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COMMENT

THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGE 465

CONSERVATION AND HUMAN NEEDS

ON the face of it, conservation may seem to have been an unusual theme for the 19th international conference of the
World Small Animal Veterinary Association (see p 466). However, that is to forget that the meeting was held in South
Africa. Conservation is clearly a big issue in South Africa and, on visiting the country, it is easy to see why. Travelling by
road from Johannesburg to the Kruger National Park in the east, you pass, in the space of a few hours, through an
extensive mining area, productive agricultural regions, man-made forests, and the impoverished and densely populated
Swazi homelands before reaching the wildlife haven afforded by the Kruger Park itself. The journey vividly illustrates the
conflicting demands of agriculture, industry, humans and wildlife, and the pressures that each exerts on the environment.
They say that South Africa is 'a world in one country'. On the basis of that journey, it can be seen to encapsulate the
world's environmental dilemmas as well.

The scale of the dilemma was clearly spelt out by Dr John Hanks, chief executive of the South African Nature Foundation,
giving the WSAVA International Lecture. It is estimated that, over the next 30 years, the world's human population will
increase from 5.5 billion to 8.5 billion. As Dr Hanks pointed out, this will place all sorts of unacceptable demands on the
Earth's resources. To cite just one example, it is estimated that, among impoverished rural communities in Africa the
demand for wood for heating, cooking and building purposes amounts to three-quarters of a tonne per person per year.
The relationship between poverty, basic human needs and environmental degradation, Dr Hanks pointed out, is such that
impoverished rural communities have no alternative but to degrade, and ultimately destroy, the environmental resource
base on which their survival depends. Ways must be found of meeting those demands and halting the accelerating spiral of
decline.

Dr Hanks argued eloquently for the need to make conservation relevant to the needs of communities, and that an effective
way of doing this was to attach an economic value to the environment. That value had to be measured not just in terms of
specific environmental components but also, because of the to delicate ecological balance that exists between those
components, in terms of biodiversity as a whole. He suggested ways in which a price could be put on biodiversity, for
example, in terms of its potential for helping to safeguard the world's food supply, as a source of new medicines and
industrial products, and also, in countries such as South Africa, in terrns of its contribution to the tourist industry. Equally
important, though much more difficult to quantify, would be the devastating effects on human health and productivity of
biodiversity being lost.

The need for a pragmatic approach to conservation is likely to attract further publicity this week, as delegates gather in
Florida for this year's meeting of CITES, the Convention for the International Trade in Endangered Species. Among the
proposals to be considered is one from South Africa to allow an international trade in elephant meat and hides. The idea
of such a trade may be distasteful to many conservationists. However, historically, it has been those species which have
been exploited by man that have tended to survive.

Veterinarians have an important contribution to make to the conservation of wildlife, and this was clearly explained by Dr
James Kirkwood, of the Zoological Society of London, in a lecture arranged by the Zebra Foundation earlier this year (see
VR, August 13, p 148). However, their role goes beyond, simply caring for animals. Their expertise extends into many
other areas and they also have an important role to play in, for example, advising on land and water management, in
research, and in developing new medicine and alternative sources of food.

In his WSAVA lecture, Dr Hanks expressed concern that, in Africa, much of the euphoria that greeted the declaration
resulting from the 1992 'Earth Surnmit' in Rio de Janeiro had since evaporated. It has also evaporated elsewhere. In
Britain, the I992 decIaration was accompanied by a frenzy of media concern and 'green' consumerism which has since
largely died down. Euphoria was never an appropriate response given the scale of the environmental challenge. A
pragmatic approach, involving the communities directly affected, seems a more sensible basis on which to proceed.
.............................
page 468
SUMMARY OF PAPERS

