Fluidsummary 180610171918 PDF

SOKOINE UNIVERSITY
OF AGRICULTURE
AE 218
IWRE 210
SUMMARIES +QUESTIONS WITH

ANSWERS
Musadoto musadoto © 2018 felician Deus

FUNDAMENTALS AND
APPLICATIONS
Summaries, lecture notes and problems with solutions
Acknowledgement to professors:
ÇENGEL: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of

Nevada, Reno.
JOHN M. CIMBALA Department of Mechanical and Nuclear

Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University.
LOWA UNIVERSITY
DR. MBUNGU lecture notes 2018 + assignments.

MR. MATERU lecture notes 2017 + Counter Attacks.
SEMESTER 4
© 2018 Musadoto
Musadoto felician Deus

This book is special to
Agricultural engineering student 2

This course is ‚different‛ – very physics based. Bro!
• Fluids is HARD - lots of new concepts/equations
Based on 4 balances:
1. Force,
2. momentum,
3. mass,
4. energy
You are not in this alone! Bro…
Musadoto with his family

Classmates
Heavenly Father & the Spirit.
4.0 GPA VS DELL

HARD WORK + THE SPIRIT BRO. DEUS
Face the future with optimism. I believe we are standing on the
threshold of a new era of growth, prosperity, and abundance.
Barring a calamity or unexpected international crisis, I think
the next few years will bring a resurgence in the economy as new
discoveries are made in communication, medicine, energy,
transportation, physics, computer technology, and other fields of
endeavor. Many of these discoveries, as in the past, will be the
result of the Spirit whispering insights into and enlightening
the minds of truth-seeking individuals. Many of these discoveries
will be made for the purpose of helping to bring to pass the
purposes and work of God and the quickening of the building of
His kingdom on earth today. With these discoveries and advances
will come new employment opportunities and prosperity for those
who work hard and especially to those who strive to keep the
commandments of God. This has been the case in other significant
periods of national and international economic growth.
-Elder M. Russell Ballard

Table of contents
1.The background of Fluid Mechanics
2.Fields of Fluid mechanics
3.Introduction and Basic concepts
4.Properties of Fluids
5.Pressure and fluid statics
6.Hydrodynamics

1. BACKGROUND
Fluid mechanics is an exciting and fascinating subject with unlimited practical
applications ranging from microscopic biological systems to automobiles, airplanes,
and spacecraft propulsion. Yet fluid mechanics has historically been one of the most
challenging subjects for undergraduate students. Unlike earlier freshman- and
sophomore-level subjects such as physics, chemistry, and engineering mechanics,
where students often learn equations and then ‚plug and chug‛ on their calculators,
proper analysis of a problem in fluid mechanics requires much more. Oftentimes,
students must first assess the problem, make and justify assumptions and/or
approximations, apply the relevant physical laws in their proper forms, and solve
the resulting equations before ever plugging any numbers into their calculators.
Many problems in fluid mechanics require more than just knowledge of the subject,
but also physical intuition and experience.
HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics has a history of erratically occurring early achievements, then an
intermediate era of steady fundamental discoveries in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Ancient civilizations had enough knowledge to solve certain flow
problems. Sailing ships with oars and irrigation systems were both known in
prehistoric times. The Greeks produced quantitative information. Archimedes and Hero
of Alexandria both postulated the parallelogram law for vector addition in the third
century B.C.. Archimedes (285-212 B.C.) formulated the laws of buoyancy and applied
them to floating and submerged bodies, actually deriving a form of the differential
calculus as part of the analysis. Up to the Renaissance, there was a steady
improvement in the design of such flow systems as ships, canals, and water conduits,
but no recorded evidence of fundamental improvements in flow analysis. Then Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519) derived the equation of conservation of mass in one-dimensional
steady flow. Leonardo was an excellent experimentalist, and his notes contain
accurate descriptions of waves, jets, hydraulic jumps, eddy formation, and both low-
drag (streamlined) and high-drag (parachute) designs. A Frenchman, Edme Mariotte
(1620-1684), built the first wind tunnel and tested models in it. In 1687, Isaac
Newton (1642-1727) postulated his laws of motion and the law of viscosity of the
linear fluids now called newtonian. The theory first yielded to the assumption of a
‚perfect‛ or frictionless fluid, and eighteenth-century mathematicians (Daniel
Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Jean d’Alembert, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and Pierre-Simon
Laplace) produced many beautiful solutions of frictionless-flow problems. Euler
developed both the differential equations of motion and their integrated form, now
called the Bernoulli equation. D’Alembert used them to show his famous paradox: that
a body immersed in a frictionless fluid has zero drag. These beautiful results
amounted to overkill, since perfect-fluid assumptions have very limited applications
in practice and most engineering flows are dominated by the effects of viscosity.
Engineers began to reject what they regarded as a totally unrealistic theory and
developed the science of hydraulics, relying almost entirely on experiment. Such
experimentalists as Chézy, Pitot, Borda, Weber, Francis, Hagen, Poiseuille, Darcy,
Manning, Bazin, and Weisbach produced data on a variety of flows such as open
channels, ship resistance, pipe flows, waves, and turbines. At the end of the
nineteenth century, unification between experimental hydraulics and theoretical
hydrodynamics finally began. William Froude (1810-1879) and his son Robert (1846-
1924) developed laws of model testing, Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) proposed the
technique of dimensional analysis, and Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912) published the
classic pipe experiment in 1883 which showed the importance of the dimensionless
Reynolds number named after him. Meanwhile, viscous-flow theory was available but
unexploited since Navier (1785-1836) and Stokes (1819-1903) had successfully added
the newtonian viscous terms to the governing equations of motion. Unfortunately, the
resulting Navier-Stokes equations were too difficult to analyze for arbitrary flows.

In 1904, a German engineer, Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953), published perhaps the most
important paper ever written on fluid mechanics. Prandtl pointed out that fluid
flows with small viscosity (water and air flows) can be divided into a thin viscous
layer, or boundary layer, near solid surfaces and interfaces, patched onto a nearly
inviscid outer layer, where the Euler and Bernoulli equations apply. Boundary-layer
theory has proven to be the single most important tool in modern flow analysis. The
twentieth-century foundations for the present state of the art in fluid mechanics
were laid in a series of broad-based experiments by Prandtl and his two chief
friendly competitors, Theodore von Kármán (1881-1963) and Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor
(1886-1975).
Source: http://majdalani.eng.auburn.edu/courses/02_fluids/handout_f01_history.pdf
2. FIELDS OF FLUID MECHANICS

3. INTRODUCTION
Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving
bodies under the influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies
at rest is called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is
called dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid mechanics
is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of the
motion of fluids that are practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics. A
subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes
and open channels. Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds. The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. Some other
specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with
naturally occurring flows.
WHAT IS A FLUID?
From physics point of views that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid,
liquid, and gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance
in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a FLUID. Distinction between a solid
and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied
shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an
applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a FLUID deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress, no matter how small. In solids stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear
force is applied, a solid eventually stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle,
whereas a fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain rate of strain.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUID MECHANICS

Fluids omnipresent
 Weather & climate

 Vehicles: automobiles, trains, ships, and planes, etc.
 Environment
 Physiology and medicine
 Sports & recreation
There Many other examples!

Field of Fluid Mechanics can be divided into 3 branches:
1. Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest
2. Kinematics: deals with velocities and streamlines with considering forces or

energy
3. Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations between velocities and accelerations
and forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion
STREAMLINES
A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity

direction (velocity is a vector that has a direction and a magnitude)
Instantaneous streamlines in flow around a cylinder
Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and science.

Examples are:
1. Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries
 Flow of cerebral fluid
2. Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
 Movements of air currents and water currents
3. Chemical Engineering
 Design of chemical processing equipment

4. Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment, pollution-
control equipment, etc.
5. Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems
DIMENSION AND UNITS

Two primary sets of units are used:
1. SI (System International) units
2. English units

UNIT TABLE
Quantity SI Unit English Unit
Length (L) Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) Slug (slug) = lb*sec2/ft
Time (T) Second (s) Second (sec)
Temperature ( ) Celcius (oC) Farenheit (oF)
Force Newton (N)=kg*m/s2 Pound (lb)
1 Newton – Force required to accelerate a 1 kg of mass to 1 m/s2

1 slug – is the mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when acted upon by a force
of 1 lb
To remember units of a Newton use F=ma (Newton’s 2nd Law)
[F] = [m][a]= kg*m/s2 = N

To remember units of a slug also use F=ma => m = F / a
[m] = [F] / [a] = lb / (ft / sec2) = lb*sec2 / ft
1 lb is the force of gravity acting on (or weight of ) a platinum standard
whose mass is 0.45359243 kg
Weight and Newton’s Law of Gravitation

 Weight
 Gravitational attraction force between two bodies
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
F = G m1m2/ r2
Where
 G - universal constant of gravitation
 m1, m2 - mass of body 1 and body 2, respectively
 r - distance between centers of the two masses
 F - force of attraction
WEIGHT
 m2 - mass of an object on earth’s surface
 m1 - mass of earth
 r - distance between center of two masses
 r1 - radius of earth
 r2 - radius of mass on earth’s surface
 r2 << r1, therefore r = r1+r2 ~ r1

 Thus, F = m2 * (G * m1 / r2)
 Weight (W) of object (with mass m2) on surface of earth (with mass m1) is
defined as
W = m2g ; g =(Gm1/r2) gravitational acceleration
g = 9.31 m/s2 in SI units
g = 32.2 ft/sec2 in English units
Now #TBT
What is Fluid
 Difn: Fluid is a ‚substance which conforms continuously under the action of

shearing forces‛.
 Difn: Fluid mechanics is the ‚science and technology of fluids either at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics) and their effects on boundaries
such as solid surfaces or interfaces with other fluids‛.
To understand this,lets remind ourselves of what a shear force is: Application and
effect of shear force on a book(AE 211 Strength of materials for beginners 1st
ed,2018 by musadoto)
https://www.slideshare.net/musadoto/strength-of-materials-for-beginners
Definition Applied to Static Fluids

 ‚If a fluid is at rest there can be no shearing forces acting and therefore
all forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the planes in which they act‛.
 Note here that we specify that the fluid must be at rest. This is because, it
is found experimentally that fluids in motion can have slight resistance to
shear force. This is the source of viscosity.
Definition Applied to Fluids in Motion

• For example, consider the fluid shown below flowing along a fixed surface. At
the surface there will be little movement of the fluid (it will ‘stick’ to the
surface), whilst further away from the surface the fluid flows faster (has
greater velocity):

 No slip condition: no relative motion between fluid and boundary, i.e., fluid
in contact with lower plate is stationary, whereas fluid in contact with upper
plate moves at speed U.
 If one layer of is moving faster than another layer of fluid, there must be
shear forces acting between them. For example, if we have fluid in contact with
a conveyor belt that is moving we will get the behavior shown above.
FLUID IN MOTION
NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY
 When fluid is in motion, any difference in velocity between adjacent layers has
the same effect as the conveyor belt does.
 Therefore, to represent real fluids in motion we must consider the action of

shear forces. Consider the small element of fluid shown, which is subject to
shear force and has a dimension s into the page. The force F acts over an area
A = BC×s. Hence we have a shear stress applied:
Shear stress =
Any stress causes a deformation,or strain and a shear stress causes a shear strain.
This shear strain is measured by angle .Remember that a continuously deforms
when under the action of shear.This is different to solid :a solid have a single
value of for each value of

Shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. There is a need
to understand the rate of shear strain .from the above diagram
RATE OF SHEAR STRAIN =
Suppose that the particles of fluid at E moves in distance x and time t for small
angles ,then
THE RATE OF SHEAR STRAIN IS
Where is the velocity of Fluid
This is change in velocity ( ) with height ( ), But when we consider the

infinitesimally small change in height ( we can write the rate of shear strain in
form of du/dy (noting that shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain)
Then
𝒅𝒖 This is newton’s law of viscosity

𝝉 𝝁
𝒅𝒚
is the property of fluid called its dynamic viscosity ,it is dynamic because the
fluid is in motion then the viscosity resists the shear stress.
NON NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Fluids for which the shear stress is not linearly related to the shear strain rate
are called non-Newtonian fluids. Examples include slurries and colloidal
suspensions, polymer solutions, blood, paste, and cake batter. Some non-Newtonian
fluids exhibit a ‚memory‛—the shear stress depends not only on the local strain
rate, but also on its history. A fluid that returns (either fully or partially) to
its original shape after the applied stress is released is called viscoelastic.
Some non-Newtonian fluids are called shear thinning fluids or pseudo plastic fluids,
because the more the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. A good example
is paint. Paint is very viscous when poured from the can or when picked up by a
paintbrush, since the shear rate is small. However, as we apply the paint to the
wall, the thin layer of paint between the paintbrush and the wall is subjected to a
large shear rate, and it becomes much less viscous. Plastic fluids are those in
which the shear thinning effect is extreme. In some fluids a finite stress called
the yield stress is required before the fluid begins to flow at all; such fluids are
called Bingham plastic fluids. Certain pastes such as acne cream and toothpaste are
examples of Bingham plastic fluids. If you hold the tube upside down, the paste does
not flow, even though there is a nonzero stress due to gravity. However, if you
squeeze the tube (greatly increasing the stress), the paste flows like a very
viscous fluid. Other fluids show the opposite effect and are called shear thickening
fluids or dilatant fluids; the more the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it
becomes.
Non-Newtonian fluids follow the generalized law of viscosity expressed below but
when plotted they show much different behavior than Newtonian fluids
Where A ,B and n are constants to be found experimentally.

In this graph the Newtonian fluid is represent by a straight line, the slope of
which is μ . Some of the other fluids are:
 Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences.
 Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases

with rate of shear, e.g. substances like clay, milk and cement.
 Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear, e.g. quicksand.
 Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large

change in shear they behave like plastic.
 Solids: Real solids do have a slight change of shear strain with time, whereas
ideal solids (those we idealize for our theories) do not.
Bingham plastics: Bingham plastics are those materials that have a linear shear
stress vs shear rate characteristics. These have to overcome a threshold value of
shear stress before they begin to flow. As long as the shear stress being applied
lies below the threshold value for that material, it retains its original solid
state.
4. PROPERTIES OF FLUID
Property is any characteristic of a system. Some familiar properties are:
Pressure P
Temperature T
Volume V
Mass m.
The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as:
Viscosity,
Thermal conductivity,
Modulus of elasticity,
Thermal expansion coefficient,
Electric resistivity,
Velocity
Elevation.

PROPERTIES are considered to be either INTENSIVE or EXTENSIVE.
Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as
Temperature
Pressure
Density
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the
system.
Total mass
total volume
total momentum
The state of a system is described by its properties. In order to understand

mechanics of any fluid, it is important to understand its properties first:-
1. Viscosity
2. Density
3. Specific weight
4. Surface tension
5. Vapor pressure
6. Compressibility
7. Specific gravity
VISCOSITY
Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation. Different fluids deform
at different rates under the same shear stress. The ease with which a fluid pours
is an indication of its viscosity. Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup
deforms more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The viscosity
is also known as dynamic viscosity.
Units: N.s/m2 or kg/m/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.78x10-5 kg/m/s
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, 
Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;
Will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and

gravitational forces exist.
Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,
viscosity of liquids decrease with increase in temperature, whereas viscosity of

gases increases with decrease in temperature.

DENSITY
Density of a fluid, , Defined as mass per unit volume, it is slightly affected by
changes in temperature and pressure.  = mass/volume = m/
Units: kg/m3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3; Air = 1.2193 kg/m3
QUIZ
Densities of gases are variable, but for most liquid densities are constant (why?)
Expected answer bro! deus.
‚ Density is NOT constant, but for liquids and solids it doesn't change very much
with temperature or pressure. Most gases obey (at least approximately) the ideal gas
law: PV = nRT , which can be rearranged to show that the density of a gas is
proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature: P/RT = n/V.
Liquids and solids expand only slightly with increasing temperature, and they
compress only slightly with increasing pressure, so their densities are
approximately constant under most ordinary conditions‛.
Any other scientific answer in your brain bro ,deus ? now click HERE to verify your
answer.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific weight of a fluid, 
• Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume
• Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
• The relationship  and g can be found using the following:
Since  = m/
therefore  = g
Units: N/m3
Typical values:
Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3
QUESTIONS
1. Fluid A and B has specific weight of 7000N/m3 and 9000N/m3 respectively, which
fluid is heavier? Explain
2. Specific weight of fluid is 8.2KN/m3 calculate its density (Answer =836kg/m3)
(usiangalizie mzee baba deus , chemsha kichwa) click HERE to translate in English.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at

standard temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure, or
Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the specific weight

of water at standard temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure.
s s
SG  
 w@ 4C  w@ 4C
Unit: dimensionless.
Try this example bro!
A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg.The reservoir has a volume of 0.917 m3.
Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of the oil.
Solution:
BULK MODULUS
All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force and when
the force is removed they expand back to their original volume.The
compressibility of a fluid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity, K,
which describes the variation of volume with change of pressure, i.e.
Thus, if the pressure intensity of a volume of fluid, , is increased by Δp and

the volume is changed by Δ, then
Typical values: Water = 2.05x109 N/m2 ; Oil = 1.62x109 N/m2

VAPOR PRESSURE
A liquid in a closed container is subjected to a partial vapor pressure in the
space above the liquid due to the escaping molecules from the surface; It reaches
a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturated vapor pressure.
Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a function of temperature,

the vapor pressure of a fluid also depends on its temperature and increases with
it. If the pressure above a liquid reaches the vapor pressure of the liquid,
boiling occurs; for example if the pressure is reduced sufficiently boiling may
occur at room temperature.
Engineering significance of vapor pressure

In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or pumps, water vaporizes
rapidly in regions where the pressure drops below the vapor pressure.
There will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form.
This phenomenon is known as cavitations, and can cause serious problems, since
the flow of fluid can sweep this cloud of bubbles on into an area of higher
pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly.
If this should occur in contact with a solid surface, very serious damage can
result due to the very large force with which the liquid hits the surface.
Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps,

turbines and propellers, and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local
erosion of metal surface.
Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be avoided by maintaining the

pressure above the vapor pressure everywhere in the system.
Quiz , mzee baba Deus.

In the space provided explain how does a pressure cooker works?
ANSWER
Hints: “The steam and water will both increase in temperature and pressure‛
Click HERE to verify your answer Bro! Deus
Wow!!!! bro , Tell your friend Masika that now you know what is VAPOR PRESSURE take
time for SURFACE TENSION next page.

SURFACE TENSION
Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular
attraction. Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile
forces at the interface between the liquid and air, known as surface tension, .
Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its unit is N/m. The
reason for the existence of this force arises from intermolecular attraction. In
the body of the liquid (Figure a), a molecule is surrounded by other molecules
and intermolecular forces are symmetrical and in equilibrium.
At the surface of the liquid (Figure b), a molecule has this force acting only
through 180. This imbalance forces means that the molecules at the surface tend
to be drawn together, and they act rather like a very thin membrane under
tension. This causes a slight deformation at the surface of the liquid (the
meniscus effect).
A steel needle floating on water, the spherical shape of dewdrops, and the rise
or fall of liquid in capillary tubes is the results of the surface tension.
Surface tension is usually very small compared with other forces in fluid flows
(e.g. surface tension for water at 20C is 0.0728 N/m).
Surface tension,, increases the pressure within a droplet of liquid.The internal

pressure, P, balancing the surface tensional force of a spherical droplet of
radius r, is given by
The above figure showing the force acting on one-half of a liquid drop.

