service to Dulles on 24 May 1976.[130]September 1978 to November 1982.[138][139] The world-
When the US ban on JFK Concorde operations was lifted wide economic crisis during that period resulted in this
in February 1977, New York banned Concorde locally. route’s cancellation; the last flights were almost empty.
12 3 OPERATIONAL HISTORY

The routing between Washington or New York and Mex- Aérospatiale respectively, to be maintained by either BA
ico City included a deceleration, from Mach 2.02 to Mach or Air France. BCal’s envisaged two-Concorde fleet
0.95, to cross Florida subsonically and avoid creating a would have required a high level of aircraft utilisation to
sonic boom over the state; Concorde then re-accelerated be cost-effective; therefore, BCal had decided to oper-
back to high speed while crossing the Gulf of Mexico. On ate the second aircraft on a supersonic service between
1 April 1989, on an around-the-world luxury tour char- Gatwick and Atlanta, with a stopover at either Gander or
ter, British Airways implemented changes to this routing Halifax.[151] Consideration was given to services to Hous-
that allowed G-BOAF to maintain Mach 2.02 by pass- ton and various points on its South American network at
ing around Florida to the east and south. Periodically a later stage.[157][158] Both supersonic services were to be
Concorde visited the region on similar chartered flights launched at some point during 1980; however, steeply ris-
to Mexico City and Acapulco.[140] ing oil prices caused by the 1979 energy crisis led to BCal
From December 1978 to May 1980, Braniff Inter- shelving their supersonic ambitions.[154]
national Airways leased 11 Concordes, five from Air
France and six from British Airways.[141] These were
used on subsonic flights between Dallas-Fort Worth and
Washington Dulles International Airport, flown by Bran-
iff flight crews.[142] Air France and British Airways crews
then took over for the continuing supersonic flights to 3.3 British Airways buys its Concordes
London and Paris.[143] The aircraft were registered in outright
both the United States and their home countries; the Eu-
ropean registration was covered while being operated by
By around 1981 in the UK, the future for Concorde
Braniff, retaining full AF/BA liveries. The flights were
looked bleak. The British government had lost money
not profitable and typically less than 50% booked, forc-
operating Concorde every year, and moves were afoot to
ing Braniff to end its tenure as the only US Concorde op-
cancel the service entirely. A cost projection came back
erator in May 1980.[144][145]
with greatly reduced metallurgical testing costs because
In its early years, the British Airways Concorde service the test rig for the wings had built up enough data to last
had a greater number of “no shows” (passengers who for 30 years and could be shut down. Despite this, the
booked a flight and then failed to appear at the gate for government was not keen to continue. In 1983, BA’s
boarding) than any other aircraft in the fleet.[146] managing director, Sir John King, convinced the govern-
ment to sell the aircraft outright to British Airways for
£16.5 million plus the first year’s profits.[159][160]
3.2 British Caledonian interest
King recognised that, in Concorde, BA had a premier
Following the launch of British Airways Concorde ser- product that was underpriced. Market research had re-
vices, Britain’s other major airline, British Caledonian vealed that many customers thought Concorde was more
(BCal), set up a task force headed by Gordon Davidson, expensive than it actually was; thus ticket prices were pro-
BA’s former Concorde director, to investigate the possi- gressively raised to match these perceptions.[57] It is re-
bility of their own Concorde operations.[147][148][149] This ported that British Airways then ran Concorde at a profit,
was seen as particularly viable for the airline’s long-haul unlike their French counterpart.[161][162]
network as there were two unsold aircraft then available Between 1984 and 1991, British Airways flew a
for purchase.[150][151][152] thrice-weekly Concorde service between London and
One important reason for BCal’s interest in Concorde Miami, [163][164]stopping at Washington Dulles International
Airport. Until 2003, Air France and British Air-
was that the British Government’s 1976 aviation policy
review had opened the possibility of BA setting up su- ways continued to operate the New York services daily.
personic services in competition with BCal’s established Concorde routinely flew to Grantley Adams International
sphere of influence. To counteract this potential threat, Airport, Barbados, during the winter holiday season.[165]
BCal considered their own independent Concorde plans, Prior to the Air France Paris crash, several UK and
as well as a partnership with BA.[153][154] BCal were con- French tour operators operated charter flights to Euro-
sidered most likely to have set up a Concorde service on pean destinations on a regular basis;[166][167] the charter
the Gatwick–Lagos route, a major source of revenue and business was viewed as lucrative by British Airways and
profits within BCal’s scheduled route network;[155][156] Air France.[168]
BCal’s Concorde task force did assess the viability of a
In 1997, British Airways held a promotional contest to
daily supersonic service complementing the existing sub-
mark the 10th anniversary of the airline’s move into the
sonic widebody service on this route.[151][154][157] private sector. The promotion was a lottery to fly to New
BCal entered into a bid to acquire at least one York held for 190 tickets valued at £5,400 each, to be
Concorde.[150][152][157] However, BCal eventually ar- offered at £10. Contestants had to call a special hotline
ranged for two aircraft to be leased from BA and to compete with up to 20 million people.[169]
3.4 Retirement
Concorde’s final flight: G-BOAF from Heathrow to Bristol, on 26
November 2003. The extremely high fineness ratio of the fuse-
lage is evident.
3.4 Retirement
On 10 April 2003, Air France and British Airways si-
multaneously announced that they would retire Concorde
later that year.[170] They cited low passenger numbers fol-
lowing 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel fol-
lowing the September 11 attacks, and rising maintenance
costs. Although Concorde was technologically advanced
when introduced in the 1970s, 30 years later, its analogue
cockpit was outdated. There had been little commercial
pressure to upgrade Concorde due to a lack of compet-
ing aircraft, unlike other airliners of the same era such
as the Boeing 747.[171] By its retirement, it was the last
aircraft in the British Airways fleet that had a flight engi-
neer; other aircraft, such as the modernised 747-400, had
eliminated the role.[172]
On 11 April 2003, Virgin Atlantic founder Sir Richard
Branson announced that the company was interested
in purchasing British Airways’ Concorde fleet for
their nominal original price of £1 (US$1.57 in April
2003) each.[173][174] British Airways dismissed the idea,
prompting Virgin to increase their offer to £1 million
