2686 December, 1969

6943 December, 1969 ST 12

Experiments," Bul/etin 96, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, February 19, 1930.
10. Mctcalf, L., and Eddy, H. P., American Sewerage Practice, McGraw Hill Company, New York
1916, pp.481-534. •
11. Rowe, R. R., "Concrete Pipe in Highway Construction," Technical Memorandum, American Journal of the
Concrete Pipe Association, January I, 1962.
12. Spangler, M. G., "The Supporting Strength of Rigid Pipe Culverts,"
neering Experiment Station, February 8, 1933.
Bul/etin 112. lowa Engi.
~
STRUCTURAL DIVISION
13. Spangler, M. G., "Analysis of Loads and Supporting Strengths, and Principies of Design for ,~
Highway Culverts," Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1946, pp. 189-214.,: Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers
14. Timrners, J. H., "Load Study of Flexible Pipes Under High Fill," Bul/etin 125. Highway
Research Board, 1956, pp. 1-11.

"i':'

l:;~
·1:'

THEORYOF NONLINEARELASTIC STRUCTURES

By Graham H. Powell,l M. ASCE

INTRODUCTION

General theoretical formulations and computational techniques for the

analysis of linear elastic structures have been very thoroughly studied in
recent years. The theory can be elegantly and concisely expressed in standard
matrix form. Efficient solution procedures for both the force and displace-
ment methods are well established. No such standardízatíon exists, however,
.,~I

.~:
for the analysis of nonlínear elastic structures, as evidenced by recent papers
'i' (1,2,3,4,5,6).2 Indeed, it is still not clear what constitutes a consistent theo-
retical formulation of the problem.
In this paper , an attempt is made to separate, physically, the different
types of nonlinearity which are associated with large displacements of elastic
structures, to present a theoretical formulation in which these types of non-
linearity can be easily identified, and to examine a number of problems as-
sociated with solution techniques. The displacement method of analysis applied
to discrete element systems is used throughout, and it ís assumed that straíns
are small although displacements may be large. A member of a plane rigid
frame ís selected to illustrate the theory. This member is selected because
the results can be expressed compactly, and yet the features of more complex
structural elements are present. In particular, both flexural effects and axial
straín effects are present, and therefore, the principIes developed can be
extended to finite elements for plate bending, as well as for plane and three-
dimensional stress.
As the theory is developed, two alternative formulations are presented in
Note.-Discusslon open until May 1, 1970. To extend the closing date one month, a
written request must be filed with the Executive Secretary, ASCE. This paper is part
of the copyrighted Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 95, No. ST12, December, 1969. Manuscript was sub-
rnítted for review for possible publication on February 19, 1969.
1 Assist. ProL Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif.
2 Numerais in parentheses refer to corresponding items in the Appendix.- References.

2687
 December, 1969 ST 12
6943 December, 1969 ST 12
'6, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, February 19, 1930.
1. P., American Sewerage Practice, McGraw HiII Company, New Yor k,

: Pipe in Highway Construction," Technical Memorandum , American Journal of the

m, January I, 1962.
Supporting Strength of Rigid Pipe Culverts ," Bulletin 112, lowa Engi- STRUCTURAL DIVISIO
on, February 8, 1933,
ysis of Loads and Supporting Strengths, and Principies of Design for
'eedings, Highway Research Board, 1946, pp. 189-214.
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers
Study of Flexible Pipes Under High Fill" Bulletin 125 H' h '
J,I-II. " Ig way