Diagnosis of reticuloperitonitis with ultrasound and radiography page 470


TRAUMATIC reticuloperitonitis caused by the ingestion of a sharp foreign body is one of the most serious conditions
affecting the bovine gastrointestinal tract. A variety of techniques may be used in the diagnosis of this condition although
only direct surgical examination radiography or ultrasonography can provide a definitive diagnosis. On p 470, Professor
Ueli Braun and colleagues compare the radiographic and ultrasonographic features of 26 cases of traumatic
reticuloperitonitis in which the diagnosis was confirmed on laparoscopic or post mortem examination. The authors
conclude that the two techniques are complementary as each provides only a limited amount of information. Radiography
allows the visualisation of a foreign body and the identification of abnormal gas shadows or gas fluid interfaces. However,
the technique is less useful in chronic cases and those in which no reticular foreign body is visible. In these cases,
additional data on motility, fibrinous deposits and abscesses can be gained from ultrasound scans.

Incidence of mastitis in relation to low cell counts page 479


IN a short communication on p 479, Ms Elizabeth Berry investigates the incidence of clinical mastitis in 35 dairy herds,
throughout England and Wales, with bulk milk cell counts below 100,000 cells/ml. She also evaluates the control
measures being used for mastitis in these cattle. Foremilking or on-line detectors were being used as a means of mastitis
detection in all the herds, and any cases of mastitis were being treated. All the herds in this survey had a low clinical
incidence of mastitis which, the author says, demonstrates that, contrary to previous reports, it is possible to have a low
bulk cell count and achieve a low incidence of mastitis. This, she notes, may have resulted from the greater attention to
housing and management standards employed the farmers in this study.

Laparoscopic embryo transfer in goats page 480


MANY of the procedures involving embryo transfer, a field which becoming increasingly important in small ruminants,
are carried out I tubal stage embryos, and a practical method of transfer is therefore sought. In a short communication on
p 480, Dr Urban Bensenfeld and colleagues describe the successful laparoscopic transfer of early stage embryos to the
oviducts of goats. They give details of the tecniques used to obtain transferable embryos from mature Boer goats and, just
before or after the eight-cell stage the implantation of embryos into nine recipients by laparoscopy. Five animals became
pregnant; three had singletons, one had twins and one had triplets, all of which were healthy. The authors therefore
conclude from this pilot study that the laparoscopic transfer of embryos to the oviducts of goats was successful and that
the procedure represents a practical and economic alternative to surgical transfer of embryos.

PAPERS AND ARTICLES


THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGE 470-478

COMPARISON OF ULTRASONOGRAPHIC AND RADIOGRAPHIC FINDINGS


IN COWS WITH TRAUMATIC RETICULOPERITONITIS
U.Braun,M.Fluckiger,M.Gotz

The radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in 26 cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis were compared. The cows
were divided into three groups based on the radiographic findings; the first group consisted of 12 cows in which the
principal radiographic finding was a foreign body penetration the reticulum; the second group contained four cows in
which the principal radiographic finding was gas shadows or a gas-fluid interface, the third group consisted of 10 cows
that had no reliable radiographic evidence of traumatic reticuloperitonitis, such as an abnormal contour, position or shape
of the reticulum. In no case could the foreign bodies be visualised by ultrasonography. In all the cows except one with
radiographic evidence of abnormal gas inclusions and gas-fluid interfaces, ultrasonography revealed echogenic,
partitioned and capsulated structures with central hypoechogenic cavities. In addition in some of the cows with no
radiographic evidence of the condition, severe changes indicative of inflammatory processes were visible by
ultrasonography.

TRAUMATIC reticuloperitonitis is one of the most serious diseases of the bovine digestive tract. A tentative clinical
diagnosis can be made but addiitional diagnostic procedures are often required. These procedures were recently
summarised by Braun and others (1993a) and include:
- the determination of total protein and fibrinogen and gamma globulin concenbrations,
- total and differential leucocyte counts,
- the glutaraldehyde test,
- abdominocentesis,
- the use of a metal detector,
- exploratory laparoruminotomy,
- laparoscopy and
- radiography of the reticulum.