each.[175][176] Branson claimed that when BA was priva-
tised, a clause in the agreement required them to allow
another British airline to operate Concorde if BA ceased
to do so, but the Government denied the existence of
such a clause.[177] In October 2003, Branson wrote in The
Economist that his final offer was “over £5 million” and
that he had intended to operate the fleet “for many years
to come”.[178] The chances for keeping Concorde in ser-
vice were stifled by Airbus’s lack of support for continued
maintenance.[179][180][N 6]
It has been suggested that Concorde was not withdrawn
for the reasons usually given but that it became appar-
ent during the grounding of Concorde that the airlines
could make more profit carrying first class passengers
subsonically.[181] A lack of commitment to Concorde In 1989, Air France signed a letter of agreement to do-
from Director of Engineering Alan MacDonald was cited nate a Concorde to the National Air and Space Museum
as having undermined BA’s resolve to continue operating in Washington D.C. upon the aircraft’s retirement. On
13
Concorde.[182]
3.4.1 Air France
Air France
Concorde at Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport
Air France
Concorde in Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim
Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing
in the United States in New York City from Paris on
30 May 2003.[183][184] Air France’s final Concorde flight
took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to
Toulouse.[185]
An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air
France was held at Christie’s in Paris on 15 Novem-
ber 2003; 1,300 people attended, and several lots ex-
ceeded their predicted values.[186] French Concorde F-
BVFC was retired to Toulouse and kept functional for a
short time after the end of service, in case taxi runs were
required in support of the French judicial enquiry into
the 2000 crash.[187] The aircraft is now fully retired and
no longer functional.[188]
French Concorde F-BTSD has been retired to the "Musée
de l'Air" at Paris–Le Bourget Airport near Paris; unlike
the other museum Concordes, a few of the systems are
being kept functional. For instance, the famous “droop
nose” can still be lowered and raised. This led to rumours
that they could be prepared for future flights for special
occasions.[189]
French Concorde F-BVFB currently rests at the Auto &
Technik Museum Sinsheim at Sinsheim, Germany, after
its last flight from Paris to Baden-Baden, followed by a
spectacular transport to Sinsheim via barge and road. The
museum also has a Tupolev Tu-144 on display – this is the
only place where both supersonic airliners can be seen
together.[190]
14
Air France Concorde on display at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
12 June 2003, Air France honoured that agreement, do-
nating Concorde F-BVFA (serial 205) to the Museum
upon the completion of its last flight. This aircraft was
the first Air France Concorde to open service to Rio de
Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and New York and had flown
17,824 hours. It is on display at the Smithsonian’s Steven
F. Udvar-Hazy Center at Dulles Airport.[191]
3.4.2 British Airways
BA Concorde G-BOAB in storage at London Heathrow Airport.
This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976
and its final flight in 2000.
British Airways conducted a North American farewell
tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson
International Airport on 1 October, after which it flew to
New York’s John F. Kennedy International Airport.[192]
G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport
on 8 October, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles
International Airport on 14 October.[193] It has been
claimed that G-BOAD’s flight from London Heathrow to
Boston set a transatlantic flight record of 3 hours, 5 min-
utes, 34 seconds.[194] However the fastest transatlantic
flight was from New York JFK airport to Heathrow on 7
February 1996, taking 2 hours, 52 minutes, 59 seconds;
90 seconds less than a record set in April 1990.[195][196]
3 OPERATIONAL HISTORY
In a week of farewell flights around the United King-
dom, Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October,
Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October,
Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 Octo-
ber. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and
back into Heathrow to the cities, often overflying them
at low altitude.[197][198][199] On 22 October, both Con-
corde flight BA9021C, a special from Manchester, and
BA002 from New York landed simultaneously on both
of Heathrow’s runways. On 23 October 2003, the Queen
consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle, an hon-
our reserved for state events and visiting dignitaries, as
Concorde’s last west-bound commercial flight departed
London.[200]
British Airways retired its Concorde fleet on 24 October
2003.[201] G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar
to that given for Air France’s F-BTSD, while two more
made round trips, G-BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, car-
rying VIP guests including former Concorde pilots, and
G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled
over London, having received special permission to fly
at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow.
The captain of the New York to London flight was Mike
Bannister.[202] The final flight of a Concorde in the US
occurred on 5 November 2003 when G-BOAG flew from
New York’s JFK Airport to Seattle’s Boeing Field to join
the Museum of Flight's permanent collection. The plane
was piloted by Mike Bannister and Les Broadie who
claimed a flight time of three hours, 55 minutes and 12
seconds, a record between the two cities.[203] The mu-
seum had been pursuing a Concorde for their collection
since 1984.[204] The final flight of a Concorde world-wide
took place on 26 November 2003 with a landing at Filton,
Bristol, UK.[205]
All of BA’s Concorde fleet have been grounded, drained
of hydraulic fluid and their airworthiness certificates with-
drawn. Jock Lowe, ex-chief Concorde pilot and man-
ager of the fleet estimated in 2004 that it would cost
£10–15 million to make G-BOAF airworthy again.[189]
BA maintain ownership and have stated that they will
not fly again due to a lack of support from Airbus.[206]
On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of
British Airways Concorde artefacts, including a nose
cone, at Kensington Olympia in London.[207][208] Pro-
ceeds of around £750,000 were raised, with the ma-
jority going to charity. G-BOAD is currently on dis-
play at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New
York.[196] In 2007, BA announced that the advertising
spot at Heathrow where a 40% scale model of Concorde
was located would not be retained; the model is now on
display at the Brooklands Museum.[209]
3.5 Restoration
Although only used for spares after being retired from
test flying and trials work in 1981, Concorde G-BBDG
was dismantled and transported by road from Filton then
 15