THEORY OF NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES

By Graham H. Powe ll ;' M. ASCE

INTRODUCTION

General theoretical formulations and computational techniques for the

analysis of linear elastic structures have been very thoroughly studied ín
recent years. The theory can be elegantly and concisely expressed in standard
matrix formo Efficient solution procedures for both the force and displace-
ment methods are well established. No such standardization exists, however,
for the analysís of nonlinear elastic structures, as evidenced by recent papers
(1,2,3,4,5,6).2 Indeed, ít is still not clear what constitutes a consistent theo-
retical formulation of the problem.
In this paper , an attempt is made to separate, physically, the different
types of nonlinearity which are associated with large displacements of elastic
structures, to present a theoretical formulation in which these types of non-
linearity can be easily identified, and to examine a number of problems as-
sociated wíth solution techniques. The displacement method of analysis applied
to discrete element systems ís used throughout, and it is assumed that straíns
are small although displacements may be large. A member of a plane rigid
frame ís seIected to illustrate the theory. This member is sel ected because
the results can be expressed compactly, and yet the features of more complex
structural eIements are present. In particular, both flexural effects and axial
str ain effects are present, and therefore, the principIes deveIoped can be
extended to finite elements for plate bending, as well as for plane and three-
dimensional stress.
As the theory is developed, two alternative formulations are presented in
I\'ote.-Discussion open until May 1, 1970. To extend the closing date one month, a
written request must be filed with the Executive Secretary, ASCE. This paper is part
of the copyrighted Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the Amer ícan
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 95, No. ST12, December, 1969. Manuscript was sub-
mitted for review for possible publication on February 19, 1969,
1 Assist. Prof. Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Calif., Berke iey , Calif.
2 Numerals in parentheses refer to corresponding items in the Appendix.- References.

2687
r

2688 December, 1969 NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES

ST 12 2689

parallel, one of a "traditional" engineering type and one in general matrix in which CJ1 = bending moment; CJ2 = axial force; E1 = EI; E = Young's modu-
form. The development proceeds as follows: lus; I = second moment of area of cross section; E2 = EA; A = area of cross
section; E 1 = curvature of mem ber axis; and E 2 = axial strain.
1. Basic definitions and equations are presented. Member Actions and Deformations .-ln order to develop a theory which is
2. Geometric compatibility relationships between member deformations applicable when member rigid body rotations are large, the deformations and
and joínt displacements are examined. rigid body displacements of the members are separated. Fig. 1 shows a frame
3. Equilibrium equations for members and joints are developed. member supported so that its chord undergoes no rigid body displacement.
4. The essential equations of the problem are identified. The member generalized deformations, v1, v2 and v3, as shown, and the corre-
5. The role of the tangent stiffness in analysis is described, and expres , sponding actions, 51, S2 and S3' are selected for the derivation of the theory.
síons for tangent stiffness are derived. The member deformations are assumed to be small. That is, v1 and v2 are
smalI ín compartson with uníty , and vi, v~, and vs/ L are negligible in com-
In this development, member deformations and joint displacements are parison with unity. Members which may undergo large flexural deformations
separated, in order to present a theory which is applicable when rigid body must be subdivided into shorter members. Large axial deformations are not
rotatíons of the members are large. A more direct formulation, in which permitted.
member deformations are not expl'ícttly examined, is considered at the end In order for the behavior of the complete structure to be defined uniquely
of the paper. This type of formulation has commonly been used, but it ís ín terms of its joint displacements, the deformations of alI differential ele-
argued herein that ít is not as satisfactory as the less direct formulation.

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC RELATIONSHIPS

Structure. - The structure consists of a number of rigid body [oínts linked

together by deformable structural members. In thís study the members are

RI,rl
-

SI( r:
'::~;;
FIG. 2.-DISPLACEMENTS OF DIFFERENTIAL
YLx
FIG. 3.-JOINT LOADS
ELEMENT AND DISPLACEMENTS

ments in a member must be defined uniquely in terms of the member gener-

FIG. 1.-;\1EMBER ACTIONS AND DEFORMATIONS alized deformations. Transverse displacements, w, are therefore constrained
to vary cubically with the distance along the member chord, and longitudinal
initially straight, and their elastí c properties are assumed to be concentrated displacements, u, to vary linearly (Fig. 2). The following linear transformation
along theír axes. External loads are applied only at the joints. is then consistent wíth the small deformations assumption:
Differential Element.-Each
differential elements.
member is made up of an infinite number of
The deformations
sumed to be small, and the relationships
of all differential elements are as-
between actions and deformations
are aSSumed to be linear. In general, differential elements will be elements
tl = [LU? - :P' .p)
L(P3 _ p2)

o :J l::\ ........... (3)

of material wíth stress and straín related by Hooke's law. However, an ele-
ment of a plane frame member is more simply taken as an ele mental length in which the deformed length, L, is not significantly different from the original
of beam, with stress and strain resultants related by length, Lo.
The differential element deformations are given by
CJ1=EIE1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
(1)
and CJ2 = E2 E2 ............ ............. .. . . . ..... (2)
E1 = d2w
dx2 = L1 (6p - 4)v1 +
1
L (6p - 2)v2 ••.....••..••.• (4)

