Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION
GYŐR, 2015
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 3
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION
THE EDITOR
THE PUBLISHER
Photo on the cover is made by Dr. Szabolcs Fischer PhD, it shows the endpoint
and turnouts of railway station of Csorna from the direction of Porpác.
1
SZÉCHENYI ISTVÁN UNIVERSITY, Faculty of Architecture, Civil- and Transport
Engineering, Department of Transport Infrastructure
H-9026 Győr, Egyetem tér 1.
*
E-mail: majorz@sze.hu
** Webpage: www.univgyor.hu, e-mail: tothe@sze.hu
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 5
ADDITIONAL DATA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Our book would like to cover the basic knowledge of railway construction,
whereas every little detail can’t be discussed because of the limited space.
Readers, who would like to receive more detailed knowledge in the topic of this
book, they can look up in the literatures listed in references.
This book was written by two teachers and two students with excellent
scholastic record, the reviewers were two colleagues of our department.
The authors
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 14
2
E-mail: fischersz@sze.hu
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 15
3
E-mail: ellerbalazs@gmail.com
4
E-mail: kadazoltan34@gmail.com
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 16
Engineer with good grade. His specialization was Urban Development. After
graduating, he went back to Gröbenzell, and worked as a full time laboratory
technician (03.2014 – 08.2014). This time, his work reflected more on concrete
technology, documentation, and conducting projects from the beginning to the
end.
In September, 2014 went back to Széchenyi István University, and started his
master degree in Civil Engineering, with Infrastructural Engineering
specialization. At the moment, besides his last semester, he works abroad, in
Ulm, Germany as a Construction Supervisor at a tunnel construction.
He is the member of Baross Gábor Vocational Dormitory (since 2015
Winkler Gábor Vocational Dormitory) since 2011.
He is a chartered Infrastructural-Civil
Engineer and university instructor, besides he is
a student at Multidisciplinary Doctoral School of
Engineering Sciences at Széchenyi István
University. He graduated the Civil Engineering
BSc in 2013 at the Széchenyi István University,
Győr, and in January, 2015 he graduated the
Infrastructural Civil Engineering in MSc course
at the Faculty of Architecture, Civil- and
Transport Engineering. During his studies, he worked as demonstrator fellow
and in several work of research and development as laboratory assistant. After
graduating, he worked a half year in asphalt mix location of COLAS
Hungária Zrt. in Töltéstava like laboratory technologist. He interests about the
railway engineering. His doctoral research is included in this area, which topic is
the modelling and investigation of application of polymer composite glued and
insulated rail fishplates.
He is the member of Baross Gábor Vocational Dormitory (since 2015
Winkler Gábor Vocational Dormitory).
5
E-mail: nemeth.attila@sze.hu
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 17
In this section could be read only a schematic summary of the parts of the
railway track. Later on it will be presented more detailed. The easiest way to
learn about the exact set-up of a railway track, it is the railway cross section. By
way of introduction, let’s see a single track railway cross section (Fig. 1.1). The
structure is separated into two main structure elements: substructure (or
subgrade, Part I), and superstructure (Part II). The parts of each structure
elements are the followings:
substructure: subgrade and protection layer,
superstructure: ballast, sleepers, baseplates, fastenings and rails.
Fig. 1.1: Railway track cross section – single track [Horvát, 2015b]
Moreover, it is not enough to learn the different parts of the railway track, but
their exact attributes, and functions have to be known. The following definitions
can give some help to understand them.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 19
1.2. Definitions
Railway track earthwork: The platform upon which the track superstructure is
constructed. Mostly it is made out of soil material. Task: to distribute the dead
weight of railway track and traffic loads.
Top of subgrade: Top level of the compacted earthwork on planned level and
with planned inclination.
Groundwater level (m): the level of the water table, the upper surface or top of
the saturated portion of the soil or bedrock layer that indicates the uppermost
extent of groundwater. It can be expressed as a height above a datum, such as
sea level, or a depth from the surface.
Standard level of groundwater: the measured maximum height + 0.5 m.
Soil replacement: Unacceptable soils (e.g. organic soils, frost sensitive soils)
must be removed and replaced by an acceptable soil.
Subgrade improvement: In cases where the subgrade is too weak or has to low
stiffness, the resulting high cost of track maintenance may dictate the need to
improve the subgrade conditions. Alternatives are the followings:
modification of the subgrade properties without removal or disturbance
(e.g. jet grouting),
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 20
Fig. 2.2: Cross section, fill and cut, single ballasted track, straight, without
superelevation [MÁV, 2014]
Fig. 2.3: Cross section, fill and cut, single ballasted track, in curve with
superelevation [MÁV, 2014]
With the cross sectional set-up of earthwork all shape and dimension
requirements have to be ensured, which are necessary for its stability, for the
safety of railway traffic, and for the suitable behavior of track in operation.
Action (F):
a) set of forces (loads) applied to the structure (direct action),
b) set of imposed deformations or accelerations caused for example, by
temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or
earthquakes (indirect action).
Effect of action (E): Effect of actions (or action effect) on structural members,
(e.g. internal force, moment, stress, strain) or on the whole structure (e.g.
deflection, rotation).
Permanent action (G): Action that is likely to act throughout a given reference
period and for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible, or for
which the variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until the action
attains a certain limit value.
Variable action (Q): Action for which the variation in magnitude with time is
neither negligible nor monotonic.
Static action: Action that does not cause significant acceleration of the structure
or structural members.
Limit states: States beyond which the structure no longer fulfils the relevant
design criteria.
Ultimate limit states: States associated with collapse or with other similar forms
of structural failure.
Combination of actions: Set of design values used for the verification of the
structural reliability for a limit state under the simultaneous influence of
different actions.
Maintenance: Set of activities performed during the working life of the structure
in order to enable it to fulfil the requirements for reliability.
Dead load of railway track has to put on the loaded surface as like an evenly-
distributed load.
Dead load in case of ballasted track, in case of V d≤200 km/h (“Vd”: design
speed):
single track 12.5 kN/m2, in a width of 4.5 m,
double track 12.5 kN/m2, in a width of 8.5 m.
Load width has to set symmetrically to the track axle (single track) or line
axle (double track).
In case of mass spring system the dead load has to be calculated from data of
structural geometry and density of materials used [MÁV, 2014].
In Fig. 2.4, the static design load (above), and the equivalent load (below),
parallel, and in Fig. 2.5 the equivalent evenly-distributed load, perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis of the track can be seen.
The connected line load (80 kN/m) can be changed on a surface load
26.7 kN/m2, with a width of 3.0 m.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 28
Fig. 2.4: Loads – parallel with the longitudinal axis [MÁV, 2014]
Extraordinary loads are the seismic loads, in case of high earthwork and
retaining structure.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 29
2.3.4. Others
The dynamic load of the track can be calculated from the static loads
[Horvát, 2015b]:
𝑠̅ = 𝑛 ∙ 𝜑 (2.2.)
𝑉−60
𝜑 =1+ 140
(2.3.)
ahol:
„Qdyn”: dynamic load,
„Qstat”: static load,
„t”: distribution factor, if t=3 the accuracy of calculation is 99.7%,
„n”: 0.1…0.3 (depends on the condition of track),
„”: speed factor,
„V”: speed in km/h dimension.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 30
The layer structure of a railway track, and the propagation of the normal
wheel load (125 kN) is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6: Layer structure, and the load of each layers [Horvát, 2015b]
From this load, each parts and layers have to carry the following loads:
rail:
contact surface: 3 cm2,
load: 42,000 N/cm2,
baseplate:
contact surface: 200 cm2,
load: 420 N/cm2,
sleeper:
contact surface: 510 cm2,
load: 170 N/cm2,
ballast:
contact surface: 2,380 cm2,
load: 37 N/cm2,
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 31
subgrade/protective layer:
contact surface: 10,100 cm2,
load: 10 N/cm2.
Fig. 2.7: Approximate assumption of the spreading of the load [Horvát, 2015b]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 32
As it is can be seen on Fig. 2.8, the magnitude of vertical stresses are sinking
with the increasing of the depth. Most of the load has to be carried by the surface
of the upper half of ballast (~70% of the original wheel load). The surface of the
protection layer has to carry approximately 50% of the wheel load. This is
followed by the surface of the subgrade with ~30%.
Figures 2.9-2.10 show this fact more expressive. By reason of this, the
material and the density (which are affecting the bearing capacity) of each layers
had to be chosen properly.
Fig. 2.9: Propagation of the vertical loads under the sleeper [Horvát, 2015b]
Fig. 2.10: Vertical stresses in the layer structure under the sleepers, taking
account the adjacent sleepers [Horvát, 2015b]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 34
2𝑝 𝑏 2𝑏 𝑧
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜋
∙ [𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 (2𝑧1 ) + 𝑏2 +4𝑧
1
2] (2.4.)
1
where:
„p”: compressive stress on the bottom plane of sleepers (N/mm2),
„b1”: width of sleeper in the bottom plane (mm),
„z”: depth under bottom plane of sleeper (mm).
In general, there are two main types of bearing capacity measurement: static
and dynamic. Each method is adequate enough for proper usage. The differences
between these methods could be read in the following.
The main goal of this process is to measure the setting of the soil in the
function of loading, and the load had to be applied slowly, almost statically. The
parts of the needed apparatus can be seen in Fig. 2.12.
Fig. 2.12: Schematic drawing of a static loading plate device [Horvát, 2015b]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 37
where:
„”:Poisson’s ratio,
„p”: stress (kPa),
„D”: diameter of loading plate (m),
„s2”: measures settlement in second loading (mm).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 38
The goal of this method is similar to the previous, but now, the load had to be
dynamically applied on the plate. This method is a little bit inaccurate, compared
to the static method, but this not means it would not be adequate for
measurements.
Pairs of values of E2stat and Edyn summarized in Table 2.1 aren’t allowed to
get pairs of values with correlation! There is a great difference between two
measuring methods: static plate test and light falling weight test. During static
loading the pore-water pressure has stopped partly. In dynamic measurement
pore-water can cause significant increase in load bearing capacity [MÁV, 2014].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 40
3. PROTECTION LAYERS
The railway track needs permanent support from the substructure. Because of
this, a multifunctional protection layer has to be constructed between the ballast
and the crown of the substructure. These have natural or synthetic structures, and
the evolving depends on its future tasks and the technical parameters of the used
materials.
The protection layer performs the following tasks, but in the practical cases,
doesn’t have to solve all in the same time [MÁV, 2014].
Load distribution function: reducing the traffic induced stress at the bottom of
the ballast layer to a tolerable level for the top of subgrade.
Reinforcement function: getting the upper loads from the railway track, and
forwarding them to the substructure.
Separation function: preventing the mixing of the ballast and the substructure,
so prevents the fine soils’ pumping up effect.
Protecting the substructure from water: protecting the crown of water sensitive
substructure from the rain falls and the capillarity effect.
Dewatering: intercepting water coming from the ballast and directing it away
from the subgrade to ditches of the track.
Vibration reducing function: reducing the traffic’s vibration from the top to the
substructure.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 41
It is clear from the foregoing enumeration that the possible protection layer
between the substructure and the ballast has protective (rain fall, frost, mixed
layers, screener effect) and reinforcement (optimal load distribution,
reinforcement) function. Of course, these functions depend on the properties of
the materials.
At the most cases, the protection layers have to solve combined tasks, like the
protective-reinforcement functions together.
The different materials of the protection layers give various requirements for
the structures and constructions.
At the design of the railway protection layers, the designer has to take
account that the soil mechanical and the hydraulic abilities can change very fast.
To know the exact parameters, excavations are needed in every 100-300 meters
distances. The soil mechanical and hydraulically parameters can be different in
different seasons also.
On available railway line, in the case of renewal and reinforcement works the
technological method has to be appropriate to the requirements of the bearing
capacity and applicability [MÁV, 2014].
3.3.1.1. Protection layers from fine materials above V>120 km/h velocity
Fig. 3.3: Evolving of the CGM1 layer by substructure renewal machine chain
[www.vasuttechnika.hu]
3.3.1.2. Protection layer from fine materials below V≤120 km/h speed
Use of CGM1 and CGM2 material in tracks with speed V≤120 km/h is
possible but not compulsory.
For design a protection layer, the necessary data can be seen on the following
figure (Figure 3.5.) If the E2 data of the soil is given, the necessary protection
layer can be read down. If other E2,protection layer is needed, the data can be
calculated by interpolation.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 47
Fig. 3.5: Designing diagram for the reinforcement growing protection layer
[MÁV, 2014]
There are two possibilities to determine the values of modulus E2, subgrade:
to execute static plate tests in suitable number according to standard and
thereafter planning values can be calculated with taking in account of
geotechnical and hydrological data (Table 3.1),
if there aren’t data in necessary quantity and quality, than the planning
values should be determined with help of Table 3.1.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 48
Table 3.1: Recommended planning values of modulus E2, subgrade [MÁV, 2014]
Recommended values of modulus
E2, subgrade (N/mm2) ont he top surface of
Subgrade Grain-size
subgrade
material D0.1 mm
If the sign of hydrological case
1 1/2 2 2/3 3
Silty or clayey
10…20% 60 45 30 25 20
gravel
Silty or clayey
10…20% 50 35 25 22,5 20
sand
Strongly silty or 20…30% 40 30 20 17.5 15
clayey gravel or
30% 30 20 15 10 10
sand
easily drift 25 20 15 10 10
Silt and clay soft 25 20 15 12.5 10
very soft 20 17.5 15 12.5 10
The most important evolving rules are the followings [MÁV, 2014]:
The protection layer can be built only if the substructure has adequate
bearing capacity, until the edge of the crown.
The thickness of the protection layer must be consistent to give the
adequate support to the sleepers. (A longer section is min. 300 meters.)
If there is a protection layer, there must be a 10 meters long section
before and after the given section, to running out the different support.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 49
Fig. 3.6: Evolving of drainage between two railway tracks [MÁV, 2014]
3.3.2. Stabilizations
If the soil of the embankment is mixed by binders, and stabilized every layer
separately
growing the soil’s shear strength,
growing the bearing capacity,
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 50
In the most cases, this is a great technology for growing the bearing capacity
at clay and slurry soils. But it is exceptionally applicable. The necessary volume
of the cement is determined at laboratory investigation.