The results of ultrasonographic examinations of the reticulum in healthy cows (Gotz 1992, Braun and Gotz 1994) and in
cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis were recently reported by Braun and others (1993 Laparoruminotomy, laparoscopy
and ultrasonographic and radiographic examinations of the rebiculum are the only procedures of direct diagnostic
importance because they can confirm the condition. The other methods only suggest inflammatory processes and are thus
non-specific. A radiographic examination of the reticulum is a sensitive and specific method for detecting foreign bodies
(Frederik and Wintzer 1959, Fubini and others 1990, Nageli 1991,Partington and Biller 1991, Braun and others 1993a).
Radiography can also detect inflammatory masses and abscesses in cattle with an abnormal reticular contour, the
displacement of the reticulum from the peritoneum and gas-fluid interfaces. These criteria have a high positive predictive
value but a low sensitivity which means that traumatic reticuloperitonitis cannot be ruled out if the reticular contour is
normal or there are no gas-fluid interfaces. The healthy reticulum and adjacent structures, and the motility of the
reticulum can be imaged ultrasonographically (Gotz 1992, Braun and Gotz 1994). In cows with traumatic
reticuloperitonitis the reticulum may have varying deposits (Braun and others 1993b). Purely fibrous deposits are
echogenic, and fibrinous deposits containing accumulations of fluid from inflammatory processes are echogenic
interspersed with hypoechogenic accumulations of fluid. Abscesses have an echogenic capsule of varying width and a
central cavity filled with homogeneously hypoechogenic to moderately echogenic pus. There are usually several
morphological changes in a cow with traumatic reticuloperitonitis, for example, there may be a cessation or reduction in
the speed, frequency and amplitude of the reticular contractions.

The aim of this study was to compare the radiographic findings in cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis with the
corresponding ultrasonographic findings.

Materials and methods

Twenty-six cows with traumatic reticuloperitonitis were used.

Radiographic and ultrasonographic examination of the reticulum

The reticulum of all the cows was examined radiographically (Nageli 1991, Braun and others 1993a) and
ultrasonographically (Braun and others 1993b) as described previously. The clinical and ultrasonographic findings have
been described by Braun and others (1993b).

Confirmation of the diagnosis

The radiographic and ultrasonographic findings were confirmed during an exploratory laparotomy or at slaughter in 19 of
the cows. In the seven cows that were successfully treated, the diagnosis based on ultrasonography was confirmed by the
abnormal fluid obtained by abdominocentesis from cows 19 and 22, by a second radiographic examination after the
administration of a magnet in the case of cows 4 and 8, and by the use of a number of other diagnostic procedures for
cows 9, 11 and 14.

For a consideration of the results, the cows were divided into three groups based on the radiographic findings. The first
group consisted of 12 cows (1 to 12) in which a foreign body penetrating the reticulum was visible on the radiographs.
The criteria used for assessing the radiographs of the reticulum were recently described by NageIi (1991) and Braun and
others (1993a). A diagnosis of traumatic reticulopentonitis was correct when a foreign body was seen partly or completely
outside the reticulum or when it made an angle of more than 30° with the floor of the reticulum. In addition, linear
foreign bodies that did not make contact with the floor of the reticulum were indicative of the condition provided that a
second radiograph confirmed their pathological position. The second group consisted of four cows (13 to 16) in which a
foreign body penetrating the reticulum was not visible on the radiographs and the main radiographic findings were
abnormal gas shadows or gas-fluid interfaces. The third group was made up of 10 cows (17 to 26) which had no reliable
evidence of the condition on their radiographs, such as an abnormal contour, position or shape of the reticulum.

Results

Radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in cows with a foreign body penetrating the
reticulum (group 1)

A summary of the findings is given in Table 1, and Table 2 presents the findings for each cow. The most striking
radiographic finding was a foreign body penetrating the reticulum, and in 11 of the 12 cows, the foreign body was visible
penetrating the cranial, ventral or caudal reticular wall. Cow 7 had a foreign body penetrating the reticulum and another
in the lungs. In cow 6, the foreign body was situated cranial to the reticulum and penetrated the diaphragm None of these
foreign bodies could be imaged ultrasonographically. In cows 2, 3, 5 and 9, magnets were also observed by radiography in
the reticulum or anterior dorsal blind sac of the rumen. These magnets could not be visualised by ultrasonography.