CAPILLARITY
The surface tension leads to the phenomenon known as capillarity, where a column
of liquid in a tube is supported in the absence of an externally applied
pressure.
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and

depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls of the containing vessels.Liquid rise in tubes if they
wet a surface (adhesion > cohesion), such as water, and fall in tubes that do not
wet (cohesion > adhesion), such as mercury.
Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than 10 mm (3/8 in.).For tube
larger than 12 mm (1/2 in.) capillarity effects are negligible.
where h = height of capillary rise (or depression)
 = surface tension
 = wetting (contact) angle
 = specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
Worry NOT bro! deus, see example below…………………………..
Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3-mm diameter vertical tube, if the
liquid rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the wetting angle.
Solution
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by;
 = 83.7

Try this simple question below bro! Deus…..the ANSWER is 14.8mm
Find the capillary rise in the tube shown in figure (next page), the air- water-
glass interface angle is 0 and tube radius is 1mm. Given that the surface tension
of water is 0.0728N/m .
COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS
The compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure) of a liquid is
inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity, also known as the bulk
modulus. This modulus is defined as
( )
Where v = specific volume and p = pressure. As v/dv is a dimensionless ratio, the

units of Ev and p are identical. The bulk modulus is analogous to the modulus of
elasticity for solids; however, for fluids it is defined on a volume basis rather
than in terms of the familiar one-dimensional stress–strain relation for solid
bodies.
QN you must know bro!
If Ev is large, the compressibility is higher or low?
GENERALLY , its known that the Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that
the fluid is relatively incompressible therefore Need higher pressure to change
small volume hence In most cases liquid are considered as incompressible.
HEAVY DUTY QUIZ bro,Deus! ( solve by yourself)- answer 200MPa
A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000cm3 at 1MN/m2 and volume of

995cm3 at 2MN/m2. What is bulk modulus of elasticity?
OVER ALL SIMPLE QUESTIONS YOU MUST SOLVE BRO, DEUS!
1. At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa. Assume that the
specific weight of seawater at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3 and that the average
volume modulus is 2.34 109 N/m2 for that pressure range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution (see next page bro!)

𝟗.𝟖𝟏
(a) 1/𝝆𝟏 g/𝜸𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟔 𝟖𝟏.𝟖 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝒗
𝟐.𝟑𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟗
= -34.1 x 10E-6m3/kg ans.
(b) 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝒗 0.000 942m3/kg ans.
𝒈 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟎𝑵
(c) 𝜸𝟐 ans
𝒗𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟐 𝒎𝟑
2. A rigid cylinder, inside diameter 15 mm, contains a column of water 500 mm long.
What will the column length be if a force of 2 kN is applied to its end by a
frictionless plunger? Assume no leakage. (home work broo!)
3. A 1-in-wide space between two horizontal plane surfaces is filled with SAE 30
Western lubricating oil at 80°F. What force is required to drag a very thin
plate of 4-ft2 area through the oil at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate is
0.33 in from one surface?
solution
4. Water at 10°C stands in a clean glass tube of 2-mm diameter at a height of 35

mm. What is the true static height? [ ans 35.00 - 15.14 = 19.86 mm]
5. Tap water at 68°F stands in a glass tube of 0.32-in diameter at a height of

4.50 in.What is the true static height?
6. Distilled water at 20°C stands in a glass tube of 6.0-mm diameter at a height

of 18.0 mm. What is the true static height?

7. Compute the capillary depression of mercury at 68°F(ϴ = 140°) to be expected in
a 0.05-in-diameter tube.
8. Compute the capillary rise in mm of pure water at 10°C expected in an 0.8-mm

diameter tube.
9. Compute the capillary rise of water to be expected in a 0.28-in-diameter tube.

Assume pure water at 68°F.
10. Consider water initially at 20°C and 1 atm. Determine the final density of
water (a) if it is heated to 50°C at a constant pressure of 1 atm, and (b) if it
is compressed to 100-atm pressure at a constant temperature of 20°C. Take the
isothermal compressibility of water to be a = 4.80 x105 atm-1.
Ans. (988.0 kg/m3 , 1002.7 kg/m3)) this question gives you general knowledge
Do you remember AE 213 /BPE 211 ?
LIQUIDS VS. GASSES

Although liquids and gasses behave in much the same way and share many similar
characteristics, they also possess distinct characteristics of their own.
Specifically
1. A liquid is difficult to compress and often regarded as being incompressible. A

gas is easily to compress and usually treated as such - it changes volume with
pressure.
2. A given mass of liquid occupies a given volume and will occupy the container it
is in and form a free surface (if the container is of a larger volume). A gas
has no fixed volume, it changes volume to expand to fill the containing vessel.
It will completely fill the vessel so no free surface is formed.
SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
A system refers to a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass which is separated from
its surrounding by its boundaries. The boundary surface may vary with time however
no mass crosses the system boundary. In fluid mechanics an infinitesimal lump of
fluid is considered as a system and is referred as a fluid element or a particle.
Since a fluid particle has larger dimension than the limiting volume (refer to
section fluid as a continuum). The continuum concept for the flow analysis is valid.
Control volume is a fixed, identifiable region in space through which fluid flows.
The boundary of the control volume is called control surface. The fluid mass in a
control volume may vary with time. The shape and size of the control volume may be
arbitrary.
HYDROSTATIC FLUIDS
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of
pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in
solids is normal stress. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has
the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa).
2
That is, 1Pa = 1N/M

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium due to the
force of gravity. Is the branch of hydraulics that deals with pressure and forces of
fluid at rest. The pressure at a point on a plane surface always acts normal to the
surface because there is no shear stress in fluid at rest Always pressure is due to
weight of fluid.
PRESSURE AT A POINT
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of
being a vector. However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all
directions. That is, it has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity
PASCAL'S LAW
The Pascal's law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same
in all directions. Simply pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at all points. In
other words a liquid exerts pressure equally in all directions.The law has several
application like Heavy load lifter and Car brakes
HYDRAULIC LIFT (HYDRAULIC PRESS)

Lifting a car easily by one arm, as shown in Figure below. Noting that P1 = P2 since
both pistons are at the same level (the effect of small height differences is
negligible, especially at high pressures), the ratio of output force to input force
is determined to be
The area ratio A2 /A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic
lift. Using a hydraulic car jack with a piston area ratio of A2 /A1 = 10,
For example,
A person can lift a 1000-kg car by applying a force of just 100 kg (= 908 N).

Solve this example below using the above principle bro! deus (Answer 1.5x103N )
A car is lifted by compressed fluid due to force F1 on a small piston having a

small radius of 5 cm. This pressure is transmitted to a second piston of
radius of 15cm. Assume the mass of a car to be lifted is 1.35tons. What is F1?
A small force of
1500N is usedt to
lift 1.35T
PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH

Usually pressure increase with the increase of depth (Linearly for incompressible
fluid). If the liquid is in equilibrium (at rest), then the pressure at all point in
the same level (depth) must be equal , example bro deus! as you go deeper in
swimming pool, the more pressure on you because…
Absolute pressure (P2) is greater than the atmospheric pressure (P1) by an amount
ρgh
Huhu! Why worrying bro! deus to try this example below? (Answer 1.99x105Pa ~ 2atm)
QN! What is the pressure on a swimmer 10m below the surface of a lake?
Bro can you evaluate? This is almost twice the pressure on surface!!!
Stop here bro! and note down the following in real life.
At a depth of 1km the pressure is (100atm)….. 100 times the
pressure on the surface. Hence it is dangerous for swimmers
because……
( Boyle’s law)-do you Know this law? If NO click HERE if YES

continue next page bro! Deus

If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung volume would increase
by a factor of 100, which may cause embolism and/or death.
Submarines are designed to withstand this kind of pressure, it can

operate at 1km depth.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other
directions. Therefore, the pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane
in a given fluid. The Dutch mathematician Simon Stevin (1548–1620) published in 1586
the principle illustrated in figure below. Note that the pressures at points A, B,
C, D, E, F, and G are the same since they are at the same depth, and they are
interconnected by the same static fluid. However, the pressures at points H and I
are not the same since these two points cannot be interconnected by the same fluid
(i.e., we cannot draw a curve from point I to point H while remaining in the same
fluid at all times), although they are at the same depth. (Can you tell at which
point the pressure is higher?) Also, the pressure force exerted by the fluid is
always normal to the surface at the specified points.
A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal

direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount

QUIZ
Does the shape of container matters in hydrostatic pressure? IF NO ,Pressure at
point 1, 2 & are the same regardless the shape of containers (why??)
Hahaha!! see figures below.
Pressure in layered fluid.
 If fluids of different densities are layered, then hydrostatics equation must

be used twice, once in each of the liquid
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝐠 𝒁𝟏
𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝐠 𝒁𝟏 𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝐠 𝒁𝟐
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
BAROMETERS
The first mercury barometer was constructed in 1643-1644 by Torricelli. He
showed that the height of mercury in a column was 1/14 that of a water
barometer, due to the fact that mercury is 14 times more dense that water. He
also noticed that level of mercury varied from day to day due to weather
changes, and that at the top of the column there is a vacuum.

Note, often pvapor is very
small, 0.0000231 psia at
68° F, and patm is 14.7 psi,
thus:
MANOMETRY
Manometry is a standard technique for measuring pressure using liquid columns in
vertical or include tubes. The devices used in this manner are known as
manometers.
The operation of three types of manometers are here for you bro!:
1) The Piezometer Tube
2) The U-Tube Manometer
3) The Inclined Tube Manometer
The fundamental equation for manometers since they involve columns of fluid at
rest is the following:
h is positive moving downward, and negative moving upward, that is pressure in

columns of fluid decrease with gains in height, and increase with gain in depth.
PIEZOMETER TUBE
Piezometer is simple and accurate. Piezometer is only suitable if the pressure in
the container is greater than atmospheric pressure. Fluid in the container in which
the pressure is measured must be a liquid rather than gas.
Disadvantages:
1)The pressure in the container has to be greater than atmospheric pressure.
2) Pressure must be relatively small to maintain a small column of fluid.
3) The measurement of pressure must be of a liquid.

Note: pA = p1
because they are
at the same level
U-TUBE MANOMETER
If the fluid in the container is a gas, then

the fluid 1 terms can be ignored:
Note: in the same fluid we can ‚jump‛ across from 2 to 3 as they are at the sam
level, and thus must have the same pressure.
The fluid in the U-tube is known as the gage fluid. The gage fluid type depends on
the application, i.e. pressures attained, and whether the fluid measured is a gas or
liquid.
Final notes to know bro Deus!:
1)Common age fluids are Hg and Water, some oils, and must be immiscible.
2)Temperature must be considered in very accurate measurements, as the gage fluid

properties can change.
3) Capillarity can play a role, but in many cases each meniscus will cancel.
Then the equation for the pressure difference in the container is the following:
Helo! Bro because you know the U-tube manometer with its formula
please try the following unsolved examples next page>>>hahahahaa!

1. A manometer is used to measure the pressure in tank as
shown. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
2. A closed tank contains compressed air and oil (SGoil=0.90)

as Is shown in the Figure. h1=36 in., h2=6 in, h3=9 in.
Determine the pressure reading (in psi) of the gage using
the U-tube Hg manometer
DIFFERENTIAL U-TUBE MANOMETER.

This suitable to measure the pressure difference between two
points.
>>>>

INCLINED-TUBE MANOMETER
This type of manometer is used to measure small pressure changes.
sin 
h2
l2
h2  l2 sin
Thus, for the length of the tube we can measure a greater

pressure differential.
QUIZ 1

QUIZ 2
The fuel gauge in the gasoline tank in a car reads proportional to the bottom gauge
pressure as in figure below.If the tank is 30cm deep and accidentally contains 2cm
of water plus gasoline,how many centimeters of air remain at the top when the gauge
erroneously reads ‚FULL‛?
Bro Deus! use the following HINTs below to solve quiz 2
QUIZ 3
(offer with final answer h = 0.487m =48.7cm)
The gauge pressure of the air in the tank shown in the figure is measured to be
65kPa,Detemine the differential height h of the mercury column

REVISION EXERCISES BRO TO MAKE YOU PERFECT
1. In figure below pressure gage A reads 1.5 kPa (gage). The fluids are at 20oC.
Determine the elevations z, in meters, of the liquid levels in the open
piezometer tubes B and C (p2.11.frank m white 7ed).
2. A closed tank contains 1.5 m of SAE 30 oil, 1 m of water, 20 cm of mercury, and

an air space on top, all at 20oC. The absolute pressure at the bottom of the
tank is 60 kPa. What is the pressure in the air space? (p2.10)
3. For the three-liquid system shown, compute h1 and h2. Neglect the air density
(p2.14).
4. The U-tube in Figure below has a 1-cm ID and contains mercury as shown. If 20
cm3 of water is poured into the right hand leg, what will the free-surface
height in each leg be after the sloshing has died down? (p2.19)
5. At 20oC gage A reads 350 kPa absolute. What is the height h of the water in cm?
What should gage B read in kPa absolute?(p2.21)

6. In Figure below all fluids are at 20oC. Determine the pressure difference (Pa)
between points A and B. (p2.31)
7. For the inverted manometer of Figure below, all fluids are at 20oC. If pB - pA =
97 kPa, what must the height H be in cm? (p2.32)
8. In Figure below the pressure at point A is 25 lbf/in2. All fluids are at 20oC.
What is the air pressure in the closed chamber B, in Pa? (p2.33)

9. Water flows upward in a pipe slanted at 30oC, as in Figure below. The mercury
manometer reads h = 12 cm. Both fluids are at 20oC. What is the pressure
difference p1 - p2 in the pipe? (p2.35)
10. In Figure below both the tank and the tube are open to the atmosphere. If
L = 2.13 m, what is the angle of tilt ϴ of the tube? (p2.36)
11. If the pressure in container A in Figure below is 150 kPa, compute the
pressure in container B.(p2.38)
12. In Figure below , determine the gage pressure at point A in Pa. Is it higher
or lower than atmospheric?

SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
IWRE 210- FLUID MECHANICS
INSTRUCTOR: DR MBUNGU
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 17TH MAY 2018
Honor code pledge.
“As an Engineering Student, I will conduct myself with honor and integrity at all times.
I will not lie, cheat, or steal, nor will I accept the actions of those who do.”
I have neither given nor received unauthorized assistance on this assignment.
Your signature
-----------------------------------------------------
DOTO, MUSA GESE IWR/D/2016/0011
QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. Oil of specific gravity 0.750 flows through the nozzle shown in Fig. 2-10 and
deflects the mercury in the U-tube gage. Determine the value of h if the
pressure at A is 20.0 psi.

SOLUTION
GIVEN
Specific gravity of oil ( ) = 0.750
Pressure at A (PA) = 20.0 Psi
Asked height (h)
Consider the figure 2-10 above , Pressure at B = pressure at C
oil Mercury
. . . . .
. =
. . . .
.
.
.
Therefore the value of h if pressure at A is 20.0 Psi is .
2. For a gage pressure at A of 10.89 kPa, find the specific gravity of the gage
liquid B in Fig. 2-11.
SOLUTION
GIVEN
Gauge pressure at A (Pgauge) = -10.89 KPa
Asked the specific gravity of gauge liquid in B
From figure 2-11 above, Pressure at C = Pressure at D
PA + = PD
-10.89 +(1.60 x9.79)(3.200 – 2.743) = - 3.73 KPa = PD
The weight of air can be neglected without any introduction of significant errors
Then PD = PG - 3.73 KPa and PE = PF = 0
Pressure at G = Pressure at E = P of (3.429-3.028) m of
gauge liquid.
PG = PE – (sp gr x 9.79)(3.429 – 3.028)
-3.73 = 0 – (0.382)(9.79 sp gr) ; sp gr =1.000002681
The specific gauge of liquid B is ≈ 1.00
3. For a gage reading at A of —2.50 psi, determine (a) the elevations of the
liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (b) the deflection of
the mercury in the U-tube gage in Fig, 2-12.

SOLUTION
DATA GIVEN
Pressure of gauge A (P) = - 2.50 Psi
Specific gravity of Air = 0.700
Specific gravity of water = 1.600
Elevations :
At H = 49.00ft At K = 38.00ft Of water = 26.00ft
At h1 = 14.00ft
(a) Elevations of liquids in the open piezometer column E,F and G.
Since the unit weight of the air is very small compared with that of
the liquids, the pressure at elevation 49.00 may be considered to be
-2.50 psi without introducing significant error in the calculations
For column E
Pressure at K = pressure at L
PK = PL : PH + = 0
Then -2.50 X 144 + (0.700 X 62.4)h = 0
h = 8.24ft
E = H – h = (49.00 – 8.24)ft
Elevation at E = 40.76 ft
For column F
P 38.00 = P 49.00 + P 11.00 ,sg of 0.700

. . . .
. = 0.837 Psi
.
Pressure at M = = 1.93 ft of water
.
Elevation at F = 38.00 + 1.93 = 39.93ft (will rise to N)

For column G
Pressure at 26.00 = pressure at 38.00 + pressure of 12 ft of water
.
= . =1.93 ft of water
.
Pressure at R = =8.71ft
. .
Elevation at G = 26.00 + 8.71 = 34.71 ft (will be at Q).
(b) Deflection of mercury
Pressure head at D = pressure head at C
(13.57)h = PH38.00 + PH 24.00 (water)

(13.57)h = 1.93 + 24.00
h = 1.9108 ft
4. Find the pressure difference between A and B for the setup shown in Fig. 2-
17.
SOLUTION
DATA GIVEN
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Asked Pressure difference between A and B
Then
PB = PA –(9.79)Y – (0.8 x 9.79 x 0.70) + [(9.79(Y-0.80) ]
PB = PA -13.3144 KPa
PA – PB = 13.3144 KPa
The pressure difference between A and B is 13.3144KPa
5. A glass U-tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is shown in Fig. 2-19. If
the U-tube contains oil and water as shown, determine the specific gravity of
the oil.

SOLUTION
DATA GIVEN
Depth of Oil (hO) = 0.35m
Depth of water (hW) = 0.30m
Asked the specific gravity of Oil (sp gr )
There is no change in pressure between Oil and Water
Then PO – PW =0 :
(sp gr x 9.79 x hO) – 9.79 hW =0
(sp gr x 9.79 x 0.35) – 9.79 x 0.30 =0
Sp gr = 0.841716103
The specific gravity of Oil is ≈ 0.842
6. A differential manometer is attached to two tanks as shown in Fig. 2-18.