restored from essentially a shell at the Brooklands Mu- 5 Accidents and incidents
seum in Surrey,[210] where it remains open to visitors to
the museum.
5.1 Air France Flight 4590
One of the youngest Concordes (F-BTSD) is on display
at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris. In Febru- Main article: Air France Flight 4590
ary 2010, it was announced that the museum and a group
of volunteer Air France technicians intend to restore F-
On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-
BTSD so it can taxi under its own power.[211] In May
BTSC, crashed in Gonesse, France after departing from
2010, it was reported that the British Save Concorde
Paris-Charles de Gaulle en route to John F. Kennedy In-
Group and French Olympus 593 groups had begun in-
ternational Airport in New York City, killing all 100 pas-
specting the engines of a Concorde at the French mu-
sengers and 9 crew members on board the flight, and 4
seum; their intent is to restore the airliner to a condition
people on the ground. It was the only fatal accident in-
where it can fly in demonstrations.[212] Save Concorde
volving Concorde.
Group hoped to get F-BTSD flying for the 2012 Lon-
don Olympics, but this never happened. The work for According to the official investigation conducted by
restoring F-BTSD to operating condition as of September the Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de
l'Aviation Civile (BEA), the crash was caused by a metal-
2015 is currently not very well known, and it is still being
housed in Le Bourget as a museum exhibit. In 2015, the lic strip that fell from a Continental Airlines DC-10 that
organisation Club Concorde announced that it had raised had taken off minutes earlier. This fragment punctured a
funds of £120 million for a static display[213] and to buytyre on Concorde’s left main wheel bogie during take-off.
The tyre exploded, and a piece of rubber hit the fuel tank,
the Concorde at Le Bourget, restore it and return it to ser-
which caused a fuel leak and led to a fire. The crew shut
vice as a heritage aircraft for air displays and charter hire
by 2019, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of Con- down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning, and
corde’s first flight.[214] with engine number 1 surging and producing little power,
the aircraft was unable to gain altitude or speed. The
In July 2015, it was reported that planning permission
aircraft entered a rapid pitch-up then a violent descent,
had been granted for the construction of the museum at
rolling left and crashing tail-low into the Hôtelissimo Les
Bristol Filton Airport to house G-BOAF the last Con-
Relais Bleus Hotel in Gonesse.[219]
corde where it is intended to form a key exhibit of the
new Bristol Aviation Heritage Museum.[215] The claim that a metallic strip caused the crash was dis-
puted during the trial both by witnesses (including the pi-
lot of Jacques Chirac's aircraft that had just landed on an
3.6 Return to service plan adjacent runway when Flight 4590 caught fire) and by an
independent French TV investigation that found a wheel
In September 2015, it was publicly revealed[216] that the spacer had not been installed in the left-side main gear
Club Concorde had secured over £160 million to return and that the plane caught fire some 1,000 feet from where
an aircraft to service.[217] the metallic strip lay.[220] British investigators and for-
mer French Concorde pilots looked at several other pos-
Club Concorde president Paul James said: “The main ob-
sibilities that the BEA report ignored, including an un-
stacle to any Concorde project to date has been 'Where’s
balanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and loose
the money?' – a question we heard ad nauseam, un-
landing gear. They came to the conclusion that the Con-
til we found an investor. Now that money is no longer
corde veered off course on the runway, which reduced
the problem it’s over to those who can help us make it
[218] takeoff speed below the crucial minimum. John Hutchin-
happen.” The organisation aims to buy the Concorde
son, who had served as a Concorde captain for 15 years
currently on display at Le Bourget airport. A tentative
with British Airways, said that “the fire on its own should
date of 2019 has been put forward for the first flight – 50
[214] have been 'eminently survivable; the pilot should have
years after its maiden journey.
been able to fly his way out of trouble'", had it not been
for a “lethal combination of operational error and 'neg-
ligence' by the maintenance department of Air France”
4 Operators that “nobody wants to talk about”.[221][222][223]
On 6 December 2010, Continental Airlines and John
• Air France Taylor, one of its mechanics, were found guilty of invol-
untary manslaughter,[224] but on 30 November 2012, a
• British Airways French court overturned the conviction, saying mistakes
by Continental and Taylor did not make them criminally
