A mini project

On

“ CASE STUDY ON 33/11KV TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION”

carried out at ELURU SUBSTATION

(worls at during 06-05-2012 to 20-05-2012 )

under the Guidance of

H.MALLESH

A.A.E (APTRANSCO)

By

L.D. Pavan Kumar (09ME1A0232)

RAMACHANDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VATLURU(V),ELURU,West Godavari district.
ACKOWLEDGEMENT

The most important Acknowledgement of gratitude we wish to express is to our

mentor and guide Sri.H.Mallesh,A.A.E.eluru. it has been a greatly enriching

experience to us to work under his caring guidance.

I also express my gratitude and sincere thanks to S.Naya Lakshmi Madam our

HOD for her constant encouragement and moral support.

 INDEX
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1. Basics of Electrical power

1.2.Electrica Power system and its Components

2.ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION

3.HISTORY

3.1.Bulk Power Transmission

4.ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

4.1.Elements of a substation

4.2.Transmission Substation

4.3.Design

5. 33/11KV SUBSTATION

5.1.Power Transformer

5.2.Types of Transformers

5.3.Circuit Breaker

5.4.Types of Circuit Breaker

5.5.AB Switches

5.6.Earthning Switches

5.7.Lightning Arrester

5.8.Busbars

5.9.Current Transformers

5.10.Protective Relays

CONCULSION
 1. INTRODUCTION
An electric power system is a network of electrical components used
to supply, transmit and use electric power. An example of an electric power system is the
network that supplies a region's homes and industry with power - for sizable regions, this power
system is known as the grid and can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power,
the transmission system that carries the power from the generating centres to the load centres and
the distribution system that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries. Smaller power
systems are also found in industry, hospitals, commercial buildings and homes. The majority of
these systems rely upon three-phase AC power - the standard for large-scale power transmission
and distribution across the modern world. Specialised power systems that do not always rely
upon three-phase AC power are found in aircraft, electric rail systems, ocean liners and
automobiles.

1.1.Basics of electric power:

Electric power is the mathematical product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two
quantities can vary with respect to time (AC power) or can be kept at constant levels (DC
power).
Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas
most computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug into the mains
typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC
power has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and is able to be generated
and utilised by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital
systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages
(seeHVDC).
The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly,
power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power
systems where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the voltage
of power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load.
Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would
be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch
between voltages can be easily managed.
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to
transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC
and DC power. Nevertheless devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive
than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.
1.2.Electric Power Systems and its components
Electric Power Systems, components that transform other types of energy into electrical energy
and transmit this energy to a consumer. The production and transmission of electricity is
relatively efficient and inexpensive, although unlike other forms of energy, electricity is not
easily stored and thus must generally be used as it is being produced.

Components of an Electric Power System

A modern electric power system consists of six main components:

1. The power station

2. A set of transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the
transmission lines
3. The transmission lines
4. The substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the
distribution lines
5. The distribution lines
6. the transformers that lower the distribution voltage to the level used by the
consumer's equipment.

Power Station:
The power station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as a turbine driven by
water, steam, or combustion gases that operate a system of electric motors and generators. Most
of the world's electric power is generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or
gas. A smaller percentage of the world’s electric power is generated by hydroelectric
(waterpower), diesel, and internal-combustion plants.

Transformers:
Modern electric power systems use transformers to convert electricity into different voltages.
With transformers, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. In a
typical system, the generators at the power station deliver a voltage of from 1,000 to 26,000 volts
(V). Transformers step this voltage up to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for the long-
distance primary transmission line because higher voltages can be transmitted more efficiently
over long distances. At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to levels of 69,000
to 138,000 V for further transfer on the distribution system. Another set of transformers step the
voltage down again to a distribution level such as 2,400 or 4,160 V or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts
(kV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the distribution transformer near the point
of use to 240 or 120 V.
Transmission Lines
The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper,
aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall latticework
towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers,
the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the transmission line thus reduced.
In modern installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as
few as six towers to the kilometer. In some areas high-voltage lines are suspended from tall
wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage distribution lines, wooden poles
are generally used rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a
safety hazard or are considered unattractive, insulated underground cables are used for
distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core through which oil circulates under low
pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from water damage to the enclosed wires should
the cable develop a leak. Pipe-type cables in which three cables are enclosed in a pipe filled with
oil under high pressure (14 kg per sq cm/200 psi) are frequently used. These cables are used for
transmission of current at voltages as high as 345,000 V (or 345 kV).