For the cement stabilization (Fig. 3.8), usually the type of CEM II., sign N,
32.5 strength class cement has to be used.
[CEN, 2005; CEN, 2013c; CEN, 2009; CEN, 2011c; CEN, 2010c; CEN, 2008b]
standards.
After the effect of the friction and the temperature change, transversal cracks
are evolved in the cement stabilized layer. In the concreted layer, the traffic can
create newer cracks.
The lime stabilization is adequate at the case of clay soils, sand flours, silty
gravel or slurry gravel. The best result can be reached at medium and fat clays,
but it is efficient at lean clay and slurry soils also. The soil isn’t allowed to
include sulfates or other harmful organisms. These materials can cause extra
swelling that isn’t permissible.
For the lime stabilization, the use of limestone or lime hydrate is possible.
The applied quick-lime has to be fitted to the requirements of MSZ EN 459-1
[CEN, 2011d] standard. The investigations of the stabilization have to be done
as it described in the MSZ EN 459-2 [CEN, 2011e] standard.
The lime stabilization can create fast dry effect and significant growing of the
bearing capacity. If drying effect needs, burnt lime can solve the problem. If
more stabilization needs, the using of lime hydrate suggested. In the case of
extraordinary dry soil, lime milk can solve the problem.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 52
Technological steps:
preparation of the soil, softening, creating a homogeny grain – by
softening tools (e.g. plow),
spreading the lime, seriously evenly (the volume is determined by
laboratory investigations),
mixing the soil and the lime: professional machines can work in 40 cm
depth, the agricultural machines can work in 30 cm depth (Fig. 3.9.),
compaction: directly after the mixing until the whole depth (Fig. 3.9.).
Effect: fat clay (w=25%, Ip=43%, E2=10-15 MPa) the water content can be
reduced by fat lime stabilization, to 10-15%, the bearing capacity is grown to
40-45 MPa.
The Consolid technology is a soil improvement method that has two types of
aggregate, the liquid Consolid 444 and the Solidry. After the allocation was
happened, the fine particles of the soil is agglomerated. The mixture of the soil
and the aggregates can be compacted easier, the compacted soil will be
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 53
watertight. Consequently, the strength of the soil will be grown also. The
resistance of the moisture sensitivity makes it appropriate material to construct a
protection layer, to grow the bearing capacity and to make it watertight.
The Solidry is a concentrate that surrounds the particles of the cement and
lime hydrate mixture. It decreases or terminates the capillarity effect and water
absorption and improves the cohesion of the soil.
On the embankment that has weak bearing capacity and a watertight layer is
needed, a bitumen bounded asphalt mixture (Fig. 3.10) can be an optimal
solution to build in. The asphalt mixture that is used for road constructions can
be a perfect reinforcement layer on the substructure. The good bearing capacity
and the separation function are equally great. If the soil has low E 2 modulus the
growing of the bearing capacity is significant, thanks to the distribution of the
static and dynamic loads from the railway traffic on greater area. After the effect
of the more advantages, the change of the forms is reduced, and the lifetime of
the track’s geometry is grown. The aging is slowing so the maintenance costs
can be less also. However the construction of the asphalt protection layer is
expensive, in long run the life-time cost shows more economic effect than the
other protection layers. After the construction, the time of the cooling is six
hour. Thereafter the ballast can be spread.
At the evolving of the asphalt protection layer, the following rules are
important [MÁV, 2014]:
the constructed thickness must be minimum 12 cm,
the asphalt layer has to be taken out to the edge of the substructure
crown, the connecting slope has to be reinforced because of the higher
dewatering from the protection layer, protection against erosion is
needed,
determinate at design: the type of the asphalt, the volume of the binders,
the volume of the air voids, spreading temperature, Marshall flow and
stabilization are necessary,
at the select of the type of the asphalt, it is necessary to take into account
the local conditions,
coarse-grain material has to be built between the crown of the
substructure and the asphalt layer (sandy gravel crushed stone, etc.), the
particle size distribution depends on the properties of the soil of the
embankment.
Because of the evolving, the XPS slabs are full watertight. The closed pores
aren’t allowed to let the water and the fine particles to going through the slab.
These will be lead on the surface of the slab. The laying of the slabs is easy to
solve, connections are evolved by simple lap-joint. The gap of the connections is
mm-sized, the load of the rail traffic makes it closed. In the case of vertical gaps,
the fine particle obstructs them so the watertight effect is permanent. If the gaps
don’t close adequate, the mudded effect is negligible.
The service loads from the traffic is distributed, so the transferred loads to the
substructure is decreased. Thanks to the load distributing surface, the peaks of
the transfer loads on the substructure are decreased by 35-45%, the vibration
effects from the dynamic loads are decreased by 20-50% [Weinreich, 1996].
Austrian investigation proved that any thickness can be used effectively but
the minimal thickness of the polystyrene slabs has to be 6 cm. According to
these parameters, this technology was built into the superstructure between Pécs
and Szentlőrinc, in 500-m-length. It works properly since 1996. Furthermore it
was applied in Hungary in 2015 on the line of tram No. 1. The laying methods
were the same like in the railway experiences [Csépke, 2015].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 57
Fig. 3.12: The structure of the layers in the case of expanded polystyrene
protection layer, at the Pécs-Szentlőrinc section [Balázs Eller’s figure]
3.3.5. Geosynthetics
3.3.5.2. Geotextiles
3.3.5.3. Geogrids
The geogrids are synthetic nets in quadratic, rectangle or triangular shape for
strengthening the structure of the soil (or the ballast). The directions of
orientation of the loads are created during the manufacturing processes. The
orientation also passes through the intersections, while the other geogrids
intersections are evolved by welding-thawing. The strength of the crossings is
almost the same like the other ribs’ tensile strength, so it can be spoken about
rigid intersections. There are one axial (Figure 3.14.), two axial (Figure 3.15.)
and biaxial (Figure 3.16.) geogrids. The first is oriented in just one direction, the
other is oriented into both main directions. The principle of the biaxial geogrid is
that the triangular shapes can take the load from any direction. Thanks to this, it
has the highest the reinforcement effect.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 60
The interlocking effect (closing shapes) has three different zones (Fig. 3.18).
In the first zone the interlocking effect isn’t significant. It is a resting zone. The
behaviour depends on the correlation between each other. The second zone is a
transition zone, the interlocking effect is increasing. The curve of the change
isn’t linear. The third zone is directly at the geogrid. At this point, the
interlocking effect is largely complete. The moving of the particles is very
limited, so in the upper 10 cm (above the geogrid) the internal shear stress
resistance is really high.
The brand new TriAx™ geogrid was introduced in 2008 by the Tensar
International (Fig. 3.16). This type has triaxial apertures. The tensile strength
was significantly less at the diagonal ribs than the original ribs. At the same
time, the forces are distributed in radial form. The triaxial geogrids prevents the
moving of the particles by the corresponding rigidity in every direction.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 63
In case of comparison of the two and three axial geogrids (Fig. 3.19), the
orientation can be seen easily. The minimal rigidity of the Triax geogrid is also
more than the original biaxial geogrids. The axles are closer to each other, so
that is the key of the higher rigidness. The ribs of the geogrids are easily
viewable.
As it was seen in Fig. 3.19, the load distribution is circular (Fig. 3.20).
Fig. 3.20: The load distribution in the soil above the geogrid [Tensar, 2013]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 64
Fig. 3.22: The reinforcement effect of the geogrid [Tensar, 2007; Tensar, 2013]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 65
3.3.6.4. Geomembranes
The geomembranes are continuous, elastic and water tight synthetic plates. It
has adequate tensile strength also. Thanks to the structured surface, there is
appropriate friction between the geomembrane and the tangential layers. The
primary using area is the water sensitive substructures, because it is a perfect
defend against the rainfall [MÁV, 1999]. A 10 cm coarse-grained layer is
needed up to the plate, to prevent the perforations of the ballast. The thickness
can be between 0.15-3.00 mm. The evolving of the surface can be smooth or
humped also. The humped form prevents the moving of the plates, and makes
the connections easier (Fig. 3.23).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 66
3.3.6.5. Geocomposites
For example the geogrid and the geotextile make correct geocomposite. The
aim of this combination is to use the good properties of both materials. The
sandwich structure is a very advantageous solution if the substructure of the
railway track is water sensitive, because of the geocomposite’s filtration and
separation properties. Moreover the interlocking effect works also. Because of
the geogrid’s large pore volume, the fine materials could move up to the ballast
but the geotextile’s separation function prevents it. Just the geotextile can’t be
enough for growing the bearing capacity, but because of the geogrid it isn’t a
problem too.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 67
Other important type is the drain duvet. The structure consists of a geogrid
between two geotextiles (Fig. 3.24). These are used for the evolving of the
correct drainage under the ballast.
It has to be mentioned:
98.8% of the railways are ballast bedded tracks (1.1 million km) and
1.2% are ballastless (mainly high-speed railways) and MAGLEV ones
in the world accordance to UIC’s data [Weinreich, 2011].
Ballastless tracks are mainly used on bridges and in tunnels in Hungary.
Maintenance works of ballast bedded and ballastless tracks
fundamentally differ from each other. Using ballast bedded tracks is
more disadvantageous solution due to quicker geometry deterioration
process than using of ballastless ones.
This book deals with only ballasted railway tracks because of reason
mentioned above as well as limited space. Ballastless tracks are discussed only
in short paragraphs.
There are more well separable subtypes in the ballasted as well as in the
ballastless superstructures, these are the followings:
ballasted superstructure:
monoblock sleeper track (Fig. 4.1),
biblock (or twin-block) sleeper track (Fig. 4.2),
combined mixed sleeper track (combined using of mono- and
biblock sleeper track),
lengthwise sleeper track (rails are supported by lengthwise
sleepers, track gauge is ensured by “gauge safety rods”),
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 70
6
There is naturally this kind of superstructure type not only in case of concrete but e.g. steel
structure (on steel bridge), but this book doesn’t deal with it.
7
See previous note.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 71
Fig. 4.6: Ballastless sleepered track with discrete rail supports (Rheda system)
[commons.wikimedia.org]
Fig. 4.7: Ballastless track with discrete rail supports without sleeper
(prefabricated – Porr system) [www.silnice-zeleznice.cz]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 74
Fig. 4.8: Ballastless track with discrete rail supports without sleeper (monolithic
– top down) [Szabolcs Fischer’s photo]
Fig. 4.9: Continuous rail support system with embedded rail [www.szyny.com]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 75
Fig. 4.10: Continuous rail support system with web element surrounded rails
(Edilon ERS modul system) [www.routeconsult.hu]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 76
5.1. Rails
5.1.1. General properties of rails
5.1.1.1. Roles of the rails
8
There is so called „elf” (short web) Phoenix-rail profile too, which is used in limited height
superstructure, because its web is smaller then „normal” Phoenix-rail ones.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 79
In Europe the most common used rail profile is 60 E1 (Fig. 5.1), as well as
54 E1 types (Fig. 5.7). There are MÁV 48-profile rails in great lenght in track in
Hungary9. The old MÁV 48 rails were mainly rolled in Diósgyőr (Hungary), but
nowadays railway rails don’t produced in our country, because of that new type
MÁV 48 rail profiles (Fig. 5.8) can be purchased from abroad (e.g. from Voest
Alpine Group, Austria), but this kind of rail profile type isn’t the same as old
(original) one’s10,11.
The number in the name of rail profiles (e.g. 60, 54, 48, etc.) more often
signs the approximately mass per metre of rails. For example the mass per metre
of 60 E1 rail is 60.21 kg/m, in case of 54 E1 is 54.43 kg/m, and in case of
MÁV 48 is 48.5 kg/m.
9
There were more different types of 48-system rail profiles. The very original one’s mass per
metre was 48.3 kg/m, but its rail head and web were modernisated, after that it is 48.5 kg/m
[Szamos, 1991].
10
E.g. rail head, thickness of rail web, side slope differ a little bit from original MÁV 48.
11
Voest Alpine offers S49 MÁV rail profile too, whose rail head is the same 49 E1’s, in this way
the rolling procedure is much simpler and easier for the factory.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 81
Fig. 5.8: Vignole-rail profile (MÁV 48 rail profile rolled by Voest Alpine)
[www.voestalpine.com]
Here it is worth mentioning thet there are special flat-bottom rails, e.g. 54 E5
(so called 51 E1 AHC). This rail profile is a modified profile, which was
developed because of decreasing of Head Check fault (AHC=Anti Head Check).
Railway companies use other rail profiles differ from “E” types 12 in the
world, e.g. rail profiles developed by AREMA (The American Railway
Engineering and Maintenance-of-way Association) in the U.S., e.g. the 12…141
lb/yb AREMA rail profiles.
12
“E” rail profiles are developed by (International Union of Railways), in the names of them are
often used UIC, e.g. UIC 54 (54 E1), but the correct designation is 54 E1.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 82
Block rails specifically contain only rail head and rail foot (see. Fig. 5.4).
Fig. 5.10: Parts of rail head and its interoperability reqiurements [EC, 2014]
„ (1) The railhead profile shall be selected from the range set out in Annex A of
EN 13674-1:2011, Annex A of EN13674-4:2006+A1:2009 or shall be in
accordance with as defined in point (2).
(2) The design of railhead profiles for plain line shall comprise:
a) a lateral slope on the side of the railhead angled to between vertical and
1/16 with reference to the vertical axis of the railhead;
b) the vertical distance between the top of this lateral slope and the top of
the rail shall be less than 20 mm;
c) a radius of at least 12 mm at the gauge corner;
d) the horizontal distance between the crown of the rail and the tangent
point shall be between 31 and 37.5 mm.”