Calculate the pressure difference between chamber A and chamber B.
SOLUTION
DATA GIVEN
Depth of chamber A (SAE 30 Oil) = 1.1 m
Depth of chamber B (Carbon Tetrachloride) = 0.8 m
Required the Pressure difference between chamber A and B

Recalling PA – PB = P carbon - P mercury - PSAE
= 𝑚 𝑚
= [(1.59 x 9.79 x 0.8 ) –(13.6 x 9.79 x 0.3)- (0.89 x 9.79 x 1.1)]kpa
PA – PB = -37.07473 KPa
The Pressure differences is -37.07473 KPa
CONTROL VOLUME
Isaac Newton proposed the following three laws of motion:
1. A body in motion continues to stay in motion unless acted upon by a net external
force.
2. The net force on the body is equal to the mass times the acceleration.
3. When a body exerts a force on another body, the other body exerts an equal and
opposite force.
Clearly, these laws of mechanics and other related laws of conservation such as
conservation of mass and angular momentum (also one can include energy and electric
charge conservation) are all strongly bounded to the material/body under
investigation. Therefore, the foremost thing to note while doing a control volume
analysis is that the laws of mechanics have little to do with the choice of the
fictitious dashed border that one draws to identify the control volume. It is the
material contained in it that holds the conserved quantity. If the control volume
confines the same material at all times, then the laws of mechanics would not get
altered. However, if there is flux of material in and/or out of the chosen control
volume, then we need to modify the laws of mechanics to correctly identify the rate
of change of the conserved quantity associated with the material inside the control
volume at a given time.
Control volume is the same as free body diagrams that is used in engineering
mechanics
Is used to study fluid in motion.
LAWS OF MECHANICS
1. Law of conservation of mass
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed Within control volume, the net mass
must remain constant such that Mass in = Mass out

Example
2. Law of conservation of energy

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.Energy flowing into control
volume is equal to energy flowing out of it. The law is the basis for
the derivation of Bernoulli equations.
Net work done
Net Kinetic energy
Net potential energy

Work done= kinetic energy + potent Energy
This is Bernoulli equation.
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL) AND ENERGY LINE (EL)

A useful visual interpretation of Bernoulli’s equation is to sketch two grade lines
of a flow.
The energy grade line (EGL) shows the height of the total Bernoulli constant h0 = z
+ p/ = V2/(2g). In frictionless flow with no work or heat transfer, the EGL has
constant height.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) shows the height corresponding to elevation and
pressure head z = p/ that is, the EGL minus the velocity head V2/(2g). The HGL is
the height to which liquid would rise in a piezometer tube attached to the flow. In
an open-channel flow the HGL is identical to the free surface of the water.
Figure below illustrates the EGL and HGL for frictionless flow at sections 1 and 2
of a duct. The piezometer tubes measure the static pressure head z = p/ and thus
outline the HGL. The pitot stagnation-velocity tubes measure the total head z = p/
= V2/(2g), which corresponds to the EGL. In this particular case the EGL is
constant, and the HGL rises due to a drop in velocity.
In more general flow conditions, the EGL will drop slowly due to friction losses and
will drop sharply due to a substantial loss (a valve or obstruction) or due to work
extraction (to a turbine). The EGL can rise only if there is work addition (as from
a pump or propeller). The HGL generally follows the behavior of the EGL with respect
to losses or work transfer, and it rises and/or falls if the velocity decreases
and/or increases. As mentioned before, no conversion factors are needed in
computations with the Bernoulli equation if consistent SI or BG units are used, as
the following examples will show.
In all Bernoulli-type problems in this text, we consistently take point 1 upstream

and point 2 downstream.

NOTE BRO! Velocity head changes due to change in fluid velocity caused by change in
diameter of flow As velocity head change, HGL also shifts
 At the pipe outlet, the pressure head is zero so that the pipe elevation and
hydraulic grade line coincide….
MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS

For a rigid body of mass m, Newton’s second law is expressed as
Therefore, Newton’s second law can also be stated as the rate of change of the
momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on the body.
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum.
Newton’s second law  the linear momentum equation in fluid mechanics
The momentum of a system is conserved when it remains constant  the conservation

of momentum principle.
Momentum is a vector. Its direction is the direction of velocity.

Momentum =
Consider a stream tube and assume steady non-uniform flow
LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION

Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to a force F is expressed as
During steady flow, the amount of momentum within the control volume remains
constant. The net force acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to
the difference between the rates of outgoing and incoming momentum flows.

DONT SKIP THE FOLLOWING BRO DEUS!
In time δt a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet at a distance v1δt, so
volume entering the stream tube = area x distance = A1 x v1δt
The mass entering,
mass entering stream tube = volume x density = ρ1A1v1 δt
And momentum
momentum entering stream tube = mass velocity = ρ1A1v1 δt v1
Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:
momentum leaving stream tube = ρ2A2v2 δt v2
By Newton 2nd law
Force = rate of change of momentum ; F = (ρ2A2v2 δt v2 - ρ1A1v1 δt v1)/ δt
We know from continuity that Q= A1v1 = A2v2
And if we have fluid of constant density, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ, then
F = Qρ (v2-v1)
An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
mass into face 1 = mass out of face 2
we can write
rate of change of mass = m= dm/dt
= ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
The rate at which momentum enters face 1 is ρ1A1v1 v1 = mv1
The rate at which momentum leaves face 2 is ρ2A2v2 v2 = mv2
Thus the rate at which momentum changes across the stream tube is
ρ2A2v2 v2 - ρ1A1v1 v1 = mv2 - mv1
Force = rate of change of momentum
F = m(v2-v1)
So, we know these two expression. Either one is known as momentum equation:
F = m(v2-v1)
F = Qρ (v2-v1)
The momentum equation:This force acts on the fluid in the direction of the flow of
the fluid

HYDRODYNAMICS
FLOW CONCEPT
Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered inpractice. The
hot and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes. Water in a city
is distributed by extensive piping networks. Oil and natural gas are transported
hundreds of miles by large pipelines. Blood is carried throughout our bodies by
arteries and veins. The cooling water in an engine is transported by hoses to the
pipes in the radiator where it is cooled as it flows. Thermal energy in a hydronic
space heating system is transferred to the circulating water in the boiler, and then
it is transported to the desired locations through pipes.
Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is
forced to flow over a surface or in a conduit. Internal and external flows exhibit
very different characteristics. In this chapter we consider internal flow where the
conduit is completely filled with the fluid, and flow is driven primarily by a
pressure difference. This should not be confused with open-channel flow where the
conduit is partially filled by the fluid and thus the flow is partially bounded by
solid surfaces, as in an irrigation ditch, and flow is driven by gravity alone.
When the fluids in motion i.e. in pipe, the individuals molecules moves in velocity
of different magnitude and directions Depending on different factors, the molecules
may moves in straight line (streamline) or random manner. Because of this we have
different TYPES of fluid flows
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

If you have been around smokers, you probably noticed that the cigarette smoke
rises in a smooth plume for the first few centimeters and then starts fluctuating
randomly in all directions as it continues its rise. Other plumes behave
similarly.Likewise, a careful inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid
flow is streamlined at low velocities but turns chaotic as the velocity is
increased above a critical value, as shown in Fig. 8–4. The flow regime in the
first case is said to be laminar, characterized by smooth streamlines and highly
ordered motion, and turbulent in the second case, where it is characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion. The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in which
the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully
turbulent. Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is
encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow
passages.We can verify the existence of these laminar, transitional, and turbulent
flow regimes by injecting some dye streaks into the flow in a glass pipe, as the
British engineer Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) did over a century ago. We observe
that the dye streak forms a straight and smooth line at low velocities when the
flow is laminar (we may see some blurring because of molecular diffusion), has
bursts of fluctuations in the transitional regime, and zigzags rapidly and randomly
when the flow becomes fully turbulent. These zigzags and the dispersion of the dye
are indicative of the fluctuations in the main flow and the rapid mixing of fluid
particles from adjacent layers. The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow
as a result of rapid fluctuations enhances momentum transfer between fluid
particles, which increases the friction force on the surface and thus the required
pumping power. The friction factor reaches a maximum when the flow becomes fully
turbulent

REYNOLDS NUMBER
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface
roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other
things. After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds discovered that
the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in
the fluid. This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal
flow in a circular pipe as
Re
WHERE
Vavg = average flow velocity (m/s),
D = characteristic length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m)
V = = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
Note that bro Deus!

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity. Also, kinematic viscosity has the
unit m2/s, and can be viewed as viscous diffusivity or diffusivity for momentum.
After several experiments, he came up with expression and He concluded that

 Re < 2000 - the flow is Laminar
 Re > 4000 – the flow is Turbulent flow
 2000 < Re < 4000 – Transitional flow

For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic
diameter Dh defined as
Dh
UNIFORM AND NON UNIFORM FLOW

1.Uniform flow
Occurs when flow characteristics do not change from point to point Flow
characteristics include velocity, discharges, cross section etc
WHERE C is flow characteristics & S is path
2.Non uniform flow

Occurs when flow characteristics change from point to point Most flow
are non-uniform because
C is flow characteristics & S is path
STEADY AND UN-STEADY FLOWS

3.Steady flow
Steady flow-flow characteristics at a given point do not change with
time…
4.Unsteady flow
Unsteady flow –flow characteristics at given point change with time

 Let’s say we’re not dealing with a system open to the atmosphere
(e.g., a pipe vs. a pond).There’s no storage potential, so Q1 = Q2, a
mass balance equation. For essentially incompressible fluids such as
water, the equation becomes
V1A1 = V2A2,; where V = velocity (m/s) and A = area (m2)
This Can be used to estimate flow velocity along a pipe, especially
where constrictions are concerned.
Self-check bro Deus!

Solve the following self-check question using the above concept
(answer V2 = 5m/s)
QN If one end of a pipe has a diameter of 0.1 m and a flow rate of 0.05
m/s, what will be the flow velocity at a constriction in the other end
having a diameter of 0.01 m? (hints: V1A1 = V2A2)
PIPE NETWORKS
‘Pipe flow’ generally refers to fluid in pipes and appurtenances
flowing full and under pressure .
Examples are Water distribution in homes, industry, cities; irrigation
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
1.Pipes
2.Valves
3.Bends
4.Pumps and turbines
5.Storage (often unpressurized, in reservoirs, tanks, etc.)

ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN PIPE SYSTEMS
Energy equation between any two points:
Analysis involves writing expressions for hL in each pipe and for each
link between pipes (valves, expansions, contractions), relating
velocities based on continuity equation, and solving subject to system
constraints (Q, p, or V at specific points).
MAJOR LOSES IN PIPE SYSTEMS

Source:
1.Frictions due to pipe material
2.Length of the system
3.Diameter/Cross-sectional Area
ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEMS
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop
∆P since it is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or
pump to maintain flow. We note that dP/dx = constant, and integrating
from x = x1 where the pressure is P1 to x = x1 + L where the pressure is P2
gives

………………………….eqn1
Substituting Eqn1 into the Vavg expression (see below) the pressure drop
can be expressed as
Laminar flow
The symbol ∆ (is typically used to indicate the difference between the
final and initial values, like (∆y = y2 - y1). But in fluid flow, ∆P is
used to designate pressure drop, and thus it is P1 - P2. A pressure drop
due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure loss, and it
is called PRESSURE LOSS
∆PL to emphasize that it is a loss (just like the head loss hL, which is
proportional to it).
NOTE that, from the ∆P equation above the pressure drop is proportional
to the viscosity of the fluid, and ∆P would be zero if there were no
friction. Therefore, the drop of pressure from P1 to P2 in this case is
due entirely to viscous effects, and ∆P Eqn above represents the pressure
loss ∆PL when a fluid of viscosity flows through a pipe of constant
diameter D and length L at average velocity Vavg.
In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure loss for all
types of fully developed internal flows (laminar or turbulent flows,
circular or noncircular pipes, smooth or rough surfaces, horizontal or
inclined pipes)
PRESSURE LOSS:
Where
is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy friction factor
It is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor, named after the

Frenchman Henry Darcy (1803–1858) and the German Julius Weisbach (1806–
1871),the two engineers who provided the greatest contribution in its
development. It should not be confused with the friction coefficient Cf
[also called the Fanning friction factor, named after the American
engineer John Fanning (1837–1911)], which is defined as
Cf = = f /4.
Setting P2 and ∆P eqns equal to each other and solving for f gives the
friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe,

Circular pipe, laminar
This equation shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor is a

function of the Reynolds number only and is independent of the roughness
of the pipe surface.
In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed

in terms of the equivalent fluid column height, called the HEAD LOSS hL.
Noting from fluid statics that ∆P = gh and thus a pressure difference of
∆P corresponds to a fluid height of h =∆P/ g, the pipe head loss is
obtained by dividing ∆PL by g to give
OR
Where
hL = Head loss due to friction, m [ft]

f = Moody friction factor
L = Pipe length, m [ft]
V = Velocity, m/s [ft/sec]
g = Gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/sec2 [32.2 ft/sec2]
D = Inside diameter, m [ft]
IMPORTANT bro!
THE MOODY CHART

The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness  /D. which is the ratio of the mean height of
roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter. The functional form of this dependence
cannot be obtained from a theoretical analysis, and all available results are
obtained from painstaking experiments using artificially roughened surfaces (usually
by gluing sand grains of a known size on the inner surfaces of the pipes). Most such
experiments were conducted by Prandtl’s student J. Nikuradse in 1933, followed by
the works of others. The friction factor was calculated from the measurements of the
flow rate and the pressure drop.
The experimental results obtained are presented in tabular, graphical, and

functional forms obtained by curve-fitting experimental data. In 1939, Cyril F.
Colebrook (1910–1997) combined the available data for transition and turbulent flow
in smooth as well as rough pipes into the following implicit relation known as the
Colebrook equation:

We note that the logarithm in Equation above is a base 10 rather than a
natural logarithm. In 1942, the American engineer Hunter Rouse (1906–
1996) verified Colebrook’s equation and produced a graphical plot of f as
a function of Re and the product √ . He also presented the laminar flow
relation and a table of commercial pipe roughness.
Two years later, Lewis F. Moody (1880–1953) redrew Rouse’s diagram into
the form commonly used today. The now famous Moody chart is shown below.
It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the
Reynolds number and e/D over a wide range. It is probably one of the most
widely accepted and used charts in engineering. Although it is developed
for circular pipes, it can also be used for noncircular pipes by
replacing the diameter by the hydraulic diameter.

OBSERVATIONS FROM THE MOODY CHART
• For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing
Reynolds number, and it is independent of surface roughness.
• The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with
roughness. The Colebrook equation in this case ( = 0) reduces to the
Prandtl equation.
• The transition region from the laminar to turbulent regime is

indicated by the shaded area in the Moody chart. At small relative
roughnesses, the friction factor increases in the transition region
and approaches the value for smooth pipes.
• At very large Reynolds numbers (to the right of the dashed line on
the Moody chart) the friction factor curves corresponding to
specified relative roughness curves are nearly horizontal, and thus
the friction factors are independent of the Reynolds number. The flow
in that region is called fully rough turbulent flow or just fully
rough flow because the thickness of the viscous sublayer decreases
with increasing Reynolds number, and it becomes so thin that it is
negligibly small compared to the surface roughness height. The
Colebrook equation in the fully rough zone reduces to the von Kármán
equation.
Note Bro!
At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves on the
Moody chart are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are
independent of the Reynolds number.
IMPORTANT NOTE BRO!

In calculations, we should make sure that we use the actual internal
diameter of the pipe, which may be different than the nominal diameter.

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW PROBLEMS
1.Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the pipe length
and diameter are given for a specified flow rate (or velocity)
2.Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are
given for a specified pressure drop (or head loss)
3.Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate
are given for a specified pressure drop (or head loss)
To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter

calculations, these explicit relations that are accurate to
within 2 percent of the Moody chart may be used.

QUIZ 1
Compare the velocity and pressure heads for typical
conditions in a street main: V = 1.5 m/s; D = 0.5 m;
p = 500 kPa
(hints)
 500 kPa  1000 N/m  1.5 m/s 

2
kPa 
2
2
V
p   0.115 m


9800 N/m 3
 51.0 m 2 g 2  9.8 m/s 
2
Answer
If f = 0.02, hL for each 0.5 m of pipe is 2% of the
velocity head, or 0.0023 m, corresponding to 0.0045%
of the pressure head.
QUIZ 2
A 20-in-diameter galvanized pipe (e = 0.0005 ft) 2 miles long carries 4
cfs at 60oF. Find hL using (a) the Moody diagram and (b) the Colebrook
eqn.(use the mood chart in above notes)
a)
B) Colebrook equation
1  D 2.71 
 2 log   

f  3.7 Re f 

TYPICAL PIPE FLOW PROBLEM >>(repeated, unique anyway)
• Type II: Pipe properties (e, D, l) and hL known, find V.
• Guess V, determine f and hL as in Type I, iterate until hL equals
known value, or
• Solve Colebrook and DW eqns simultaneously to eliminate V, yielding:
SOLVING TYPE II PIPE PROBLEMS

Iterative Approach

Rearranged D-W eqn:
2 gDhL   D 2.51 l 
V  2 log   
l  3.7 D 2 gDhL 
Example
For the pipe analyzed in the preceding QUIZ 2, what is the
largest flow rate allowable if the total frictional head loss
must remain <8 ft?
SOLUTION
2 gDhL   D 2.51 l 
V  2 log   
l  3.7 D 2 gDhL 
Substituting known values,
Type III.
ANOTHER SIMPLE QUIZ bro! DEUS
QN What diameter galvanized pipe would be required in the preceding
QUIZ 2 if a flow rate of 10 cfs was needed, while keeping the total
frictional headloss at <8 ft?
(HINTS SOLUTION)

DEPENDENCE OF HL ON D AND V
1. In laminar region:
2. In turbulent region, when f becomes constant
Under typical water distribution conditions, hL in a given

pipe can be expressed as kQn with n slightly <2.
QUIZ 2 CONTINUES……..
For the systems analyzed in the QUIZ 2, what value of n
causes the data to fit the equation hL = kQn?

ALTERNATIVE EQUATIONS FOR FLOW
Headloss Relationships in Turbulent Pipe Flow
 Hazen-Williams equation – widely used for hL as function

of flow parameters for turbulent flow at typical
velocities in water pipes:
NOTE: Coefficients shown are for SI units; for BG units, replace

0.849 by 1.318 and 10.7 by 4.73.
COMPARISON OF EQUATIONS FOR TRANSITIONAL AND TURBULENT CURVES ON

THE MOODY DIAGRAM
*
Coefficients shown are for SI units (V in m/s, and D and Rh in m); for
BG units (ft/s and ft), replace 0.849 by 1.318; 0.354 by 0.550; 0.278 by
0.432; 10.7 by 4.73; 1/n by 1.49/n; 0.397 by 0.592; 0.312 by 0.465; and
10.3 by 4.66.

ENERGY LOSSES IN BENDS, VALVES, AND OTHER TRANSITIONS
(‘MINOR LOSSES’)
Minor headlosses generally significant when pipe sections are

short (e.g., household, not pipeline) Caused by turbulence
associated with flow transition; therefore, mitigated by
modifications that ‘smooth’ flow patterns Generally much greater
for expansions than for contractions.
Often expressed as multiple of velocity head:
Where, K is the ratio of energy lost via friction in the device

of interest to the kinetic energy of the water (upstream or
downstream, depending on geometric details)
ENERGY LOSSES IN CONTRACTIONS
Note bro!:
all pictures by Fluid
Mechanics With Engineering
Applications10th Edition
By E. Finnemore and Joseph
Franzini Copyright: 2002

ENERGY LOSSES IN EXPANSIONS
ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPE

FITTINGS AND BENDS

Bro! Deus….Use the idea above to solve following the
following EXAMPLE
A 5-in-diameter pipe with an estimated f of 0.033 is 110

feet long and connects two reservoirs whose surface
elevations differ by 12 feet. The pipe entrance is
flushed, and the discharge is submerged.
a. Compute the flow rate.
b. How much would the flow rate change if the last 10
ft of the pipe were replaced with a smooth conical
diffuser with a cone angle of 10o?
Any idea bro? about the question

SOLUTION

From graph, for a smooth, 10o cone, kcone = 0.175
BRO! if your following, Mr Materu’s slides ‘I’ end here.