Supplementary Equipment
Any electric-distribution system involves a large amount of supplementary equipment to protect
the generators, transformers, and the transmission lines themselves. The system often includes
devices designed to regulate the voltage or other characteristics of power delivered to consumers.
To protect all elements of a power system from short circuits and overloads, and for normal
switching operations, circuit breakers are employed. These breakers are large switches that are
activated automatically in the event of a short circuit or other condition that produces a sudden
rise of current. Because a current forms across the terminals of the circuit breaker at the moment
when the current is interrupted, some large breakers (such as those used to protect a generator or
a section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid that is a poor conductor of
electricity, such as oil, to quench the current. In large air-type circuit breakers, as well as in oil
breakers, magnetic fields are used to break up the current. Small air-circuit breakers are used for
protection in shops, factories, and in modern home installations. In residential electric wiring,
fuses were once commonly employed for the same purpose. A fuse consists of a piece of alloy
with a low melting point, inserted in the circuit, which melts, breaking the circuit if the current
rises above a certain value. Most residences now use air-circuit breakers.
 2.ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from

generating power plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct
from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically
referred to as electric power distribution.

Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become transmission networks. In the
US, these are typically referred to as "power grids" or just "the grid." In the UK, the network is
known as the "National Grid". North America has three major grids, the Western
Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection and the Electric Reliability Council of
Texas (ERCOT) grid, often referred to as the Western System, the Eastern System and the Texas
System.

Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting
in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that
have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.

Most transmission lines use high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single
phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems. High-voltage direct-
current (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency in very long distances (typically
hundreds of miles (kilometres), or in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles
(50 km). HVDC links are also used to stabilize against control problems in large power
distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a network can
otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long-
distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground
power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is
sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.
A key limitation in the distribution of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical
energy cannot be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control
system is required to ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand.

If the demand for power exceeds the supply, generation plants and transmission equipment can
shut down which, in the worst cases, can lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in
the US Northeast blackouts of1965, 1977, 2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011.
To reduce the risk of such failures, electric transmission networks are interconnected into
regional, national or continental wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternative
routes for power to flow should (weather or equipment) failures occur.

Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of
each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal limit) to ensure spare capacity is available
should there be any such failure in another part of the network.
 3.HISTORY
In the early days of commercial electric power, transmission of electric
power at the same voltage as used by lighting and mechanical loads restricted the distance
between generating plant and consumers. In 1882, generation was with direct current (DC),
which could not easily be increased in voltage for long-distance transmission. Different classes
of loads (for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different
voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.
Due to this specialization of lines and because transmission was inefficient for low-voltage high-
current circuits, generators needed to be near their loads. It seemed at the time, that the industry
would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of
small generators located near their loads.
In 1886, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, a 1 kV alternating current (AC) distribution system
was installed. That same year, AC power at 2 kV, transmitted 30 km, was installed at Cerchi,
Italy. At an AIEE meeting on May 16, 1888, Nikola Tesla delivered a lecture entitled A New
System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers, describing the equipment which
allowed efficient generation and use of polyphase alternating currents. The transformer, and
Tesla's polyphase and single-phase induction motors, were essential for a combined AC
distribution system for both lighting and machinery. Ownership of the rights to the Tesla patents
was a key advantage to the Westinghouse Company in offering a complete alternating current
power system for both lighting and power.
Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations, the universal
system used transformers to step-up voltage from generators to high-voltage transmission lines,
and then to step-down voltage to local distribution circuits or industrial customers. By a suitable
choice of utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served. Rotary converters and
later mercury-arc valves and other rectifier equipment allowed DC to be provided where needed.
Generating stations and loads using different frequencies could be interconnected using rotary
converters. By using common generating plants for every type of load, important economies of
scale were achieved, lower overall capital investment was required, load factor on each plant was
increased allowing for higher efficiency, a lower cost for the consumer and increased overall use
of electric power.
By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity
production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the
varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced,
since stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider
geographic area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine-
mouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.
The first transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891
during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 25 kV transmission line,
approximately 175 km long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt.
Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914,
fifty-five transmission systems each operating at more than 70 kV were in service. The highest
voltage then used was 150 kV.
The rapid industrialization in the 20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a
critical part of the infrastructure in most industrialized nations. Interconnection of local
generation plants and small distribution networks was greatly spurred by the requirements
of World War I, with large electrical generating plants built by governments to provide power to
munitions factories. Later these generating plants were connected to supply civil loads through
long-distance transmission.