13
There are more types of steel production in the world, e.g. electric arc furnace, it isn’t used in
Europe. Siemens-Martin steel production should be mentioned, but it is not used nowadays.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 85
The main charge materials, hot metal and solid steel scrap are put into the
converter together with fluxing agents. Then oxygen is blown (Fig. 5.12) in
through the upper hole, the water-cooled injection lance, as an effect of which
oxidizing melting takes place at a high temperature, the final product of which is
crude steel. During blowing main part of the carbon content of charge burns out,
silicon content is totally oxidized together with a part of manganese and
phosphorus content. Contacting the oxygen in air, CO-gas developed during
oxidation burns to be CO and is transferred into the wet scrubber. Heat content
of BOF gas is used for steam production. Oxides of silicon, manganese and
phosphorus become components of the slag developed by blowing process.
Sulphur content of charge is bound in the slag in the form of CaS. Inactive gas
(argon or nitrogen) flushing is possible through the flushing blocks at converter
bottom during the whole manufacturing process.
Steel charge is deoxidized and alloyed during tapping (Fig. 5.13), and then
its target chemical composition is set at the ladle metallurgical station. Primary
slag is entrapped during tapping. The inclusion content of steel is decreased by
argon flushing during the ladle metallurgical treatment, the inclusion content can
be changed by injecting Ca-cored wires. Oxygen level and temperature of the
charge can be controlled
[www.dunaferr.hu/hu/termeles/technologia/konverteres-acelgyartas].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 86
Produced liquid steel is filled into so called casting moulds. One casting
mould contains approx. 3…6 tons steel. After cooling down process moulds are
removed. This steel steel block’s name is ingot. The ingot is placed into warmer
furnace. The steel blocks are transposed from this furnace into rolling-mill
[Gajári, 1983].
The ingots taken out from warmer furnace are place into rolling-mill, where
they are formed into previously determined cross-section by let through between
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 89
Before steel rolling the upper side of ingot has to be cut, because in this part
of steel block there can be contamination, in addition the ends of the rolled rail
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 90
have to be cut 1.0-m-long part that is produced from the remaining upper part of
the ingot14.
Two train of rolls are utilised to roll steel rails (Fig. 5.18):
rough rolls (roughing mill) (1)
fine rolls (finishing mill) (2).
Fig. 5.18: Roughing and finishing mills of flat bottom (Vignole) rails
[Esveld, 2001]
Rolling is made with multiple back and forth “round” between train of rolls.
Fig. 5.19 shows flow diagram of rail rolling process in the plant of Třinecké
železárny a.s. in Třinec.
14
In case of modern rail rolling procedures – e.g. Třinecké železárny a.s., Voest Alpine AG –
600-600-mm-long parts have to be cut from the both rail ends.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 91
Fig. 5.19: Flow diagram of rail rolling process in the plant of Třinecké
železárny a.s. in Třinec [www.trz.cz; Horvát, 2015]
During rough rolling steel steel blocks are heated up to 1240 °C and blown
down by high pressure water, after that and their surfaces are greased with
special material before rolling.
In case of fine rolling the rail steel temperature is approx. 940 °C…1040 °C,
rolling is made, depending on in-plant and procedure technology, in nine rounds
(in case of rolling mill in Třinec) by CNC aided machines (Fig. 5.20).
During rolling the name of rolling mill, date of production (year, perhaps
month), quality of steel, as well as mass per metre are rolled by bulging
characters onto the rail web (Fig. 5.21).
Fig. 5.21: Marking (branding) on the rail web (TZ= Třinec rolling mill,
13=date of production: 2013, R65=R65 rail profile, =R260 rail steel quality)
[www.trz.cz]
The ready-made 950 °C…1000 °C temperature and max. 78-m-long rails (in
case of Třinec rolling mill) are transported into cooling room. After 4…6 hours
their temperature are 65 °C, 600-600-mm-long pieces are cut from their ends
(Fig. 5.22).
Cutting is required because in this part of rail steel can have contamination.
These parts mustn’t get into tracks to avoid cracks, fractures, breakages. These
contingent faults can result railway accidents.
Rails can become mildly bent during cooling down, because of this fact they
have to be faced by cylindrical facing machines (Figures 5.23-5.24). Both
facing procedure and bent cause lasting strain in the rails.
Fig. 5.22: Rolled long rails in the cooling room (Třinec rolling mill)
[www.trz.cz]
After rolling of rails different quality control tests have to be done on ready-
made rails in the plant, these are commonly the followings:
nondestructive quality control tests (on whole length rails),
destructive quality control tests (on specimens).
Non-destructive quality control tests on whole length rails are the followings:
continuous surface check (check of whole rail surface with camera),
crack check with eddy current machine (Figures 5.25-5.26),
vertical and horizontal straightness check, cross-section dimension
check with laser equipment (Figures 5.27-5.30),
ultrasonic test (Figures 5.31-5.32),
field survey tests,
dimension test with templates (Fig. 5.33),
check rolling mill branding on the rail web.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 95
Rails that have more than 0.3 mm straight fault on 3.0 m basis (1.5+1.5 m)
vertically and/or horizontally should be faced (Figures 5.29-5.30).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 97
Fig. 5.30: Measure result window of facing machine with diagrams before and
after facing [www.voestalpine.com]
In case ultrasonic material faults are found in the rail depending on type
(seriousness), location (head, web, foot), depth, extension as well as quantity
(one fault in one cross-section or more faults in a short length section or more
faults but rarely in greater length) of faults the action can be from cutting of the
parts with faults to meltdown of the whole rail piece. The most important thing
is the fact that rails with inner faults can’t be taken out, transport from the rolling
mill (plant), the faults should be diagnosed before delivery.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 99
20-mm-thick section is cut from rolled rail steel’s head in the laboratory.
Two chemical composition tests are done. In the first test is spectrum metal
analysis of steel specimen (Figures 5.34-5.36)15. In the second case analysis of
gases is done during heating of grating particles from specimen.
15
“Optical emission spectrometry involves applying electrical energy in the form of spark
generated between an electrode and a metal sample, whereby the vaporized atoms are brought to
a high energy state within a so-called “discharge plasma”. These excited atoms and ions in the
discharge plasma create a unique emission spectrum specific to each element, as shown at right.
Thus, a single element generates numerous characteristic emission spectral lines. Therefore, the
light generated by the discharge can be said to be a collection of the spectral lines generated by
the elements in the sample. This light is split by a diffraction grating to extract the emission
spectrum for the target elements. The intensity of each emission spectrum depends on the
concentration of the element in the sample. Detectors (photomultiplier tubes) measure the
presence or absence or presence of the spectrum extracted for each element and the intensity of
the spectrum to perform qualitative and quantitative analysis of the elements. In the broader sense,
optical emission spectrometry includes ICP optical emission spectrometry, which uses inductively
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 100
coupled plasma (ICP) as the excitation source. The terms "optical emission spectrometry" and
"photoelectric optical emission spectrometry," however, generally refer to optical emission
spectrometry using spark discharge, direct-current arc discharge, or glow discharge for
generating the excitation discharge.” [www.shimadzu.com/]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 101
Fig. 5.36: Initial section of steel specimen’s spectrum, different elements per
apices (blue colour means the adequate light spectrum, red color means the
same specimen with maintenance needed optical elements.
[www.gyartastrend.hu]
During drop test (Figures 5.37-5.38) 1000 kg mass is dropped from 7.5 m
height with freefall to a rail’s centre (1300 mm length, 1000 mm bay). Steel of
rail is adequate in case it hasn’t broken because of fallen mass.
Cylindrical specimen for tensile test should be taken out from rail head,
=10 mm, distance between fix points is 50 mm (Fig. 5.39).
Fig. 5.39: Turned out location of tensile test specimen from rail head
[CEN, 2011]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 103
Measured data has to be compared with hardness value of rail steel categories
in CEN (2011) standard.
Fig. 5.40: The turned out tensile test specimen and the tensile test
[Lichtberger, 2005; Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 104
Fig. 5.41: Location points of hardness test in rail head [CEN, 2011]
Fig. 5.42: Brinell-style hardness test device and eight specimens after hardness
test [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 105
16
RCF=Rolling Contact Fatigue. The most significant type of RCF faults is Head Check, so called
rail head “hair cracks”.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 106
𝜎 𝜎
(𝑅 𝑎 ) + 𝑅 𝑘 ≤ 1 (5.3.)
𝐿𝑒 𝑚
In Fig. 5.45 there are Smith-diagrams of 700 and 900 N/mm2 tensile strength
rail steel materials according to Eisenmann’s investigations.
In Fig. 5.45 area between thin lines is the “safety zone”, as well as the cut
values (by the thin lines) from the ordinate axis are the fatigue vibrative strength
of the two materials. These values are valid for the case, in which the mean
stress (see Fig. 5.45 m) is zero, i.e. the stresses vary between two values that
are the same in absolute value. This stress is hKle=60 N/mm2 for material with
tensile strength Rm=700 N/mm2. In case there is a constant stress in the material ,
m0, i.e. it is spoken about fatigue pulsating strength. This case is shown in the
Fig. 5.45 for m=80 N/mm2, as well as m=180 N/mm2 constant stresses. It can
be seen in the figure that the higher is m, the lower is the pulsating limit.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 108
hKlü=280 N/mm2 for Rm=700 N/mm2 steel material and m=80 N/mm2 and
hKlü=230 N/mm2 for m=180 N/mm2, in case of steel material with
Rm=900 N/mm2 the values respectively are hKlü=320 N/mm2, and
hKlü=280 N/mm2.
Metals, as iron too, are structured from crystals. Texture elements of iron in
case of equilibrium conditions are the followings:
ferrite (alpha-iron),
cementite (iron-carbide, Fe3C).
The higher is the perlite and lower is the distance between perlite lamellas,
the higher are tensile strength and yield strength. In case of perlite steel the
higher is the tensile strength, the higher is the yield strength too.
There is a close correlation between wear resistance of rail head and tensile
strength of base steel in case of ferrite-perlite steel materials. According to
laboratory tests in case tensile strength is increased with 200 N/mm2, wear loss
will be the half. Taken this result as a basis, in railway operation the lifetime of
the rails can be doubled in case of using of higher tensile strength steel materials
(experiences of DB confirm this fact in curves, but in case of straight sections
there isn’t close correlation between the mentioned two parameters).
It can be stated that increased lifetime due to decreasing of wear loss is
economically more profitable than the additional costs of production premium
rails, in this way using of rails with high tensile strength is generally more
economic. This advantage is more significant in case of main railway lines, but
in case of low-traffic railway lines high lifetime of premium rails can’t be
reached due to other, non-wear caused reasons that require replacement of rails
before run out of “wear store” of rail head.
In case of high-traffic railway lines (more than 200…220 kN axle load) using
of premium rails can be motivated by the faults of the rails, e.g. strong plastic
yielding on the rail head, or fatigue phenomena.
The higher are carbon and manganese contents of the rail steel material, the
higher is the tensile strength (Fig. 5.46).
Nowadays used rail steel materials’ hardness and rolling marks are presented
in Table 5.1, some mechanical parameters, as well as limit quantity of alloying17
and contaminant materials of rail steel are shown in Table 5.2.
17
Alloying materials: e.g.. carbon, manganese, chrome, nickel, silicon, vanadium, contaminant
materials: e.g.. phosphor, nitrogen.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 110
Fig. 5.46: Tensile strength value of rail steel as a function of carbon and
manganese contents [Gajári, 1983]
Table 5.1: Rail steel categories, Brinell hardness values and branding lines of
steel quality [CEN, 2011]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 111
Table 5.2: Properties of rail steel categories in liquid and solid states – quantity
of alloying and contaminant materials, specified tensile strength values, as well
as Brinell hardness values [CEN, 2011]
18
In case of rail steel material with 0.7…0.8% carbon content the remaining gases and inclusions
can form dangerous fracture centres.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 112
Fig. 5.47: Ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, Charpy impact,
Brinell hardness as a function of carbon content [sti.srs.gov]
𝑅𝑒𝐻
𝑓= 𝑅𝑚
(5.4.)
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 113
The value of „f” parameter is approx. 0.5 in case of normal rails, and approx.
0.6 in case of premium rails, i.e. yield strength value is increased with greater
degree than tensile strength’s.
In the past few years special quality rail steel material was developed by
Voest Alpine, RCF rail faults’ formation can be avoided by using of this kind of
steel material. It is called DOBAIN ® rail (in Table 5.1–5.2 R350HT…R400HT
rail qualities). DOBAIN ® is an acronym it consists of DOnawitz BAINite
words, i.e. Donawitz bainitic rail19. In case of DOBAIN ® rails formation of
RCF rail faults, wear losses as well as formation of waved rail wear are
significantly decreased than in case of normal rail quality.
In previous discussions it was always assumed that rail consists of the same
material, and same quality material in its whole cross section. Only the rail head
is exposed to wearing effect of wheels, because of this fact higher hardness has
to be ensured only in the rail head. Even it is enough that only running surface
and lateral slope (“guiding edge”) of rail head become wear resistance until the
depth of 10 mm.
19
„In case of austenite is cooled down into between 550 C° and Ms temperature (martensitic
metamorphoses’ start temperature at cooling down), at the austenite crystal boundary needle-like
ferrite seeding appears. From the over-saturated ferrite carbon can leave at this temperature with
diffusion, in this way next to ferrite needles cementite discs arise. The speed of growing of ferrite
is much higher than arising of cementite helped by diffusion, in this way cementite discs are
“overgrown” by ferrite, and bainite will arise from into ferrite base bedded cementite discs
texture.
Arising bainite is influenced by overcooling. At lower temperature or at quicker cooling down
process arised bainite is the so called “lower” baininte, because carbon atoms can’t diffuse out.”
[www.tankonyvtar.hu].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 114
rail head is produced from wear resistant rail steel, the other parts of
profile is made of normal rail steel, it is so called compound rail.
In case of rails with thermally treated rail heads are dipped into water or oil
after rolling process with their head below (Fig. 5.48). The boundary zone of rail
head with 10-mm-depth is thermally treated, in this way tensile strength of this
area can be approx. 1400 N/mm2, this value decreases in the depth (Fig. 5.49).