See questions next pages……………..
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. A mountain lake has a maximum depth of 40m, the barometric pressure
at the surface is 598mm Hg. Determine the absolute pressure (in
Pascal) at the deepest part of the lake. Given that the density of
water and mercury are 1000kg/m3 and 13558kg/m3 respectively
(Answer=471.9KPa)
2. A manometer is attached to a tank containing three different fluids
as shown in figure below, what will be the difference in elevation
of mercury column in the manometer (y)? (Answer =0.626m)
3. Determine the new differential reading along the inclined leg of

the mercury manometer of Figure below, if the pressure in pipe A
is decreased 10 kPa and the pressure in pipe B remains unchanged.
The fluid in A has a specific gravity of 0.9 and the fluid in B is
water. (Answer=0.212m)
4. Viscosity of liquid decrease with increase in temperature while for

a gas the viscosity increase with the increase in temperature.
Explain why???
HINTS bro! to use
1.Molecular structure
2.Cohesive force
3.Momentum exchange (gas)
5. What is the viscous force of the fluid on a 30.48m length pipe of
0.305m diameter if shear stress is 0.0262N/m2?
See hints below

6. Determine the Torque and power required to run a 300 mm diameter
shaft at 400 rpm in journals with uniform oil thickness of 1 mm.
Two bearings of 300 mm width are used to support the shaft. The
dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.03N-s/m2
(Answer Torque = 15.995Nm and Power =670W)
BRO! (KIM DE FEL) ATTACK THE FOLLOWING ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS

Question 1
a)Find the capillary rise in the tube shown in figure F1 below, the
air- water-glass interface (  o  0 ) and tube radius is 1mm at 20ºC
temperature. Given that the surface tension of water at 20ºC is
0.0728N/m (Answer 14.8mm)
b)Assume the liquid is mercury with air-mercury-glass interface is 130º

and density of mercury is 13.570kg/m3 while surface tension of
mercury is 0.514N/m, calculate capillary rise, explain why the
results is negative and draw the figure to represent the result
(Answer -5mm)
Figure F1
Question 2
a)A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000cm3 at 1MN/m2
and volume of 995cm3 at 2MN/m2. What is bulk modulus of elasticity
(answer 200MPa)
b)The glass tube in figure F2 is used to measure Pressure (P1) in the
water tank, the tube diameter is 1mm and water surface tension is
0.0712N/m. the tube is reading 17cm of height, what is the true
height of water after correcting the effect of surface tension
(density of water is 1000kg/m3) [answer 2.9cm]
Figure F2

Question 3
Water flows into larger tank as shown in figure F3 at the rate of
0.11m3/s, the water leaves the tank through 20 holes in the bottom of the
tank, each hole has a diameter of 10mm. Determine equilibrium height (h)
for the steady state operation (answer 2.50m)
Figure F3
Question 4
The volume of fluid is found to be 0.00015m3, if the specific gravity of
this fluid is 2.6. Calculate the weight of fluid (Answer 3.82N)
Question 5
If the specific weight of a substance is 8.2KN/m3, calculate its density
[Answer: 836kg/m3]
Question 6
A vertical cylindrical tank with a diameter of 12m and depth of 4m is
filled to the top with water at 20°C. If water is heated to 50°C, how
much water will spill over? Given that density of water at 20°C and 50°C
is 999kg/m3 and 989kg/m3 respectively. [Answer 4.6m3]
Question 7
If bulk modulus of elasticity for water is 2.2GPa, what pressure is
required to reduce a volume of water by 0.6% [Answer: 13.2MPa]
Question 8
The mercury manometer of Figure indicates a differential reading of 0.30
m when the pressure in pipe A is 30-mm Hg vacuum. Determine the pressure
in pipe B. (ANS; 4171.28Pa)

Figure
Question 9
For the stationary fluid shown in Figure , the pressure at point B is 20
kPa greater than at point A. Determine the specific weight of the
manometer fluid (Answer = 7100N/m3)
Figure
Question 10
Water flows through the pipe contraction as shown in Figure . For the
given 0.2m difference in manometer level, determine the flow rate as a
function of the diameter of the small pipe, D. [Answer Q=1.56D2 where Q
(m3/s) and D (m)]
Figure

Question 11
The fluid in figure M8 is water, determine the manometer reading (h)

[Answer=0.37m)]
Figure
Question 11
Determine the elevation difference h between the water levels in the two
open tanks shown in figure M9 [Answer = 0.040m]
Figure
Question 12
Determine the flowrate through the pipe shown in figure below
(Answer = 0.0111m3/s)
Figure

Question 13
A swimming pool is 18 m long and 7m wide, determine the magnitude and
location of the resultant force of the water on the vertical end of the
pool where depth is 2.5m (Answer, FR= 214KN, YR= 1.67)
Question 14
The vertical cross section of closed storage tank as shown in figure
contains ethyl alcohol, the air pressure is 40KPa. Determine the
magnitude of the resultant fluid force acting on one end of the tank.
Given that specific weight of ethyl alcohol is 7.74 KN/m3
(Answer=FR=847KN)
Figure1
Question 15
The rectangular gate CD of figure Q2 is 1.8m wide and 2m long, assuming
the material of the gate to be homogenous and neglecting friction at the
hinge C, determine the weight of the gate necessary to keep the gate
shunt until the water level rises to 2m above the hinge (Answer = 180KN)
Figure

Question 16
A 4m long curved gate is located in the side of the reservoir containing
water as shown in figure Q3 below. Determine the magnitude of the
horizontal, vertical and resultant forces of water on the gate. Will
resultant force pass through point O? Explain! (Answer, FH=882KN,
FV=983.67KN, FR=1321.8KN)
Figure
Question 17
The rigid gate OAB of figure G1 below is hinged at O and rests against a
rigid support at B. What minimum horizontal force P is required to hold
the gate closed if its widht is 3m? Neglet the weight of the gate and
friction in the hinge, the back of the gate exposed to the atmosphere.
(Answer 436KN)
Figure
Question 18
A dam of 20m long retain 7m of water as shown in figure below, find the
total resultant force acting on the dam and location of the centre of
pressure. Given that the angle between water and dam at the surface is
60° (Answer 5550.6KN, Centre of pressure is 4.667m below the surface)

Question 19
An inclined circular gate with water on one side shown in figure G2
below, Determine the total resultant force acting on the gate and
location of the Centre of pressure (Zcp). Assume specific weight of water
at 20°C is 9.79KN/m3 (Answer Resultant force =14.86KN and Zcp =2.26m)
Figure
Question 20
The 4-m-diameter circular gate in figure G3 below is located in the
inclined wall of a large reservoir containing water. The gate is mounted
on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water depth of 10 m above
the shaft determine
(a) The magnitude of the resultant force exerted on the gate by water
(Answer= 1.23MN)
(b) Location in y-axis (YR) of the resultant force (Answer 11.6m)

Figure
Question 21
Consider figure G4 below, if atmospheric pressure is 101.03KPa and
absolute Pressure at the bottom of the tank is 231.3KPa. What is the
density of olive Provided that the density of mercury, water and SAE-30
oil are 13570kg/m3, 1000kg/m3 and 800kg/m3 respectively?
Figure
Question 22
Determine the pressure heads at A and B in meter of water in figure G5
below and explain your answer (Answer HA= -2.38m H2O and HB= -0.51m H2O)
Figure

Question 23
A large open tank contains a layer of oil floating on water as shown in
figure M2, the flow is steady and fluid is incompressible, Determine
a) Height, h, to which the water will rise
b) Water velocity in the pipe
c) Pressure in the horizontal pipe.
Figure
Question 24
Determine the flow rate through the pipe in M3 below (Answer = 0.0111m3/s)
Figure
Question 25
The specific gravity of the manometer fluid shown in figure , determine
the volume flowrate, Q, if the flow is incompressible and the flowing
fluid is water (density of water is 1000kg/m3)
Figure

Question 26
Determine the elevation difference h between the water levels in the two
open tanks shown in figure F6 [Answer = 0.040m]
Figure
BRO! ARE YOU TIRED IS YES STOP HERE FOR TODAY? IF YES SEE MY GIFT TO YOU
SAMPLE QUESTIONS ON FLUID FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS

Question 1
Lubricating Oil at a velocity of 1 m/s (average) flows through a pipe of
100 mm; determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Also
determine the friction factor (f) and the pressure drop over 10 m length
in Pa or N/m2. Given that Density = 930 kg/m3and Dynamic viscosity μ= 0.1
Ns/m2
Solution
Given
Velocity (v) =1m/s
Pipe diameter (D) =100mm = 0.1m
Pipe length = 10m
Density = 930kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity (µ) = 0.1Ns/m2
 vD 930*1*0.1
Type of flow: Re    930
 0.1
Since Re<2000, then the flow is laminar

64 64
Friction factor: since the flow is laminar, then f    0.06882
Re 930
Pressure drop:
fLV 2 0.06882*10*12
hf    0.351m
2 Dg 2*0.1*9.81
P   gh  930*9.81*0.351
P  3200 Pa

Question 2
Use mood diagram to find friction factor for the following data: Diameter
of the pipe =0.305m, Kinematic viscosity of the fluid = 1.3 x 10 -6,
Velocity =0.043m/s and Internal pipe roughness =0.00061m
Solution
0.00061
Relative roughness (e/D)   0.002
0.305
Reynolds number  DV 
0.305*0.043
 10000
v 4.3  106
From moody diagram, f = 0.034 (check!! IT BRO! DEUS F)

QUESTION 3
Calculate the energy head loss due to friction in a pipe of length 1000m,
diameter of 0.25m and roughness of 0.0005m given that the fluid of
kinematic viscosity of 1.306x10-6m2/s flow in the pipe at the rate of
0.051m3/s.
Solution
Given
Pipe length =1000m
Diameter = 0.25m
Roughness = 0.0005m
Kinematic viscosity= 1.306x10-6m2/s
Flow rate = 0.051m3/s
Friction head loss
fLV 2
hf             ( a )
2 Dg
 Velocity
Q 4Q
(V )  
A  D2
4*0.051
(V )   1.039m / s
 *(0.25)2
 Friction factor
DV 0.25*1.039
 Re    200000
v 1.036 106
0.0005
e   0.002
D 0.25
From moody diagram, f=0.0245 (check!! BRO!)

 Head loss (from equation a)
fLV 2 0.0245*1000*(1.039)2
hf  
2 Dg 2*0.25*9.81
h f  5.39m
Hence head loss due to friction is 5.39m

Question 4
Oil (specific weight = 8900N/m3 & viscosity = 0.10Ns/m2 flows through

horizontal 23mm diameter tube as shown in figure Q1 below, a differential
U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure drop along the tube,
determine the range of value for h for laminar flow (Answer h<0.509m)
Figure
Question 5
Oil of SG = 0.87 and kinematic viscosity (v) = 2.2 x10-4m2/s flows through
a vertical pipe as shown in figure at flow rate of 4x10-4m3/s. Determine
the manometer reading h, also determine the magnitude and direction of
flow rate which will cause h to be zero. (Answer h=18.5m and Q=0)
Figure
Question 6
Oil with density of 900 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.0002 m2/s
flows upward through an inclined pipe as shown in figure Q3. The pressure
and elevation are known at sections 1 and 2, 10 m apart. Assuming the
flow is steady laminar, calculate
a)Friction head loss between (hf)point 1 and 2
b)Discharge (Q)
c)Velocity (V)
d)Reynolds number (Re)
[Answers: hf=4.9m, Q=0.0076m3/s, V=2.7m/s and Re=810]

Figure
Question 7
From figure Q4 below, find the diameter of the pipe which connects two
reservoirs given that the length of the pipe is 304.8m, the flow is
0.013m3/s, roughness (e) is 0.001m and kinematic viscosity is 1.31x10-
6m2/s (Answer=0.15m)
Figure
Solution
This is the kind of engineering problem that you are suppose to find the
diameter of pipe to accommodate a given fluid flow with other available
information. Find everything in term of diameter

 Relative roughness in term of D
e 0.001

D D
 Velocity in term of D
Q 4Q
V  
A  D2
4 * 0.013 0.017
V  
 D2 D2
 Reynolds number in term of D
Re 
VD
 D
0.017 2 * D

v 1.31 106
12977
Re 
D
 Head loss in term of D
fLV 2
hL 
2 Dg
fLV 2
15.2 
2 Dg
15.2  
 
f 304.8* 0.017 2 
D  
2 *9.81* D
15.2 

f 0.088 4
D 
19.62 D
1
D  0.295 f 5
f can be solved by trial and error, try different values of f until the
trial value of f converges with f values of moody chart as shown in table
below
f-trial D e/D Re f-chart Remarks
0.025 0.0141 0.007 92035 0.034 Try again
0.034 0.15 0.0067 86513 0.034 Converges
Since the f-trial converges with f from moody chart, then the diameter of
the pipe is 0.15m
Question 8
Oil with density of 900 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.00001m2/s,
flows at 0.2 m3/s through 500m of 200-mm diameter cast-iron pipe.
Determine (a) the head loss and (b) the pressure drop provided that the
pipe slopes down at 10° in the flow direction and caste iron pipe has
roughness of 0.26mm (Answers: hf=117 and change in pressure =265KPa)
Question 9
Oil with density of 950kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.00002m2/s, flow
through 30cm diameter pipe 100m long with a head loss of 8m. The relative
roughness (e/D) of the pipe is 0.00002. Find the average velocity and
flow rate (Answer V=4.84m/s and Q=0.342m3/s)

Solution
This type of problems requires iteration process or computer software
(solvers) because velocity (or flow rate) appears in both the ordinate
and the abscissa on the Moody chart, iteration for turbulent flow is
nevertheless quite fast, because f varies so slowly with Re.
 First solve V in term of f
fLV 2
hf 
2 Dg
h 2 Dg
f  f 2
LV
8* 2*0.3*9.81
f 
100V 2
fV 2  0.471
0.471
V
f
To get started, you only need to guess f, compute V from equation above,
then get Re (Re=VD/v), compute a better f from the Moody chart and
repeat. The process converges fairly rapidly. A good first guess is to
assume the flow is ‚fully rough‛ e.g. the value of f for (e/D) 0.0002 is
f =0.014. Calculation can be done as shown in table below
f-trial Velocity (V) Re (VD/v) f-chart Remarks

0.014 5.80 87000 0.0195 Try again
0.0195 4.91 73700 0.0201 Try again
0.0201 4.84 72600 0.0201 Converges
Since the f-trial converges with f from moody chart, then the velocity of
flow is 4.84m/s
Flow rate
Flow rate (Q)
Q=AV
 D 2V
Q=
4
 *(0.3) 2 * 4.84
Q  0.342m3 / s
4
Hence the flow is 0.342m3/s
Question 10
Oil with density of 950kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 0.00002m2/s, flow
through a pipe of unknown diameter, the length of pipe is 100m long with
a head loss of 8m. The relative roughness (e/D) of the pipe is 0.00002
and the flow is 0.342m3/s. calculate the pipe diameter (Answer: 30cm)

Question 11
Consider figure Q5, the total pressure drop PA-PB = 150,000 Pa, and the
elevation drop ZA- ZB=5 m. The pipe data are shown in table 1 below. The
fluid is water, with density of 1000kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of
1.02x10-6m2/s. Calculate the flow rate Q in m3/h through the system.
Figure
Table : Pipes data
REST FOR A WHILE BRO KIM DE FEL BEFORE TAKING

YOU TO PUMPS

PUMP
PUMP is machine used to lift fluid from one point to another.It converts
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. Pump may need to lift liquids
from some heights below the pump and push them to some height above the
pump.
PUMP CLASSIFICATION
 Pumps are classified according to its working principles.
 Pumps are classified into three main groups:
Positive displacement pumps (Static pumps)
Kinetic pumps
Electric pumps (electromagnetic pumps)
Basic groups are sub-divided more into several types.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS (STATIC TYPE)
Fluid is pumped into & out of a chamber by changing the volume of the
chamber. Pressures & works done are a result of static forces rather
than dynamic effects. Common examples are tire pump, human heart,
gear pump etc
KINETIC PUMPS
It involve a collection of blades, buckets, flow channels around
an axis of rotation to form a rotor. It is dominated by dynamic
force. Rotor’s rotation produces a dynamic effect that adds energy
to the fluid. A good example of kinetic pump is the one that used
in deep wells (i.e. centrifugal pumps). Depending on direction of
the fluid motion relative to the rotor’s, kinetic pump classified
into axial-flow, mixed-flow & radial-flow
1. Radial flow pump

It involves a substantial radial-flow component at the rotor
inlet or exit. Dominated by the action of centrifugal forces

2. AXIAL FLOW PUMPS
The pumped fluid maintains a significant axial-flow direction
from the inlet to outlet. The flow entering the pump inlet
axially and discharge nearly axially. These pumps has low head
(H) but with larger discharges (Q)
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Is the radial flow pump. Has two main components which are an
impeller & stationary casing (housing).As the impeller rotates,
fluid is sucked in through the hub (eye)
The casing shape (increase in area in direction of flow) is
designed to reduce the velocity so as increase in pressure.
PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
There is theoretical head (hi) –provided by manufactures. There is
actual head (ha) – field performance
This is because of Losses (hL)
hL=(friction losses, minor losses, other losses)

ACTUAL HEAD (SHOULD BE USED FOR DESIGN)
 Actual head should be obtained for design. Engineer should find

it from available information e.g. flow rate. Sometimes pumps
characteristics are obtained by experiments

Energy at the inlet is less than the energy at exit, the difference
is energy added by pump/energy gained by fluid (ha)
This (ha) is the net head rise, Can be converted to Power gained by
fluid by (in Watts) or (in horse power)
In watts
In horsepower:
CHARACTERISTIC PERFORMANCE CURVE

Is the graph which gives the information about the
characteristics of pump
The characteristics includes:-
a.Discharge
b.Efficiency
c.Pressure requirements (head)
d.Power consumption etc.
All are important information to engineer. All characteristics are
drawn Vs flow rate.
DISCHARGE (Q)
Is the volume of liquid pumped per unit time. Head curve raises
as the flow rate (Q) decrease. To lift water up to higher
building the flow rate should be small
ACTUAL HEAD
Is the net work done on a unit weight of water –done by pump Head
at zero discharge is called the shutoff head No flow.Efficiency is
zero.
OPERATING POINT OF PUMP
Is the point which gives the head and flow rate that satisfies both
system equation and pump equation. Can be obtained by plotting both
curves on the same graph. The intersection point is operating point
STOP HERE AND PRACTISE THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE BRO!

QN Water is pumped from a deep well to students hostel’s tanks, the
centrifugal pump used for pumping has characteristics which is given by
equation H = 22.9+10.7Q-111Q3 ,but one Agricultural engineering students
tried to find the system demand and she obtained the equation
H = 15 +85Q2 .Where Q is the flow in m3/s and H is head in m. Determine
the operating point of the pump (Flow rate and head)
[Answer: Q=0.23 and H=19.49]
POWER
Is the rate at which work is done on a liquid by pump. Is when a
unit volume of liquid is raised through a given height.