3.1.Bulk power transmission:

Engineers design transmission networks to transport the energy as
efficiently as feasible, while at the same time taking into account economic factors, network
safety and redundancy. These networks use components such as power lines, cables, circuit
breakers, switches and transformers.

Efficiency is improved by increasing the transmission voltage using a step-up transformer, which
has the effect of reducing the current in the conductors, whilst keeping the power transmitted
nearly equal to the power input. The reduced current flowing through the conductor reduces the
losses in the conductor and since, according to Ohms Law, the losses are proportional to the
square of the current, halving the current results in a four-fold decrease in transmission losses.

A transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations. Energy
is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems suffer from the fact that
voltage conversion is expensive (and so are only used for special high voltage links) while single
phase AC links suffer from oscillations in the power transmitted (very bad for the smoothness of
motors and generators) and the inability to directly generate a rotating magnetic field. Other
phase orders of poly phase systems are possible but two phase (90 degree separation) still needs
either 3 wires with unequal currents or 4 wires and higher phase order systems need more than 3
wires for marginal benefits.
The capital cost of electric power stations is so high, and electric demand is so variable, that it is
often cheaper to import some portion of the variable load than to generate it locally. Because
nearby loads are often correlated (hot weather in the Southwest portion of the United States
might cause many people there to turn on their air conditioners), imported electricity must often
come from far away. Because of the economics of load balancing, transmission grids now span
across countries and even large portions of continents. The web of interconnections between
power producers and consumers ensures that power can flow even if one link is disabled.

Long-distance transmission of electricity is almost always more expensive than the

transportation of the fuels used to make that electricity. As a result, there is economic pressure to
locate fuel-burning power plants near the population centers that they serve. The obvious
exceptions are hydroelectric turbines -- high-pressure water-filled pipes being more expensive
than electric wires. The unvarying portion of the electric demand is known as the "base load",
and is generally served best by facilities with low variable costs but high fixed costs, like nuclear
or large coal-fired power plants.
 4.ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.

Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other
important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow
through several substations at different voltage levels.
Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large
industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are un-attended, relying on SCADA for
remote supervision and control.
A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission
voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission
voltages. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became
a grid. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to
distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their own
generators. The first substations were connected to only one power station, where the generators
were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

4.1.Elements of a substation:
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and
transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or
overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser
circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not
usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices
such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation.
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-
purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations
are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of
appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions.
Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from
high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause
aground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal
objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch
potential presents a hazard of electrocution.
4.2.Transmission substation:
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where
all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage
switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A
transmission station may have transformers to convert between two transmission
voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static
VAR compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow
between two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be
little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a
large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large
amount of protection and control equipment (voltage and
current transformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented
using international standards such as IEC Standard 61850.
4.3.Design:
The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A good design attempts to strike
a balance between these two, to achieve sufficient reliability without excessive cost. The design
should also allow expansion of the station, when required.

Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors. Sufficient land area is
required for installation of equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for
access to maintain large apparatus such as transformers. Where land is costly, such as in urban
areas, gas insulated switchgear may save money overall.

The site must have room for expansion due to load growth or planned transmission additions.
Environmental effects of the substation must be considered, such as drainage, noise and road
traffic effects. A grounding (earthing) system must be designed. The total ground potential rise,
and the gradients in potential during a fault (called "touch" and "step" potentials), must be
calculated to protect passers-by during a short-circuit in the transmission system.

The substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be served. The site must
be secure from intrusion by passers-by, both to protect people from injury by electric shock or
arcs, and to protect the electrical system from misoperation due to vandalism.

The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram which
shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the
incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many
electrical utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit
breakers, transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out
in the actual station.

In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a circuit breaker. In some
cases, the lines will not have both, with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is
considered necessary. A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt
load current. A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents
automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off, or to cut off a line when power is
flowing in the 'wrong' direction. When a large fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this
is detected through the use of current transformers. The magnitude of the current transformer
outputs may be used to trip the circuit breaker resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied
by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of
the system, and allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact. Both
switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the substation) or remotely from a
supervisory control center.
Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more buses.
These are sets of busbars, usually in multiples of three, since three-phase electrical power
distribution is largely universal around the world.