• Braniff International Airways (1 on short term
responsible.[225]
lease)[144]
Prior to the accident, Concorde had been arguably the
• Singapore Airlines (1 on short term wet lease)[135] safest operational passenger airliner in the world in pas-
16
senger deaths-per-kilometres travelled with zero, but
there had been two prior non-fatal accidents and a rate of
tyre damage some 30 times higher than subsonic airlin-
ers from 1995 to 2000.[226][227][228][229] Safety improve-
ments were made in the wake of the crash, including
more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining on the fuel
tanks and specially developed burst-resistant tyres.[230]
The first flight with the modifications departed from
London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief
Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. During the 3-hour 20-
minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Ban-
nister attained Mach 2.02 and 60,000 ft (18,000 m) be-
fore returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, in-
tended to resemble the London–New York route, was
declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by
crowds on the ground at both locations.[231]
The first flight with passengers after the accident took
place on 11 September 2001, landing shortly before the
World Trade Center attacks in the United States. This
was not a commercial flight: all the passengers were BA
employees.[232] Normal commercial operations resumed
on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE
and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where
mayor Rudy Giuliani greeted the passengers.[233][234]
5.2 Other accidents and incidents
Damage to Concorde rudder after 1989 accident
Concorde had suffered two previous non-fatal accidents
that were similar to each other.
• 12 April 1989: A Concorde of British registration,
G-BOAF, on a chartered flight from Christchurch,
New Zealand, to Sydney, suffered a structural fail-
ure in-flight at supersonic speed. As the aircraft
was climbing and accelerating through Mach 1.7
a “thud” was heard. The crew did not notice any
handling problems, and they assumed the thud they
heard was a minor engine surge. No further diffi-
culty was encountered until descent through 40,000
feet at Mach 1.3, when a vibration was felt through-
out the aircraft, lasting two to three minutes. Most
6 Aircraft on display
of the upper rudder had become separated from the
aircraft at this point. Aircraft handling was unaf- Main article: Concorde aircraft histories
fected, and the aircraft made a safe landing at Syd-
6 AIRCRAFT ON DISPLAY
ney. The UK’s Air Accidents Investigation Branch
(AAIB) concluded that the skin of the rudder had
been separating from the rudder structure over a pe-
riod of time before the accident due to moisture
seepage past the rivets in the rudder. Furthermore,
production staff had not followed proper procedures
during an earlier modification of the rudder, but the
procedures were difficult to adhere to.[226] The air-
craft was repaired and returned to service.[226]
• 21 March 1992: A Concorde of British registra-
tion, G-BOAB, on a scheduled flight from London to
New York, also suffered a structural failure in-flight
at supersonic speed. While cruising at Mach 2, at
approximately 53,000 feet above mean sea level, the
crew heard a “thump”. No difficulties in handling
were noticed, and no instruments gave any irregu-
lar indications. This crew also suspected there had
been a minor engine surge. One hour later, during
descent and decelerating below Mach 1.4, a sudden
“severe” vibration began throughout the aircraft.[227]
The vibration worsened when power was added to
the No 2 engine, and it was attenuated when that
engine’s power was reduced. The crew shut down
the No 2 engine and made a successful landing in
New York, noting only that increased rudder con-
trol was needed to keep the aircraft on its intended
approach course. Again, the skin had become sep-
arated from the structure of the rudder, which led
to most of the upper rudder becoming separated in-
flight. The (AAIB) concluded that repair materials
had leaked into the structure of the rudder during a
recent repair, weakening the bond between the skin
and the structure of the rudder, leading to it breaking
up in-flight. The large size of the repair had made
it difficult to keep repair materials out of the struc-
ture, and prior to this accident, the severity of the
effect of these repair materials on the structure and
skin of the rudder was not appreciated.[227]
• A 2010 trial involving Continental Airlines over the
crash of Flight 4590 established that from 1976 un-
til Flight 4590 there had been 57 tyre failures in-
volving Concordes during takeoffs, including a near-
crash at Dulles Airport on 14 June 1979 involving
Air France Flight 54 where a tyre blowout pierced
the plane’s fuel tank and damaged the port-side en-
gine, electrical cables, with the loss of two of the
craft’s hydraulic systems.[235]

