Several algorithms are used in the creation of the computer graphics application

. These are already existing algorithms which are used to implement most of the
graphic features . The algorithms are:
1. Bresenham s Line Drawing Algorithm
2. Bresenham s Circle Drawing Algorithm
3. Midpoint Ellipse Drawing Algorithm
4. Flood Fill Algorithm
About Author
This tutorial is submitted by Sajith and Mahesh , 2007 Computer Science Pass ou
t from TocH Institute Science and Technology -Arakkunnam Ernakulam
Bresenham s Line Drawing Algorithm
Bresenham's line algorithm is an algorithm that determines which points in an n-
dimensional raster should be plotted in order to form a close approximation to a
straight line between two given points. It is commonly used to draw lines on a
computer screen, as it uses only integer addition, subtraction and bit shifting
all of which are very cheap operations in standard computer architectures. It is
one of the earliest algorithms developed in the field of computer graphics.The
line is drawn between two points (x0, y0) and (x1, y1), where these pairs indica
te column and row, respectively, increasing in the down and right directions.
Illustration
of the result of Bresenham's line algorithm.
The algorithm initially assumes that the line goes down and to the right, and th
at the horizontal distance x1-x0 exceeds the vertical distance y1-y0 (that is, t
he line has a slope greater than -1 and less than 0). For each column x between
x0 and x1, the row y in that column which is closest to the line and plot a pixe
l at (x, y) is identified.
To find out which pixel is closest to the line for a given column a general for
mula for the line between the two points is used:
Since we know the column, x, the pixel's row, y, is given by rounding this quant
ity to the nearest integer:

ALGORITHM
Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (x0, y0).
Load (x0, y0) into the frame buffer; that is plot the first point.
Calculate constants ?x, ?y, 2?y, and 2?y - 2?x, and obtain the starting valu
e for the decision parameters as
p0 = 2?y - ?x
At each xk along the line, starting at k=0,perform the following test:
If pk <0, the next to plot is (xk + 1,k) and
Pk+1 = pk + 2?y
Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk + 1,yk + 1) and
Pk+1 = pk+ 2?y 2?x.
. Repeat step 4 ?x times
Bresenham s Circle Drawing Algorithm
A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a given distance r from
a centre position (x, y). The coordinate values are calculated for a mouse plac
ed in origin and later each calculated position is moved to the desired screen p
osition by adding x to x coordinate value and y to y coordinate value. The point
s are calculated for an octet of the circle and the rest of the points are obtai
ned by property of symmetry.

Algorithm
Input values of radius r and circle centre ( x0, y0) and obtain the first pt
 on the circumference of a circle centred on the origin as ( x0, y0)= (0, l)
Calculate the initial decision parameter as d= 3-2r
For each pixel position (xi, yi),perform:
If di < 0, the next point is (xi + 1 , yi) and di + 1 = di + 4xi +6
Otherwise the next point along the circle is (xi+1, yi -1)and
di + 1 = di + 4 (xi - yi) + 10
Determine symmetry points on the other 7 octants
Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path centred on
(xa , y a) and plot the co-ordinate values.
x = x + xa
y = y + ya
Repeat step 2 to 5 until x>=y
Midpoint Ellipse Drawing Algorithm
An ellipse is defined as a set of points such that the sum of the distance from
2 fixed position f1 and f2 (foci of the ellipse) is the same for all the points.
Ellipse function is defined as ellipse (x, y) = ry2x2 + rx2y2 - rx2ry2
This has the following properties.
<0 if (x, y) is inside the boundary ellipse (x, y) =0 if (x, y
) is on the boundary
>0 if (x, y) is outside the boundary
Thus ellipse function serves as the decision parameter for the algorithm.
To draw an ellipse centered at (xc, yc) with semi-major axis rx, and semi-minor
axis ry. Mid Point Ellipse algorithm is applied throughout the first quadrant in
two parts. (0, ry) is taken as the starting position. At each sampling position
, we select the next pixel along the ellipse path according to the sign of the e
llipse function evaluated at the mid point between to candidate pixels. Since th
e slope of the curve varies in the I first quadrant from region 1 to region 2 we
must calculate the slope at each step. Slop is evaluated as, At the boundary be
tween region 1 and region 2,
dy/dx = 1 and 2ry2x = 2rx2y
So we move out region 1 whenever 2ry2x = 2rx2y
Algorithm
1. Input rx, ry , and ellipse centre (xc,yc) and obtain the first point on an
ellipse centred on the origin as (x0, y0) = (0, ry)
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as
p10 = r2y - r2xry + 1/4r2x
3. At each xk position in region 1, starting at k=0, perform the following t
est:
If p1k < 0, the next point along the ellipse centred on (0, 0) is (xk+1,
yk) and
p1k+1 = p1k + 2r2yxk+1 + r2y
otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk+1,yk-1) and
p1k+1 = p1k + 2r2yxk+1 - 2r2xyk+1 + r2y
with 2r2yxk+1 = 2r2yxk + 2r2y , 2r2xyk+1 = 2r2xyk - 2r2x
and continue with until 2r2yx = 2r2xy
4. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in the region 2 usin
g the last point (x0,y0) calculated in region 1 as
p20 = r2y(x0+1/2)2 + r2x(y0-1)2 r2xr2y
5. At each yk position in region 2 starting at k = 0, perform the following t
est:
if p2k > 0, the next point along the ellipse centred on (0,0) is (xk,yk-1
) and
p2k+1 = p2k - 2r2xyk+1 + r2x
Other wise , the next point along the circle is (xk+1,yk-1) and
p2k+1 = p2k + 2r2yxk+1- 2r2xyk+1 + r2x
using the same incremental calculation for x and y as in region 1
6. Determine symmetry points in the other three quadrants.
7. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) on to the elliptical path centr
ed on (xc,yc) and plot the coordinated values:
 x = x + xc, y = y + yc
8. Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2r2yx = 2r2xy
Flood Fill Algorithm
The purpose of Flood Fill is to color an entire area of connected pixels with th
e same color. The Flood Fill algorithm is also sometimes called Seed Fill: First
a seed id is planted (the pixel where you start), and, recursively, more and mo
re seeds are planted around the original seed if those pixels have the correct c
olour. Each new seed is responsible for coloring the pixel at its position and t
esting for new pixels around it that has to be coloured.
Algorithm
floodfill4 ( x + 1 , y, fillcolor , oldcolor );
floodfill4 ( x - 1 , y, fillcolor , oldcolor );
floodfill4 ( x , y + 1, fillcolor , oldcolor );
floodfill4 ( x , y - 1, fillcolor , oldcolor );
The algorithm uses recursive calls to itself to paint the inside of a region. Si
nce we are using a four point flood fill algorithm it checks the four neighbouri
ng pixel positions of the current mouse location. It is usually used when an are
a defined with multiple colour boundaries
Start at a point inside a region.
Replace a specified interior colour (old colour) with fill colour.
Fill the 4-connected region until all interior points being replac