The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the cost and reliability of
the substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half"
setup can be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other
circuits, and so that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs.
Substations feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions,
especially for small installations.

Once having established buses for the various voltage levels, transformers may be connected
between the voltage levels. These will again have a circuit breaker, much like transmission lines,
in case a transformer has a fault (commonly called a "short circuit").

Along with this, a substation always has control circuitry needed to command the various circuit
breakers to open in case of the failure of some component.
 5. 33/11 KV SUB STATION

Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment,

and transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or
overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser
circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not
usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices
such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation

5.1.POWER TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its
winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary
winding.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used in power plant substations or to
interconnect portions of the power grid. All operate on the same basic principles, although the
range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in
some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in many electronic devices. Transformers
are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance
transmission economically practical.

History of power Transformer:

The History of transformer commenced in the year of 1880. In the year of 1950 400KV electrical
power transformer first introduced in high voltage electrical power system. In the early 1970s
unit rating as large as 1100MVA were produced and 800KV and even higher KV class
transformers were manufactured in year of 1980.

Use of Power Transformer

Generation of Electrical Power in low voltage level is very much cost effective. Hence Electrical
Power are generated in low voltage level. Theoretically, this low voltage leveled power can be
transmitted to the receiving end. But if the voltage level of a power is increased, the electric
current of the power is reduced which causes reduction in ohmic or I2R losses in the system,
reduction in cross sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital cost of the system and
it also improves the voltage regulation of the system. Because of these, low leveled power must
be stepped up for efficient electrical power transmission. This is done by step up transformer at
the sending side of the power system network.
 As this high voltage power may not be distributed to the consumers directly, this must be
stepped down to the desired level at the receiving end with help of step down transformer. These
are the use of electrical power transformer in the Electrical Power System.

Two winding transformers are generally used where ratio between High Voltage and Low
Voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use Auto transformer where the ratio between
High Voltage and Low Voltage is less than 2. Again Three Phase Single Unit Transformer is
more cost effective than a bank of three Single Phase Transformer unit in a three phase system.
But still it is preferable to use later where power dealing is very large since such large size of
Three Phase Single Unit Power Transformer may not be easily transported from manufacturer's
place to work site.

5.2.Types of Transformer

Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their purpose, use,
construction etc. The types of transformer are as follows,

• Step Up Transformer & Step Down Transformer - Generally used for stepping up and down
the voltage level of power in transmission and distribution power network.

• Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer - Former is generally used in three
phase power system as it is cost effective than later but when size matters it is preferable to use
bank of three Single Phase Transformer as it is easier to transport three single phase unit
separately than one single three phase unit.

• Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer & Instrument Transformer -

Transformer generally used in transmission network is normally known as Power Transformer,
distribution transformer is used in distribution network and this is lower rating transformer and
current transformer & potential transformer, we use for relay and protection purpose in electrical
power system and in different instruments in industries are called Instrument Transformer.

• Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer - Former is generally used where ratio
between High Voltage and Low Voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use later where
the ratio between High Voltage and Low Voltage is less than 2.

• Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer - Transformers designed for installing at

outdoor is Outdoor Transformer and Transformers designed for installing at indoor is Indoor
Transformer.Power transformer is used to step down the voltage from 33 kv voltage to 11kv
voltage . Generally 3.15 MVA, 5 MVA, 10 MVA 33/11kv, Δ / Y transformer are used in
33/11kv s/s.
Maintenance of Transformers

1. Check Oil level in main tank & OLTC tank.

2. Check the color of silica gel in breather ;it must be blue in color .if it is turned pink then
recondition it or replace it.
3. Check On load Tap Changer Lower/Raise trail by Local & Remote.
4. Trip trail by draining oil in Buchholz relay
5. Check Earth resistance ,provide watering arrangement for earthling pits.
6. Tight all connections.
7. Check breakdown voltage of oil.
8. Clean the bushings.
9. Attend the oil leakages
10. Note Temperature of Oil & leakage.

Transformer oil

It’s mineral oil obtained by refine crude petroleum. It serves the following purpose.
Provide additional insulation.
Carries away the heat generated in the core & coils.
Protects the paper from dirt & moisture.

Current Transformer

Current T/F is used for protection and metering purposes.