7 Comparable aircraft
Tu-144FL as a research aircraft for NASA in 1997
Tu-144 and Concorde in Auto & Technik Museum Sinsheim
The only supersonic airliner in direct competition with
Concorde was the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, nicknamed
“Concordski” by Western European journalists for its
outward similarity to Concorde.[236] It had been alleged
that Soviet espionage efforts had resulted in the theft of
Concorde blueprints, ostensibly to assist in the design of
the Tu-144.[237] As a result of a rushed development pro-
gramme, the first Tu-144 prototype was substantially dif-
ferent from the preproduction machines, but both were
cruder than Concorde. The Tu-144S had a significantly
shorter range than Concorde, due to its low-bypass tur-
bofan engines.[238] The aircraft had poor control at low
speeds because of a simpler supersonic wing design; in
addition the Tu-144 required braking parachutes to land
while Concorde used anti-lock brakes.[239] The Tu-144
had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show,[240][241]
and another during a pre-delivery test flight in May
1978.[242][243]
Later production Tu-144 versions were more refined and
competitive. They had retractable canards for better Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust,
low-speed control, turbojet engines providing nearly the which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-
fuel efficiency and range of Concorde[244] and a top depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degra-
17
speed of Mach 2.35. Passenger service commenced in
November 1977, but after the 1978 crash the aircraft
was taken out of service. The aircraft had an inherently
unsafe structural design as a consequence of an auto-
mated production method chosen to simplify and speed
up manufacturing.[245]
The American designs, the Boeing 2707 and the
Lockheed L-2000, were to have been larger, with seating
for up to 300 people.[246][247] Running a few years behind
Concorde, the Boeing 2707 was redesigned to a cropped
delta layout; the extra cost of these changes helped to
kill the project.[248] The operation of US military air-
craft such as the XB-70 Valkyrie and B-58 Hustler had
shown that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching
the ground,[249] and the experience from the Oklahoma
City sonic boom tests led to the same environmental con-
cerns that hindered the commercial success of Concorde.
The American government cancelled its SST project in
1971, after having spent more than $1 billion.[250]
The only other large supersonic aircraft comparable to
Concorde are strategic bombers, principally the Russian
Tu-22, Tu-22M, M-50 (experimental), T-4 (experimen-
tal), Tu-160 and the American XB-70 (experimental) and
B-1.[251]
Further information: Supersonic transport
8 Impact
8.1 Environmental
Before Concorde’s flight trials, developments in the civil
aviation industry were largely accepted by governments
and their respective electorates. Opposition to Con-
corde’s noise, particularly on the east coast of the United
States,[252][253] forged a new political agenda on both sides
of the Atlantic, with scientists and technology experts
across a multitude of industries beginning to take the
environmental and social impact more seriously.[254][255]
Although Concorde led directly to the introduction of a
general noise abatement programme for aircraft flying out
of John F. Kennedy Airport, many found that Concorde
was quieter than expected,[57] partly due to the pilots tem-
porarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise dur-
ing overflight of residential areas.[256] Even before com-
mercial flights started, it had been claimed that Concorde
was quieter than many other aircraft.[257] In 1971, BAC’s
technical director was quoted as saying, “It is certain on
present evidence and calculations that in the airport con-
text, production Concordes will be no worse than aircraft
now in service and will in fact be better than many of
them.”[258]
18
dation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes
it cruised.[259] It has been pointed out that other, lower-
flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the
troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the lay-
ers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer
degradation caused by Concorde was negligible.[259] In
1995, David Fahey, of the National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration in the United States, warned that
a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to
Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global
ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each
1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the in-
cidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2
per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced
by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed,
then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-
destroying impact of supersonic transport.[260]
Concorde’s technical leap forward boosted the public’s
understanding of conflicts between technology and the
environment as well as awareness of the complex deci-
sion analysis processes that surround such conflicts.[261] In
France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks
might not have been achieved without the 1970s contro-
versy over aircraft noise.[262] In the UK, the CPRE has
issued tranquillity maps since 1990.[263]
Some sources say Concorde typically flew 17 miles per
U.S. gallon (14 L/100 km; 20 mpg-ᵢ ) per passenger.[264]
8.2 Public perception
Parade flight at Queen’s Golden Jubilee in June 2002 Pope John Paul II flew on Concorde in May 1989.[280]
The British Prime Minister flew in a British Airways Con-
Concorde was normally perceived as a privilege of the corde (G-BOAC) to San Juan for the second G-6 Eco-
rich, but special circular or one-way (with return by other nomic Summit, held in the United States and hosted by
flight or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip President Gerald Ford at the Dorado Beach Hotel in Do-
within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.[265] rado, Puerto Rico on 27–28 June 1976.[281]
The aircraft was usually referred to by the British as sim-
ply “Concorde”.[266] In France it was known as “le Con-
corde” due to “le”, the definite article,[267] used in French
grammar to introduce the name of a ship or aircraft,[268]
and the capital being used to distinguish a proper name
from a common noun of the same spelling.[267][269] In
French, the common noun concorde means “agreement,
harmony, or peace”. [N 7] Concorde’s pilots and British
Airways in official publications often refer to Concorde
both in the singular and plural as “she” or “her”.[271][N 8]
8 IMPACT
As a symbol of national pride, an example from the BA
fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events,
major air shows and other special occasions, sometimes
in formation with the Red Arrows.[272] On the final day
of commercial service, public interest was so great that
grandstands were erected at Heathrow Airport. Signifi-
cant numbers of people attended the final landings; the
event received widespread media coverage.[273]
In 2006, 37 years after its first test flight, Concorde was
announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest
organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. A total
of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating design
icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-type, Tube
map and the Supermarine Spitfire.[274]
8.3 Special missions
The Queen
and The Duke of Edinburgh disembark Concorde in
1991.
Heads of France and the United Kingdom flew Con-
corde many times.[275] Presidents Georges Pompi-
dou,[276] Valéry Giscard d'Estaing[277] and François Mit-
terrand[278] regularly used Concorde as French flag-
man aircraft in foreign visits. Queen Elizabeth II and
Prime Ministers Edward Heath, Jim Callaghan, Margaret
Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair took Concorde in some
charter flights such as the Queen’s trips to Barbados on
her Silver Jubilee in 1977, in 1987 and in 2003, to Mid-
dle East in 1984 and to the United States in 1991.[279]
Concorde sometimes made special flights for demon-
strations, air shows (such as the Farnborough, Paris-
LeBourget and MAKS air shows) as well as parades and
celebrations (for example, of Zürich airport’s anniversary
in 1998). The aircraft were also used for private charters
(including by the President of Zaire Mobutu Sese Seko on
multiple occasions), for advertising companies (includ-
ing for the firm OKI), for Olympic torch relays (1992
Winter Olympics in Albertville) and for observing solar
eclipses.[282][283]
 19