Abnormal gas shadows were visible in cows 2, 6, 10 and 11 and abnormal gas-fluid interfaces were visible in cow 7. On
the ultrasonograms of these cows, echogenic deposits were interspersed with anechoic cavities in cows 2 and 11 and
capsulated structures with a central cavity were visible in cows 6 and 10. They were identified as abscesses dunng surgery,
at slaughter or on the basis of the results of abdominocentesis (Fig 1). In cow 7, no evidence of abscessation was found in
the abdomen by ultrasonography, but a pulmonary abscess was identified.
A massive production of fibrin and exudate was diagnosed by ultrasonography in cows 3, 4, 5, 9, 11 and 12 and an abscess
was identified in cow 1 (Fig 2); none of these changes were visible on radiographs. In cows 7, 8 and 11, an indentation in
the margin of the reticulum was observed radiographically and it was visible as a mass on the ultrasonograms (Fig 3).

The reticular motility assessed ultrasonographically was normal in two of the cows with foreign bodies penetrating the
reticulum (2 and 7), but in nine cows (1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12) it was reduced because of inflammatory changes, and
there was no reticular motility in cow 5.

In addition, ultrasonography revealed an accumulation of fluid ventral or caudal to the reticulum of cows 4, 5 and 12,
which was not visible on the radiographs. The fluid was sampled by ultrasound-guided centesis.

In cow 8 the involvement of the rumen and the spleen and in cow 11 the involvement of the omasum in the inflammatory
changes was observed only by ultrasonography.

Another ultrasonographic finding in cow 7, which had a piece of wire penetrating the lung, was a thickened diaphragm.
Only fine bands of fibrin in the area of the reticulum, which resulted from the healing of the reticuloperitonitis, were
found in this cow.

Radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in cows with gas-fluid interfaces (group 2, Tables 1
and 3)

In cows 13, 14, 15 and 16, the principal radiographic finding of gas shadows andlor gas-fluid interfaces, suggesting
abscessation, was verified by ultrasonography. There was no radiographic evidence of a foreign body perforating the
reticulum. In three of the cows the ultrasonographic findings supported the tentative diagnosis based on radiography, and
the diagnosis was verified at slaughter or by the results of centesis of the lesions (Fig 4). In cow 16, in which no changes
were visible by ultrasonography, an approximately 10 x 12 cm adhesion between the craniodorsal wall of the reticulum
and the diaphragm was found during exploratory laparotomy. The apex of the reticulum was completely free, aand there
was no evidence of an abscess. The reticular motility of all four cows was either markedly reduced or absent.

Radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in cows with no reliable evidence of traumatic reticuloperitonitis on
radiographs (group 3, Tables 1 and 4)

Radiography revealed magnets with foreign bodies attached in cows 17 and 18 and magnets without foreign bodies in
cows 19, 20 and 21 (Fig 5). Cow 17 also had an indentation in the caudal wall of the reticulum, and the reticulum was
displaced from the peritoneum in cows 19 and 21. In these cows, ultrasonography revealed abscesses of different sizes,
which were characterised by a mass with a hypoechoic or anechoic cavity. In addition, ultrasonography revealed other
inflammatory processes between the reticulum and the anterior dorsal blind sac of the rumen of cow 17, between the
reticulum and the spleen of cows 19 and 21, and between the reticulum and the abomasum of cow 19. The reticular
motility was normal in cow 18 but reduced or absent in cows 17, 19, 20 and 21.

A magnet or a foreign body perforating the reticulum was not visible on the radiographs of cows 22, 23, 24 and 25 (Fig
6). On the radiograph of cow 24 there was an indentation in the cranial wall of the reticulum, and the distance between
the reticulum and the ventral abdominal wall or the diaphragm was enlarged on the radiographs of cows 22 and 25.
Extensive fibrinous deposits were observed by ultrasonography in cows 22, 23 and 24, and in cow 25, a reticular abscess
was diagnosed.