It steps down the current level of the line for following purposes.
1) Measurement : ammeter , kw meter , kwh meter , power factor meter
2) control and protection : current when exceeds the set value operates the relay which senses the
faulty condition .

Potential Transformer (P.T)

It steps down the voltage level of line for -

1) Measurement : voltmeter, frequency meter ,kw meter, kwh meter ,power factor meter
2) Control & protection : used in directional over current protection and under frequency relay
operation (48.8 Hz , df/dt relay)
5.3. CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Circuit Breaker can switch automatically during normal and abnormal conditions . during faulty
condition the fault is sensed by the relay and operates the circuit breaker to isolate the fault.
In 33kv substation generally vacuum circuit breaker are used where are quenching medium is
vacuum (or) circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a
fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike
a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

operation:
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially
depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually
done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually
arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism.
The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some
high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and
an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit;
some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained
within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be
obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated, larger
units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also
withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made
of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other highly conductive materials. Service life of
the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the
current. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have
worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.
When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and
extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the
voltage in the circuit.
Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms in.
Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:
Lengthening / deflection of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial
arcsZero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform,
effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the
line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 times per second for 60 Hz AC)
Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore
power to the interrupted circuit.

5.4.Types of circuit breakers:

Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as
voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

Low voltage circuit breakers:

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial
application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics
normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are
in this category.
MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-
magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or
switchgear cabinets.
The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as
IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and
interchange without dismantling the switchgear.
Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so
they can trip (open) and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic
transfer switch system for standby power.
Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for
subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuous—unlike an
AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle. A direct current circuit breaker has blow-out
coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either
installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.
The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most
common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards
throughout Europe.
The design includes the following components:

Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of
the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if
the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.Contacts -
Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.Terminals Bimetallic
strip.Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device
after assembly.Solenoid Arc divider/extinguisher

Magnetic circuit breakers:

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the
current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The
circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases
beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the
contacts open by spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay
feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker
rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay
permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing
equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch
regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the
time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers:

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards,
incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in
current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-
current conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response
feature, which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively.
Common trip breakers:
Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A
rating When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor
must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any
pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping
mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their
operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where
240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires.
Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large
motors or further distribution boards.Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to
disconnect multiple phase AC—or to disconnect the neutral wire to ensure that no current flows
through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when workers may
touch the wires during maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and
neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a
dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires
remain live and RCDs don't trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need power to
trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is
needed

Medium-voltage circuit breakers:

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-
enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors
in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are
now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high
voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective
relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by
international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use
separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic
overcurrent sensors.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:
Vacuum circuit breakers—With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current
by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for
voltages up to about 35,000 V, which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of
power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul
than do air circuit breakers.
Air circuit breakers—Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully
adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled,
though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used
for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out
enclosures for ease of maintenance.
SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus
bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear
line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing
power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the
breaker from its enclosure.

High-voltage circuit breakers:

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers.
The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be
72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current
sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective
relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or
ground/earth fault.

High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.
1. Bulk oil
2. Minimum oil
3. Air blast
4. Vacuum
5. SF6
Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom,
Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Končar HVS, BHEL, CGL,
Square D (Schneider Electric), Becker/SMC (SMC Electrical Products).
Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas
to quench the arc.Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that
contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth
potential. High-voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV.
1200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011, followed by ABB in April the
following year.
High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single
pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this
improves the system stability and availability.
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers:
A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to
quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be
incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or
de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

Disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB):

The disconnecting circuit breaker (DCB) was introduced in 2000 and is a high-voltage circuit
breaker modeled after the SF6-breaker. It presents a technical solution where the disconnecting
function is integrated in the breaking chamber, eliminating the need for separate disconnectors.
This increases the availability, since open-air disconnecting switch main contacts need
maintenance every 2–6 years, while modern circuit breakers have maintenance intervals of 15
years. Implementing a DCB solution also reduces the space requirements within the substation,
as well as the reliability, due to the lack of separate disconnectors

Advantage of Vacuum Circuit Breaker

1) no oil is required for are quenching

2) least maintenance
3) compact size
4) light in weight

Maintenance of circuit breaker

1) close/trip through local/remote control
2) trip trial through auto closer relay
4) oiling & greasing of moving parts
5) vermin proofing
6) heater healthy
5.5.AB SWITCHS

Definition :
AB Switch is an essential unit of all overhead power transmission line which is used to connect
or disconnect the power system of a certain part of overhead cable and Transformer from the
main power distribution line.