Is power required by water to be lifted. As the discharge increase
then the power requirement also increases
Efficiency
1.Pumps receives power from motors through shaft (BP)
2.Motor receives power from electricity (LP)
3.Pump develops power into fluid (fluid required power)
Neither motor (M) nor Pump (P) operates in 100% efficiency.

Efficiency of the motor (ηm)
Efficiency of the Pump (ηp)
SIMPLE QUIZ BRO! DEUS

QN The pump is used to increase the pressure of water flow rate of
0.2m3/s from 200KPa to 600KPa. If the overall efficiency of the
pump is 85%, how much electrical power is required to pump the
water? The suction tank is 10cm below the centre line of the pump
and delivery tank is 10cm above the centerline of the pump. Assume
the inlet and exit diameters are equal and velocities at suction
and delivery can be neglected. Also minor and friction losses can
be neglected. [Answer P=187KW]
The overall pump efficiency is affected by the
1.Hydraulic losses in the pump due to friction loss and
minor losses..
2.Mechanical losses in the bearings and seals
3.Volumetric losses due to leakage of the fluid.
Efficiency is important characteristics of pump performance.

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)
Is expression of the suction capability of the pump. It is used to
calculate the inlet pressure needed at the pump to avoid
cavitation. Inlet pressure must be equal or higher than designed
(Requirements)
There are two types of NPSH
1.NPSHR-(Required NPSH)
 Is required suction head of the chosen pump
 It is given by the manufacturer
2.NPSHA-(Available NPSH)
This is true (available) suction head at the pump location Can be
estimated mathematically or experimentally. NPSHA must be greater
than NPSHR –otherwise it may cause cavitation.
Consider the figure below.
Total head at the suction side
Liquid vapour pressure
To avoid cavitation

NOTE THE FOLLOWING,BRO! from the above ,last expression.
1.If z1 is increased, the NPSHA is decreased
2.There is some critical value of Z1 which the pump cannot
operate without cavitation
3.What is the effect to NPSHA if source is above the pump?
Bro! Use the above idea to solve the following example

QN The pump is installed to pump water from Mazimbu well as shown
in figure F1 below, determine the critical elevation (Z1) where the
pump can be situated above water surface of suction without
experiencing cavitation. Given that the diameter of the pump is
240m, pumping rate is 250m3/hr and NPSH value for discharge is
7.4m. Use atmospheric pressure of 101Kpa and Vapour pressure of
1666Pa. [Answer = 2.72m]
These are the Laws which gives the relations between the following…
i. Volumetric flow rate (Q)
ii. Head (H)
iii. Power requirements
iv. Diameter (D)
v. Shaft rotation speed (N)

There are two affinity laws.
Affinity law 1
In this case, the point of interest is to investigate how change in
operating speed (N) affects pumps characteristics like
1.Discharge (Q)
2.Head (H)
3.Required Power (P)
Discharge versus rotational speed
Head versus rotational speed
Power versus rotational speed
Affinity law 2
In this case, the point of interest is to investigate how change
in diameter (D) affects pumps characteristics like…
1.Discharge (Q)
2.Head (H)
3.Required Power (P)
Test your IQ bro!
Is it possible to increase impeller diameter?
Discharge versus Impeller diameter
Head versus Impeller diameter
Power versus Impeller diameter

PUMP INSTALLATION
Sometime one pump is not enough to meet discharge demand /Head
required. Hence two or more pumps may be connected in series or
parallel. The choice of connection depend on weather you want to
increase discharge or head.
PUMPS IN SERIES
 The discharge form first pump is piped into the inlet side of
the second pump.
 Each pump adding more energy to the fluid.
 Only head is increased.
 Discharge remains the same.
PUMPS IN SERIES
 Applicable in deep wells pumping or higher building water
pumping….
 The combined head (total head) is equal to the sum of
individual heads…

PUMPS IN PARALLEL
Two or more pumps draw water from the sources and individual flows
are discharged into a single pipeline. Pumps in parallel operates
approx. in the same head. The total discharge is equal to the sum
of individual discharge
QUIZLET
QN The pump of Figure below is to increase the pressure of 0.2 m3
/s of water from 200 kPa to 600 kPa. If the pump is 85%
efficient, how much electrical power will the pump require? The
exit area is 20 cm above the inlet area. Assume inlet and exit
areas are equal.
Do you like 3D view answers? Hahahaha! See below
Try the following important question

1.A water pump has one inlet and two outlets as shown in Figure below,
all at the same elevation. What pump power is required if the pump is
85% efficient? Neglect pipe losses.

2.A vehicle with a mass of 5000 kg is traveling at 900 km/h. It is
decelerated by lowering a 20-cm wide scoop into water a depth of 6 cm
(Figure below). If the water is deflected through 180°, calculate the
distance the vehicle must travel for the speed to be reduced to 100
km/h.
3.A 1-kW motor drives the rotor shown in Figure below at 500 rad/s.
Determine the flow rate neglecting all losses. Use = 1.23 kg/m3.
4.Air enters the centrifugal-type air pump of a leaf blower through the
blue area shown in Figure below. The 10-cm-diameter 1.2-m-long tube
has an attached nozzle with a 30-cm2 exit area.The exit velocity is
240 km/h.
a.Calculate the discharge.
b.If the overall loss coefficient is 1.2, estimate the pump head.
c.What power must the pump supply to the air?
d.If the pump is 65% efficient, what is the required horsepower of
the gasoline engine?
e.Estimate the pressure at the tube entrance (just downstream of
the pump).
f.If the 10-kg blower hangs from a strap, what force must be
applied at the handle located 30 cm above the nozzle? The center
of gravity is 70 cm above and 120 cm to the left of the exit.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Question 1
Water is to be pumped from one large, open tank to a second tank
open tank as shown in figure Q1 below. The pipe diameter throughout
is 152.4mm and the total length of the pipe between the pipe
entrance and exit is 61m. Minor loss coefficients for the entrance
(KL1), exit (KL2), and the elbow (KL3) are shown on the figure, and
the friction factor for the pipe can be assumed constant and is
equal to 0.02. Calculate the flow rate in term of head gained by
the fluid from the pump (hp) then draw H-Q curve. If someone
installs a pump with characteristics as shown in figure Q2 (in ft
and gal/min), what can you say about this pump? Do you thing this
pump is good choice?
Figure Q1
Figure Q2
Solution
From energy equation
P1 V12 P2 V22
 z h    z   hL
 2g 1 p  2g 2
 P1  P2  Patm ,
 V1  V2  0
z1  hp  z2   hL
hp  z2  z1   hL                    (1)

But
 h   Friction losses   Minor losses

L
flV 2 KV 2
 hL  2Dg   2 g
flV 2 V 2
 hL  2Dg  2 g ( KL1  KL2  KL3 )
Hence
 flV 2 V 2 
hp  z2  z1    ( KL1  KL2  KL3 ) 
 2 Dg 2 g 
V 2  fl 
hp  z2  z1    ( KL1  KL2  KL3 ) 
2g  D 
V 2  0.02*61 
hp  3.05    (0.5  1.5  1) 
2*9.81  0.152 
hp  3.05  0.562V 2
But
Q 4Q
V 
A  D2
V 2  3037Q 2
Therefore
hP  3.05  1706.8Q2
This equation reveals how much actual head the fluid will need to
gain from the pump to maintain a certain flow rate (flow rate in
term of head gained by fluid)
The H-Q curve
The hp-Q curve can be drawn from the equation above as shown in
figure below, this curve represent the actual system performance,
hence the choice of the pump can be based on this information.
To compare this information with the pump installed or any pump in

the market, then this graph is plotted on the same graph of pump
characteristics, the intersection of the two curves represents the
operating point for the pump and the system. Figure below shows the
system curve and pump characteristics curve intersection, the
corresponding actual head gained equal to 20m

Question 2
Water is pumped between 2 reservoirs in a pipeline with the
following characteristics, Length of the pipe is 70m, diameter of
the pipe is 300mm, friction factor of the pipe is 0.025 and total
minor loss coefficient . The radial flow pump characteristics curve
is approximated by the formula where Q is discharge in m3/s and H
is head in m. Determine the discharge and head when Z1-Z1=15
[Answer Q=0.29m3/s and H=22.2m]
Question 3
Determine the specific speed of pump required to deliver water at
flow of 1800l/min with pressure head of 448KPa. Assume the
rotational speed of the pump is 3600rev/min. [0.69]
Question 4
A centrifugal pump is to be placed over a larger open tank and is
to pump water at a rate of 3.5 x 10-3m3/s, at this flow rate the
value of NPSH given by the manufacturer is 4.5m, if the atmospheric
pressure is 101KPa and vapor pressure is 1666Pa, determine the
maximum height that the pump can be located above the water surface
without cavitation. Assume the major head loss between tank and the
pump is due to filter at the pipe inlet having a minor loss
coefficient of 20. Neglect all other losses; the pipe diameter at
the suction side of the pump is 10cm [5.43m]
Question 5
The (NPSH)min for a pump given by manufacturer is 7m. This pump is
being used to pump water from a reservoir at a rate of 0.2832m3/s.
The water level in the reservoir is 1.280m below the pump.
Atmospheric pressure is 98.62KN/m2 and vapor pressure is 2340N/m2.
Assume the head loss in the suction pipe is 1.158m. Determine
whether or not the pump is safe from cavitation effects [NPSHA is
7.40m, hence no problem of cavitation]
Question 6
Determine the elevation at which the 240-mm-diameter pump can be
situated above the water surface of the suction reservoir without
experiencing cavitation. Water at 15°C is being pumped at 250 m3/h.
Neglect losses in the system. Use patm =101 kPa.

MORE QUESTIONS
1.A 0.30 m diameter cork ball (SG=0.21) is tied to an object on the

bottom of a river as shown in the Figure. Estimate the speed of
the river current. Neglect the weight of the cable and the drag
on it. (ρwater=1000 kg/m3, νwater=1.12x10-6 m2/s).

2.Air at 20°C and 1 atm (ρ=1.2 kg/m3; μ=1.8E-5 kg/m.s.) flows at 3
m/s past a sharp flat plate 2 m wide and 1 m long. (a) Determine
if the flow is laminar or turbulent at the end of the plate? (b)
What is the wall shear stress at the end of the plate? (c) What
is the air velocity at a point 4.5 mm normal to the end of the
plate? (d) What is the total friction drag on the plate,
considering both sides of the plate?
Equations:
Laminar Boundary Layer:
velocity profile given in the Table below

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3.An incompressible, viscous fluid with density,, flows past a

solid flat plate which has a depth,𝑏, into the page. The flow
initially has a uniform velocity 𝑈 before contacting the plate.
The velocity profile at location 𝑥 is estimated to have a
parabolic shape, ( ) for y and u = U for y where
is the boundary layer thickness.
(a) Write the continuity equation and determine the upstream
height from the plate, , of a streamline which has a height, ,
at the downstream location. Express your answer in terms of .
(b) Determine the force the fluid exerts on the plate over the
distance 𝑥𝑥. Express your answer in terms of ,,and . You may
assume that the pressure everywhere is atmospheric pressure.

Solution
4.An incompressible fluid flows between two porous, parallel flat

plates as shown in the Figure below. An identical fluid is
injected at a constant speed V through the bottom plate and
simultaneously extracted from the upper plate at the same
velocity. There is no gravity force in x and y directions
(gx=gy=0). Assume the flow to be steady, fully-developed, 2D, and
the pressure gradient in the x direction to be a constant
(𝜕p/𝜕x= ).
(a) Write the continuity equation and show that the y velocity is
constant at 𝑣= .
(b) Simplify the x-momentum equation and find the appropriate
differential equation for the x velocity component, u.
(c) To solve the differential equation, assume that the solution
is (𝑦)=𝐶1 𝜆 –(𝜕p/𝜕x)y/ v+𝐶2 , where 𝜆≠0. Replace and find λ in
terms of ρ, V, and μ.
(d) Apply boundary conditions and find C1 and C2.

5.A model scale of a glass sphere is suspended in an upward flow of
water moving with a mean velocity of 1 m/s. The density of the
glass is 2360 kg/m3, water density is 1000 kg/m3, and water
viscosity is μ=0.001 kg/m-s. (a) If drag coefficient for sphere
is CD ≈ 0.2 for turbulent flow (𝑅e𝐷>5×105) and CD=0.47 for
laminar flow (1×104<𝑅e𝐷<5×105), calculate the diameter of the
model scale sphere. (b) What would be the water velocity and the
drag force for 8 times larger prototype? .
6.In the figure below, all pipes are 8-cm-diameter cast iron (ε = 0.26 mm).
The fluid is water at 20oC (ρ = 998 kg/m3, μ = 0.001 kg/ms). Minor loss
coefficients are: K1 = 0.5 for the sharp entrance at A; K2 = 0.9 for the
line-type junction from A to B; K3 = 1.3 for the branch-type junction from
A to C; K4 = 1.0 for the submerged exits in B and C; Kvalve = 0.5. (a)
Determine velocity in pipe A (VA) if valve C is closed (use f = 0.02 as
initial guess). (b) If valve C is open, set up the system of equations for
the pipe network as function of the variables VA, VB, VC, fA, fB, and fC.
(c) Calculate VA if VC = 1.57 m/s and friction factors are the same in all
pipes and equal to the one found in part (a).

Solution

7.A small bug rests on the outside of a car side window as shown in
the Figure below. The surrounding air has a density of ρ=1.2
kg/m3 and viscosity of μ=1.8E-5 kg/m-s. Assume that the flow can
be approximated as flat plate flow with no pressure gradient and
the start of the boundary layer begins at the leading edge of the
window. (a) Assuming that the flow is turbulent where the bug is,
and determine the minimum speed at which the bug will be sheared
off of the car window if the bug can resist a shear stress of up
to 1 N/m2. (b) Confirm the turbulent flow assumption. (c) What is
the total skin friction drag acting on the window at this speed?
Solution
8.Potential flow against a flat plate (Figure a) can be described

with the stream function 𝜓=𝐴xy where A is a constant. This type
of flow is commonly called a ‚stagnation point‛ flow since it can
be used to describe the flow in the vicinity of the stagnation
point at O. By adding a source of strength m at O (𝜓=𝑚ϴ),
stagnation point flow against a flat plate with a ‚bump‛ is
obtained as illustrated in Fig. b. Determine the bump height, h,
as a function of the constant, A, and the source strength, m.
(Hint: 𝜓=𝐴xy corresponds to 𝜓=(𝑟cos𝜃)(𝑟sin𝜃)=(𝐴/2)𝑟2sin2𝜃 in
Cylindrical Coordinates)
solution
9.One end of a pond has a shoreline that resembles a half-body

(𝛹=𝑈rsin + 𝑚ϴ and 𝑚=𝑄/2𝜋b). A vertical porous pipe is located
near the end of the pond so that water can be pumped out. When
water is pumped at a rate of 0.06 m3/s through a 3-m-long pipe.
Determine (a) U constant (hint: stagnation point), and (b) the
velocity at point A?

Solution
10. The drag coefficient on a sphere moving in a fluid is known to

be a function of Reynolds number. Laboratory test on a 4-in
dimeter sphere were performed in a water ( 𝑤=2.3×10−5𝑙𝑏 ⋅ / 2 and
𝑤=62.3𝑙𝑏𝑚/ 3) tunnel and some model data are plotted in the
Figure below. Two baseballs, of dimeter 0.12 ft, are connected to
a rod 0.275 in diameter and 1.8 ft long, and are spinning at 2
rad/s in air ( =2.5×10−7𝑙𝑏 ⋅ / 2 and =0.0765 𝑙𝑏𝑚/ 3).
(a) Estimate the drag on the baseballs using the laboratory test
data.
(b) If the drag coefficient on the rod is 1.2, calculate the drag
force on the rod.
(c) What power is required to keep the system spinning?

11. A helicopter rotor rotates at 20.94 rad/s in air (ρ=1.2 kg/m3
and μ=1.8E-5 kg/m-s). Each blade has a chord length of 53 cm and
extends a distance of 7.3 m from the center of the rotor hub.
Assume that the blades can be modeled as very thin flat plates at
a zero angle of attack.
(a) At what radial distance from the hub center is the flow at
the blade trailing edge turbulent (Recrit = 5E5).
(b) Find the boundary layer thickness at the blade tip trailing
edge (c) At what rotor angular velocity does the wall shear
stress at the blade tip trailing edge become 80 N/m2?

Solution
12. Consider an experiment in which the drag on a two-dimensional

body immersed in a steady incompressible flow can be determined
from measurement of velocity distribution far upstream and
downstream of the body as shown in Figure below. Velocity far
upstream is the uniform flow 𝑈∞, and that in the wake of the body
is measured to be (𝑦)= , which is less than 𝑈∞ due to
the drag of the body. Assume that there is a stream tube with
inlet height of 2H and outlet height of 2b as shown in Figure
below.
(a) Determine the relationship between H and b using the
continuity equation.
(b) Find the drag per unit length of the body as a function of
𝑈∞, b and .

13. The parallel galvanized-iron pipe system (𝜖=0.15𝑚𝑚) delivers
water at 200C ( =998 𝑘g/𝑚𝑚3 and =0.001 𝑘g/𝑚⋅ ) with a total
flow rate of 0.036 m3/s.If the pump is wide open and not running,
with a loss coefficient of K=1.5, determine the velocity in each
pipe. Use 1= 2=0.02 for your initial guess.