"i~

__ "t1
 .,
..... ,":, ...
~ ".
.• ;
.

2690 December, 1969 ST 12 NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES 2691

ST 12
which is a linear function of the displacements, and displacing from an initial state, O, to a new state, A, can be formulated as
du 1 (dW)2 follows (Fig. 5):
E2 = dx +"2 dx
= Xo + r4 - r1
(9a)
........... (5) XA
E3 + .! {(3p2 _
4p + l)v, + (3p' - 2p)v,)' ( YA = Yo + rs - r2 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
(9b)
L 2
v = (x3t + y3t)1/2 - Lo . (9c)
in which the quadratic term introduces the effects of large displacements. 3

More generally, if {v} = <v1 v2 vs> T, then (9d)

eo = tan-1 (~)

Ei = <ai(p»{v} + {{v}T <bi(P»T <bi(P» {v} (6a)

OA = tan-1 (~)
................. (ge)
in which the first and second terms on the right-hand side are, respectively,
the linear and quadratic components of deformation, and in which for E 1 v = 0 + r3 - eA •••.....•.....•.•....•......•.• (9f)
1 0
1 1
<a1> = <L (6p - 4) L (6p - 2) O> (6b) v
2
= eo + r
6
- eA .•.....•••••••.....•...••..•.•• (9g)

and <b1> = <O O O> ..................... (6c) More generally, as a structure deforms from state O to state A, it moves
and for E2
1
<a2> <O O L> (6d) 's t '{6 r5
and <b2> = «3p2 - 4p + 1) (3p2 - 2p) O> (6e) -r4

Joint Loads and Displacements .-The displacements of any joint consist of ~/- Yo
translations, r1 and r2' along the fixed coordinate directions, X and Y, and a
rotation rs, as in Fig. 3. The joint loads are the corresponding forces Rl1 R2 y \.: ~rl ~n
and R3. ~r4

Geometric Compatibility.-For a vanishingly small change of geometry of

the structure about any deformed or undeformed configuration, a linear dís-
placement transformation can be written as
Cx rl •. l. XA _I

FIG. 4.-MEMBER ARBITRARIL Y FIG. 5.-INITIAL AND FINAL

ORIENTED IN SPACE STATES OF MEMBER
{dv} = [c] {dr} (7)

in which {dv} = matrix of deformation increments for a single member or any through an infinite number of intermediate states, and the transformation can
group of members; {dr} = matrix of displacement increments at one or more
be written as
joints; and [c] = displacement transformation matrix which is instantaneously
correct in the particular configuration of the structure. For the single member
in Fig. 4, the transformation is well known, as follows:
{VA} = J {rA} [cr] {dr} .........................•.. (10)
o

âr; in which {VA} = matríx of member deformations in state A; {r A} = matrix of

dv [_l c s -c joint displacements in state A; and [cr] = instantaneously correct displace-

;j
1 âr; ment transformation matrix at any intermediate state.

i
L L L
Eqs. 9a-9g are símple to use in computation for a frame member, and it
c -c drs
{dvl-
dvs -c
L
-5
O

O
5
L
C
T
5
dr 4
! .......•..•• (8)
should generally be possible to establish similar direct relationships for other
structural elements. However, it may be convenient to evaluate member de-
íormations by numerical integration of Eq. 10. For example, the form
drs
âr, N
= ~ ~ .•.....................•.. (11)
in which 5 = sínê ; and c = cos«. {VA} [cn] {rA}
For large displacements, the transformation is not, of course, linear. For n=l
purposes of computation, the nonlinear transformation for a frame member can be used, in which {r A} is divided into N equal parts and [cn ] is the instan-

..........,... 'tt t
~

2692 December, 1969 ST 12 ST 12 NONL1NEAR ELAST1C STRUCTURES 2693

taneously correct
each parto
displacement transformation at the beginning or middle of
+ L: to {dv}T <bi>T <bi> {VA} e, <ae {VA} . Ldp