Type :
The design of GOAB Switch or Gang Operated Air Break Switches are depends on their uses
and application like :
● 2 Post type.
● Tilting type.
● Tilting type - Double Stack Insulator.
● Rotating type.
● Rotating type - Double Stack Insulator.
● Single Phase Switch.
● Change Over Switch.
● Disconnecting Switch.
Capacity :
● System Voltage - 11KV, 22KV & 33KV.
● Amp - 200A, 400A, 800A, 1200A etc.
● System Frequency - 50Hz etc.

Construction :
AB Switches are made by galvanized Steel Base, 11KV of each Insulator, copper alloy male-
female Contacts, Arcing Horns for power connect / disconnect operation, 2 Adjustable Pins fitted
on the steel base frame both side of the operating post to limit it's travel of moving on each side,
desired length of M.S. square Rod for rocking operation, desired length of G.I. Pipe for operation
from ground level and operating handle.

Air Break Switches are designed as double or triple post construction (depends on their type)
which can be mounted both horizontally and vertically with the electrical Double Pole Structure
(DP Structure). They are usually found in group of 3 switches serially installed whose are
operates together. So they are also known as "Gang Operated Air Break Switch" (GOAB
Switch).

Application / Uses :

Generally 11KV AB Switch & 22KV AB Switch is used in Power Distribution line and 33KV
AB Switch is used in Power Generation & Power Transmission Line.

5.6.Earthing switches
Type TEC 72,5 – 300 kV:Earthing switches are used for earthing and short-circuiting
disconnected sections of substation or plant. They are designed for no-load switching and are
able to disconnect low charging currents. Earthing switches type TEC are suitable for outdoor
installations and can be supplied as the single-column free-standing earthing switch or as
earthing switch built-on the same base frame together with disconnector type SGF and TFB.
Thanks to the universal design, the built-on earthing switch type TEC can be attached to the
disconnector type SGF at site and it can also be retrofitted later without any difficulty.
Regulations The TEC earthing switches comply with the publications IEC 62271-1021; IEC
60694 and most other national regulations. They are available for rated voltages in the range 72.5
kV to 300 kV.

Design:
The carrying constructional element of the single column free-standing earthing switch is the
sectional base frame. The post insulator is assembled on the mounting plate and supports the
contact with high-voltage terminal acc to DIN or NEMA standard. The tubular arm is
permanently connected with the earthed frame by means of a flexible connection. In open
position the tubular contact arm is located along the base frame. All components are protected
against atmospheric influences; the steel parts liable to rusting are hot dip galvanised

Mode of Operation:
The earthing switch is operated separately. The design of the operating linkage is such that a
dead centre position is passed through shortly before the end positions are reached. Due to that is
avoided automatic opening or closing of the units caused by some external influences (e.g. due to
vibrations caused by an earthquake, short circuits etc.). The energy is transmitted to the earthing
switch shaft via the operating shaft and the tubular contact arm swings upwards when the unit is
closed. In the closed position the contact fingers come to rest against the stop with initial tension.
Operating Mechanisms Each three-pole earthing switch group requires only one manual or motor
operating mechanism. The operating mechanisms are fastened laterally to the base frame. For
units installed on a higher level it is possible to mount the operating mechanism within reach
from the ground level by using the additional pivot bearing and the operating shaft
5.7. Lightning arrester:
Powerline worker performs maintenance of a lightning arrestor on an electrical transmission
tower in New Brunswick, Canada.
A lightning arrester (in Europe: surge arrester) is a device used on electrical power systems and
telecommunications systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the
damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a
ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along
the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most
cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure,
preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near
them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are
connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the
Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a
path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their
purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning
or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of
kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage
spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.
Simple spark gap device diverts lightning strike to ground (earth).
A potential target for a lightning strike, such as a television antenna, is attached to the terminal
labeled A in the photograph. Terminal E is attached to a long rod buried in the ground.
Ordinarily no current will flow between the antenna and the ground because there is extremely
high resistance between B and C, and also between C and D. The voltage of a lightning strike,
however, is many times higher than that needed to move electrons through the two air gaps. The
result is that electrons go through the lightning arrester rather than traveling on to the television
set and destroying it.
A lightning arrester may be a spark gap or may have a block of a semiconducting material such
as silicon carbide or zinc oxide. Some spark gaps are open to the air, but most modern varieties
are filled with a precision gas mixture, and have a small amount of radioactive material to
encourage the gas to ionize when the voltage across the gap reaches a specified level. Other
designs of lightning arresters use a glow-discharge tube (essentially like a neon glow lamp)
connected between the protected conductor and ground, or voltage-activated solid-state switches
called varistors or MOVs.
Lightning arresters built for power substation use are impressive devices, consisting of a
porcelain tube several feet long and several inches in diameter, typically filled with disks of zinc
oxide. A safety port on the side of the device vents the occasional internal explosion without
shattering the porcelain cylinder.
Lightning arresters are rated by the peak current they can withstand, the amount of energy they
can absorb, and the breakover voltage that they require to begin conduction. They are applied as
part of a lightning protection system, in combination with air terminals and bonding.