Fig. 5.48: Production of rail with thermally treated rail head – cooling down of
rail head [Esveld, 2011]
Fig. 5.49: Cross section of rail with thermally treated rail head [Gajári, 1983]
The costs of purchase of rails with thermally treated rail head are approx.
10…20% higher than normal quality rails, but their wear resistance are about the
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 115
triple. Rail heads can be thermally treated by induction heating and water/oil
cooling down, it is so called rails with induction thermally treated rail heads.
At Voest Alpine rails with thermally treated rail heads are produced with
special technology. They are so called HSH ® (Head Special Hardened) rails.
During treatment (cooling down) rail head is dipped into a special secret content
material, it leads to fine perlite steel texture (Figures 5.50–5.52).
Fig. 5.51: Hardness of HSH ® rails in the cross section of rail [Tömő, 2014]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 116
The fully thermally treated rails are cooled down from the rolling
temperature, or from 850…900 °C (heating temperature that follows cooling
down process from rolling temperature) in oil-bath with controlled speed, in this
way fine perlite texture raise in the rail steel. Tensile strength of rails produced
with this technology is approx. 1180…1300 N/mm2, their elongation is about
10…12%.
Rail head of compound rails is generally produced from Cr-Mn steel with
1300 N/mm2 tensile strength, the other parts of the profile is steel with
600 N/mm2 tensile strength. These parts are rolled together. The costs of
purchase of this kind of rail is approx. 60…70% higher than normal ones, but
wear resistance is approx. quadruple.
Rails with thermally treated rail heads and compound rails can be considered
equivalent with same wear resistant and in whole rail profile homogenous
material quality rails only in the aspect of wear resistance, but in the aspect of
load bearing thermally treated rail headed rails and compound rails are more
disadvantageous, because the specified bending tension stresses arise at the rail
foot, and at this location pulsating strength of homogenous material steel is
higher.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 117
In the aspect of choosing of adequate rail steel material and rail profile there
are important points (as detailed in Chapters 5.1.1-5.1.4):
rail profile has to be chosen according to
design speed,
traffic (quantity),
vertical loadings, and
LCC (Life Cycle Costs),
rail steel quality has to be chosen according to
curve radius
The two main points in case of choosing steel quality and rail profile that rail
profile will be adequate for bearing stresses from loadings (as a bended-sheared
structure), as well as its wear resistance will be enough.
The advantage of adequate material quality and greater profile rails:
lower stresses arise in them in case of same loadings,
due to lower stresses maintenance costs is reduced, i.e. adequate
material and heavier rails cause higher construction but lower
maintenance costs,
in case of choosing material and profile, LCC analysis has to be made,
where all the costs (e.g. disturbance of railway traffic, maintenance, etc.)
are contained in lifetime costs.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 118
The role of the rail connections is to ensure the continuity of rails without
vertical and horizontal “step”, as well as directional break. The opportunities to
connect rails are the followings [Szamos, 1991]:
fishplate joints,
welding, and
dilatation structure (rail expansion device).
Rail connectiona are the weak points of the track, because their fishplates can
compensate only the 60% of the moment of inertia of the rail. Wheel, during
through-rolling the gap between ther rail ends, hits the following (forthcoming)
rail end, which is disadvantageous for the whole railway super- and substructure
as well as the railway vehicle. Dynamic effects are much higher in case of
vertical and/or horizontal step connections than in “controlled” (maintenanced)
one.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 119
Fig. 5.53: Types of fishplates (common flat fishplate, angled fishplate, bone
shape fishplate) [Gajári, 1983]
60-system rails are only used in CWR tracks, in these tracks insulated
fishplate joints have to be applied.
Bone shape fishplates are used for high mass rails, the fillet radius of upper
part of bone shape fishplate is greater, in this way it suits for worn rails.
Appication of bone shape fishplate is very rarely in the track of MÁV
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 120
Fig. 5.54: The 0-mm-gap and the 20-mm-gap in case of 48-system rail tracks
[Gajári, 1983]
The length of fishplates is commonly 600 mm and 900 mm. The numbers of
bore holes in case of 600-mm-long fishplate are 2×2, whereas in case if 900-
mm-long fishplates 2×3. The positure of bore hole of angled fishplate and
common flat fishplate is the same in case of same system rails, moreover the
middle bore holes’ position of 4-hole-fishplate and 6-hole-fishplate is the same
as well [Szamos, 1991].
The rail connection is loose if max. gap can arise due to bore holes’ positure.
In case of tight rail connection the distance of bore holes in the rail web from the
rail end is increased, in this way the max. gap is decreased.
fishplates and from clamp effect of rail fastenings. This latter can be realised by
the resistance of railway ballast bed.
The values of fishplate resistance in case of one rail and four-hole as well as
six-hole fishplates for only one rail:
high driven bolts: 300 kN/200 kN,
good maintainted fishplates: 200…220 kN/150 kN,
greased fishplates: 100 kN/65…70 kN,
slightly-loosen fishplates: 80 kN/50 kN.
In case of stiff joints the two rail ends supported by only one sleeper, railway
ballast can be loosen in a very short time period due to static and dynamic
loadings, it causes settlements in the track. Stiff connection is not applied since a
long time.
In case of wooden sleepers supported joints are the most adequate connection
type. Sleepers are clamped to each other by long horizontal bolts using a 20-
mm-thick poplar plate between the sleepers. Working together is ensured by
both the horizontal bolts and common base plate (Fig. 5.57).
In the middle of common base plate there is a cut in 100 mm length to avoid
the stiff support of rail ends. Because of lower bending moment shorter, 600-
mm-long fishplates and looser joints (four pieces horizontal fish(plate) bolts)
should be used. Using of supported joints in concrete sleeper track were made
experiments, but they didn’t work due to the lack of horizontal bolts between
sleepers, the result was rotated sleepers (Fig. 5.58) [Szamos, 1991].
Fig. 5.58: Supported joint in case of concrete sleepers (sleepers rotate due to
trapezoidal cross section of concrete sleeper, in this way this solution must not
be used) [Gajári, 1983]
Temporary joints (there aren’t bore holes in the rail web) are generally used
in case of construction (laying) of CWR railway tracks, they are so called “C”
clips (Fig. 5.62). In case of application of temporary joints the neighbouring rail
ends (that will be welded together) have to be connected without vertical and
horizontal steps, no bore hole in the rail web is allowed in this case. This type of
temporary joints is applied in case of temporary restore of rail breakages in
CWR tracks.
Fishplates are forced to the rail webs by fishplate bolts. There are two
different types of fishplate bolts at MÁV:
produced from normal strength steel, in this case Grower spring has to
be used under screw nut (screw nut is allowed to be driven until ends of
the spring close),
produced from premium steel (with high tensile strength), in this case
steel spacer ring has to be applied under screw nut, this nut should be
driven by prescribed torque [Szamos, 1991].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 126
Dilatation tensile forces due to variation of rail temperature can increase after
20-mm-gap has arised because of very low temperature (cold) as well as rail
creep. In this case there are complex stresses in the fishplate bolts. Forces and
stresses in the fishplate bolts are demonstrated in Fig. 5.63. It is shown in
Fig. 5.63:
axial tensile force and in this way tensile stress (0) arise due to bolts are
driven by prescribed torque,
fishplate bolts are bended (h) and sheared () from the point 20-mm-
gap has arised [Gajári, 1983].
Fig. 5.63: Forces and stresses in the fishplate bolts [Gajári, 1983]
Fig. 5.64: Measured (left) and simplified (right) tensile force diagram of four-
hole-fishplate joint [Gajári, 1983]
There is dynamic bending in the fishplate joint due to wheel load. The
WG 18 / DG 11 Mechanical requirements for joints in running rails. Final
version. regulation-proposal [CEN/TC, 2011] gives the laboratory parameters
for fishplate joints. Four-point-bending test has to be done, assembly for static
test is shown in Fig. 5.65. Dynamic fatigue test can be done with assembly is
illustrated Fig. 5.65, laboratory test parameters are given by CEN/TC (2011).
3 𝑄 2 ∙𝐸𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 ∙𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑟 = √ 8
∙ 𝛾𝑐 (5.5.)
ahol
Q: nominal wheel load (125 kN),
E: Young-modulus of rail steel (2.1×105 N/mm2)
Irail: moment of inertia of the rail section for horizontal axis,
wmax: max. deflection of the rail at the connected section (1.5 mm),
c: safety and correction parameter (1.5 for suspended joint).
𝑀𝑟
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 ∙ (𝐿 (5.6.)
𝑠 −𝐿𝑤 )
where
Lw: center-to-center distance of the load insertion point (in Fig. 5.65 it is
120 mm),
Ls: center-to-center distance of the support points (in Fig. 5.65 it is
1,320 mm).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 129
Insulated joints are special types of fishplate joints, where the rail ends are
insulated from each other, in this way metallic connection can’t arise neither at
the rail ends, nor via fishplates. The types of insulated joints are the followings
according to their evolution:
wooden fishplate, tie-framed (it isn’t applied nowadays),
fiber-reinforced steel fishplate (it isn’t applied nowadays),
pressed wooden fishplate (Fig. 5.67),
plastic fishplate (metamide, teramide) (Fig. 5.68),
glued fishplate (Fig. 5.69),
P.C. Wagner glued insulated joint (Fig. 5.70),
GTI glued insulated joint (Fig. 5.71),
plastic coated steel fishplate (Figures 5.72-5.75),
polimer-composite (fibre-glass-reinforced plastic) glued insulated
fishplate (Fig. 5.76-5.79).
High tensile strength bolts with great forces are used to press fishplates and
rail. In this way high friction force can be achieved, it causes that great tensile
forces can’t open connection. Plastic profile lining (plate) is built between rail
ends.
Fig. 5.73: Portec steel fishplate constructed with plastic insulation elements
[Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 134
Fig. 5.75: Tenconi plastic coated steel fishplate (Swiss made) 2. [pandrol.ca.za]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 135
Rail dilatation structures are used to ensure longitudinal movement of rails (if
it should) due to thermal forces and several effects at the connection (determined
sections of railway track) of railway track and railway bridge
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑀= (5.7.)
2
Rail dilatation structures that meet the requirements contain switch blades
and thick web stock rails: the side of switch blades is the fix part of rail
dilatation structures, and the side of stock rails is the moving part. (In the
opposite case variation of rail gauge can’t be avoided.) The side of switch blades
viewed from above is arched. The geometry of these arches suits to the stock
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 138
rail’s elastic deformation due to uniform distributed load in the horizontal plane.
With this formation horizontal load distribution is uniform, and rail wear is
reduced at the contact section of stock rail and switch blade. The expansion
device (rail dilatation structure) is built on a baseplate used at switch sleeper.
Switch blade has to fix fastened to the baseplate, stock rail’s longitudinal
movement is ensured by a special element.
Fig. 5.81 illustrates the cross section of expansion device (rail dilatation
structure).
Rail dilatation structure has to set up on a bridge that the side of switch blade
is built on a higher stiffness: at a bridge abutment, onto the bridge; at a pillar,
onto the side of fix bridge rocker; at moving bridge rocker bridge ends, onto the
shorter dilatation length side. Fig. 5.82 shows the set-up of rail dilatation
structure on a ballast-bedded railway bridge.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 139
In case of the bridge length (ℓ) is more than 40 m, the 20 mm dilatation gap at
the moving bridge rocker (reached by normal fishplate joints) is much shorter
than it should be due to the thermal dilatation of bridges.
There are the following types of rail dilatation structures applied in Hungary:
Csilléry-style dilatation structure (Figures 5.83-5.85),
(B60) VM rail dilatation structure (Figures 5.86-5.87),
(B60) VM-D twin rail dilatation structure (Fig. 5.88),
embedded rail dilatation structure (Fig. 5.89).
Fig. 5.84: Top view and cross sections of Csilléry-style dilatation structure
[Gajári, 1983]
Fig. 5.86: VM-system rail dilatation structure with connection element on both
sides [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.87: VM-system rail dilatation structure with security rails (elements) on
both side [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 143
Fig. 5.88: VM-D-system rail dilatation structure with security rails (elements)
on both side, R=600 m with superelevation (cant) [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.89: Embedded rail dilatation structure suitable for 54E1 rail profiles
(manufactured by Wisselbouw Nederland B.V.) [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 145
Consequence of rail weldings that with „deleting” the dilatation gaps, significant
thermal forces (tension and compressive) can evolve in the rails due to variation
of rail’s temperature.
To ensure the quality of weldings and control the quality of rail steel the
steel-chemical components and the speed of cooling down are very important. In
case of welding with strange material the components of in-built material is
determining.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 146
𝑀𝑛 𝐶𝑟+𝑉 𝑁𝑖 𝑀𝑜 𝐶𝑢 𝑃 𝑆𝑖
𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶 + + + + + + + + 0.0024 ∙ 𝑎 ≤ 0.45%(5.8.)
6 5 15 4 13 2 24
where
„a”: thickness of material (mm), at rail weldings „a” is the maximum
dimension of rail head.
𝑄 = 𝐼 2 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑡 (𝑘𝐽) (5.9.)
where
„I”: amperage (A),
„R”: electric resistance (),
„t”: time of heating (s).
It can be stated based on Eq. 5.9 that the heat is in correlation with electric
resistance, this resistance is the highest at the rail pressed to each other flat rail
end surfaces, in this way these surfaces are heated firstly, and become plastic.
Jump-welding is the technology when the “joint” (welt) is made without melting
of the pressed together surfaces, this procedure can’t be applied for rail welding
because oxides aren’t able to leave from the oxidised front surfaces of the rail
ends, in this way the welt won’t be excellent.
In case of rail welding so called flash butt welding technology is used, when
front surfaces are heated until they melt, after that crush force is applied, which
is required to remove oxides and other contamination from the pressed together
surfaces with a liquid film. In this way a very good quality, purely metallic joint
evolves.
The types of flash butt welding are the followings:
pre-heating,
continuous,
made with light pressure,
made with light touch.
In case of pre-heating flush butt welding the rail ends are touched with quick
light alternating method that generates an electric arc, it causes rail ends are
heated until melting, after that welding is made by hit like jumping.