8.4 Records
The fastest transatlantic airliner flight was from New
York JFK to London Heathrow on 7 February 1996 by
the British Airways G-BOAD in 2 hours, 52 minutes, Concorde G-BOAC
59 seconds from take-off to touchdown aided by a 175
mph (282 km/h) tailwind.[284] On 13 February 1985, a
[294]
Concorde charter flight flew from London Heathrow to Richard Seamen aircraft museum
Sydney—on the opposite side of the world—in a time of General characteristics
17 hours, 3 minutes and 45 seconds, including refuelling
stops.[285][286][287]
• Crew: 3 (2 pilots and 1 flight engineer)
Concorde also set other records, including the official FAI
“Westbound Around the World” and “Eastbound Around • Capacity: 92–120 passengers
the World” world air speed records. [288]
On 12–13 Oc- (128 in high-density layout)[N 9]
tober 1992, in commemoration of the 500th anniversary • Length: 202 ft 4 in (61.66 m)
of Columbus’ first New World landing, Concorde Spirit
Tours (US) chartered Air France Concorde F-BTSD and • Wingspan: 84 ft 0 in (25.6 m)
circumnavigated the world in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3
seconds, from Lisbon, Portugal, including six refuelling • Height: 40 ft 0 in (12.2 m)
stops at Santo Domingo, Acapulco, Honolulu, Guam, • Fuselage internal length: 129 ft 0 in (39.32 m)
Bangkok, and Bahrain.[289]
• Fuselage width: maximum of 9 ft 5 in (2.87 m)
The eastbound record was set by the same Air France
external 8 ft 7 in (2.62 m) internal
Concorde (F-BTSD) under charter to Concorde Spirit
[283]
Tours in the US on 15–16 August 1995. This pro- • Fuselage height: maximum of 10 ft 10 in (3.30 m)
motional flight circumnavigated the world from New external 6 ft 5 in (1.96 m) internal)
York/JFK International Airport in 31 hours 27 minutes
49 seconds, including six refuelling stops at Toulouse, • Wing area: 3,856 ft2 (358.25 m2 )
Dubai, Bangkok, Andersen AFB in Guam, Honolulu,
• Empty weight: 173,500 lb (78,700 kg)
and Acapulco.[290] By its 30th flight anniversary on 2
March 1999 Concorde had clocked up 920,000 flight • Useful load: 245,000 lb (111,130 kg)
hours, with more than 600,000 supersonic, many more
than all of the other supersonic aircraft in the Western • Powerplant: 4 × Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus
world combined. [291] 593 Mk 610 Afterburning turbojets
On its way to the Museum of Flight in November 2003, • Dry thrust: 32,000 lbf (140 kN) each
G-BOAG set a New York City-to-Seattle speed record of • Thrust with afterburner: 38,050 lbf (169
3 hours, 55 minutes, and 12 seconds.[292] kN) each
• Maximum fuel load: 210,940 lb (95,680 kg)
9 Specifications • Maximum taxiing weight: 412,000 lb (187,000
kg)