14. Consider the oscillating Rayleigh-Stokes flow shown in Figure
below.(a) Simplify the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations.
(b)Assume the solution has the form =𝐵 −𝑘y cos (𝑘y −𝜔) using the
simplified Navier-Stokes solution from (a) find 𝑘 as a function
of 𝜔, and 𝜈𝜈 (viscosity).(c) Apply boundary condition at wall to
solver for B and (d) show that the equation satisfies the
boundary condition at far-field. Assume 2D parallel flow,
constant pressure, and gravity is acting in the y-direction.
Explicitly show mathematical expressions of all the assumptions

Solution

15. Water (1.94 slugs/ft3) flows steadily in a horizontal pipe and
exit as a free jet through an end cap that contains a filter as
shown in Figure. The axial component, Ry, of the anchoring force
needed to keep the end cap stationary is 60 lb. Determine (a) x-
component of the anchoring force Rx, (b) the pressure at inlet
(hint: use y-momentum equation) and (c) head loss for the flow
through the end cap.
solution

16. The viscous, incompressible flow between the parallel plates
shown in Figure is caused by both the motion of the bottom plate
and a constant pressure gradient 𝜕p/𝜕x. Assuming steady, 2D, and
parallel flow and using differential analysis: (a) Show that the
flow is fully developed using continuity equation; (b) Find the
velocity profile (𝑦) using Navier-Stokes equations with
appropriate boundary conditions; (c) Find wall shear stress at
bottom wall; and (d) Find the flow rate (hint: 𝑄=∫ ⋅𝑛 𝑑A and
assume constant width w). Explicitly state all assumptions.
Solution

17. The pressure drop, ΔP, along a straight pipe of diameter 𝐷 has
been experimentally studied, and it is observed that for laminar
flow a given fluid and pipe, the pressure drop varies with the
distance, 𝑙, between pressure taps. Assume that ΔP is a function
of 𝐷 and 𝑙, the velocity, , and the fluid viscosity, . Use
dimensional analysis to (a) determine the pi terms. Assuming
linear relationship between the pi terms (𝜋1=(𝜋2)=𝐾𝜋2 where K is
constant),(b) deduce how the pressure drop varies with pipe
diameter.
(note: bro! Deus this questions is not the part of your Test but take
risk to read and solve)

Solution

18. A curved pipe section of length 40 ft (section 2 to 3) that is
attached to the straight pipe section is shown in Figure below.
Assuming losses are negligible estimate (a) flow rate, (b)
pressure at section 2 and (c) bending moment at section 2
(neglect weight of the water and pipe, and =1.708 𝑙b/ 3).
Solution

19. Consider fully developed incompressible flow of a Newtonian
liquid between two coaxial cylinders of infinite length and radii
R and kR, where k < 1, as shown in the Figure below. The inner
cylinders is fixed while the outer cylinder moves up (z-
direction) at speed of 0 and the gravitational effect is not
negligible. Simplify the continuity and momentum equations and
apply appropriate boundary conditions to find the velocity
distribution in the gap between the cylinders. Assume that the
flow is laminar, steady, purely axial, circumferentially
symmetric, and that there is no pressure gradient. Explicitly
show mathematical expressions of all the assumptions.
Solution

20. In the figure below, all pipes have the same diameter D and
wall roughness ε. Minor loss coefficients are: The sharp entrance
at A (K1); the line-type junction from A to B (K2); the branch-
type junction from A to C (K3); The submerged exits in B and C
(K4); the open valve (Kvalve)
(a) If valve C is open, set up the system of equations for the
pipe network required to solve for the velocities at all the
pipes.
(b) Calculate VA if VC = 1.57 m/s (use =0.02 for initial
guess).(D=8 cm, ε = 0.26 mm, ρ = 998 kg/m3, μ = 0.001 kg/ms,
K1 = 0.5, K2 = 0.9, K3 = 1.3, K4 = 1.0, and Kvalve = 0.5)
(note: Bro! Deus, this question look similar with the past question but
differ in one way or another, please Do it Yourself)
Solution

21. Water flows through the horizontal pipe bend shown in Figure
below with D1=27 cm, D2=13 cm, V2=19 m/s, and the outlet is open
to atmosphere. Neglecting the weight of the pipe and the water
inside, and assuming frictionless flow, compute the torque
required to hold the bend stationary (a) at point B and (b) at
point C. (water density is 1000 kg/m3)

SOLUTION
KNOWN: P2, V2
FIND: torque at point C and B
ASSUMPTIONS: frictionless flow, steady flow, non-deforming fixed CV, one
inlet one outlet uniform flow, negligible pipe and fluid weight
ANALYSIS:
The continuity equation yields V1:

22. A tank of water with depth h is to be drained by a 5-cm-
diameter exit pipe. Water density is 998 kg/m3, water viscosity
is 0.001 kg/ms. The pipe extends out for 15 m and a turbine and
an open globe valve are located on the pipe. The head provided by
the turbine is ht = 10 m. (a) If the exit flow rate is Q = 0.04
m3/s, calculate h assuming there are no minor losses, the turbine
is 100% efficient, and the pipe is smooth. (b) Calculate Q if h
is same as part (a) but there are minor losses (K = 0.5 for the
sharp entrance and K = 6.9 for the open globe valve), the turbine
has an efficiency of 80%, and the pipe is rough with ε = 0.3 mm.
Use the value of f from part (a) as initial guess and stop at the
end of the second iteration.
Solution

23. Air (ρ = 1.23 kg/m3) flows past an object in a pipe of 2-m
diameter and exits as a free jet. The velocity and pressure
upstream are uniform at V = 10 m/s and Pgage = 50 N/m2,
respectively. At the pipe exit the velocity is non-uniform as
indicated. The shear stress along the pipe wall is negligible.
(a) Determine the uniform velocity at wake. (b) Determine the
force that the air puts on the object.

24. Water at 15°C (ρ = 999.1 kg/m3, μ = 1.138×10-3 kg/m.s.) is to be
discharged from a reservoir at a rate of 18×10-3 m3/s using two
horizontal cast iron pipes (ε = 0.00026 m) connected in series
and a pump between them. The first pipe is 20 m long and has a 6-
cm diameter, while the second pipe is 35 m long and has a 4-cm
diameter. The water level in the reservoir is 30 m above the
centerline of the pipe. The pipe entrance is sharp-edged
(Kentrance = 0.5), and losses associated with the connection of
the pump are negligible. Determine (a) the required pumping head
and (b) the minimum pumping power to maintain the indicated flow
rate.

25. Air at 20°C and 1 atm (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, μ = 1.8×10-5 kg/m.s.)
flows past a long flat plate, at the end of which is placed a
narrow scoop, as shown in the Figure below. The scoop is to
extract 4 kg/s per meter of width into the paper. (a) If boundary
layer did not exist and the flow was uniform at the inlet of the
scoop, what scoop height (h = h0) was necessary to extract the
flow rate indicated. (b) Knowing that the viscous boundary layer
displaces the streamlines to satisfy conservation of mass, use
the concept of displacement thickness to estimate the actual
scoop height h necessary to extract the indicated flow rate. (c)
Find the drag force on the plate up to the inlet of the scoop,
per meter of width.
Solution

26. During major windstorms, high vehicles such as RVs and semis
may be thrown off the road, especially when they are empty and in
open areas. Consider a 5000-kg semi that is 8 m long, 2 m high,
and 2 m wide. The distance between the bottom of the truck and
the road is 0.75 m. The truck is exposed to winds from its side
surface. Determine the wind velocity that will tip the truck over
to its side. Take the air density to be 1.1 kg/m3 and assume the
weight to be uniformly distributed.
See table below to solve this question

27. Remember that for flow past a cylinder at the origin with
radius a, the stream function everywhere in the flow is
𝜓=𝑈sin(𝑟− 2/𝑟).It is desired to simulate flow past a two-
dimensional bump by using a streamline that passes above the
cylinder, with constant value of 𝜓𝑏ump=𝑈 . (a) Find h if the bump
is to be a/2 high as shown in the Figure. (b) Find the velocity
at the top of the bump. (c) Find the gage pressure at the top of
the bump if pressure is atmospheric far away from the body.

A river of width b and depth h1 passes over a submerged obstacle, or
‚drowned weir,‛ as shown, emerging at a new flow condition (V2, h2).
Neglect atmospheric pressure, and assume that the water pressure is
hydrostatic at both sections 1 and 2. (a) Derive an expression for the
force exerted by the river on the obstacle in terms of V1, h1, h2, b, ρ,
and g. Neglect water friction on the river bottom. (b) Find head loss
caused by the obstacle in terms of V1, h1, h2, b, ρ, and g. (c) Find h1
for which head loss is a maximum.

solution
28. A necked-down section in a pipe flow, called a venturi,

develops a low throat pressure which can aspirate fluid upward
from a reservoir, as shown. Assuming no losses, derive an
expression in terms of D1, D2, h, and g for the velocity V1 which
is just sufficient to bring reservoir fluid into the throat.
solution

29. Underground water is pumped to a sufficient height through a
10-cm diameter pipe that consists of a 2-m-long vertical and 1-m-
long horizontal section, as shown. Water discharges to
atmospheric air at an average velocity of 3 m/s, and the mass of
the horizontal pipe section when filled with water is 12 kg per
meter length. The pipe is anchored on the ground by a concrete
base. Determine (a) the bending moment acting at the base of the
pipe (point A) and (b) the required length of the horizontal
section that would make the moment at point A zero.
solution

30. Water ( water=1000kg/m3) is flowing through a 12-cm-diameter pipe
that consists of a 3-m-long vertical and 2-m-long horizontal
section with a 90° elbow at the exit to force the water to be
discharged downward, as shown in the figure, in the vertical
direction. Water discharges to atmospheric air at a velocity of 4
m/s, and the mass of the pipe section when filled with water is
15 kg per meter length. (a) Determine the moment acting at the
intersection of the vertical and horizontal sections of the pipe
(point A).(b) What would the moment if the flow were discharged
upward instead of downward? (g=9.81 m/s2)

31. Air at 110 kPa and 50°C ( =1.19kg/m3) flows upward through a 6-
cm-diameter inclined duct at a rate of 0.045 m3/s. The duct
diameter is then reduced to 4 cm through a reducer. The pressure
change across the reducer is measured by a water manometer (
water=1000kg/m3). The elevation difference between the two points
on the pipe where the two arms of the manometer are attached is
0.20 m. Determine the differential height between the fluid
levels of the two arms of the manometer. (g=9.81 m/s2).
Solution
32. A snowplow mounted on a truck clears a path 3 m through heavy

wet snow, as shown in figure. The snow is 15 cm deep and its
density is 160 kg/m3. The truck travels at 15 km/hr (4.17 m/s).
The snow is discharged from the plow at an angle of 45 deg from
the direction of travel, as shown in figure. Estimate the force
required to push the plow.

Solution
33. Water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3) flows through the elbow in the
Figure below and exits to the atmosphere. The pipe diameter is
D1= 10 cm, while D2 = 3 cm. At a flow rate of 0.0153 m 3/s, the
pressure p1 = 233 kPa (gage). Neglecting the weight of water and
elbow, estimate x and y force components on the flange bolts at
section 1.

34. A 3-mm-diameter glass ball ( g = 2500 kg/m3) is dropped into a
fluid whose density is 875 kg/m3, and the terminal velocity is
measured to be 0.12 m/s. Disregarding the wall effects, determine
the viscosity of the fluid.
SOLUTION

35. In the Figure below the bend is flanged at section 1 (the
flange is not shown) and the flow exits to atmosphere at section
2. If V1 = 0.5 m/s, h = 40 cm, ρwater= 998 kg/m3,and ρmercury =
13,550 kg/m3, neglecting the gravity forces and assuming uniform
flows at 1 and 2, find: a) V2 using continuity equation; b) p1
using manometry equation; c) the force components on the flange
bolts in x and y directions using linear momentum equations; d)
the friction head loss between 1 and 2 using energy equation.
Solution

36. A layer of viscous incompressible Newtonian liquid of constant
thickness (2D flow with no velocity perpendicular to plate and
perpendicular to the paper, v = w = 0) flows steadily down an
infinite, inclined plate that moves upwards with constant
velocity V, as shown in the Figure below. The flow is laminar,
there is no pressure gradient in x direction, and shearing stress
( = 𝜕 /𝜕𝑦)at the free surface is zero. Determine, by means of the
continuity and Navier-Stokes equations, the velocity distribution
(𝑦) inside the film in terms of V, δ, ρ, μ, g, and θ.

38. A tall water tank (ρ = 998 Kg/m3) discharges through a well-
rounded orifice to hit a plate, as shown in the Figure below.
Determine the depth h of the water tank if the force F
required to hold the plate is 160 N and friction head loss
between points 1 and 2 is 0.5 m.
Solution

39. A viscous incompressible Newtonian fluid is contained between
two infinite parallel plates a distance h apart, as shown in
the Figure below. The upper plate moves with a constant
velocity U while the bottom plate is fixed. The fluid moves
between the plates under the action of a constant pressure
gradient 𝜕P/𝜕x = onstant and the flow is laminar. (a) Assume
steady, parallel, 2D flow and determine by means of the
continuity and Navier-Stokes equations, the velocity
distribution (𝑦𝑦) in terms of μ, 𝜕p/𝜕x, U, and h. (b) At
what distance from the bottom plate ymax does the maximum
velocity in the gap between the two plates occur? (c) Find ymax
if: γ = 80 lb/ft3 and μ = 0.03 lb.s/ft2 for the flowing fluid,
h = 1.0 in, U = 0.02 ft/s, and the U-tube manometer
( manometer = 100 lb/ft3) connected between two points along
the bottom indicates a differential reading of 0.1 inches, as
shown below.

40. In the Figure below, the open jet of water (ρ=1000 kg/m3)
exits a nozzle into sea-level air (101 kPa) and strikes a
stagnation tube as shown. The pressure at centerline at
section 1 is 110 kPa, losses in the nozzle are given by
=𝐾 12/2 where 𝐾≈2.5 is a dimensionless loss coefficient,
and the kinetic energy correction factor is 1.05 for the pipe
and the jet flows. Estimate: a) the mass flow in kg/s, and b)
the height H of the fluid in the stagnation tube.

41. The viscous oil in the Figure below is set into steady motion
by a horizontal concentric inner cylinder moving axially to
the right at constant velocity U inside an outer cylinder
moving to the left at constant velocity V. Assume constant
pressure and density, circumferentially symmetric flow, and a
purely axial fluid motion (vr=vθ=0). (a) Simplify the
continuity and z-momentum equations and show that
𝑟𝜕𝑣𝑧/𝜕𝑟= 𝑜𝑛 𝑛 . (b) Applying appropriate boundary conditions
find the fluid velocity distribution vz(r). (Hint:
∫(1/𝑟)𝑑𝑟=ln𝑟).

42. The pressure drop Δp in a venture meter varies only with the
fluid density ρ, pipe approach velocity V, and diameters of
the meter d and D. (a) Take ρ, V, and D as repeating variables
and find a dimensionless relationship. (b) A model venture
meter tested in water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3) shows a 5 kPa drop
when the approach velocity is 4 m/s. A geometrically similar
prototype meter is used to measure gasoline at 20°C (ρ=680
kg/m3) and a flow rate of 9 m3/min. If the prototype pressure
gage shows 15 kPa pressure drop, what should the upstream pipe
diameter be?
Solution

44. SAE 30W oil at 20°C (ρ=891 kg/m3; μ=0.29 kg/m-s) flows
through a straight horizontal pipe 25 m long, with diameter
4 cm. The average velocity is 2 m/s. (a) Is the flow
laminar? Calculate (b) the pressure drop; and (c) the power
required. (d) If the pipe diameter is halved, for the same
flow rate, by what factor does the required power increase?
(Hint: power=QΔp)
Solution

45. Water flows horizontally along a 200mm pipeline fitted with
a 90o bend that moves the water vertically upwards. The
diameter at the outlet of the bend is 100mm and it is 0.5m
above the centreline of the inlet. If the flow through the
bend is 150 litres/s, calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force the bend support must withstand. The
volume of the bend is 0.01m3 and the pressure at the outlet
is 100 kN/m2.
hints
Frx = -3857.78990
Fry = 2366.89353
Fr = 4526.00573
Angle (degrees) = -31.53062
Force acting on bend (N) = -4526.00573
REVIEW QUIZES
1.A venturimeter is used to measure the flow of water in a pipe of
diameter 100mm. The throat diameter of the venturimeter is 60mm and
it has a coefficient of discharge of 0.9. When a flow of 100 litres/s
is flowing the attached maonmeter shows a head difference of 60cm,
what is the density of the manometric fluid of the manometer?(answer
115182.5kg/m3 ).
Hint
2.Describe with the aid of diagrams the following phenomena explaining

why and when they occur. (Each part requires at least a half page
description of the phenomenon plus diagrams.)
(a) The laminar boundary layer
(b) The turbulent boundary layer
(c) The laminar sublayer
(d) Boundary layer separation
(e) Methods to prevent boundary layer separation
3.(a) Water flows through a 2cm diameter pipe at 1.6m/s. Calculate the
Reynolds number and find also the velocity required to give the same
Reynolds number when the pipe is transporting air.(answer 18.44m/s)
(b)Assuming the pressure loss along a pipe, p, can be expressed in
terms of the following
fluid density ρ
kinematic viscosity ν
diameter d
velocity u
show that the pressure loss can be expressed as:
p = ρu2φ(Re)
Hence find the ratio of pressure drops in the same length of pipe for
both cases.
You will need to use these physical properties below:
(answer6.327)
4. A ‚U‛-tube manometer containing mercury of density 13600 kg/m 3 is
used to measure the pressure drop along a horizontal pipe. If the
fluid in the pipe has a relative density of 0.8 and the manometer
reading is 0.6m, what is the pressure difference measured by the
manometer?(answer 75.34 kN/m2)
5.A tank with vertical sides is filled with water to a depth of 4.0m.
The water is covered with a layer of oil 0.5m thick. If the relative
density of the oil is 0.8, find the resultant force (per unit width)
and its line of action on the wall of the tank.
(answer R = 95157 N, LR = 2.587 m )
6.Water is being fired at 20 m/s from a hose of 80mm diameter into the
atmosphere. The water leaves the hose through a nozzle with a
diameter of 25mm at its exit. Find the pressure just upstream of the
nozzle and the force on the nozzle. (answer 819 N,198.1KPa)
7.Water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3; μ=0.001 kg/m.s.) is to be siphoned
through a tube 1 m long and 2 mm in diameter, as in the Figure below.
(a) Assume laminar flow and find the flow rate Q in m3/h, if H = 50
cm. Neglect minor losses including the tube curvature. (b) Verify the
laminar flow assumption. (c) Find the H for which the flow begins to
not be laminar, i.e. Red=2000.

8.Water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3) flows at 0.00189 m3/s through the 1.9 cm
diameter double pipe bend of the Figure below. The pressures are p1 =
207 kPa and p2 = 165 kPa. Compute the torque T at point B necessary
to keep the pipe from rotating.

9.Kerosene at 200 C flows through the pump in Figure at 2.3 ft 3/s. Head
losses between 1 and 2 are 8 ft, and the pump delivers 8 hp (1 hp =
550 ft-lbf/s) to the flow. What should the mercury-monometer reading
h ft be? ( 𝑚ecury=846 𝑙b/ 3, 𝑘erosine=50.2 𝑙b/ 3)

10. Water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3) flows through the elbow and waterjet
exits to the atmosphere. The waterjet impinges normal to a flat plate
that moves at velocity of 5 m/s as shown in Figure. The pipe diameter
is D1= 10 cm, while D2 = 3 cm. At a flow rate of 0.0153 m3/s, the
pressure p1 = 233 kPa (gage). (a) Estimate x component of the force
on the flange bolts at section 1. (b) Find the force required to keep
plate moving at a constant velocity. Neglect weight of water, elbow
and plate.

11. Air ( = 1.31 kg/m3 ) exits from a nozzle, which has the diameter of
7 cm at the section (1) and 4 cm at the section (2), into atmospheric
pressure (𝑝atm = 0 gage). If the manometer fluid has a specific
gravity SG = 0.8 and the manometer reading is = 5 cm, with friction
neglected, determine: (a) The gage pressure at section (1) by using
the manometer reading, (b) Find the relationship between the
velocities at section (1) and (2) using continuity equation, and (c)
Determine the velocity at section (2). (Note: 𝑤ater = 9,790 N/m3)
Bernoulli’s Equation:

12. The belt in the Figure below moves at steady velocity V and skims
the top of a tank of oil of viscosity μ. Neglect air drag. If the
velocity profile is: (𝑦)=1.1547 sin(𝜋y/3 )and the belt moves at 2.5
m/s over SAE 30W oil at 20°C (μ = 0.29 kg/m-s) with L = 2 m, b = 60
cm, and h = 3 cm, what is the required belt-drive power P in Watts?