EQUILIBRIUM + L: "21 J1 {dV}T <bi>T <bi> {VA} e, {vAF <bi>T <bi> {VA} . Ldp (19)
o
Joint Equilibrium.-All joínts and members must be in equilibrium in the
deformed configuration of the structure. The equilibrium equations are con- The imaginarydeformation, {dv}, can be cancelled, and the integraIs of Eqs.
veniently established by application of the Virtual Displacements PrincipIe. 18 or 19 can be evaluated analytically for a frame member to give the result:
For an infinitesimal imaginary displacement, {dr}, about the deformed
state, A, the member deformations, {dV}, are given by 2 1 O
{dv} = [CA]
in which [c A] is the instantaneously
{dr}
correct displacement
matrix in state A. The virtual work equation is then
transformation
(12)

l::(. 'fI O
1 2

O
O

A
21
1::\
{dj:} T {RA} = {dv} T {SA} •....................•... (13)
-L ( z 2) 4Vi - v2
in which {RA} isthe matrix of [oínt loads in state A; and {SA} isthe matrix of 1~0 (4vi - v1VZ + VZ)2 280 v1 + v2 30 I I v1
member actions in state A. Therefore, Irom Eq. 12, and because {dr} is
arbitrary
+ EA I -L ( 2 2)
280 Vi + v2 1~0 (vi - V1V2 + 4v~) 4V23~ V1 I \ V2) (20)
{RA} = [cAl T {SA} (14)
4V1~ 4v1 - v2
The force transformation matrtx, [c A] T, is dependent on the displacements O I I vg
of the structure. 60 60
Member Equilibrium.-The chain of equations linking joint displacements
{rA} and loads {R A} in state A is completed byestablishing a re lationship be- This equation can be written symbolically as
tween member actions {SA} and deformations {VA}'
For a single frame member, an infinitesimal imaginary displacement {dv} {sAl = [[k1] + [kz (VA)]J {VA} = [ks] {VA} (21)
about its deformed position leads, by differentiation of Eqs. 4 and 5, to imag-
Matrix [k1] is the ordinary linear stiffness of the member. Matrix [k 5] is the
inary differential element deformations dE1 and dEz given by
secant stiffness of the member, and is obviously deformation dependent.
- 1 - 1 - If pseudostrains Yi are defined by
dE1 = L (6p - 4)dv1 + L (6p - 2)dvz ................•. (15)
Yi = <bi> {liA} ....... , . (22)
-
and dEz = T
dv + { (3p2 - 4p + l)v1 + (3pZ - 2p)vz }
then Eq. 19 can be rearranged to give
x {(3pZ - 4p + 1)dv1 + (3pZ - 2P)dv2} (16)
More generally, the following equation is obtained by differentiation of Eq. 6: {SA} = L: to <ai>T z, <ai> Ldp {VA}

dEi = <ai> {ãv} + {v}T <lu» T <bi> {dv} (17)

The virtual work equation ís + "21 L: J1o <ai>T s, Yi <bi> Ldp {VA}

{dvF {sAl = L: t a,
o
ai lilp = L: to a, s, Ei Ldp ..... (18)
+ L: Jo 1
<bi>T s, Yi <ae lilp {VA}

or, from substitution of Eqs. 17 and 6 into Eq. 18

{dv}T {SA} = L: to {dvF <ai>T z, <ai> {VA} . Ldp

+ '21 L: f1
o
<bi>TYi EiYi «b,» lilP {VA} .......•......... (23)

These integraIs can be evaluated exactly or approximately by numerical inte-

+ L: ~ t o
{dvF <ai>T Ei {vAF <beT <bt> {VA} . Ldp gration. The procedure ís general because the integration can be carried out
over surfaces and volumes as wellas in one dimension. A substantial simpli-
 .,.'i

".
...... ,-.
.";;'1~·4
,.. ;;:' ,',
.