Performance

• Maximum speed: Mach 2.04 (≈1,354 mph, 2,179

km/h, 1,176 knots) at cruise altitude
• Cruise speed: Mach 2.02 (≈1,340 mph, 2,158
km/h, 1,164 knots) at cruise altitude
• Range: 3,900 nmi (4,488.04 mi, 7,222.8 km)
• Service ceiling: 60,000 ft (18,300 m)
• Rate of climb: 10,000 ft/min[295] (50.80 m/s)
Other line drawings of Concorde
• lift-to-drag: Low speed– 3.94, Approach– 4.35,
Data from Wall Street Journal,[172] The Concorde 250 kn, 10,000 ft– 9.27, Mach 0.94– 11.47, Mach
Story,[293] The International Directory of Civil Aircraft,[59] 2.04– 7.14
20 12 REFERENCES

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• Thrust/weight: 0.373 [4] This apparently took place some time in 1957, according
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10 Notable appearances in media [9] BA and Air France Concordes originally had 100 seats.
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11 See also [1] Towey 2007, p. 359.

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[11] Conway 2005, p. 39.

12 References [12] Winchester 2005b, p. 134.

[13] Conway 2005, p. 68.

12.1 Notes [14] Conway 2005, p. 69.

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[295] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCLq4ptf9DI
Space Launch”. latimes.
Reuter. President Francois Mitterrand prepared today to [296] smh. “Extremely Comprehensive Concorde Relaunch Kit
fly by Concorde from Air France”. asiatraveltips.com.
The New York Times. Miitterrand’s travels are well re-
ceived back home [297] “1968 – 2266 – Flight Archive”. flightglobal.com.
28 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

12.3 Bibliography • Schrader, Richard K (1989). Concorde: The Full

• Conway, Eric (2005). High-Speed Dreams: NASA
and the Technopolitics of Supersonic Transportation,
1945–1999. JHU Press. ISBN 080188067X.
• Beniada, Frederic (2006). Concorde. Minneapolis,
Minnesota: Zenith Press. ISBN 0-7603-2703-3.
• Calvert, Brian (2002). Flying Concorde: The Full
Story. London: Crowood Press. ISBN 1-84037-
352-0.
• Deregel, Xavier; Lemaire, Jean-Philippe. Concorde
Passion. New York: LBM, 2009. ISBN 2-915347-
73-5.
Story of the Anglo-French SST. Kent, UK: Pictorial
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• Taylor, John W. R. (1965). Jane’s All the World’s
Aircraft 1965–66. Marston.
• Towey, Barrie (ed.) (2007). Jet Airliners of the
World 1949–2007. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK:
Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd. ISBN 0-85130-348-
X.
• Winchester, Jim (2005a). The World’s Worst Air-
craft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dol-
lar Disasters. London: Amber Books Ltd. ISBN
1-904687-34-2.

• Endres, Günter (2001). Concorde. St Paul, Min- • Winchester, Jim (2005b). X-Planes and Prototypes:
nesota: MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7603- From Nazi Secret Weapons to the Warplanes of the
1195-1. Future. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 1-84013-815-7.

• Ferrar, Henry, ed. (1980). The Concise Oxford

French-English Dictionary. New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-864157-5.
13 External links
• Frawley, Gerald (2003). The International Direc- • British Airways Concorde page
tory of Civil Aircraft, 2003/2004. Aerospace Publi-
cations. ISBN 1-875671-58-7. • Design Museum (UK) Concorde page

• Heritage Concorde preservation group site

• Gunn, John (2010). Crowded Skies. Turnkey Pro-
ductions. ISBN 978-0-646-54973-6. • Concorde Legacy site
• Kelly, Neil (2005). The Concorde Story: 34 Years of • First Concorde Supersonic Transport Flies
Supersonic Air Travel. Surrey, UK: Merchant Book Concorde Enters Flight Test Phase by Donald Fink,
Company Ltd. ISBN 1-904779-05-0. Aviation Week & Space Technology
• Knight, Geoffrey (1976). Concorde: The Inside • End of an Era by Dave North, Aviation Week &
Story. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0- Space Technology
297-77114-0.
• Video: Roll-out
• Lewis, Rob; Lewis, Edwin (2004). Supersonic Se-
crets: The Unauthorised Biography of Concorde.
London: Exposé. ISBN 0-9546617-0-2.

• McIntyre, Ian (1992). Dogfight: The Transatlantic

Battle over Airbus. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger
Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94278-3.

• Nunn, John Francis (1993). Nunn’s Applied

Respiratory Physiology. Burlington, Maryland:
Butterworth-Heineman. ISBN 0-7506-1336-X.

• Owen, Kenneth (2001). Concorde: Story of a Su-

personic Pioneer. London: Science Museum. ISBN
978-1-900747-42-4.

• Orlebar, Christopher (2004). The Concorde Story.

Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-
667-1.

• Ross, Douglas (March 1978). The Concorde Com-

promise: The Politics of Decision-making. Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists.
 29

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14.2 Images
• File:Aerospatial_Concorde_(6018513515).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Aerospatial_
Concorde_%286018513515%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Aerospatial Concorde Original artist: Hugh Llewelyn
• File:Aerospatiale-British_Aircraft_Corporation_Concorde,_Air_France_JP71122.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Aerospatiale-British_Aircraft_Corporation_Concorde%2C_Air_France_JP71122.jpg License: GFDL 1.2
Contributors:
• Gallery page http://jetphotos.net/viewphoto.php?id=71122 Original artist: Sunil Gupta
• File:Air_France_Aerospatiale_BAe_Concorde_101;_F-BVFB@ZRH;23.08.1998_(5888389391).jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Air_France_Aerospatiale_BAe_Concorde_101%3B_F-BVFB%40ZRH%3B23.
08.1998_%285888389391%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Air France Aerospatiale/ BAe Concorde 101; F-
BVFB@ZRH;23.08.1998 Original artist: Aero Icarus from Zürich, Switzerland
• File:Air_France_Concorde_(F-BTSD)_short-lived_Pepsi_logojet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/
4f/Air_France_Concorde_%28F-BTSD%29_short-lived_Pepsi_logojet.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: http://www.airliners.
net/photo/Air-France/Aerospatiale-British-Aerospace-Concorde/2061195/L/ Original artist: Richard Vandervord
• File:Air_France_Concorde_Jonsson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Air_France_Concorde_
Jonsson.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/Air-France/Aerospatiale-British-Aerospace-Concorde/
0432634/L/ Original artist: Alexander Jonsson
• File:Aviacionavion.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Aviacionavion.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
• Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg Original artist: Turkmenistan.airlines.frontview.arp.jpg: elfuser
• File:British_Airways_Concorde_G-BOAC_03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/British_
Airways_Concorde_G-BOAC_03.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/British-Airways/
Aerospatiale-BAC-Concorde-102/1406076/L/&width=1024&height=699&sok=WHERE__(photographer_%3D_%27Eduard_
Marmet%27)_&sort=_order_by_photo_id_DESC_&photo_nr=67&prev_id=1406077&next_id=1406075 Original artist: Eduard
Marmet
• File:British_Airways_Concorde_official_handover_ceremony_Fitzgerald.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/d/d6/British_Airways_Concorde_official_handover_ceremony_Fitzgerald.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors:
http://www.airliners.net/photo/British-Airways/Aerospatiale-BAC-Concorde-102/1851896/L/ Original artist: Steve Fitzgerald
14.2 Images 31

