1 KdV

Note: This corresponds to pg 31 in the book.

Recall

ut + uux + uxxx = 0 (KdV)

 Models shallow water waves

 Models waves in plasma e.g. Northern Lights

Let’s look for traveling wave solutions.

Assumptions

 u(x , t ) = f (z ), where z = x – ct .

 Because we are looking for solitons i.e pulse solutions, we assume that

lim f (z ), f 0 (z ), f 00 (z ) = 0
z →±∞

 Wave travels to the right i.e. c > 0

Now,

ux = f 0 , uxx = f 00 , uxxx = f 000 , ut = –cf 0 .

Thus,

– cf 0 + ff 0 + f 000 = 0
1 2 0
 
0
⇒ – cf + f + f 000 = 0
2
1
⇒ – cf + f 2 + f 00 = A
2
1
⇒ – cf + f 2 + f 00 = 0 (evaluating at z = ∞)
2
1
⇒ – cf f + f 0 f 2 + f 0 f 00 = 0
0
(multiplying by f 0 )
2
 0 
1 3 0 1  02 0

1
⇒–c f + f + f =0
2 6 2
1 1 1
⇒ – c f + f 3 + f 02 = B
2 6 2
1 1 3 1 02
–c f + f + f =0
2 6 2
02 2
⇒3f = (3c – f )f .

We need that f < 3c so make the signs on both sides match. Now,
√ 0
3f √ Z df
√ =1 ⇒ 3 √ = z + E.
f 3c – f f 3c – f

1
Let

–2gg 0 = f 0
p
g= 3c – f ⇒ i.e. (–2gdg = df )

So, our integral becomes

√ Z –2gdg √ Z dg
3 =z +E ⇒ –2 3 = z + E.
(3c – g 2 )g 3c – g 2
Using partial fractions,
√ !
3c + g √
ln √ = – c(z + E )
3c – g
√
√ e – c(z +E ) – 1
g= 3c √
e – c(z +E ) + 1
√
√

c
g = 3c tanh (z + E )
2
and

f = 3c – g 2
√ 
c 2
= 3c – 3c tanh (z + E )
2
√ 
2 c
= 3c sech (z + E )
2

Thus,
√ 
2 c
u(x , t ) = 3c sech (x – ct + E )
2
Things to notice:

 Taller waves travel faster

 Faster waves are more narrow.

 Amplitude: 3c, Velocity: c, Width: ≈ √1 ,

c
Center: x = ct – E .

2
 2 Wave Trains
 We found a pulse solution of KdV. Recall the definition of wave front and pulse.

 There are other types of traveling wave solutions.

Example 2.1. We see that

  
5
u(x , t ) = 3 cos(7x – 6t ) = 3 cos 7 x – t
7

is a traveling wave, but neither a front nor a pulse.

Definition 2.2. Traveling waves of the form

u(x , t ) = A cos (kx – ωt + φ)

are known as wave trains. We call

 A : amplitude

 k : wave number

 ω : frequency

 φ : phase shift

 v = ω/k : phase velocity

Note:  The wave number k denotes how many oscillations occur in x on the an interval of length 2π.
 The frequency ω denotes how many oscillations occur in t on a time period of length 2π.

3 Dispersion Relation
When wave trains are solutions to PDEs, k and ω are often related. This happens when wave trains model
physical phenomenon. Since sin and cos can be written in terms of complex exponentials, we look for
solutions of the form

{eq:wavetrain} u(x , t ) = e ikx –i ωt . (3.1)

Example 3.1. Let us look for wave train solutions to the wave equation

{eq:wave} utt = a 2 uxx . (3.2)

Assuming our solution has the form (3.1) and inserting into (3.2) gives

(i ω)2 e ikx –i ωt = a 2 (ik )2 e ikx –i ωt

⇒ (i ω)2 = a 2 (ik )2

3
 ⇒ω 2 = a 2 k 2
⇒ω1 = ak , ω2 = –ak

Our solutions are thus

u1 (x , t ) = e ik (x –at ) , u2 (x , t ) = e ik (x +at )

Example 3.2. Let us find wave train solutions of the PDE

{eq:wave2} utt = auxx – bu, a, b > 0. (3.3)

Inserting (3.1) into (3.3) gives

(–i ω)2 = a(ik )2 – b

–ω 2 = –ak 2 – b
ω 2 = ak 2 + b
p
ω1,2 = ± ak 2 + b.

Example 3.3. Consider the equation

i ϕt = ϕxx .

We get that ω = –k 2 .

Example 3.4 (Dispersion Relation for Systems). Consider the system of coupled PDE’s

ut = αux + vxxx
vt = βvx – uxxx .

Recall that when we wanted to solve

ay 00 + by 0 cy = 0,

we guessed y = e λt , and when we wanted to solve

y 0 = Ay,

where A is a matrix, we guessed y = e λt v for a vector v . So, we guess

! !
u ikx –i ωt U
=e .
v V

Substituting this in to the PDE system gives

–i ωU = αikV + (ik )3 V

4
 –i ωV = βikV – (ik )3 U

i.e.
! !
–i ω – αik ik 3 U
= 0.
ik 3 –i ω – βik V

Since we don’t care about U = V = 0, we assert that our matrix is singular i.e.
 
–i ω – αik ik 3 
 = k 6 – αβk 2 – αk ω + βk ω + ω 2 = 0.

 ik 3

–i ω – βik 

We get
 
1
q

ω1,2 = αk – βk ± k2 (α + β)2 – 4k 4
2

Why do I care about the dispersion relation?

We have a PDE with solutions

u(x , t ) = e ikx –ω(k )t .

Since the equations we have been considering are linear, we may superimpose all solutions of this form.

 Phase Velocity: We may rewrite e ik (x –cp (k )t ) , where cp (k ) = ω(k )/k . This is the velocity a single
wave train travels.

 Group Velocity: cg (k ) = dω
dk is called the group velocity.

What is the group velocity? Suppose that we are analyzing a wave train with wave number k0 and corre-
sponding frequency ω0 = ω(k0 ). Then, with ∆k = k – k0 , we can write

e ikx –i ω(k )t = e ik0 x –i ω0 t e i ∆k x –i (ω(k )–ω0 )t

0 2
= e ik0 x –i ω0 t e i ∆k x –i ((ω0 +ω (k0 )∆k +O(∆k ) )–ω0 )t
0 2
= e ik0 x –i ω0 t e i ∆k x –i (ω (k0 )∆k +O(∆k ) )t
≈ e ik0 x –i ω0 t e i ∆k (x –cg (k0 )t )

The term e i ∆k (x –cg (k0 )t ) acts like a varying amplitude for the wave train e ik0 x –i ω0 t . The individual waves
move the the phase velocity, while the packet moves with the group velocity. Wikipedia for the group
velocity.

Definition 3.5. A system is called dispersive if

1. the phase speed cp = ω(k )/k is real for real k ,

5
 2. the phase speed is not constant.

This implies that waves with different wave numbers travel with different speeds.

The dispersion relation need not be real.

Example 3.6. Let us find the dispersion relation for

ut uxx + cux .

We see that

–i ω = (ik )2 + cik ⇒ ω = –ik 2 – ck

In general, ω(k ) = ωR (k ) + i ωI (k ). Then

e ikx –it (ωR (k )+i ωI (k )) = e ωI (k )t e ikx –it ωR (k )

Definition 3.7. If ωI (k ) < 0 the system is called dissipative. If ωI (k ) > 0, the system is unstable.