Based on Eq. 5.9 it is shown that heat is in correlation with the square of
amperage, in this way high amperage (5…15 A/mm2) as well as low voltage
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 148
(1…25 V) are used. Current with high amperage and low voltage is made by
electric transformator (Fig 5.90).
In Fig. 5.90 it is illustrated that rail ends are taken into copper clips, one of
them is fix, the other is movable. Movable copper clip is applied for touching
and pulling away rail ends.
Rail ends don’t need to be polished before welding, they should be only
cleaned, and set in straight by using a steel ruler. Machine pushes the heated rail
ends in axial direction together, in this way metallic joint arises without oxides,
bubbles and inclusions, welt is from the base material of rails. The jumping is
approx. 7-8 mm, it generates a little welt knob. This knob is removed at 900 °C
by a pneumatic stamp machine.
In case of flash butt welding with light pressure the melting is very quick on
touching surfaces, liquid joint arises that explodes sparkling when it is
overheated. Because of this lack of material, rail ends have to be moved nearly
to each other. After that process the pressing will follow, during that
contaminations will leave. Because of the quick heating, only the little percent of
the mass of rails are warmed up, in this way cooling down is quick too. This
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 149
quick cooling down leads to crackings, in this way this type of welding is not
adequate for high carbon content rail steel materials.
During flash butt welding made with light touch the rail end surfaces are
touched only very light, it results high electric resistance and high heat effect.
Naturally hard rails without dangerous hardening can be also welded by using
this technology with adequate pre-design. Better quality welts using lower power
can be made by this technology, because the heated zone is smaller that requires
lower jump force. Modern mobile flash butt welding machines uses light touch
technology.
Fig. 5.91: Flash butt welding in factory in Gyöngyös (Hungary) [Gajári, 1983]
The task of rail end cleaner device (Figures 5.95-5.96) is to clean the rail
ends electrically. Scales, rust and other dirt have to be removed first from faces
of rail ends, then from running surfaces and from rail feet in the length of
500 mm from rail ends. In the machine there are always one rail forepart and one
rail end which have to be welded. The machine moves the needed 1,100 mm on
four wheels on rail supports, with help of pneumatic cylinder.
The parts of rail welding machine (Figures 5.97-5.99) consists of the min
parts below:
welding unit,
hydraulic system,
control system,
cooling system and vent hood.
The main unit’s steel structure is can be moved on rolls, it contains the fixing
and set-up parts of rails should be welded, electric units, knob removing knives
with moving unit as well as electric commutator with transformator.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 153
After welding the knob has to be removed (Fig. 5.100). There are several
knives for several types of rail sections, which knives remove hot welding knobs
with 1-1.5 mm allowance.
Rails have to be faced near the welt in a 1.0 m length zone (Fig. 5.101). The
role of facing is to ensure the required (function of line speed) straightness
values of guide and running edges (surfaces) of welded rail. This machine works
with exchangeable pressure jaws, and faced the rail near welt. Straightness is
measured by a unit that gives (and show in a computer screen) 100 data points to
1,000 mm rail length in horizontal and vertical plane, and bending points are
calculated. Horizontal and vertical facing are done by two hydraulic units with
special jaws, one in horizontal plane and the other in vertical plane.
Fig. 5.101: Machine makes horizontal and vertical facing of rail near the welt in
a 1.0 m zone [Horvát, 2015]
The ready made rails are transported to storage and delivery depo
(Fig. 5.105), where the rails will also be delivered from.
Flash butt welding is not only made in factory but in field by mobile flash
butt machines. These kind of machines are illustrated in az Figures 5.106-5.112.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 158
Figures 5.106-5.108 show a Plasser K-355 APT type mobile flash butt
welding machine and its rail grip unit. Time consumption of welding in case of
60 E1 rail profile is 180 secs. (I=20.000 A, U=7 V).
Fig. 5.106: Plasser K-355 APT type mobile flash butt welding machine 1.
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.107: Plasser K-355 APT type mobile flash butt welding machine 2.
[Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 159
Fig. 5.108: Rail grip unit of Plasser K-355 APT type flash butt welding machine
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.109 illustrates an old soviet mobile flash butt rail welding machine, in
which two independent rail heads work. For several rail profiles different linings
should be used. Rail web has to cleaned on 700-700 mm length to metal pure
(clean). When this machine grips the rails, rail ends are set. Electric power is
from electric network or from diesel aggregator. I=20 000 A, U=6.3 V, welding
time is 3 minutes. Max. tension force is 1250 kN, max. upset (jump) force is
450 kN. Nominal capacity is 10 pieces of welding per hour.
Fig. 5.109: Old soviet mobile flash butt rail welding machine [Gajári, 1983]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 160
A ready made welt without knob removing produced by mobile flash butt
welding technology is shown in Fig. 5.113.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 162
Fig. 5.113: Ready made welt without knob removing produced by mobile flash
butt welding technology [Szabolcs Fischer’s photo]
The procedure is based in the high affinity of aluminium (Al) and oxigen
(O2). Iron (III) oxid (Fe2O3) is reduced by aluminium getting high quantity of
heat. The reaction equation is the following:
The thermit pour contains scale, aluminium sleet, and other alloys (ferro
vanadium, ferro manganese, ferro molibden). The maximum ratio of
contamination (for example phosphor, sulfur) is 0.1 percent.
welding,
preparing and opening of welding set (Figures 5.117-5.122),
fixing of sand catcher tray,
fixing of universal clamp unit,
setting of moulds (two pieces) and fixing them
(Figures 5.123-5.125),
sealing the gaps (between the moulds and the rails profiles) with
special sand, (Fig 5.126),
setting scale tray,
setting the rail head protection plate next to the moulds,
setting the durable pot (prepared)20 into pot rack, setting the pot
plug (meltable), loading the thermit welding portion,
fixing the pot to universal clamp, centering,
setting and lighting the burner, preheating (Fig. 5.127),
setting the preheated close parts,
ignition the lighter, sticking into the thermit portion, closing the
pot (Fig. 5.128),
take place the reaction, the thermit steel (2000 °C) flows into the
moulds, the liquid scale flows into the scale tray
(Figures 5.129-5.130),
removing the tap,
removing the scale tray (after the scale becomes stiff),
removing the mould clamp units (Fig. 5.131),
after works,
removig the knobs with stamp until the half rail web height
(Figures 5.132-5.133),
knocking off the „rest of foot” (after cooling down),
rough grinding,
cleaning the welt,
fine shaping.
20
Pot is not in every case “durable pot”, there are also disposable pots.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 165
Fig. 5.115: Setting the welding gap and the level and direction of rail ends 1.
[Gajári, 1983]
Fig. 5.116: Setting the welding gap and the level and direction of rail ends 2.
[Gajári, 1983]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 166
Fig. 5.117: Plötz-type welding set – box that contains the welding set
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.118: Plötz-type welding set – moulds and pot plug [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 167
Fig. 5.120: Plötz-type welding set – welding dose (portion) [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.121: Plötz-type welding set – card about quality control of welding dose
(portion) certified by DB [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 168
Fig. 5.125: Setting of moulds (two pieces) and fixing them [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 170
Fig. 5.126: Sealing the gaps (between the moulds and the rails profiles) with
special sand [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.127: Setting and lighting the burner, preheating [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 171
Fig. 5.128: Ignition the lighter, sticking into the thermit portion, closing the pot
[Gajári, 1983]
Fig. 5.129: Take place the reaction, the thermit steel (2000 °C) flows into the
moulds, the liquid scale flows into the scale tray 1. [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 172
Fig. 5.130: Take place the reaction, the thermit steel (2000 °C) flows into the
moulds, the liquid scale flows into the scale tray 2. [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.131: Welt after the mould clamp units are removed [Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 173
Fig. 5.132: Removig the knobs with stamp until the half rail web height 1.
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.133: Removig the knobs with stamp until the half rail web height 2.
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 5.135: Ready made TW welt after fine finishing [Szabolcs Fischer’s photo]
Flow down possibilities of liquid thermit steel through several type of tunnels
are shown in Fig. 5.138.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 176
Fig. 5.138: Flow down possibilities of liquid thermit steel through several type
of tunnels [Horvát, 2015]
Welt is from welding electrode held in the weldor hand in 100% in case of
manual electric welding. Electrode is heated and melt by electric arc.
Fig. 5.140: Heating of rail ends with welding torch [Gajári, 1983]
Inner cracks and plums (bubbles) of rail welts could be found by ultrasonic
test. Test equipment is hand ultrasonic tester. Inclination of ultrasonic inspection
heads is 45° and 70°.
The assessment is made by MÁV Rt. 101675/94 and MÁV Rt. PHMSZ
105950/95 regulations. Fig. 5.141 illustrates a check list of ultrasonic test.
In case of static bending test a tests specimen (rail beam) is made by welding
of two 650-mm-long rails. The bay is 1,000 mm. The welt should be in mid
position. The static force is also in the middle (Fig. 5.143). The deflection-force
diagram has to be registered continuously. The max. force is the ultimate force
where rail beam breaks.
Minimum bending
800 900
strength (N/mm2)
Minimum deflection
10 8
at breaking (mm)
Hardness in the
250-320 280-330
welt (HB)
Parameters of fatigue test are presented in Fig. 5.146. After the this test no
cracking, fracture, etc. can arise in the welt.
6. SLEEPERS
In ballasted track the rails rest on sleepers and together form the built-up
portion of the superstructure [Esveld, 2001; Horvát, 2015a].
Railway sleepers play a vital role in the structural demands for railways.
They contribute to distribution of vertical load and lateral movements induced
by trains [Gudmundsson and Gudmundsson, 2014].
Wooden (timber) sleeper is only suitable for low speed lines with the speed
limit of 160 km/h. Acceptable species of wood for this type of sleeper are
European oak, beech, pine and etc. Fig. 6.1 shows the specific dimensions of
sleepers in Hungary. Nowadays in some countries, wooden sleeper is replaced
by concrete sleeper [Major, 2014; Horvát, 2015a].
The advantages of steel sleeper are as belows [Major, 2014; Esveld, 2001]:
easy to manufacture and install,
high dimensional accuracy,
positive residual value,
long service life.
There are more railway companies, which apply again steel sleepers in
nowadays. The steel sleepers are produced in a special troughed shape (Fig. 6.3)
for narrow and normal gauge track in the UK by British Steel. The question of
shape is important in the viewpoint to resistance of ballast and stability of track
[Horvát, 2015a].
An unusual form of steel sleeper is the Y-steel sleeper (Figures 6.4-6.5), it was
developed in 1983. Compared to conventional sleepers the volume of ballast
required is reduced due to the load-spreading characteristics of the Y-sleeper.
Noise levels are high but the resistance to track movement is very good. For
curves the three-point contact of a Y-steel sleeper means that an exact geometric
fit can’t be observed with a fixed attachment point [Major, 2014;
Horvát, 2015a].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 191
Fig. 6.5: The main beam’s profile of Y-steel sleeper [Horvát, 2015a]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 192
The concrete sleepers were applied in countries appeared, where there wasn’t
enough wood at the beginning of 1900s years (in Hungary in 1908). Initially, the
cracking and structure of fastenings were caused the difficultly. The pre-
tensioning of steel in sleepers was gave impetus for spread [Horvát, 2015a].
6.2.4.2. Difference between the pre-stressed and the reinforced concrete sleepers
Fig. 6.7: Difference between the pre-stressed and the reinforced concrete
sleepers [Gajári, 1983]
is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually
embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing
schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of
the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure.
Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of
steel, polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not
[Major, 2014].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 196
The sleeper sag (Fig. 6.8) is a status of support, where the two edge of sleeper
don’t have support, but the middle of it does. Consequently, negative momentum
arises in the middle. This negative momentum causes cracking of the middle of
sleeper, and broadening of gauge. The MÁV applies LM type concrete sleepers
to avoid this phenomenon, that is shown is Fig. 6.9. The sleeper is 2.42 meter
long, 0.85 meter is rest on the ballast below the rails from this. In order to avoid
the sleeper sagging, therefore the middle of the sleeper is higher than the ends
with 20 mm [Gajári, 1983].
Fig. 6.8: The sleeper sag of long and short sleepers [Gajári, 1983]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 197
DB wide sleeper
Turnout sleepers
FFU has been used on several other Wiener Linien bridge projects. Since
2005, Austrian Federal Railways ÖBB uses FFU ‘polyurethane wood’ in diverse
railroad infrastructure projects. Recently, the Bayer AG subsidiary Currenta
Leverkusen installed a FFU turnout 4 meters long in order to connect the
production site to the Deutsche Bahn railroad net. The turnout was manufactured
by Voestalpine BWG [SEKISUI Chemical GmbH].
The durability of Eslon FFU Neo Lumber is much higher than that of natural
wood. The initial investment for installation in the track superstructure is slightly
larger when FFU is used, but is in turn quickly offset by lower life cycle costs
and technical superiority. Environmentally responsible rail operating companies
generally make their purchasing decisions in favour of synthetic wood
[SEKISUI Chemical GmbH].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 207
Largely, the wood has been replaced by import in Hungary. The timber
cutting happens only the standstill period of circulation of moisture. Thereafter,
the drying period follows it. The drying period is 6-12 months, it takes until the
moisture level has fallen to 20-25%, and wood reaches relative dry weight. After
drying period the next step is processing such as: notching (milling) of the
bearing surfaces (Fig. 6.20), drilling of holes to accommodate the fastenings,
binding using a steel band to limit cracks. Then creosoting (conserving) of
timber sleepers follows against biological attack. The creosote is impregnated
into the wood under high pressure after which some of the oil is recovered by
applying a vacuum. The final step is fixing the fastening system.
The long-line method (Fig. 6.21) describes the process in which ties are
produced end to end in a line, with continuous strands of prestressing steel
running through the ties. Casting beds containing the forms are stationary and
equipment moves along the length of each bed. A variation of this method, in
which forms are placed on train cars called lorries, which allows the ties to move
between the different production steps, is termed the Grinberg method
[Major, 2014].