2694 December, 1969 ST 12 ST 12 NONLINEAR ELA$TIC STRUCTURES 2695

fication, possibly wíth no great loss in accuracy, can be achieved by assigning 5tiffness ís largely just a tool which is a part of some solutíon techniques. The
constant values to Yi' fundamental equations are Eqs. 10, 21 and 14, and if a solution can be Iound
which satisfies these equations, by any technique whatsoever, this is a valid
solution.
ESSENTIAL EQUATIONS Member Tangent Stiffness in Member Coordinates.-In any state , A, an
equation of the íorrn
The essential equations which must be satisfied can be summarized as
follows: {dS} = [tA] {dv} ................................ (24)
{rA}
ís sought, in whieh [IA] is the mem ber tangent stiffness in state A. This ma-
{VA} =
o
J [an ]{dr} . (10) trix is obtained most directly for a frame member by differentiating Eq. 20
with respect to {v}. The result is

j r'l
{SAl = [ks] {VA} (21)
{RA} = [aAF {SAl . (14) as, \ 2
Nonlinearity is present because the displacement transformation is nonlinear
(Eq. 10), the members behave nonlinearly (Eq. 21), and the equilibrium equa- dS2) = 22 1 2
1
o
O
dV2
tíons must be formulated in the deformed configuration (Eq. 14).
In computational algorithms, one or more of these nonlinearites may be o ~ dvs
ignored, and approxírnate results obtaíned. For example, for finite element dSs' LO
analyses in which the elements are smal l , a common assumption might be that
the member nonlinearity, represented by Eq. 21, can be ignored. The influence [( L(12,: - 3v, u + vj) ~) ( - L(3': - ''', " + 3,:) _ "- )
140 + 15 280 30
of this particular assumption on the solution technique is noted subsequently.
+ EA .
t .
symme rrc
( L(v~ - 3v)v2 + 12vV
140 +
5
15
)
TANGENT STIFFNESS

General.-In "exact" computational algorithms for large nonlinear struc-

( 4v)3~ v2 )

l
tures, the non-linear problem is most commonly solved by a Newton type of
dVi2 (
dV ••••••• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (25)
{R} FIRST DISPLACEMENT ESTIMATE
SECOND DISPLACEMENT ESTIMATE
( 4V23~ Vi ) dvs

B
EXACT SOLUTION o
TANGENT
SECOND UNBALANCED whieh ean be written as
AT O
FORCE
FIRST UNBALANCED {zs} = [[ti] + [12(VA)]] {dv} = [tA] {dv} (26)
FORCE

{r} More generally, the tangent stiffness is obtained by differentiating Eq. 19.
O
This differentiation is conveniently, and instruetively, carried out as follows.
Two states are eonsidered, namely {VA}, {SA} and {VA + tov}, {SA + toS}. ln
each of these states a virtual displacement is imposed and an equilibrium equa-
FIG. 6.-DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF NEWTON PROCEDURE
tion in the form of Eq. 19 is developed. The first equation is then subtracted
from the seeond to give an equation for {toS}. Both {toS} and {to v} are then made
method in a series of linear steps. The procedure is well known andphysically
to tend to zero, 50 that high order terms in {tov} can be ignored. The result
reasonable, being one in which a solutíon which satisfies compatibility is sue-
cessively corrected until it also satisfies equilibrium. The basie method is ean then be arranged as
illustrated diagramatically in Fig. 6.
For this method to be applied, tangent stiffnesses for the structure are
required. In this sectíon , expressions for the tangent stiffness matrix of a
{dS} = I ro
<ai>T e, <ai> Ldp . {dv}

single member are developed. The tangent stiffness of the complete structure
is then considered in the following section. + If <ai>T e, Yi <bi> Ldp . {dv}
It should be emphasized that, except for stability investigations, the tangent o
fr;
;' ~I
I

:: i'"
2696 December, 1969
NONLINEARELASTIC STRUCTURES
.. ,
o''::

"v-
' ..
. '1-/'.':"
ST 12 2697
+ L to <bi>TEiYi<ai>Ldp· {dv} 1l2U
and tij = -",-",- , ,.......... (31)
uVi uVj
1
+ Lf <bi>T r, z, r, <bi> Ldp . {dv} ín which U = strain energy; and tij = term of tangent stiffness matrix.