• File:British_Concorde.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/British_Concorde.jpg License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Plismo
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:ConcordeBG.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/ConcordeBG.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Image was moved from german wiki and I assume they won't move images without source (they are very picky about this over
there), see [1] Original artist: XOX
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cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Christian Kath Original artist: Christian Kath
• File:ConcordeFuselageSinsheim.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/ConcordeFuselageSinsheim.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Christian Kath
• File:Concorde_-_airframe_temperatures.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Concorde_-_airframe_
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• File:Concorde_G-BOAC.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Concorde_G-BOAC.png License: CC
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Wikipedia
• File:Concorde_at_Baginton_-_geograph.org.uk_-_156846.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/
Concorde_at_Baginton_-_geograph.org.uk_-_156846.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: E
Gammie
• File:Concorde_first_visit_Heathrow_Fitzgerald.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Concorde_
first_visit_Heathrow_Fitzgerald.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/British-Aircraft-Corporation/
Sud-BAC-Concorde/1929453/L/ Original artist: Steve Fitzgerald
• File:Concorde_fuel_trim.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Concorde_fuel_trim.svg License: GFDL
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steal88
• File:Concorde_landing_Farnborough_Fitzgerald.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Concorde_
landing_Farnborough_Fitzgerald.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/British-Aircraft-Corporation/
Aerospatiale-BAC-Concorde/1804269/L/ Original artist: Steve Fitzgerald
• File:Concorde_on_Bristol.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Concorde_on_Bristol.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Adrian Pingstone Original artist: Arpingstone
• File:Concorde_passenger_cabin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Concorde_passenger_cabin.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: dschwen
• File:Concorde_tail_gear.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Concorde_tail_gear.JPG License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mgw89
• File:Concordeintake.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Concordeintake.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: Moved from en:Image:Concordeintake.gif Original artist: Original uploader was Burbank at en.wikipedia.
• File:Concordev1.0.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Concordev1.0.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Julien.scavini
• File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-
cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors:
Adapted from <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg' class='image' ti-
tle='Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg'><img alt='Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg.png'
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logo_PLoS_white_green.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='640' data-file-height='1000'
/></a>
Original artist:
This version:Trappist_the_monk (talk) (Uploads)
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home_%288472694454%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: G-BOAB in new home Original artist: Simon Boddy from Maid-
enhead, Uk
32 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:G-BOAF_rudder_damage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/G-BOAF_rudder_damage.jpg Li-

cense: OGL 3 Contributors: https://www.gov.uk/aaib-reports/6-1989-concorde-102-g-boaf-12-april-1989 Original artist: DA Cooper for
the UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch
• File:HP.115.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/HP.115.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.handleypage.com/Aircraft_hp115.html Original artist: Photographer not identified, so UK Copyright contended to have lapsed 50
years after publication.
• File:Outlet_Concorde.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Outlet_Concorde.JPG License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: AlfvanBeem
• File:Queen_Elizabeth_II_and_Prince_Philip_disembark_from_a_British_Airways_Concorde.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Queen_Elizabeth_II_and_Prince_Philip_disembark_from_a_British_Airways_Concorde.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/Assets/1992/Air_Force/DF-ST-92-04789.JPEG Original artist: SRA
JERRY WILSON
• File:Russian_Tu-144LL_SST_Flying_Laboratory_Takeoff_at_Zhukovsky_Air_Development_Center.jpg Source: https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Russian_Tu-144LL_SST_Flying_Laboratory_Takeoff_at_Zhukovsky_Air_Development_
Center.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/photo/TU-144LL/HTML/EC97-44203-3.html
Original artist: NASA/IBP
• File:Singapore_Airlines_Concorde_Fitzgerald-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/
f2/Singapore_Airlines_Concorde_Fitzgerald-1.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: http://www.airliners.net/photo/
Singapore-Airlines-(British/Aerospatiale-BAC-Concorde-102/1801244/L/ Original artist: Steve Fitzgerald
• File:Sinsheim_Auto_&_Technik_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Sinsheim_Auto_
%26_Technik_Museum.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as [1] Original artist: Marcin Wichary
• File:Train_d'atterrissage_Concorde_Musee_du_Bourget_P1020039.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e3/Train_d%27atterrissage_Concorde_Musee_du_Bourget_P1020039.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Pline

14.3 Content license

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