The long line method is a production where sleepers are cast in a line using
100 to 150 m long beds. Typically in a sleeper production plant there are four or
more casting beds in which a number of casting moulds are placed
[Gudmundsson and Gudmundsson, 2014].
The production of sleepers is done in certain casting steps are the follows
[Gudmundsson and Gudmundsson, 2014]:
The first step is preparation of the moulds for casting by cleaning and
oiling.
The cast-in fastening components are placed in the mould.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 209
Devices for controlling the distance of ribs (leftwards) and the flexion of flat
of rail (rightwards) are shown in Fig. 6.22.
1 – Rigid support
2 – Articulated support
3 – Elastic plate
4 – Pre-stressed sleeper
5 - Railpad
6 – Steel plate
7 – Baseplate and side stand
Fig. 6.23: Loading under the rail seat positive moment [Horvát, 2013]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 211
1 – Rigid support
2 – Articulated support
3 – Elastic plate
4 – Pre-stressed sleeper
5 – Railpad
6 – Steel plate
Fig. 6.24: Loading at the middle of the sleeper negative moment [Horvát, 2013]
1 – Rigid support
2 – Articulated support
3 – Elastic plate
4 – Pre-stressed sleeper
Fig. 6.25: Loading at the middle of the sleeper positive moment [Horvát, 2013]
6.3.2.2.7. The B55 type prestressed concrete sleeper for two types of ballast beds
Fig. 6.26 shows the dimensioning of the B55 type pre-stressed concrete
sleeper for two types of ballast beds, with the ballast compression value.
The bending moments occurring in the sleeper are calculated, assuming a
rigid support beam, for at least two different types of sleeper beds which cause a
maximum bending moment on the bearing type I (below the rail) and, on bearing
type II (in the centre of the sleeper) [Lichtberger, 2005].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 212
Fig. 6.26: The B55 type pre-stressed concrete sleeper for two types of ballast
beds, with the ballast compression value [Lichtberger, 2005; Horvát, 2013]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 213
7. RAIL FASTENINGS
From moving vehicles transferred forces (Fy and Fz) unto rails are picked up
by not only one fastener, but also more fasteners on more sleepers, so a part of
the forces is transferred to fastenings. The reduction factor is based on
experimental measurements and calculations, varies between: β=0.35…0.65
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 214
[Gajári, 1983]. Fig .7.1.a. shows the forces which transferred form vehicles’
wheel. In Fig. 7.1.b. the rail spike superstructure forces without baseplate are
shown, while in Fig. 7.1.c. presents the superstructure forces with baseplate.
Wheel forces:
Fz (vertical),
Fy (horizontal).
𝑑
𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑚 = 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑧 ∙ 2 + 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∙ 𝑑 (7.1.)
From the previous equation anchor force can be expressed unto the inner
fastener (“Fout”: anchor force):
𝑚 1
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑑
− 2 ∙ 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑧 (𝑘𝑁) (7.2.)
𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑓 ∙ 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑧 + 𝐹𝑦′ (7.3.)
𝐹𝑦′ = 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑦 − 𝑓 ∙ 𝛽 ∙ 𝐹𝑧 (7.4.)
where
„f”: coefficient of friction between the sleeper and the rail foot (0.3).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 216
The force (Fig. 7.2) on rail is originated from dilatation and rail
wandering/creeping (Fx). This force wants to move the rail above sleeper and
baseplate. Friction between rail foot and sleeper, as well as between rail foot and
baseplate occurs against displacement force, friction depends on the clamping
force unto fastening. So the clamping force unto fastening is correct, if the
sleeper moves inside ballast and not the rail foot slides in baseplate
[Horvát, 2015a].
ballast
𝐹𝑒2 𝐹
𝑒2
2
= 𝑓 ∙ 𝐹𝑠𝑧 → 𝐹𝑠𝑧 = 2∙𝑓 (7.5.)
where
„Fsz”: the maximal anchor force.
The maximal anchor force depending on friction between the rail foot and
baseplate or rail pad:
if f=0.3 → F=25 kN,
if f=0.65 → F=11.5 kN,
if f=0.11 → F=68.2 kN.
Fsz
So, one-one fastening is: 2 =12,5 kN forcibly pushing down the rail foot for
sleeper. If this force smaller than this value, the rail can move longitudinal above
the sleeper.
The pressure from rail foot to sleeper:
𝛽∙𝐹𝑧
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑑∙𝑠
(7.6.)
The lateral direction forces are transferred from rail to fastenings, and to
sleepers. Majority of these lateral direction forces are balancing by railway track,
because the track behaves horizontal frame structure against these forces
(girths: rails, columns: sleepers). This frame structure works appropriate, if there
is no swivel in the girth-column junction, therefore the structure is rigid frame.
The rigid frame in railway track means that the anchor force unto the fastenings
is explicate to anti-rotation moment. If the rail-sleeper junctions are changed, it
changes the rails perpendicular positions, then the track is deformed. This lateral
direction deforming can be seen in Fig. 7.3 [Gajári, 1983].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 218
Dr. Bernhard Lichtberger wrote the following in his book [Lichtberger, 2005].
The rail fastenings must permanently hold down the rail firmly, ensuring at
the same time resilience of the track in the upward direction, and good lateral
stability. The elastic downward pressure is essential for the smooth control of the
rail’s upward movement and high creep resistance. A rigid rail fastening does
not meet these requirements. Even minor temporary deformations of the base
reduce the firmness of rail restrain. A permanent deformation of the base
completely eliminates the holding down force and, thus, also the creep
resistance. Furthermore, the spike or screw support is gradually loosened and
pressed aside by impacts exerted on the fastening by the sagging and tilting
movements of the rail. Therefore, such rigid rail fastenings with spikes or coach
screws are not suitable for use with long welded tracks.
In an elastic rail fastening the screws are tightened so that an initial tension is
developed via the elastic clip or the spring washers. As shown in Fig. 7.6, this
initial tension maintains the influence of the force on the fastening, even if the
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 221
spring is pressed in farther due to the wheel load. The result is a fastening which
is permanently effective under the influence of different forces. The force takes a
pulsating course fluctuating around the value of the initial tension. The holding
down force significantly influences the creep resistance between rail and sleeper.
Therefore, it is of particular importance to guarantee a minimum holding down
force by choosing an appropriate rail fastening [Lichtberger, 2005].
Fig. 7.6: Differences between rigid and elastic fastenings [Lichtberger, 2005]
At direct fastenings entail that the rail and, if necessary, the baseplate are
fixed to the sleeper using the same fasteners. Direct fastenings also include the
fastening of track on structures without ballast bed and sleepers [Esveld, 2001].
In this type rail spikes, spring spikes or screws to fastening are applied. The
rail foot is immediately fixed to the sleeper between with or without baseplate
[Szamos, 1991].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 222
Rail spikes
A rail spike (also known as a cut spike or crampon) is a large nail with an
offset head that is used to secure rails and base plates to railroad ties in the track.
A rail spike is roughly chisel-shaped and with a flat gives greater resistance to
loosening. The main function is edged point; the spike is driven with the edge
perpendicular to the grain, which to keep the rail in gauge. When attaching tie
plates the attachment is made as strong as possible, whereas when attaching a
rail to tie or tie plate the spike is not normally required to provide a strong
vertical force, allowing the rail some freedom of movement. Originally spikes
were driven into wooden sleepers by hammering them with a heavy hammer by
hand. Splitting of the wood can be limited by pre-boring spike holes or adding
steel bands around the wood [Major, 2014].
Screw spikes
Screw spikes are tapered screws with V-threads. Their head is circular with a
square projection and are used to fasten rails with wooden sleepers. The holding
power of these spikes is more than double to that of dog spikes and can resist the
lateral thrust better than the dog spikes [Major, 2014].
Spring spikes
Spring spikes, (or elastic rail spikes]) are used with flat-bottomed rail,
baseplates and wooden sleepers; the spring spike holds the rail down and
prevents tipping, and also secures the baseplate to the sleeper. The Macbeth
spike (trade name) is a two-pronged U-shaped-like spike bent so that it appears
M-shaped when viewed from the side. Inverted J-shaped single pointed spikes
have also been used [Major, 2014].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 223
Fig. 7.7: Direct fastening with rail spikes in baseplate formation [Gajári, 1983]
Nowadays, direct fastenings are used in by-line/side tracks, station tracks and
factory siding tracks by MÁV.
The Fig. 7.8 shows the MÁV timber sleeper fastening for side track, and the
Fig. 7.10 shows the MÁV fastening to concrete sleeper. In figures baseplates
can be seen, which is ensure the 1:20 rail inclination [Gajári, 1983].
The parts and features of MÁV side tracks (secondary line) fastening:
wedge, ribbed baseplate,
conical shoulders rail screw,
baseplate which ensure the rail canting,
in case of timber sleeper: two rail screws inboard, and one in besides.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 224
Fig. 7.8: The MÁV side-track fastenings for wooden sleeper [Gajári, 1983]
Direct system, MÁV side-track rail screw fastening is concrete sleeper with
two wood inserts: the wedge-ribbed baseplate is rests in sleeper, and it rests the
rail above. The conical shoulders H-type rail screws (Fig. 7.9) are tied down to
the sleeper, which are screwed into the wooden inserts.
Fig. 7.9: The conical shoulders H-type rail screw [Gajári, 1983]
In the concrete sleeper base plate there are only two holes diagonally,
because the truncated wooden inserts (Fig. 7.10) are designed so, that accept rail
screws. The disadvantage of these wooden inserts that they wear out below
15…20 years. Long ago, the exchange of wooden inserts was very difficult,
because inserts can be screwed out from concrete sleeper from up to down, and
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 225
built-in is from down to top, that requires removing of the sleeper from the track.
Nowadays the change is feasible from above [Gajári, 1983].
Fig. 7.10: MÁV side-track fastening for concrete sleeper [Gajári, 1983]
The GEO fastenings (Fig. 7.11) ensure high clamping force and rotation
resistance. Its disadvantage is the rigid behaviour, the screws need frequent
tighten and the washers breakage.
Fig. 7.11: MÁV mainline rail fastening (GEO) to timber sleeper with baseplate
[Gajári, 1983]
In case of MÁV mainline (GEO) rail fastening to timber sleeper there are
four V type flat shoulder rail screws, which fasten the great size ribbed baseplate
to the sleeper. The parts of these fastenings are shown in Fig. 7.12.
1 – fastening/screw nut
2 – washer
3 – GEO clamp plate
4 – GEO locking screw
5 – ribbed baseplate
6 – flat shoulder rail screw
Fig. 7.14 shows the MÁV mainline fastener (GEO) to concrete sleeper
[Gajári, 1983].
Fig. 7.14: MÁV mainline fastener (GEO) to concrete sleeper [Gajári, 1983]
Spring spikes, or elastic rail spikes (Fig. 7.15) are used with flat-bottomed
rail, baseplates and wooden sleepers, the spring spike holds the rail down and
prevents tipping, and also secures the baseplate to the sleeper. The Macbeth
spike (Fig. 7.16) is a two-pronged U-shaped-like spike bent so that it appears
M-shaped when viewed from the side. Inverted J-shaped single pointed spikes
have also been used [Major, 2014].
Today, elastic direct fastenings are preferred for all types of track
[Major, 2014]:
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 229
Skl-2 rail fastening can be seen in Fig. 7.20. This fastening compilation of
the GEO screw, the clamping element and the washer exchange can be easily
solved. The tightening moment is 200-250 Nm for the assembly. The Skl-2
fastening ensures the flexibility opposite to longitudinal movement
[Horvát, 2015].
Fig. 7.26: The principle layout of clamping force test [Major, 2014]
To determine the static vertical load of the complete fastening the test
assembly, supported horizontally, is loaded by a vertical force of 80±1 kN with a
rate of 50±5 kN/min. After one minute the load is removed. The
loading/unloading cycle is repeated two times. During the third cycle the vertical
displacements are measured at the four corners of the rail. From this, the average
maximum displacement “d” [mm] of the rail is calculated. Finally, the vertical
stiffness “k” is determined as the quotient of the load interval between 5 kN and
80 kN and the corresponding mean vertical displacement “d” [mm]. The unit of
“k” is MN/m (=kN/mm) [Major, 2014; Horvát, 2013].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 238
The principle layout of skew static test can be seen in Fig. 7.27. The
recurring force, which has a constant amplitude is working in granted action line
trough in attack point. The loading force is transferred as prescribed
[Horvát, 2013].
1 – Concrete block
2 – 54 E1 type rail
3 – Fastening with rail pad
4 – Loading equipment
5 – Free pivot point (fulcrum)
6 – Hard bearing layer
8 – Force Pvertical /cos
Fig. 7.27: The principle layout of skew static test [Horvát, 2013]
1 – Rail
2 – Fastening with rail pad
3 – Force-displacement measure
4 – Sleeper or concrete block
5 – Rigid fastening
1 – Sleeper
2 – Fastening with rail pad
3 – Rail
4 – Rotation meas. instrument
Fig. 7.30: The layout of determination of rail fastening resistance for rotation
[Horvát, 2013]
The laboratory test to assess the effect of repeated loading is the means of
assessing the potential long-term performance of the fastening in the track. The
cyclic repeated loading (Fig. 7.31) is meant as a simulation of the repeated
loading of passing trains. The test assembly, consisting of a short length of rail,
fastening system and one (half) sleeper, was fixed in the test rig. The bottom
plane of the sleeper acted as reference plane for the force directions
[Major, 2014; Horvát, 2013].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 241
1 – Sleeper
2 – 60 E1 type rail
3 – Fastening with rail pad
4 – Loading equipment
5 – Free pivot point (fulcrum)
6 – Hard bearing layer
8 – Force Pvertical/cos
Fig. 7.31: The principle layout of cyclic loading test [Horvát, 2013]
To create two forces simultaneously with one hydraulic actuator, the test
specimen is tilted over a certain angle a by inserting a stiff wedge between
sleeper and the supporting structure. In this way two force components are
present, one parallel and the other perpendicular to the bottom plane of the
sleeper. A servo-hydraulic actuator applies the constant amplitude cyclic force.