STRUCTURETANGENT STIFFNESS
+ L to <bi>T ai <bi> Ldp . {dv}
Member Tangent Stiffness in Structure Coordinates .-An equation of the
form
The first term on the ríght-hand side of this equation is the ordinary linear {dR} = [TA) {dr} (32)
stiffness of the member. The remaining terms depend on the deformations
or the member, and may be collectively termed the "inítíal straín= stiffness ís sought, in which [TA 1 is the tangent stiffness of a singIe member or a group
of the member. The tangent stiffness matrix will always be symmetrical, and of members in the fixed coordinates, X, Y. The following equations can be
numerical evaluation of the integraIs is possible. written:
Initial Stress Stiffness.-If, in Eq. 25, the flexural deformations, v and v , {dS} = [tA 1 {dv} (26)
l
are made equal to zero, the result is 2

{dv} = [cAl {dr} (33)

~ -~30 and {dR} = [CA]T{dS} + [dcF{SA} (34)
15
Eq. 34 is obtained by differentiation of Eq. 14, in which the force transforma-

:1
[t2(vA») EA I _!a. ~ tion matrix, [CA]T, is a functí on of the joint dispIacements, {r}. Eqs. 26 and
30 15 ..................... (28)
33 can be substituted into Eq. 34 to give
O O
{dR} = [cAF [tA) [cAl {dr} + [dcl
T
{SAI t (35)
= [Tl) {dr} + [dcF {SA} (
2
15
-1
30 ol Matrix [Tl] is the member tangent stiffness transformed into structure co-
-1 2 ordinates, and accounts for the changes in magnitude of the member end forces
or [12(VA») as the structure deforms. Term [dc F {SA} accounts, essentially, for the
SsL I 30

O
TI
O :J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (29)
changes in direction of the member end forces as the structure deforms. This
second term must be rearranged as
[dc]T {SAI = [T2) {dr} (36)
This matrix now corresponds to the last term on the right-hand side of Eq. 27.
It is appropriately termed the "initial stress" stiffness matrix of the member, in which matrix [T2) can be termed the "geometric" stiffness.
following the terminology used by Turner, Martin and others (6,5). A further Two methods of making this rearrangement are considered herein. The
contribution to the structure tangent stiffness, more appropriately identified as first method, which is essentially that used by Argyris (1), involves differen-
a "geometric" stiffness, fol lowingthe terminology of Argyris (1), is considcred tíation of the force transformation matrix, [cA) T, and s "exact" but does not í

in the next sectíon, appear to guarantee that a symmetric stiffness matrix will resulto The second
It can be seen that the true member tangent stiffness is not ín general ob- method follows more cIosely the derivations of the prevíous sectíons, but re-
tained by adding the ordinary linear stiffness to the "ínítíal stress= stiffness. quires that some terms be ignored a prior i.
Nevertheless, because convergence can be obtaíned by a Newtontype of method Method 1, Differentialion of Force Transformation.-The matrtx, (cAF,
without the use of an exact tangent, it may be satisfactory ín practice to use for a frame member ís a function of the inítial geometry of the structure and
thís approximation to the true tangent stiffness. For stability investigations the joint displacements, rl through re (Fig. 4). Therefore
of such structures as axially loaded, geometrically perfect columns, the as-
sumption that the flexural deformations are initially zero is, however, correct.
It may also be noted that the derivations of Eqs. 23 and 27 are identical in (dc) T _
- /.J\' [ SC JT
Ilri dri' , (37)
principIe to the use of the strain energy expressions t= 1

Si = .E!.-
ôVi ......................... . . . . . . . . . . " (30) and [dcJT {SA} = ,'[SCJTIlri
J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (38)
.ú lSA} drj
z.= 1

l
 2698 December, 1969 ST 1. ST 12
NONLINEAR ELASTIC STRUCTURES 2699
,.
.
. '\
":' \ ~.:\!'.:

"