13. Air at 20°C and 1 atm (ν=1.5E-5 m2/s) flows at 20 m/s past the flat
plate in the Figure below. A pitot stagnation tube, placed at a
height y from the wall, estimates the local velocity to be u=14.58
m/s at the position of the pitot inlet. (a) If y=2 mm, assume laminar
flow and use the Blasius solution (Table below) to estimate the
downstream position x of the pitot tube and then the boundary layer
thickness δ. (b) If y=10 mm, the flow there cannot possibly be
laminar since for U=20 m/s a laminar boundary layer cannot grow to a
thickness of 10 mm. Therefore assume the flow is turbulent at the
pitot probe and use Prandtl’s approximation to estimate the boundary
layer thickness δ and then the downstream position x of the pitot
tube.

14. In the Figure below the connecting pipe is commercial steel (ε=0.046
mm) 6 cm in diameter. Estimate the flow rate, in m3/h, if the fluid
is water at 20°C (ρ=998 kg/m3, μ=0.001 kg/ms).

(use moody chart from other problems,Bro! Deus)
15. The horizontal pump in the Figure below discharges water at 57 m 3/h.
The losses between 1 and 2 are given by =K 12/2 , where 𝐾≈7.5 is a
dimensionless loss coefficient. Take the kinetic energy correction
factor 𝛼𝛼≈1.06 for both sections 1 and 2 and find the power delivered
to the water by the pump (water density is 1000 kg/m3).

16. The water in an aboveground swimming pool is to be emptied by
unplugging a 3-cm-diameter horizontal pipe attached to the bottom of
the pool. Assuming that point 1 at the free surface of the pool and
point 2 at the exit of pipe are open to atmosphere with a vertical
distance of 2m, determine the maximum flow rate of water through the
pipe. Also, explain why the actual flow rate will be less.

17. regions far from the entrance, fluid flow through a circular pipe is
one-dimensional and the velocity profile for laminar flow is given by
(𝑟)=umax(1-r2/R2)
where 𝑅𝑅 is the radius of the pipe, 𝑟𝑟 is the radial distance from
the center of the pipe, and 𝑚ax is the maximum flow velocity, which
occurs at the center. Obtain (a) a relation for the drag force
applied by the fluid on a section of the pipe of length 𝐿 and (b) the
value of the drag force for water flow at 20°C with 𝑅 = 0.08 m, 𝐿= 15
m, 𝑚ax = 3 m/s, and = 0.0010 kg/m · s.
Solution

18. Water at 20°C is to be pumped from a reservoir (zA = 5 m) to another
reservoir at a higher elevation (zB = 13 m) through two 36-m-long
pipes connected in parallel, as shown in Figure. The pipes are made
of commercial steel, and the diameters of the two pipes are 4 and 8
cm. Water is to be pumped by a 70 percent efficient motor–pump
combination that draws 8 kW of electric power during operation. The
minor losses and the head loss in pipes that connect the parallel
pipes to the two reservoirs are considered to be negligible.
Determine the total flow rate between the reservoirs and the flow
rate through each of the parallel pipes.
(Answer 0.0715 m3/s)

19. The mass flow rate of air at 20°C ( = 1.204 kg/m3) through a 15-cm-
diameter duct is measured with a Venturi meter equipped with a water
manometer. The Venturi neck has a diameter of 6 cm, and the manometer
has a maximum differential height of 40 cm. Taking the discharge
coefficient to be 0.98, determine the maximum mass flow rate of air
this Venturi meter can measure.( Answer: 0.273 kg/s)

20. A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 30 kg/s
in a horizontal pipe upward by an angle of 45° from the flow
direction while accelerating it. The elbow discharges water into the
atmosphere. The crosssectional area of the elbow is 150 cm2 at the
inlet and 25 cm2 at the exit. The elevation difference between the
centers of the exit and the inlet is 40 cm. The mass of the elbow and
the water in it is 50 kg. Determine the anchoring force needed to
hold the elbow in place. Take the momentum-flux correction factor to
be 1.03.
21. A 90° elbow is used to direct water flow at a rate of 25 kg/s in a

horizontal pipe upward. The diameter of the entire elbow is 10 cm.
The elbow discharges water into the atmosphere, and thus the pressure
at the exit is the local atmospheric pressure. The elevation
difference between the centers of the exit and the inlet of the elbow
is 35 cm. The weight of the elbow and the water in it is considered
to be.
22. Water at 15°C flows steadily through the contraction shown in Figure
such that V2 =4V1. If the gage reading is maintained at 120 kPa,
determine the maximum velocity V1 possible before cavitation occurs

23. Air at 120 kPa absolute and 30°C flows vertically upward in a pipe,
as shown in Figure. If the water manometer deflection H = 5 cm,
determine the velocity in the smaller pipe. Assume the air to be
incompressible.
24. Air flows from a reservoir at 20°C and 200 kPa absolute through a 5-
cm-diameter throat and exits from a 10-cm-diameter nozzle. Calculate
the exit pressure pe needed to locate a normal shock wave at a
position where the diameter is 7.5 cm.
25. A horizontal pipe 1000 m in length, with a diameter of 500 mm, and a
steady velocity of 0.5 m/s, is suddenly subjected to a new
piezometric head differential of 20 m when the downstream valve
suddenly opens and its coefficient changes to K = 0.2.Assuming a
friction factor of f = 0.02, determine the final steady-state
velocity, and the time when the actual velocity is 75% of the final
value.
26. A rectangular tank 10 m x 5 m and 3.25 m deep is divided by a
partition wall parallel to the shorter wall of the tank. One of the
compartments contains water to a depth of 3.25 m and the other oil of
specific gravity 0.85 to a depth of 2 m.Find the resultant pressure
on the partition.
27. A rectangular plate 1.5m x 3.0m is submerged in water and makes an
angle of 60° with the horizontal, the 1.5m sides being horizontal.
Calculate the magnitude of the force on the plate and the location of
the point of application of the force, with reference to the top edge
of the plate, when the top edge of the plate is 1.2m below the water
surface.
28. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure for a
circular plate of 2 m dia immersed vertically in water with its top
edge 1.0 m below the water surface.

29. A rectangular plate 2 m x 3 m is immersed in oil of specific gravity
0.85 such that its ends are at depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectively.
Determine the total pressure acting on the plate and locate it.
30. A circular plate of dia 0.75 m is immersed in a liquid of relative

density of 0.8 with its plane making an angle of 30 o with the
horizontal. The centre of the plate is at a depth of 1.5 m below the
free surface. Calculate the total force on one side of the plate and
location of centre of pressure.
31. A vertical gate closes a circular tunnel of 5 m diameter running

full of water, the pressure at the bottom of the gate is 0.5
MPa.Determine the hydrostatic force and the position of centre of
pressure.
32. Find the horizontal and vertical component of force and its point of
application due to water per meter length of the gate AB having a
quadrant shape of radius 2 m shown in Fig. Find also the resultant
force in magnitude and direction.
33. A cylinder holds water in a channel as shown in Fig. Determine the

weight of 1 m length of the cylinder.
34. Figure shows the cross section of a tank full of water under
pressure. The length of the tank is 2 m. An empty cylinder lies along
the length of the tank on one of its corner as shown. Find the
resultant force acting on the curved surface of the cylinder.
35. A 500m long pipeline slopes upwards at 1 in 50 and changes from

450mm in diameter to 300mm in diameter 300m from its lower end. If
the frictional head losses in the pipes are 1.0 and 7.0m/km length
respectively and the pressure at the upper end is 120kN/m2, find the
pressure at the lower end when the flow rate in the pipeline is 100
l/s.

36. A 45o degree bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the
inlet and outlet of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively.
Find the force exerted by water on the bend if intensity of pressure
at inlet to bend is 88.29 kPa and rate of flow of water i s 600 lps.

37. Water flows up a reducing bend of weight 80kN place in a vertical
plane. For the bend, the inlet diameter is 2 m, outlet diameter is
1.3 m, angle of deflection is 120 o and vertical height (distance
between the inlet and the outlet) is 3 m. If the discharge is 8.5
m3/s, pressure at the inlet is 280 kPa and the head loss is half the
kinetic head at the exit, determine the force on the bend.
HINTS
38. A tapered section in a horizontal pipeline reduces the diameter from

600mm to 50mm in the direction of flow. If the flow rate is 750 l/s
and the upstream pressure is 300 KN/m2, calculate:
(a) The downstream pressure
(b) The magnitude and direction of the force on the taper

39. A 450mm diameter pipeline conveying 1.0 m3/s of water contains a
22.5° bend in the horizontal plane. If the pressure in the bend is
250 KN/m2, calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on the
bend.
40. Find the diameter of a Galvanized iron pipe required to carry a flow
of 40lps of water, if the loss of head is not to exceed 5m per 1km.
Length of pipe, Assume f=0.02.( 220mm = D )
41. Two tanks are connected by a 500mm diameter 2500mm long pipe. Find
the rate of flow if thedifference in water levels between the tanks
is 20m. Take f=0.016. Neglect minorlosses.( Q=0.4348m3/secor 434.8lps)
42. Water is supplied to a town of 0.5million inhabitants from a

reservoir 25km away and the loss of head due to friction in the pipe
line is measured as 25m. Calculate the size of the supply main, if
each inhabitant uses 200 litres of water per day and 65% of the daily
supply is pumped in 8 ½ hours. Take f=0.0195.

43. An existing pipe line 800m long consists of four sizes namely, 30cm
for 175m, 25cm dia for the next 200m, 20cm dia for the next 250m and
15cm for the remaining length. Neglecting minor losses, find the
diameter of the uniform pipe of 800m. Length to replace the compound
pipe.
44. Two reservoirs are connected by four pipes laid in parallel, their
respective diameters being d, 1.5d, 2.5d and 3.4d respectively. They
are all of same length L & have the same friction factors f. Find the
discharge through the larger pipes, if the smallest one carries
45lps.

45. Two pipe lines of same length but with different diameters 50cm and
75cm are made to carry the same quantity of flow at the same
Reynold’s number. What is the ratio of head loss due to friction in
the two pipes?
46. A 30cm diameter main is required for a town water supply. As pipes
over 27.5cm diameter are not readily available, it was decided to lay
two parallel pipes of same diameter. Find the diameter of the
parallel pipes which will have the combined discharge equal to the
single pipe. Adopt same friction factor for all the pipes.
(TRY THIS BRO! DEUS. answer D = 0.205m 0.275m)

47. Two reservoirs are connected by two parallel pipes. Their diameter
are 300mm & 350mm and lengths are 3.15km and 3.5km respectively of
the respective values of coefficient of friction are 0.0216 and
0.0325. What will be the discharge from the larger pipe, if the
smaller one carries 285lps? (answer 0.324m3/s)
48. Consider two pipes of same lengths and having same roughness
coefficient, but with the diameter of one pipe being twice the other.
Determine
(a) the ratio of discharges through these pipes, if the head loss
due to friction for both the pipes is the same.(answer 5.656)
(b) (ii) the ratio of the head loss due to friction, when both the
pipes carry the same discharge.(answer 0.03125).
49. Two sharp ended pipes are 50mm & 105mm diameters and 200m length are
connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a water level
difference of 15m. If the coefficient of friction for each pipes of
0.0215. Calculate the rate of flow in each pipe and also diameter of
a single pipe 200m long which would give the same discharge, if it
were substituted for the Original two pipes.
(answer D=0.1112m=11.12cm)
50. Two pipes with diameters 2D and D are first connected in parallel
and when a discharge Q passes the head loss is H1, when the same
pipes are Connected in series for the same discharge the loss of head
is H2. Find the relationship between H1 and H2. Neglect minor losses.
Both the pipes are of same length and have the same friction factors.
5 MINUTES BREAK BRO Deus

Yes , break is over resume by doing this simple QUIZ bro!.
(a) Explain the concept of Minor Losses in Pipes

Minor losses in a pipe flow can be either due to change in
magnitude or direction of flow.
(b) Why minor losses in pipe
They can be due to one or more of the following reasons.
I. Entry loss
II. Exit loss
III. Sudden expansion loss
IV. Sudden contraction loss
V. Losses due to pipe bends and fittings
VI. Losses due to obstruction in pipe.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS BRO! DEUS
1. (a)What is capillarity? Derive an expression for height of a
capillary rise.
(b) What is the difference between cohesion and adhesion?
(c) Determine the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to
measure water level, if the capillary rise in the tube is not to
exceed 0.25 mm. Take surface tension of water in contact with air as
0.0735 N/m.
2.a) Derive an expression for the depth of centre of pressure from free
surface of liquid of an inclined plane surface submerged in the liquid
b) A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a lock.
The vertical side of the sluice is ‘d’ metres in length and depth of
centroid of the area is ‘p’ metres below thewater surface. derive the
depth of pressure
3.a) Explain Lagrangian and Eulerian methods of describing fluid flow.

b) If the velocity potential function is given by ψ = 3x − 4y. Find the
magnitude and direction of the velocity at any point?
4.a) What is a pitot tube? Explain types of Pitot tubes? How is it used
to measure velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or channel?
b) A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 160 mm and
60 mm respectively is used to measure the flow of an oil of specific
gravity 0.8. If the discharge of the oil is 0.05 m3/s, find the
deflection of oil mercury gauge. Take venturimeter
constant=1.
5.a) Explain the characteristics of laminar and turbulent boundary
layers.
b) Prove that the momentum thickness and energy thickness for boundary
layer flows are
6.A pipe of diameter 50 cm and length 5000 metres connects two

reservoirs A and B. The difference of water levels of these reservoirs
is 20 metres. Half way along the pipe there is a branch through which
water can be discharged to a third reservoir C. Find the rate of flow to
the reservoir B when
i) No water is discharged to the reservoir C
ii) The discharge to the reservoir C is 0.05 cumec. Take f=0.006
7.a) Explain briefly the following terms:

i) Mass density
ii) Weight density
iii) Specific volume
iv) Specific gravity.
b) State and explain the Newton’s law of viscosity.

c) A U – tube is made up of two capillaries of bore 1 mm and 2 mm
respectively. The tube is held vertically and is partially filled with
liquid of surface tension 0.05 N/m and zero contact angle. Calculate the
mass density of the liquid if the estimated difference in the level of
two menisci is 12.5 mm.
8.a) Derive expressions for total pressure and centre of pressure for
the following two cases.
(i) For a vertically immersed surface.
(ii) For inclined immersed surface.
b) The masonry dam of trapezoidal section has its upstream face

vertical. The height is 10 m and top is 3 m wide. Find the minimum width
of base if there is no tension at the base and water reaches the top of
the dam. Take weight of water as 9.81 k N/m3 and weight of mansonry is
22kN/m3. What is then maximum compressive stress at the base? (Open
channel flow, next test bro! Deus)
9.a) Write short notes on :

i) Path line ii) Stream line
iii) Streak line
iv) Stream tube.
b) A stream function follows the law ψ = x2 − y2 . Determine the

velocity potential function.
10.a) Describe an orifice meter and find an expression for measuring

discharge of fluid through a pipe with this device.
b) A Venturimeter is used for measuring the flow of petrol in a pipeline

inclined at 350 to horizontal. The sp. Gravity of the petrol is 0.81 and
throat area ratio is 4. If the difference in mercury levels in the gauge
is 50 mm calculate the flow in m3/s if the pipe diameter is 300. Take
venturimeter constant is 0.975.
11.a) Define the following terms:

i) Laminar boundary layer
ii) Turbulent boundary layer
iii) Laminar sub layer
iv) Boundary layer thickness.
b) For the velocity profile in laminar layer given as φ =log(x/y) .
Find the thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate and the
drag force on the side of the plate 1 m long and 0.8 m wide when placed
in water flowing with a velocity of 0.15 m/s. Calculate the value of co-
efficient of drag also. Take μ for water is 0.001 Ns/m2.
12.a) For a steady laminar flow through a circular pipe prove that the
velocity distribution across the section is parabolic and the average
velocity is half of the maximum local velocity.

b) An oil of 8 poise and specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a
horizontal pipe of 50 mm diameter. If the pressure drop in 100 m length
of the pipe is 2000 kN/m2, determine:
i) Rate of flow of oil
ii) Centre-line velocity
iii) Total frictional drag over 100 m length of pipe
iv) Power required to maintain the flow
v) Velocity gradient at the pipe wall
vi) Velocity and shear stress at 10 mm from the wall.
13.a) Derive formulae for calculating loss of head due to

i) Hydraulic gradient line (HGL)
ii) Energy Gradient Line (EGL)
b) A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one
pipe. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000m and
1.0 m respectively, while the length and diameter of the second pipe are
2000 m and 0.8 meters respectively. If the total flow in the main is
3m3/sec and the coefficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same
and equal to 0.005, find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe.
14.a) How does the velocity of approach affect the expression for
discharge over a weir?
b) A rectangular weir 6 metres long discharges water at a head of 0.30
metre. If the available depth of the waterfall is 40 metres, find the
H.P. Take Cd = 0.6.
c) Why is it necessary to ventilate a nappe? What is the arrangement for
ventilating the nappe of a suppressed weir?
15.a) Determine the mass density, specific volume and specific weight of
a liquid whose specific gravity is 0.85.
b) A flat plate weighing 0.45 kN has a surface area of 0.1 m2. It slides
down an inclined plane at 300 to the horizontal, at a constant speed of
3 m/s. If the inclined plane is lubricated with an oil of viscosity 0.1
N.s/m2, find the thickness of the oil film.
16.a) Derive an expression for the depth of centre of pressure from free
surface of liquid of an inclined plane surface submerged in the liquid
b) A rectangular door covering an opening 3m × 1.75 high in a vertical

wall is hinged about its vertical edge by two points placed
symmetrically 0.4 m from either end. The door is locked by clamp placed
at the centre of other vertical edge. Determine the reactions at the two
hinges and the clamp, when the height of water is 1 m above the top edge
of the opening.
17.a) Obtain an equation of continuity for a three-dimensional flow.

b) A stream function follows the law ψ =log(x/y) . State if the flow is
continuous or not. Also state if the flow is rotational or irrotational.

c) In a two-dimensional flow, show that the discharge per unit time
across a line joining two points is equal to the difference between the
stream function between the two points.
4.a) Describe an orifice meter and find an expression for measuring

discharge of fluid through a pipe with this device.
b) A horizontal venturimeter 300 mm × 150mm is used to measure the flow

of oil through venturimeter is 0.5 m3/s. Find the reading of oil–mercury
differential manometer. Take venturimeter constant as 0.98.
18. Consider laminar flow through a very long straight section of round
pipe. It is shown that the velocity profile through a cross-sectional
area of the pipe is parabolic (Figure), with the axial velocity
component given by
where R is the radius of the inner wall of the pipe and Vavg is the
average velocity. Calculate the momentum-flux correction factor through
a cross section of the pipe for the case in which the pipe flow
represents an outlet of the control volume, as sketched in Figure above.