The actuator load is introduced on the machined railhead by means of a load
application head provided with a concave surface to concentrate the load on the
right reference point. The other side of the actuator is connected to a hinge to
enable the free movement of the railhead. The displacement measurements
points in the rail and the loading-time graphs can be seen in Fig. 7.32
[Major, 2014; Horvát, 2013].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 242
These investigations are accomplished before and after the cycling loading
tests.
The rate of changes will not exceed the following values:
changes in clamping force longitudinal component 20%,
changes in vertical stiffness 25%,
changes in clamping force 20%.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 243
8. RAILWAY BALLAST
Fig. 8.1 presents a railway line with new condition railway ballast bed,
whereas Figures 8.2-8.4 show ballast bed materials in „run down” condition.
21
Sandy gravel is less adequate for railway ballast material, because it consists of worn surfaced,
rounded particles. They provide low inner resistance of the aggregate. Dynamic effect can easily
loosen sandy gravel ballast under the sleepers, it quickly causes settlements in the track geometry
due to a few through-rolled axles. Sandy gravel ballast bed has low longitudinal and cross-
directional ballast resistance, it causes direction and longitudinal track geometry faults,
movements.
22
Some of foreign railway companies uses slag for construction railway ballast in the non-primary
railway tracks. In case of slag is free from Martin-slag, is adequate for ballast of tracks mentioned
above.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 244
Fig. 8.1: Railway track with new condition railway ballast bed [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 8.2: Railway track with „run down” condition railway ballast bed 1.
[Horvát, 2015]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 245
Fig. 8.3: Railway track with „run down” condition railway ballast bed 2.
[Szabolcs Fischer’ photo]
Fig. 8.4: Railway track with „run down” condition railway ballast bed 3.
[Ágnes Nagy’s photo]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 246
„(1) In railway tracks between stations and passing tracks as CWR tracks can
be constructed R=3,000 m and above like in straight sections.” [MÁV, 2009]
23
Effective ballast bed thickness has to be measured in the cross-section of railway track. It is the
vertical dimension related to ballast bed on the specified side (generally in straight sections on the
outer side according to the direction of the connected curve) in the axis of the rail, between the
sleeper’s bottom surface and protection layer top surface (or in case there isn’t protection layer,
between the sleeper’s bottom surface and earthwork top surface).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 248
„In case of R≤600 m curved tracks at railway station with speed up to 40 km/h,
which are short (up to 50 m) length, it isn’t required to build more than 45-cm-
width ballast shoulder if there are “reversing” shoulders on both side filled up
until sleepers’ top level.
(2) In CWR tracks between stations the applicable horizontal radius values of
curves without any addition actions besides written in (1) are as bellows:
in case of 48-type-rails R≥400 m,
in case of 54-type-rail R≥500 m,
in case of 60-type-rail R≥600 m.
(3) In CWR tracks constructed with concrete sleepers the horizontal radius
values of curves can be lower than written in (2)
in case of using of sleeper anchors (safety caps),
in case of application bonded ballast (glued ballast),
in case of using any planned method that ensures adequate shoring.”
[MÁV, 2009]
The inclination of ballast bed side slope is generally 6/4 [MÁV, 1988].
In the aspect of the compactness of railway ballast the following main points
can be sentenced:
it is important because of load transmission and stability of track,
it can be developed by compaction (e.g. tamping),
irregular compactness irregular bearing irregular stresses
irregular settlement,
dynamic effects and vibrations reduce compactness of ballast bed.
Requirements specified in Chapter 8.1 the railway ballast can achieve only in
the case if it is well-compacted. Compaction is made by platform vibrator, vibro
roller, special railway ballast compactor or dynamic track stabiliser.
Railway track “flows” in the ballast bed, i.e. it can moves both in horizontal
and in vertical plane. Railway ballast puts up elastic-viscous resistance against
these movings. The elastic part is provided by “stone truss” of railway ballast,
whereas the quasi-viscous is provided by inner forces between ballast particles.
Inner forces are partly from friction between particles, partly from interlocking
effect of them. The much compacted the ballast, the higher the resistance of
inner forces as well as “stone truss”, it is the very essential condition of “smooth
lay” and stability of the track.
In the aspect of vertical forces it is very important that there are compact
ballast beams under sleepers, and even it is required that there are the same
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 250
compactness of railway ballast beams under all the sleepers, and in case of one
sleeper, the same compactness ballast beams under both rails, as well as all the
sleepers have to uniformly lay on these beams. Unequal compactness causes
quick raising of unequal settlements that results untimely railway track geometry
torsions (cycle of railway track maintenance works is reduced).
The half of plastic deformation of the track (geometry) takes place due to the
first through-rolling axle after MDZ work. Because of the effect of many
through-rolled axles the longitudinal level (settlement) is approximately as
before tamping, i.e. the track „remembers” its geometry before tamping
(Fig. 8.7-8.8) (substructure faults can also cause it).
where
„eN”: plastic settlement after “N” pieces through-rolled axles,
„e1”: plastic settlement after the first through-rolled axle,
„N”: number of through-rolled axle.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 251
Fig. 8.7: Effect of ballast memory after MDZ work [Selig and Waters, 1994]
24
Among the modern tamping machines there are special types that contain DTS too, e.g. Plasser
09-4X Stopfexpress.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 252
Longitudinal resistance of railway ballast: counter force per track metre against
longitudinal move of sleepers in ballast bed. Its value influences move of rail
ends in breathing section or move of rail ends at rail/rail welt breakage. High
clamping force of railway fastening is very important to exploit this ballast
resistance.
Fig. 8.10: Major source of ballast fouling [Selig and Waters, 1994]
frost effect,
tamping damage,
traffic damage (repeated load, vibration, hydraulic action of
slurry),
infiltration from ballast surface, combination of materials,
materials delivered with ballast,
materials dropped from the train,
materials from wind blow,
infiltration from underlying layers,
old track bed breakdown,
subballast particle migration from inadequate gradation,
subgrade infiltration.
Target standards for special product groups are introduced in the European
harmonised regulation system. EN 13450:2002 standard “Aggregates for railway
is one of them, which was introduced in Hungary in 2003 [CEN, 2003], it was
modified in 2009 and 2013. Version of 2013 of standard [CEN, 2013a] was
withdrawn on May 1, 2014, now the version 2003 is valid [www.mszt.hu].
MÁV made translation for inner use, which is applied in the qualification
practise in that form.
The CEN (2003) standard gives prescription and limit values for railway
ballast, as well as required laboratory tests:
geometrical requirements,
railway ballast size,
grading (particle size distribution),
fines,
fine particles,
particle shape,
flakiness index,
shape index,
particle length,
physical requirements,
resistance to fragmentation,
resistance to wear,
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 256
durability,
freeze/thaw resistance,
magnesium-sulphate soundness test,
particle density,
water absorption,
petrographic type,
harmful components,
origin determination.
8.4.2.3. Fines
25
Fines content is the particle mass percentage of smaller than 0.063 mm fraction in
railway ballast.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 258
Table 8.6: Categories for maximum values of flakiness index [CEN, 2003]
Flakiness index Category
≤15 FIRB 15
≤20 FIRB 20
≤25 FIRB 25
4-25 FIRB 4/25
>25 FIRB declared
no requirement FIRB NR
26
Fine particles content is the particle mass percentage of smaller than 0.5 mm fraction
in railway ballast.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 259
Table 8.7: Categories for maximum values of shape index [CEN, 2003]
Shape index Category
≤10 SIRB 10
≤20 SIRB 20
≤30 SIRB 30
5-30 SIRB 5/30
>30 SIRB declared
no requirement SIRB NR
≤ 12 LARB 12
≤ 14 LARB 14
≤ 16 LARB 16
≤ 20 LARB 20
≤ 24 LARB 24
> 24 LARB declared
no requirement LARB NR
Table 8.10: Categories for maximum values of resistance to wear [CEN, 2003]
Micro-Deval
Category
coefficient
≤5 MDERB 5
≤7 MDERB 7
≤11 MDERB 11
≤15 MDERB 15
>15 MDERB declared
no requirement MDERB NR
There is limited experience of the use of either of these tests for assessing the
durability of railway ballast. Advice on the applicability of the test methods and
of using water absorption as a screening test is given in annex H in CEN (2003)
standard.
The smallest size is 31.5 mm. The required limit curves are shown in
Table 8.12.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 263
The prescribed quantity of railway ballast for the test is min. 50 kg, in case of
homogenous ballast, the sample is taken from one sleeper cassette.
The bases of the qualification are the Los Angeles and Micro-Deval
coefficients (Table 8.13).
𝑚
𝐴𝐼𝑉 = ∙ 100 [%] (8.2.)
𝑀
where
„m”: mass passing on 2 mm sieve,
„M”: initial mass put into the cylinder.
The higher the AIV value, the lower the resistance of the specimen to impact.
The AIV test is correlated with Los Angeles test via a logarithmic relation, as
shown in Figure 8.11.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 265
𝐴
𝐵𝐵𝐼 = (8.3.)
𝐴+𝐵
The breakage test methods of crushed stone materials with grain size lower
than 2.0 mm (Fig. 8.13):
Marsal-breakage (Bg),
Hardin-breakage,
Lee és Farhoomand breakage.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 267
Fig. 8.13: Breakage test methods of crushed stone material with grain size lower
than 2.0 mm [Indraratna, et al., 2011]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 268
side of the curve (Figures 8.16-8.18). Glued ballast beams should built from the
centres of transition curves, alongside the circular curve in the outer side of the
curve. In case of there isn’t transition curve, bonded ballast beam has to be
started on the 15th sleepers before the start of the circular curve point, and has to
be ended on the 15th sleeper after the end of the circular curve point.
Fig. 8.16: Glued ballast beam in the outer side of the curve 1. [Szabó, 2011]
Fig. 8.17: Glued ballast beam in the outer side of the curve 2. [Szabó, 2011]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 271
Fig. 8.18: Glued ballast beam in the outer side of the curve 3. [Szabó, 2011]
In case of CWR track with concrete sleepers the dimensions of glued ballast
beam on the ballast shoulder of small radius curves are presented in Table 8.16.
Data are related to standard width of ballast shoulder. In case of standard width
of ballast shoulder can’t be provided, depth (thickness) of beam has to be
increased the value ballast shoulder is decreased.
One of research results of Dr. József Szabó PhD [Szabó, 2011] is shown in
Fig. 8.19 related to bonded ballast.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 272
Displacement (mm)
The system of Y steel sleeper (Y-650, Y-600, Y-550) doesn’t influence the
critical curve radius. In case of R<500 m curve radius ballast shoulder with
width of 45 cm in the inner side, and width of 50 cm in the outer side should be
applied.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 273
In the ballast bedded railway superstructure there are generally three different
structural elements to reduce stress of railway ballast bed (Fig. 8.20):
elastic rail pad,
elastic sleeper pad,
elastic under ballast mat.
These kind of elastic elements have damping effects resulted in Fig. 8.21. It
can be stated that in case of every elastic layer there is a frequency range
(approx. 0…30…50…60 Hz), where no damping can be reached, even the effect
is negative. It has to be considered at the planning.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 274
The function of rail pads is to transfer the rail load to the sleeper while
filtering out the high frequency force components. Modern rail pads vary
considerably in appearance (Fig. 8.22) and their material properties.
Based on Fig. 8.23 it can be stated that the force-compression diagram isn’t
linear. Static spring constant (kstat) and static bedding modulus (cstat) can be
calculated using of following formulas:
∆𝐹 𝑘𝑁
𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = [𝑚𝑚] (8.4.)
∆𝑠
𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 𝑁
𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎∙𝑏
[𝑚𝑚3 ] (8.5.)
where
„F”: the difference of force values (min. and max.) on the quasi-linear
section (generally 10 kN and 60 kN),
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 277
„s”: the difference of compression values (min. and max.) on the quasi-
linear section,
„a” and „b”: dimensions of side-edges of the specimen (in case of
rectangular specimen).
Fig. 8.24 illustrates static and dynamic bedding moduli of Getzner Sylodyn
DN 325 type elastomer. It can be stated that the elasticity is strongly frequency
dependent:
static bedding modulus is much higher than the dynamic bedding
modulus,
the higher the frequency the higher the spring constant of the elastomer
– this is so called dynamical hardening.
Fig. 8.24: Static and dynamic bedding moduli of Getzner Sylodyn DN 325 type
elastomer [Horvát, 2015]
It can be stated that the tested elastomer ages much less, because the
difference between measured data is low.
Fig. 8.28: Static vertical loading of CDM-43 type recycling rubber in case of
different thicknesses [Horvát, 2015]
Based on Fig. 8.28 it can be stated that the higher the thickness the higher the
deflection (compression) at the same load than in case of smaller material
thickness, i.e. its static bedding modulus is smaller.
Based Fig. 8.29 it can be stated that the higher the thickness the lower the
dynamic stiffness, and the lower the static stiffness too.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 281
In case of installation of elastic under sleeper pad (Fig. 8.30) the ballast bed
can be spared, because ballast particles can penetrate into the under sleeper pad,
it results lower stresses. It ensures better lay and stability of track. The quantity
of MDZ works can be significantly lowered. It can be used in tracks with high-
speed, high axle loads and renewed sections too. Under sleeper pad is installed
onto the sleepers’ bottom surface before delivering to the construction (building)
site.
Fig. 8.30: Under sleeper pad on the bottom surface of the sleeper
[Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 8.31: Concrete sleepers with under sleeper pad 1. [Horvát, 2015]
Fig. 8.32: Concrete sleepers with under sleeper pad 2. [Horvát, 2015]
Under sleeper pad increases the dimension of contact surface between the
sleeper and ballast bed due to penetration property. In this way the contact
surface can be increased from the normal 3-9% to 30-35% (Fig. 8.33)
[Veit, 2013; Sárik, 2014].