5.8.Busbar:
In electrical power distribution, a busbar (also spelled bus bar, buss bar or bussbar) is a strip or
bar of copper, brass or aluminium that conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution
board, substation, battery bank or other electrical apparatus. Its main purpose is to conduct
electricity, not to function as a structural member.
The cross-sectional size of the busbar determines the maximum amount of current that can be

safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm2 but electrical
substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (20 cm2) or more as busbars. An
aluminium smelter will have very large busbars used to carry tens of thousands of amperes to the
electrochemical cells that produce aluminium from molten salts.

5.9.Current transformer:
In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.
Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are
known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to
measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional
to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording
instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be
very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering
and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

5.10.Protective relays:

In electrical engineering, a protective relay is an electromechanical apparatus, often with more

than one coil, designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit
breakers when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined
operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established,
selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) operating characteristics. Protection relays
may use arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-
type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks. Protection relays respond
to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency.
Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that
point. An important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to
protection, with many individual electromechanical devices. The various protective functions
available on a given relay are denoted by standard ANSI Device Numbers. For example, a relay
including function 51 would be a timed overcurrent protective relay.The theory and application
of these protective devices is an important part of the education of an electrical engineer who
specializes in power systems. In new installations, these devices are nearly entirely replaced with
microprocessor-based digital protective relays (numerical relays) that emulate their
electromechanical ancestors with great precision and convenience in application. By combining
several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over
electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long life span, tens of thousands of these
"silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world.

Operation principles:
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or magnetic induction.
"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which
carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current, but for
alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force throughout the
alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the moving armature
becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current required to maintain the relay
closed is much smaller than the current to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or "differential" is
the measure of how much the current must be reduced to reset the relay.
A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or solenoid operator. A reed
relay is another example of the attraction principle.
"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to a galvanometer
but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very high sensitivity.
Another type of moving coil suspends the coil from two conductive ligaments, allowing very
long travel of the coil.
"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the rotary
motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require alternating current; if two or more
coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is produced.

Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A protective relay
may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current. Induction types of relay
can respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for example represent
the power in a circuit. Although an electromechanical relay calculating the ratio of two quantities
is not practical, the same effect can be obtained by a balance between two operating coils, which
can be arranged to effectively give the same result.
Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity of
response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operate torque" and
"restraint torque" can be produced in the relay.
By use of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to respond differently
to current in one direction than in another. Such polarized relays are used on direct-current
circuits to detect, for example, reverse current into a generator. These relays can be made
bistable, maintaining a contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse current to reset.
For AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing winding connected to a reference
voltage source.
Light weight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but small contacts can't
carry or break heavy currents. Often auxiliary telephone-type armature relays are triggered by the
measuring relay.
In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult to determine which
device originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This information is useful to operating
personnel to determine the likely cause of the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays may
be fitted with a "target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to display a
distinctive colored signal when the relay has tripped.