19. A constant-velocity horizontal water jet from a stationary nozzle
impinges normally on a vertical flat plate thatmis held in a nearly
frictionless track. As the water jet hits the plate, it begins to move
due to the water force. Will the acceleration of the plate remain
constant or change? Explain.
20.A horizontal water jet of constant velocity V from a stationary

nozzle impinges normally on a vertical flat plate that is held in a
nearly frictionless track. As the water jet hits the plate, it begins to
move due to the water force. What is the highest velocity the plate can
attain? Explain.
21.A horizontal water jet of constant velocity V impinges normally on a

vertical flat plate and splashes off the sides in the vertical plane.
The plate is moving toward the oncoming water jet with velocity 0.5V If
a force F is required to maintain the plate stationary, how much force
is required to move the plate toward the water jet?
22.Water accelerated by a nozzle to 15 m/s strikes the vertical back

surface of a cart moving horizontally at a constant velocity of 5 m/s in
the flow direction. The mass flow rate of water is 25 kg/s. After the
strike, the water stream splatters off in all directions in the plane of
the back surface.(a) Determine the force that needs to be applied on the
brakes of the cart to prevent it from accelerating. (b) If this force
were used to generate power instead of wasting it on the brakes,
determine the maximum amount of power that can be generated.
Answers: (a) 250 N, (b) 1.25 kW

23.Firefighters are holding a nozzle at the end of a hose while trying
to extinguish a fire. If the nozzle exit diameter is 6 cm and the water
flow rate is 5 m3/min, determine (a) the average water exit velocity and
(b) the horizontal resistance force required of the firefighters to hold
the nozzle. Answers: (a) 29.5 m/s, (b) 2457 N
24.An unloaded helicopter of mass 10,000 kg hovers at sea level while it

is being loaded. In the unloaded hover mode, the blades rotate at 400
rpm. The horizontal blades above the helicopter cause a 15-m-diameter
air mass to move downward at an average velocity proportional to the
overhead blade rotational velocity (rpm). A load of 15,000 kg is loaded
onto the helicopter, and the helicopter slowly rises. Determine (a) the
volumetric airflow rate downdraft that the helicopter generates during
unloaded hover and the required power input and (b) the rpm of the
helicopter blades to hover with the 15,000-kg load and the required
power input. Take the density of atmospheric air to be 1.18 kg/m3.
Assume air approaches the blades from the top through a large area with
negligible velocity and air is forced by the blades to move down with a
uniform velocity through an imaginary cylinder whose base is the blade
span area.
25. Water is flowing into and discharging from a pipe U section as shown
in Figure below. At flange (1), the total absolute pressure is 200 kPa,
and 30 kg/s flows into the pipe. At flange (2), the total pressure is
150 kPa. At location (3), 8 kg/s of water discharges to the atmosphere,
which is at 100 kPa. Determine the total x- and z-forces at the two
flanges connecting the pipe. Discuss the significance of gravity force
for this problem. Take the momentum-flux correction factor to be 1.03.

26.A tripod holding a nozzle, which directs a 5-cm-diameter stream of
water from a hose, is shown in Fig. P6–59. The nozzle mass is 10 kg when
filled with water. The tripod is rated to provide 1800 N of holding
force. A firefighter was standing 60 cm behind the nozzle and was hit by
the nozzle when the tripod suddenly failed and released the nozzle. You
have been hired as an accident reconstructionist and, after testing the
tripod, have determined that as water flow rate increased, it did
collapse at 1800 N. In your final report you must state the water
velocity and the flow rate consistent with the failure and the nozzle
velocity when it hit the firefighter.
Answers: 30.2 m/s, 0.0593 m3/s, 14.7 m/s
27.A 60-kg ice skater is standing on ice with ice skates (negligible
friction). She is holding a flexible hose (essentially weightless) that
directs a 2-cm-diameter stream of water horizontally parallel to her
skates. The water velocity at the hose outlet is 10 m/s. If she is
initially standing still, determine (a) the velocity of the skater and
the distance she travels in 5 s and (b) how long it will take to move 5
m and the velocity at that moment.
Answers: (a) 2.62 m/s, 6.54 m, (b) 4.4 s, 2.3 m/s
28.A horizontal water jet with a flow rate of ̇ and crosssectional area
of A drives a covered cart of mass mc along a level and nearly
frictionless path. The jet enters a hole at the rear of the cart and all
water that enters the cart is retained, increasing the system mass. The
relative velocity between the jet of constant velocity VJ and the cart
of variable velocity V is VJ - V. If the cart is initially empty and
stationary when the jet action is initiated, develop a relation
(integral form is acceptable) for cart velocity versus time.

29.Oil at 20°C is flowing through a vertical glass funnel that consists
of a 15-cm-high cylindrical reservoir and a 1-cm-diameter, 25-cm-high
pipe. The funnel is always maintained full by the addition of oil from a
tank. Assuming the entrance effects to be negligible, determine the flow
rate of oil through the funnel and calculate the ‚funnel effectiveness,‛
which can be defined as the ratio of the actual flow rate through the
funnel to the maximum flow rate for the ‚frictionless‛ case.
Answers: 4.09 . 10&6 m3/s, 1.86 percent
30.Derive the equation to find velocity at a particular point from the

centre of an inclined pipe through which a laminar flow is there.
31.An U-tube differntial manometerwas used to connnect two pressure

pipes P and Q as shown in figure below. The pipe ‘P’ contains a liquid
having specific gravity of 1.8 under a pressure of 95 KN/m2. The pipe
‘Q’ contains another liquid having specific gravity 0.9 under a pressure
of 180 kN/m2. Find the difference of pressure if mercury is used as a U-
tube liquid.

31.(a) A pipe line AB of diameter 300 mm and of length 400 m carries
water at the rate of 50 litres/s. The flow takes place from A to B where
point B is 30 metres above A. Find the pressure at A if the pressure at
B is 19.62 N/cm2 Take f = 0.008.
(b) Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 250 mm at a
velocity of 4 m/s. A circular solid plate of diameter 170 mm is placed
in the pipe to obstruct the flow. Find the loss of head due to
obstruction in the pipe if Cc= 0.63.
32.In a 450 bend a rectangular air duct of 1m2 cross sectional area is
gradually reduced to 0.5 m2 area. Find the magnitude and direction of
force required to hold the duct in position, if the velocity of flow at
1 m2 section is 10m/sec and pressure is 30 kN/m2. Assume specific weight
of air as 0.0118 kN/m3.
33.a) Distinguish between U-tube differential manometers and inverted U-

tube
differential manometers. Discuss their applications.
b) Two large fixed parallel plates are 12mm apart. The space between the
surfaces is filled with oil of viscosity 0.972 N.s/m2. A flat plate 0.25
m2 area moves through the oil at a velocity of 0.3 m/s. Calculate the
force
i) When the thin plate is equidistant from both the plates.
ii) When the thin plate is at a distant of 4mm from one of the plane
surfaces.
34.a) How is the continuity equation based on the principle of

conservation of mass stated? Derive the continuity equation in Cartesian
coordinates for one dimensional flow.
b) Derive the expression for Bernulli’s theorem for steady
incompressible fluid fromfirst principle. What are the limitations of
the Bernoulli’s equation?
35.a) Explain what do you understand by Hydraulic Grade Line and Total
Energy Line. Discuss its practical significance in analysis of fluid
flow problems.
b) Two pipes each 300 m long are available for connecting to a reservoir
from which a flow of 0.085 m3/s is required. If the diameters of the two
pipes are 300mm and 150mm respectively. Determine the ratio of head lost
when the pipes are connected in series to the head lost when they are
connected in parallel. Neglect minor losses.
36. A jet of water having a velocity of 35m/s impinges on a series of

vanes moving with a velocity of 20 m/s. The jet makes an angle of 300 to
the direction of motion of vanes when entering and leaves at an angle of
1200. Draw the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet and find
i) The angles of vanes tip so that water enters and leaves without
shock.
ii) The work done for N of water entering the vanes and
iii) The efficiency.

37.a) What are the different types of hydropower plants? Describe each
one briefly?
b) What is a mass curve? Explain the procedure for preparing a mass
curve and also
its uses.
38.a) Classify the fluids, giving examples, according to the nature of

variation of viscosity.
b) Differentiate between Absolute pressure, gauge pressure and
atmospheric pressure. Explain the relationship between them with neat
sketch.
c) The dynamic viscosity of oil, used for lubrication between a shaft
and sleeve is 0.6 N-s/m2. The shaft is of diameter 400 mm and rotates at
190 r p m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length
of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
39.a) Explain the terms

i) Path line ii) Streak line iii) Stream line and iv) Stream tube.
b) Distinguish between
i) Steady and unsteady flow ii) Uniform and Non-uniform flow
iii) Rotational and Irrotational flow.
c) What are the various forces that may influence the motion of fluid?
40.a) What is ‚turbulence‛? Derive an expression for loss of head due to

friction in a pipe flow.
b) A venturimeter of 300 mm inlet diameter and 150 mm throat diameter is

provided
in a vertical pipeline carrying oil of specific gravity 0.9, flow being
upward. The difference in elevation of a throat section and entrance
section of the venturimeter is 300 mm. The differential mercury
manometer shows a gauge deflection of 250mm. Calculate
i) The discharge of oil
ii) The pressure difference between the entrance section and throat
section. The coefficient of the meter is 0.98. [8+7]
41.a) Derive an expression for work done per second in the case of a
radial curved vane.
b) A jet of water of diameter 50 mm moving with a velocity of 20 m/s

strikes a fixed plate in such a way that the angle between the jet and
the plate is 60o. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate
i) in the direction normal to the plate
ii) in the direction of the plate.
42.a) Define compressible and incompressible fluid. What is specific

gravity? How it is related to density?

b) Express the Pascal law and give a real-world example of it. A vacuum
gauge connected to a chamber reads 24 kPa at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.
c) The hydraulic lift in a car repair shop has an output diameter of 300
mm and is to lift cars up to 20kN. Determine the fluid gauge pressure
that must be maintained
in the reservoir.
43.a) Define streamline, path line and streak line. And what does these
lines indicate? How the streak lines differ from stream lines?
b) A pipeline, 600 mm diameter, carrying oil (specific gravity 0-85) at

the flow rate of 1.8 m3/s has a 900 bend in horizontal plane. The
pressure at the entrance to the bend is15 N/m2 and the loss of head in
the bend is 2 m of oil. Find the magnitude
and direction of the force exerted by the oil on the pipe bend and show
the direction of the force on the bend.
44.a) What are the different types of head losses in a pipeline. Derive
Darcy-Weisbach Formula for calculating loss of head due to friction in a
pipe.
b) Two sharp ended pipes of diameter 50 mm and 100 mm respectively each

of length 100 m respectively, are connected in parallel between two
reservoirs which have a difference of level of 10 m. if the friction
factor for each pipe is 0.128, Calculate
i) Rate of flow for each pipe and,
ii) The diameter of a single pipe 100m long which would give the same
discharge, if it were substituted for the original two pipes.
45.a) Series of curved vanes mounted equidistantly fixed on the

periphery of a wheel.For maximum efficiency of the wheel, show that the
peripheral speed is one-half
of the velocity of the jet.
b) A jet of water having a velocity of 36 m/s strikes a series of radial

vanes Mounted on a wheel which is rotating at 240 r p m. The jet makes
an angle of 200 with the tangent to the wheel at inlet and leaves the
wheel with a velocity of 6 m/s at an angle of 1300 to the tangent to the
wheel at outlet. Water is flowing from outward
in a radial direction. Determine
i) Vane angle at inlet and outlet
ii) Work done per second per N of water, and
iii) Efficiency of Wheel.
46.a) Discuss in general the important operating characteristic curves

of an axial flow pump. Compare the performance characteristics of a
centrifugal pup and axial
flow pump.

b) Define and derive an expression for the specific speed of pump. How
does specific speed help in pump selection?
47. 1.a) Differentiate between

i) Real fluid and ideal fluid
ii) Newtonian fluid and non- Newtonian fluid
iii) Dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity and its units
b) Define and classify the manometers. What are the advantages and
limitations of manometers?
48.a) Differentiate between rotational and irrotational flow. Derive the

continuity equation for steady incompressible one-dimensional flow in
Cartesian coordinates.
b) A discharge of 0.03 m3/s of oil (specific gravity is 0.81) occurs
downward through a converging pipe line held inclined at 600 to the
horizontal. The inlet diameter is 200mm and the out let diameter is 150
mm and length of the pipe is 2m. If the pressure at the top of the inlet
is 0.8 kgf/cm2, find the pressure at the out let. Neglect the energy
loss.
49.a) What is Darcy’s friction factor in pipe flow? On what factors does
the coefficient of friction depends?
b) What are the minor losses in pipes? Give the appropriate formulae to
calculate the losses?
c) A Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of an airplane. A U-tube
manometer connected to the Pitot tube registers a head of 90 mm of
mercury. Find the speed of the plane. Assume C = 0.98 and ã air = 12.2
N/m3.
50.a) A series of flat plates mounted on a wheel intercepts a jet of

diameter 60 mm and velocity 25 m/s normal to the plates successively. If
the plates move at a velocity of 10 m/s what is the power developed.
b) A plate of length 600 mm and weighing 100N is hung from the hinge at
the top. It is hit by a jet of water diameter 12 mm having a velocity of
20 m/s, the jet axis being 350 mm, below the hinge. Find the angle that
the plate will make with the vertical when the jet (at the same level)
plays on the plate?
51.a) What are the different types of hydropower plants? Explain about
pumped storage plants and run-off-river plants.
b) How do you assess the water potential of hydroelectric scheme?
c) Write a short note on selection of suitable type of turbine for a
hydroelectric scheme.
52.a) What is a draft tube? Why it is used in a reaction turbine?

Explain with neat Sketch two different types of draft tubes.
b) Discuss the working proportions of a Pelton wheel turbine.

52.a) What is significance of Unit and Specific quantities related to
turbines?
b) A Kaplan turbine is used to develop 2400 kW when running at 240 r p m
under a head of 50 m. In order to predict its performance a model of
scale 1:5 is tested under a net head of 25 m. At what speed should the
model run and what power would it develop. Determine the discharge in
the in the model and in full scale if the overall efficiency of the
model is 85%.
53.a) What do you understand by

i) NPSH ii) Priming of pump
iii) Minimum starting speed of pump iv) Multistage pumps
b) A centrifugal pump has an impeller of 350 mm diameter. The discharge

at the outlet is radial. The diameter ratio is 2. Calculate the
manometric efficiency of the pump if the total lift is 25 m. Also
calculate the blade angle and relative velocity at the inlet.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
1. Define fluids.
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has

no definite shape
of its own, but confirms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2. What are the properties of ideal fluid?
Ideal fluids have following properties

i) It is incompressible
ii) It has zero viscosity
iii) Shear force is zero
3. What are the properties of real fluid?

Real fluids have following properties
i) It is compressible
ii) They are viscous in nature
iii) Shear force exists always in such fluids.
4. Define density and specific weight.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

Specific weight is defined as weight possessed per unit volume (N/m3)
5. Define Specific volume and Specific Gravity.
Specific volume is defined as volume of fluid occupied by unit mass

(m3/kg)Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of specific weight of
fluid to the specific weight of standard fluid.

6. Define Surface tension and Capillarity.
Surface tension is due to the force of cohesion between the liquid
particles at the freesurface.
Capillary is a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to

the adjacent general level of liquid.
7. Define Viscosity.
It is defined as the property of a liquid due to which it offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of liquid over another adjacent
layer.
8. Define kinematic viscosity.

It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
(m²/sec)
9. Define Relative or Specific viscosity.

It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of fluid to dynamic viscosity of
water at
20°C.
10. Define Compressibility.

It is the property by virtue of which fluids undergoes a change in
volume under the action
of external pressure.
11. Define Newton’s law of Viscosity.

According to Newton’s law of viscosity the shear force F acting between
two layers of fluid is proportional to the difference in their
velocities du and area A of the plate and inversely proportional to the
distance between them.
12. What is cohesion and adhesion in fluids?

Cohesion is due to the force of attraction between the molecules of the
same liquid. Adhesion is due to the force of attraction between the
molecules of two different liquids or between the molecules of the
liquid and molecules of the solid boundary surface.
13. State momentum of momentum equation?

It states that the resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal
to the rate of change of moment of momentum
14. What is momentum equation?

It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum
principle It states that, the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal
to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction.

15.What is the effect of temperature on Viscosity?
When temperature increases the distance between molecules increases and
the cohesive force decreases. So, viscosity of liquids decrease when
temperature increases.In the case of gases, the contribution to
viscosity is more due to momentum transfer. As temperature increases,
more molecules cross over with higher momentum differences. Hence, in
the case of gases, viscosity increases with temperature.
16. What are the types of fluid flow?
a)Steady & unsteady fluid flow

b)Uniform & Non-uniform flow
c)One dimensional, two-dimensional & three-dimensional flows
d)Rotational & Irrotational flow
17. Name the different forces present in fluid flow

a)Inertia force
b)Viscous force
c)Surface tension force
d)Gravity force
18. When in a fluid considered steady?
In steady flow, various characteristics of following fluids such as

velocity, pressure,
density, temperature etc at a point do not change with time. So it is
called steady flow.
19. Give the Euler’s equation of motion?

(dp/p)+gdz+vdv=0
20. What are the assumptions made in deriving Bernouillie’s equation?

1.The fluid is ideal
2.The flow is steady.
3.The flow is incompressible.
4.The flow is irrotational.
more questions click HERE or direct download

click
https://www.iare.ac.in/sites/default/files/Previous%20papers_2.pdf
https://www.padeepz.net/ce6451-fluid-mechanics-and-machinery-question-
bank-regulation-2013-anna-university/
http://www.jdcoem.ac.in/pdf/Question_Bank/mech/FM/FLUID_MECHANICS_AND_MA
CHINERY%20-%20Copy.pdf

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SOKOINE UNIVERSITY

SUMMARIES +QUESTIONS WITH

Musadoto musadoto © 2018 felician Deus

Summaries, lecture notes and problems with solutions

ÇENGEL: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of

JOHN M. CIMBALA Department of Mechanical and Nuclear

DR. MBUNGU lecture notes 2018 + assignments.

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Agricultural engineering student 2

You are not in this alone! Bro…

Musadoto with his family

4.0 GPA VS DELL

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-Elder M. Russell Ballard

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1.The background of Fluid Mechanics

2.Fields of Fluid mechanics

3.Introduction and Basic concepts

5.Pressure and fluid statics

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HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

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2. FIELDS OF FLUID MECHANICS

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SIGNIFICANCE OF FLUID MECHANICS

 Weather & climate

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2. Kinematics: deals with velocities and streamlines with considering forces or

A streamline is a line that is tangential to the instantaneous velocity

Instantaneous streamlines in flow around a cylinder

Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and science.

2. Meteorology and Ocean Engineering

 Movements of air currents and water currents

 Design of chemical processing equipment

DIMENSION AND UNITS

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Length (L) Meter (m) Foot (ft)

Mass (m) Kilogram (kg) Slug (slug) = lb*sec2/ft

Time (T) Second (s) Second (sec)

Temperature ( ) Celcius (oC) Farenheit (oF)

Force Newton (N)=kg*m/s2 Pound (lb)

1 Newton – Force required to accelerate a 1 kg of mass to 1 m/s2

[F] = [m][a]= kg*m/s2 = N

Weight and Newton’s Law of Gravitation

 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

 G - universal constant of gravitation

 m1, m2 - mass of body 1 and body 2, respectively

 r - distance between centers of the two masses

 m2 - mass of an object on earth’s surface

 r - distance between center of two masses

 r2 - radius of mass on earth’s surface

 r2 << r1, therefore r = r1+r2 ~ r1

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W = m2g ; g =(Gm1/r2) gravitational acceleration

g = 9.31 m/s2 in SI units

g = 32.2 ft/sec2 in English units

 Difn: Fluid is a ‚substance which conforms continuously under the action of

Definition Applied to Static Fluids

Definition Applied to Fluids in Motion

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 Therefore, to represent real fluids in motion we must consider the action of

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RATE OF SHEAR STRAIN =