Eq. 38 can now be arranged in the form of Eq. 36, in which column i of [T l i surne that for moderately small changes of [oint displacernent {~r} about some
[8 e/ er il T {SA}' If the multiplication sequence is reordered,
2
matrix [T l C deforrned posttíon of the structure , nonlinear relationships between change
2
be expressed in the more convenient form: of rnember deforrnation and change of joint displacement can be written, and
that these relationships can be approximated by the linear and quadratic terms
[T2l = SI [T2] + S2[T22] + S3[T23l . onlyas
in which column i of [ T2j 1 is column j of [ôe/ õr i J T.
For a planeframe member, matrices [éle/8ri]T can be evaluated from Eq. t.Vi = <di> {t.r} + ~ {~rF [eil {t.r} (44)
8, using .
For an infinitesimal increase, {d~r}, in {~r}, such as will be ímposed in
[~JT
8ri
= [8eJT
88
~
8ri
+ [~JT
si.
u:
8ri
applying the virtual displacements principIe, the following equation is obtained
by differentiating Eq. 44:
The result is
d~Vi = <di> {d~r} + {~rF [eil {dt.r} (45)
-2se (e2 _ S2) O 2se (S2 _ e2) O Consider, now, the equilibrium between the [oint loads and the member actions
2se (S2 - in two adjacent states {r}, {R}, {S} and {r + t.r}, {R + t.R}, {S}, in which{S}
O c2) -2se O
remains constant. In the first state, the virtual work equation is
[T21l = [T22] = i2 I symmetric
O O O
(e2 _ S2)
O
(41) {d~'tF {R} = ~ dt.Vi Sil,6 r=o = {dt.'t}T L: Si <di>T (46)
-2se O
2se O
In the second state, the virtual work equation is
O
{dt.rF {R + t.R} = ~ dt.Vi Sil,6r=M ~
S2 -se O _S2 se O (47)
e2 O _e2
se O = {dt.rF L: Si [<di>T + [eiV {~r}l)

and [T23] = -b I symmetric

O O
S2
O
-se
O
O I ............. (42)
Therefore, if Eq. 46 is subtracted from Eq. 47 the result í s
c2
O
{t.R} = [~ Si [ei1T] {~r} , (48)
O
in which s = síns, and e = cose.
For more complex structural elements, it should generally be possible to For a frarne mem ber, it is found that there is no simple and direct way to
carry out the corresponding manipulations. The member tangent sttifness in determine [eil for the flexural effects, i = 1 and i = 2. However, if ttís as-
structure coordinates is then given by sumed, a priori, that the "geometric" stiffness effects associated with the
flexural actions SI and S2 are zero, then this problem can be ignored. The
[TA) = [TIl + [T2l (43) quadratic term inthe equation for ~ v3 ís then L(~e)2, and therefore matrix [e31
However, by this method there appears to be no guarantee that [ T21 will al- is readi1y written as
ways be symmetric. (49)
[e31 = <f3>T <f3> ...............................
If the manipulations required to develop Eqs. 41 and 42 are examined, it is
found that for [T21] and (T22] there are contributions of similar orders of O -sine cose O> (50)
in which <f 3> = L-1/2 <sinO -cose
magnitude from the differentiations with respect to both e and L. That is, the
influence of the change in mangitude of the end shears, (SI + S2)/ L, as the Therefore, matrix (T21 becomes S3[ e3], in which [e31 is found to be identical
member changes length is of the same order of magnitude as the influence of to matrix [T231 in Eq. 42.
the changes in direction of those shears as the member rotates. However, it "Correct" Tangent Sliffness for Use in Large tnepiacements Analysis.-
has already been assumed that change of member length is negligible, and, For any rnathernatically idealized structure, the most reliable and rapid con-
therefore, for consistency [ T21) and [ T221 should both be ignored. On the other vergence can be expected by a Newton type of method if the tangent stiffness
hand, the terms in [T23] result solely from differentiation with respect to e, which is used is exact for the idealized structure. As noted previously, a
and are not negligible. common assumptíon in the analysís of finite element systems is that the mem-
Method 2, Use of Nonlinear Deformation-DisPlaeement Relationship.-As- ber actíon deformation relationship of Eqs. 21 and 23 can be linearized as

l .....-.......11
 ~
.~~
NONLINEAR ELAST'IC STRUCTURES 2701
2700 December, 1969 ST 12 ST 12