Types according to construction

Electromechanical Relays:
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types as follows: a. attracted
armature b. moving coil c. induction d. thermal e. motor operated f. mechanical Induction disc
over current relay. These electromagnetic relays use the induction principle discovered by
Galileo Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic system in induction disc over current
relays is designed to detect over currents in a power system and operate with a pre-determined
time delay when certain over current limits have been reached. In order to operate, the magnetic
system in the relays produces torque that acts on a metal disc to make contact.
The relay's primary winding is supplied from the power systems current transformer via a plug
bridge, which is called the plug setting multiplier (psm). Usually seven equally spaced tappings
or operating bands determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located on the upper
electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections on the upper electromagnet that are
energized from the primary winding and connected to the lower electromagnet. Once the upper
and lower electromagnets are energized they produce eddy currents that are induced onto the
metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This relationship of eddy currents and fluxes creates
torque proportional to the input current of the primary winding, due to the two flux paths been
out of phase by 90°.
In an over current condition, a value of current will be reached that overcomes the control spring
pressure on the spindle and the braking magnet, causing the metal disc to rotate towards the fixed
contact. This initial movement of the disc is also held off to a critical positive value of current by
small slots that are often cut into the side of the disc. The time taken for rotation to make the
contacts is not only dependent on current but also the spindle backstop position, known as the
time multiplier (tm). The time multiplier is divided into 10 linear divisions of the full rotation
time.
Providing the relay is free from dirt, the metal disc and the spindle with its contact will reach the
fixed contact, thus sending a signal to trip and isolate the circuit, within its designed time and
current specifications. Drop off current of the relay is much lower than its operating value, and
once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the pressure of the control spring
governed by the braking magnet.

Static Relays:
Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was described as early as 1928, using
vacuum tube amplifiers. Devices using electron tubes were studied but never applied as
commercial products, because of the limitatons of vacuum tube amplifiers. A relatively large
standby current is required to maintain the tube filament temperature; inconvenient high voltages
are required for the circuits, and vacuum tube amplifiers had difficulty with incorrect operation
due to noise disturbances.
Static relays with no or few moving parts became practical with the introduction of the transistor.
Static relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical relays,
because power to operate output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from the signal
circuits. Static relays elminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast operation,
long life and low maintenance.
Digital Relays:
The functions of electromechanical protection systems are now being replaced by
microprocessor-based digital protective relays, sometimes called "numeric relays".
A microprocessor-based digital protection relay can replace the functions of many discrete
electromechanical instruments.These convert voltage and currents to digital form and process the
resulting measurements using a microprocessor.
The digital relay can emulate functions of many discrete electromechanical relays in one device,
simplifying protection design and maintenance. Each digital relay can run self-test routines to
confirm its ready ness and alarm if a fault is detected. Numeric relays can also provide functions
such as communications (SCADA) interface, monitoring of contact inputs, metering, waveform
analysis, and other useful features. Digital relays can, for example, store two sets of protection
parameters, which allows the behavior of the relay to be changed during maintenance of attached
equipment. Digital relays also can provide protection strategies impossible to synthesize with
electromechanical relays, and offer benefits in self-testing and communication to supervisory
control systems

Numerical Relays:
The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on points of fine technical detail, and is
rarely found in areas other than Protection. They can be viewed as natural developments of
digital relays as a result of advances in technology. Typically, they use a specialized digital
signal processor (DSP) as the computational hardware, together with the associated software
tools. The input analogue signals are converted into a digital representation and processed
according to the appropriate mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out using a
specialized microprocessor that is optimized for signal processing applications, known as a
digital signal processor or DSP for short. Digital processing of signals in real time requires a
very high power microprocessor.Relays by functions

Over current relay:

An "over current relay" is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a preset value. The ANSI device number is 50 for an instantaneous overcurrent (IOC),
51 for a time over current (TOC). In a typical application the overcurrent relay is connected to a
current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific current level. When the relay
operates, one or more contacts will operate and energize to trip (open) a circuit breaker.

Distance relay:
The most common form of protection on high voltage transmission systems is distance relay
protection. Power lines have set impedance per kilometre and using this value and comparing
voltage and current the distance to a fault can be determined. The ANSI standard device number
for a distance relay is 21.
CONCLUSION
The economics of generation of electrical energy and the huge demands of power in the modern
times require creation bigger power plant. These may be hydro, thermal, atomic etc. The
transmission network is inevitable. Large and high voltage transmission lines are necessary to
transmit huge blocks of power from the source of generation to load centers. In b/w the power
plant and ultimate consumer a number of transmission and switching stations have to be created.
This is done by SUBSTATION. A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission,
and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or
perform any of several other important functions. Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several steps.
A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current,
while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic
and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution
system became a grid. The first substations were connected to only one power station, where the
generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.