Fig. 8.33: The contact surface increasing effect of under sleeper pad between
sleeper and ballast bed [Horvát, 2015]
Load distribution with and without under sleeper pad are illustrated in
Fig. 8.34. Based on the Fig. 8.34 it can be stated that in case of application
under sleeper pad the loaded surface is higher than in case of wihout under
sleeper pad, in this way the stress of ballast bed and substructure are lowered. It
results longer lifetime and longer cycle of MDZ works.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 284
Fig. 8.34: Load distribution in case of tracks with and without under sleeper
pads [www.getzner.com]
The effect of USP (under sleeper pad) to the quality of railway track
geometry is shown in Fig. 8.35.
Based on Fig. 8.35 it can be stated that the improvement of railway track
geometry is achieved by tamping in every case. Every section had to be
maintained (with geometry correction) in the investigated time period, but the
high-loaded section with R=425 m curve radius with concrete sleepers and USPs
wasn’t needed to be tamped because the quality of the track geometry was good
in every time in the investigated period [Sárik, 2014].
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 285
Fig. 8.36 presents the track geometry quality number of a track with USP and
an other without it. It can be stated that MDZ time-cycle can be lengthened more
than 2.5 times with application of USP.
Fig. 8.37: Measured graph made by EM250 track geometry recording car, and
the variation of longitudinal level on railway track with and without USP
[Veit, 2013]
With using of under ballast mats the elasticity of the railway track is
increased. In case of application UBM (under ballast mat) reduction of
secondary noise, vibration protection, and protection of ballast material can be
achieved.
The top layer of Getzner mat is a geotextile with high elongation and tensile
strength. This mat layer is deformed by the weight of the ballast. Ballast
particles are bedded into the mat, as well as stabilised on the increased loading
surface (Fig. 8.45).
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 290
Fig. 8.49: Vibration damping effect of Phoenix U 33-01 type UBM in case of
35 cm ballast bed thickness [Horvát, 2015]
Ground pressure values are presented in Fig. 8.59 in case of normal railway
ballast, and two different types of DURFLEX ® ballast (with and without
UBM). It can be seen that near the sleeper axis the lowest values are related to
DURFLEX ® system with UBM, and the highest value is related to normal
ballast superstructure.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 298
9. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
The case of building a new substructure is always, when a brand new railway
line is constructed. In other cases, when an old substructure’s renewal method is
discussed, there are two options. The first option, when after the wrecking of the
superstructure, the substructure is reinforced by earthwork machines or other
technology. The second option is to use a substructure renewal machine chain
that can move on the railway.
The quality of the renewal works must be corrected, because the railway like
other structures can work permanently if the base is adequate.
The protection layers are always constructed after the crown of the
substructure is perfect. The construction of these layers depends on the
properties of the materials. These can be built in by a cleaner machine chain
(geosynthetics, SZK layer, polystyrene slab) or after wrecking of the whole
superstructure (stabilizations, asphalt layer).
Fig. 9.1: The necessary points that should be aligned and the determinable
parameters at embankment [MÁV, 2014]
Fig. 9.2: The necessary points that should be aligned and the determinable
parameters at cut [MÁV, 2014]
Fig. 9.3: An excavator and a roller, at the bottom an aligned point with yellow
marking [Zsákai, 2013]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 303
In the case of longer railway sections or sections between stations, the fastest
and the most modern technology is the application of machine chains
(Figures 9.5-9.7). Of course, it depends on the length of the selected section,
because of the high machine costs. Always the best solution has to be used that
is cost effective.
The machine is a multifunctional substructure renewal machine chain. The
most modern type of this machine is the approx. 1 km long PM 1000 URM. The
movement and the operation depend on the aligned and prestressed leader wire
that “shows” the way of the works.
Fig. 9.6: Feeding, spreading and compacting of the new material of the
substructure [www.plassertheurer.com]
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 305
Fig. 9.7: The processes of the machine chain [Horvát and Fischer, 2015]
Machines:
hand tools,
simple elevators,
rail and road transport vehicles.
Ending works:
Reconditioning the environment, transporting the waste materials.
Calibration of the track, at all sleepers one by one (gauge, track level) by
track calibration tool (Fig. 9.9) and taking the data to the calibration
report.
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 308
Fig. 9.9: Track calibration tool for measuring gauge, track level and leading
distance [Horvát, 2015c]
The used machines are the portal cranes and the track field transporters.
(Fig. 9.10). These are able to transport the track fields from the workplace to the
yard, where the assembly and the disassembly works happen. It gives larger
performance during the construction time. There are continuously assistant rails
on both sides, because the portal cranes move on this assistant track.
Tasks:
Assembly of the track fields (ready for building in) and putting on the
transport vehicle.
Taking off the wrecked and transported track fields from the transport
vehicle, disassembly of the track fields.
Storing.
Optional: renewing the used materials of the old superstructure
(sleepers, rails, fastenings).
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Fig. 9.10: Portal crane during work [Horvát and Fischer, 2015]
Work sessions:
Assembling:
Distribution of the sleepers, directing them.
Putting on the plates, bonding by pattern.
Putting on the rails to the plates, make the fastenings.
Depose the ready track field.
Making a report from all track fields. Measuring above the sleepers, one
after the other.
The wrecking means a reverse bonding. After the disassembly, the used
materials will be deposed.
While the material transport processes are made by the portal cranes, the
different assembly and disassembly works are made by hand tools.
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The leading machines are two rigid cranes (laying and wrecking roles) that
can move on the railway. The assistant rail track (from the portal crane
technology) isn’t needed. The transport of the track fields are executed by the
transport trains that are connected to the leading machines. The field tracks are
moved by pulling down (Figures 9.11-9.13).
Fig. 9.12: Laying of the track field by Platov crane [Balázs Eller’s photo]
Advantages:
Assistant rail track isn’t needed.
On the next day, the empty transport train can be used as wrecking train.
Relatively large transport capacity (four fields on a train).
The capacity of the transport train can be set to the daily plan.
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Disadvantages:
Efficient in the case of Rmin≥900 m, at 300 m<R<900 m there are large
tangent deflection that means larger specific time cost.
It needs serving human resources.
The greatest advantage of the one part construction technology is its huge
performance, because the whole change of the superstructure is made in one
time. All works are made by one machine chain, so the work can be faster and
better quality also. Because of the less time, the specific time cost is less also
that means less closed track time. The development of the machine chains is
continuous, so more types of vehicles are presented.
Original processes:
Cutting the welded rails into 120 m long pieces, connecting the end of
the rails by temporary solution.
Sieving and cleaning of the ballast, setting the right rail crown level.
Pulling down new long rails into the axle of the railway track and
welding into 360-600 m long pieces. After that, taking them out to the
ballast shoulder.
Setting out the leading wire to the aligned points.
Changing the superstructure in one time, at one method.
Taking the old rails into the axle of the railway track, taking up by long
rail transport train.
Supplement of the ballast, spreading, setting the right level of the rail
crown, creating the profile of the ballast, compaction.
Welding the rail connections.
Setting the permanent rail crown level, creating the permanent ballast
profile, compaction.
Stabilizing the track by stabilization machine.
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The developer and the manufacturer of the technology is the Plasser &
Theurer Company (Austria).
The machine continuously wrecks the old track, makes the ballast even, and
lays the new sleepers in this succession. This time, the new rails are waiting on
the shoulder of the ballast. The taking in method to the new sleepers happens
behind the leader machine. The extraordinary property of the SMD-system is the
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chain wheel that is used to move the whole machine chain at the time of the
construction.
The new and the used sleepers’ transport there are on original transport
trains. These transport trains have lateral rails, because a portal crane has to
move back and forth. The portal crane has necessary transporting task, it brings
the new sleepers to the workplace, and takes the old ones away to the empty
spaces. During the construction work, the transport train is driven by the
machine chain, so other pulling train isn’t needed.
Fig. 9.14: The units of the SMD 80 machine chain [Zsákai, 2013]
Process:
1. The old fastenings are removed before the construction works.
Because of the safety, the fastenings are stayed on every 10th or
20th sleepers. These will be removed after the start of the renewal
works. The new rails are transported out to the work place.
2. The machine is getting up for the start of the construction works.
The rails are cut in this time, four pieces of sleepers are push
forward.
3. With the help of the articulated support, the machine is lifting. The
old and the new rails are being thread into the rollers (upper and
downer roller lines).
4. Picking up the used sleepers, the transport tape takes them away to
the portal crane, the portal crane takes a pack of the sleepers to the
empty spaces of the transport trains.
5. Letting down the chain wheel driving-gear.
6. Lifting the machine.
7. The transport system brings the new sleepers to the laying unit. It
centralizes the sleepers to lay them to a determined distance between
each other. In curves, the laying is in radial direction so there is no
need supplementary works.
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8. Directing the old rails to the end of the sleepers, pulling the new
rails to the new sleepers by the controlling arms. Put temporary
fishplates to the rail connections.
9. At the end of the work, the assistant driving-gear holds the machine
until the rear articulated support is not able to load.
10. Placing the machine to the truck.
11. Behind the machine the human resources are placing the fastenings
and bonding them by bonding tools.
12. Setting the rail crown level, ballast supplement.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Fig. 9.16: The units of the SUZ 500 UVR machine chain [Zsákai, 2013]
5. Ballast dozer.
6. Lower ballast compacter.
7. New sleeper laying unit (Fig. 9.18).
8. Truck, used at transport.
Fig. 9.18: Picking up the used sleepers and laying down the new ones
[Zsákai, 2013]
Fig. 9.20: The SUM-Q machine chain during work 1. [Zsákai, 2013]
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Fig. 9.21: The SUM-Q machine chain during work 2. [Zsákai, 2013]
In the older times, the constructor engineers had some problems with the
construction or renewal methods of the switches. Mostly the built-up of the
switches are according to the original continuous superstructure (Fig. 9.22). It is
a system of rails-sleepers-fastenings also like the other lines, and the developing
of the methods is parallel to the developing of the rails and sleepers also.
[Kormos, 2007] While in the old times the assembling of the switch was at the
work’s location, after some technological steps, nowadays the assembling of the
switches happens in factory. The transport of the switches needs special
transport train, after that a heavy-duty crane builds it in. This technology can
earn the best gauge and driving distance, so the lifetime of the switch is growing
also.
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In the old times, when many new stations were built and developed, wrecking
works were not happened, but new switches were needed so much the more.
This time the new switch was assembled in the axle of the railway track or next
to the railway track and it was pulled in by crabs.
The assembled switch could be moved by many modes. The simplest was the
already mentioned construction by lever technology. However if the switch was
assmebled far away from the new place, the transport was not easy. At first the
switch was taken on planks and it was pulled by rollers. The other method, when
the switch was in the axle of the railway track and a traction-engine pulled it in.
There was a fortunate case, when the place of the assembling was higher than
the new place of the switch, so the pulling in was much easier. The works of the
levers can be removed by the pulling with rollers if the area was adequate for
that [Kormos, 2007].
During constructions, the railways and it’s environment have been suggested
soon, that there is demand on a huge machines that can move on the rails and
elevate heavy weighted materials. At first, these were the steam cranes, after that
the diesel-electrical cranes. These machines were sluggish. Because of the
moving on the railway track, they were capable to change or construct switches
(Fig. 9.23). The problem was that these don’t have enough carrying capacity, so
the cranes had to elevate the switches into the right places in three main pieces.
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Fig. 9.23: 12 tons carrying capacity Toldi railway crane [Kormos, 2007]
These works were made only on closed tracks. Before the closing, the old
switch had to be out bed and the new switch had to be assembled near the old
one. After that, the method was the following:
The wrecking method had 3 parts after the removal of the fishplates. The
welded switches were cut into 3 pieces. The wrecked main items were
taken out to free places.
Substructure/lower ballast layer creation and compaction.
Building the new main pieces of the switch. After that it was fixed by
fishplates. The direction of the construction was always reversing than
the wrecking method.
The crane moved out, creating the upper ballast, direction and rail crown
level setting by machine.
In the case of fishplated rail track, the weldings were always made after
1-3 week.
With this technology, the construction needed less human resources. Even so
these cranes were not typical railway machines, they could only move on the
continuous railway track.
The construction process in few pieces was a big step forward, but simpler
methods were necessary also. Further development possibilities were the
assembling in other place (factory or industrial area), or the construction in one
piece.
In the 1980’s, these possibilities were solved by the use of Geismar UWG
switch changing machine group (KICSE) (Fig. 9.24). The costumer was the
Hungarian Railways. The elevating and moving of the switch wasn’t solved by a
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 323
heavy weight carrying-crane, but the use of few small machine units together. In
this case, the machine units compose one machine chain.
Fig. 9.24: The work process of the KICSE machine chain [vasutepites.blog.hu]
This technology is perfect for changing one or two switches. If there are more
switches, the construction’s time consumption will be very long, so it won’t be
cost effective. However, the machine chain moves quickly, the creating of the
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION 324
assistant track needs more time. Moreover it needs accustomed operator team,
and the volume of the human resources is significantly high.
After that, the Kirow Company developed a new crane technology. They
created a crane that can move on the railway track, and it has heavy-carrying
capacity. The most important type of these cranes is the Kirow KRC 1200 UIC
(Fig. 9.25) that has the heaviest-carrying capacity. The nominal load capacity is
120 tons.
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As it can be seen, the properties of this crane are better than the previous
technologies. The processes of the constructions are less, and 4-6 workers are
enough for placing the fishplates. Moreover the crane can transport switch also.
The construction of one switch needs approx. 10-20 minutes, so the specific time
cost is less too.
REFERENCES
cdn5.howtogeek.com
CEN (2010a). MSZ EN 1097-2: Tests for mechanical and physical properties of
aggregates. Part 2: Methods for the determination of resistance to
fragmentation
CEN (2010b). MSZ EN 1367-2: Tests for thermal and weathering properties of
aggregates. Part 2: Magnesium sulfate test
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CEN (2012a). MSZ EN 1097-1: Tests for mechanical and physical properties of
aggregates. Part 1: Determination of the resistance to wear (micro-Deval)
commons.wikimedia.org
HORVÁT, F., FISCHER, SZ. (2015). Vasutak III. (Railways III.), Széchenyi
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