{SA} [k1l {VA} = \' J1

i.J <ai>T s, <ai> JJlp . {VA} . (51)
bers result in turn from the nonlinear transformations relating differential
o element deformations to member deformations, and from the necessity of
formulating the member equilibrium equations in the deformed configurations
If this assumption is made, it becomes an integral part of the mathematical . of the members. The nonlinearity which originates within the members has
idealization. It follows immediately that the member tangent stiffness, from f!!, been termed the "initial strain" effect herein, and that which originates outside
Eqs. 26 and 27 is ~ the members has been termed the "geometric" effect.
1.' Expressions for the secant and tangent stiffne sses of members and struc-
{.
{dS} = [t11 {di'} ~'
t <ai>T tt, <ai> Ldp . {dd ......... (52)
tnr e s have been presented in a cornpact Ior m , which can be extended to finite
element systems of a variely of types. The importance oí selecting consistent
tangent stiffnesses for solutions by methods of Newton type has been e mpha-
That is, the "initial strain" stiffness is implicitly ignored, and the only addí- sized, and it has been shown that the "initial strain" erfcct may have to be
tional contribution to the structure tangent stiffness must be the "geometric" ignored.
stiffness. If a more elaborate form of the tangent stiffness is used, it wiU Of course, a statement oí theory does not constitute a solution. Consider-
actually be less exact, and may be expected to lead to less rapid convergence. able work remains to be carried out to select efficient computational algorithms
and to determine the relative importance of the different types of nonlinearity.

DIRECT FORMULATION

In the preceding the o ry , mem be r deformations we re de liberately separated APPENDN.-REFERENCES

from member rigid body displacements, in order to develop a general theory
permitting large rigid body rotations. If the [oint displacements are such that
the member rigid body rotatíons are known not to be large, then direct non-
linear relationships between the differential element deformations and joint I. Argyris, J. H., Kelsey, S., and Kamel, H .. "Matrix Methods in Structural Analysis." Agardo-
displacements can be written as
graph 72, Pergamon Press, New York, 1964, pp. 1-164.
2. Connor, J. J., Logcher. R. D., and Chan. S. c., "Nonlinear Analysis of Elastic Framed Struc-
Ei = <f[i> {r} + ~ {r} T <hi> T «lt ;» {r} (53) urres." .Iournal o/ lhe Structural õivision, ASCE. Vol. 94, No. ST6, Proc. Paper 6011, June 1968,
pp.1525-1548.
for which appropriate matrices <f[ i? and «h ;» can be determined. Expressions 3. Felippa, C. A., "Refined Finite Elemenl Analysis of Linear and Nonlinear Two-Dimensional
for the secant and tangent stiffnesses directly in structure coordinates can now Strur.tures," SES M Repor/66-22. University of California, Berkeley, 1966.
be derived, by the same methods and with similar form as Eqs. 23 and 27. 4_ Malleu, R. H., and Marcal, P. V., "Finite Element Analysis of Nonlinear Structur es." .Iournal 01
ihe Structura! Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST9, Proc. Paper 6115, SepL. 1968, pp. 2081--2105.
If the joint displacements are not moderately small, however, the re lation-
5. Martin, H_ c., "On lhe Derivation of Stiffness Matrices for the Analysis of Large Deflection and
ship represented by Eq. 53 may not be sufficiently accurate. In thí s case,
Stability Problerns ," Pruceedings. Conference on Matrix Methods in Structur al Mechanics,
either higher order terms must be included in Eq. 53 or the theory of the
Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, October, 1965, pp. 697- 716.
previous sections must be applied. Even if Eq. 53 is sufficiently accurate, the 6. Turner, M. J., Martin, 1-1.c., and Weikel, R. C .. "Further Development and Application of the
direct formulation does not require substantially less computational or com- Stiffness Method." Agardograph 72. Pcrgamon Pr ess. New Yor k , 1964, pp. 203- 266.
puter coding effort to apply than the indirect formulation. Fu rthe r , the indirect
formulation has the advantage that the "initial strain" and the "geometric"
~.
nonlinear effects are distinctly separated, so that the "initial strain" effect
can be ignored if the initialassumptions require it. It appears, therefore, that ~,.

the indirect formulation should be preferable in all cases.

?r
:'\

CONC LUS10NS

In this paper the three major sources of nonlinearity in elastic structures

undergoing large displacements have been distinguished, and the essential
equations of the problem have been stated. It has been shown that the non-
linearity of the structure results from the nonlinearity of the transformations
relating member deformations to joint displacements, from the necessity of
formulating the joint equilibrium equations in the displaced configuration of
the structure, and from the nonlinear action-deformation relationships of the
structural members. The nonlinearities orginating within the structural mern-