Air Polution

Introduction

The Earth is surrounded by gases called air which forms the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a
complex dynamic natural system essential to support life on the Earth. The air interacts with water and
land. Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Acid rain falling on the ground is a
result of air pollution. Many pollutants such as particulate matters, heavy metal, and ozone are able to
influence water quality and ecosystem functions. On the other hand, polluted rivers/lakes and sewage
systems can cause air pollution in their surrounding areas. Therefore, it is important for a water engineer
to understand the air and its related quality issues, and vice versa for an air quality engineer to understand
water pollutions.

Composition of Air

The composition of dry air is listed in the table below. This table changes with time (e.g., CO2
concentration has been in increase with time). Air also normally contains water vapour (variable, about
1% - 4% at surface), dust, pollen, spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and various industrial pollutants. The
greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone (bold formulas
in Table 9.1). The air density at sea level is 1.2kg/m3 and it decreases with the increasing height.

Composition of Dry Air (NOAA, 2012)

Structure of the Atmosphere

The earth atmosphere has distinctive layers with a total mass of 5×1018 kg, three quarters of which
is within the bottom 11 km. The atmosphere becomes progressively thinner with altitude without abrupt
boundary. However, the Kármán line at an altitude of 100 kilometres above the Earth’s sea level is
commonly used as the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. Beyond this altitude, the
atmosphere becomes too thin to provide sufficient aerodynamic lift to support any aeronautical vehicles
within the orbital speed of the earth.

The atmospheric is divided into several layers based on temperature profiles

1. Troposphere

It ranges from 9km at the poles to 17 km at the equators (it varies with seasons as well). This
layer is heated by energy transfer from the ground surface and temperature decreases with altitude. It
contains 80% of the atmospheric mass and 99% of its water vapour (supplied from the surface by
evaporation and transpiration). Since saturation water vapour pressure decreases as temperature drops,
the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere decreases with height. In the lowest part of the
troposphere, the planetary boundary layer (PBL) is directly influenced by its contact with the ground
surface. Within PBL, the wind is affected by surface drag (hence turbulent) and moves across the isobars
(while above PBL, the wind is along the isobars). The wind speed increases with the altitude in a power
law form with a zero value at the ground surface due to the non-slip condition. The turbulence causes
vertical mixing in the air, which plays an important role in pollutant dispersion. PBL’s depth varies widely
between 50m (e.g., in a calm night) to 2000m (e.g., in a hot afternoon) with a typical value of 300m in
mid-latitudes.

2. Stratosphere

It extends from the tropopause (the top of the troposphere) to about 50 km. In contrast to the
troposphere, the temperature here increases with height due to increased absorption of ultraviolet
radiation by the ozone layer. It has restricted turbulence and mixing due to its temperature profile
(warmer air above colder air), hence it is dynamically stable (i.e., no regular convection and turbulence).
Airliners usually fly at the bottom of the stratosphere to take advantage of the thin air for reduced drag
and to avoid extreme turbulence in the troposphere.

3. Mesosphere
 This is from 50km to 80km with its temperature decreasing in height. Atmospheric tide, gravity
wave and planetary wave are featured here. Millions of meteors collided with the earth are mostly melted
or vaporised in this layer.

4. Thermosphere

It ranges from 80km to 350~800km (it varies with solar activity). The air is very thin here and
stable with increasing temperature (up to 1500 o C).

Transport of Air

The movement of air is divided in two categories: the outdoor environment (ambient air) and
indoor environment.

Global transport

Among the layers of the atmosphere, the two layers near the Earth surface are more relevant to
air pollution. The troposphere is the primary place to receive the pollution emissions from human and
nature. The processes of transport and transformation influence the fate of the pollutant. Due to its stable
temperature profile, there is little mixing in the stratosphere. The strong solar radiation (especially
ultraviolet) in this layer converts oxygen (O2) into ozone (O3) by photochemical reaction to create the well
known ozone layer. Over the globe, there exist large scale air movements due to uneven solar radiation
distribution and rotation of the Earth. It can be seen that air does not obey geopolitical boundaries and
air pollution can be trans-boundary.

Regional transport

High and low air pressures dominate regional air transport. Low pressure is created when air is
warmed to rise by surface heating. High pressure is created when air descends to the ground. Air tends to
move from a high pressure area to a low pressure area. In a low pressure region, air quality may improve
due to dispersion and precipitation cleansing.

Local transport

Due to the different temperatures between land and sea in the coastal area, the wind direction
changes during the morning and evening as shown in Figure 9.3. In the morning, cleaner air moves to the
land and is then polluted by human activities. Pollutant concentration increases as the air moves further
inland. In the evening, the opposite wind movement occurs with the polluted air moves to the sea (and
with its impact on the sea aquatic ecosystem). Understanding such a diurnal movement is important for
coastal residents to cope with air pollution problems in the area.

Indoor air

Indoor air quality has a significant impact on human health. Design of ventilation system in a
building influences temperature, humidity and pollutant movement. Natural ventilation systems use
outdoor wind and differences of indoor/outdoor temperature. They are based on the pressure creased
by outdoor air striking a building (positive on the windward and negative on the leeside), and the pressure
caused by temperature differences in different parts of the building (warmer air is lighter than cold air).
Such systems are usually suitable for mild or moderate climates with minimum ambient air pollution. In
contrast, mechanical ventilation systems provide controlled ventilation to the building, usually coupled
with heating, cooling and air pollution control. Such systems are called HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, Air
Conditioning). If possible, natural ventilation should be preferred over mechanical ventilation.