The radiograph of cow 26 was of poor quality and therefore of no diagnostic value. The ultrasonographic examination of
this cow revealed a hyperechogenic, thick-walled structure with a central hypoechogenic cavity caudal to the reticulum,
that is, an abscess, and extensive, cavitated, echogenic structures with accumulation of fluid. There was no reticular
motility.

Discussion

A comparison of the radiographic and ultrasonographic findings in these 26 cows indicates that neither method replaces
the other, but that the two methods complement one another. The literature concerning the value of the radiographic
examination of the reticulum has been reviewed by Braun and others (1993a). The greatest advantage of a radiographic
examination is that metallic foreign bodies can be visualised. In contrast, the ultrasonographic examination of these 26
cows failed to identify any of the metallic objects, including magnets. Thus, radiography is best suited for the visualisation
of metallic foreign bodies in and outside the reticulum, and the position of the foreign body is the most reliable indicator
for diagnosing traumatic reticuloperitonitis by radiography. It has a specificity of 82 per cent, a positive predictive value of
88 per cent and a sensitivity of 71 per cent (Nageli 1991, Braun and others 1993a).
A magnet in the reticulum, even with foreign bodies attached is not an indicator of traumatic reticuloperitonitis (Braun
and others 1993a). Ultrasonographic examination of such cows suggests that a previously administered magnet can result
in a false negative interpretation of the radiograph. In many of the cows, even though no free foreign body or only a
foreign body attached to a magnet was visible on the radiograph, there were fibrinous changes or abscesses that could not
be visualised by radiography, and these changes could be visualised precisely by ultrasonography, and a correct diagnosis
made.

Abnormal gas shadows or gas-fluid interfaces observed on radiographs of the reticulum or ventral abdominal region are
pathognomonic for traumatic reticuloperitonitis. They have a specificity of 97 per cent and a positive predictive value of
88 per cent (Braun and others 1993a). However, such changes are seldom seen on radiographs, which have a sensitivity of
only 19 per cent. In all the cows except cow 7, the abnormal gas shadows or gas-fluid interfaces visible on the radiographs
had corresponding changes on the ultrasonograms.

In cow 7, a foreign body cranial to the reticulum and a pulmonary abscess, situated more dorsally, were visible on the
radiograph. The ultrasonographic examination of this cow revealed good retieular motility and a low-grade produetion of
fibrinous bands between the retieulum and the ventral abdominal wall which resulted from the healing of the lesions of
reticuloperitonitis. The ultrasonography also revealed a thiekened diaphragm which was the only evidence of any
involvement of the diaphragm.

The position of the reticulum, determined radiographieally, is a good criterion for diagnosing traumatic reticuloperitonitis
and has a specificity of 80 per cent and a positive predictive value of 82 per cent (Braun and others 1993a). Thick-walled
changes or abscessation should be suspeced when the reticulum is displaced caudodorsally from the sternum. A
displacement of the reticulum does not always imply an abscess because a contracted but healthy reticulum is also
displaced from the ventral abdominal wall. Ultrasonography helps to differentiate such radiographic findings.
Displacement of the reticulum was caused by an accumulation of fibrin and fluid or an abscess between the reticulum and
the peritoneum in cows 12, 19, 21, 22 and 25. In cow 16, no changes were visible between the reticulum and the
peritoneum.

Changes in the contour of the reticulum, determined radiographically, also indicate the condition. Abnormalities in the
contour of the reticular wall such as small indentations are highly suspicious of abscesses or thick-walled changes and
have a high specificity (95 per cent) and a high positive predictive value (92 per cent); however, their sensitivity is only 34
per cent (Braun and others 1993a). Just as ultrasonography was used to detect the displacement of the reticulum from the
peritoneum, it was also used to determine reliably whether the abnormal retieular contour was attributable to an
inflammatory mass. In cows 8, 11, 17 and 19, the abnormal reticular contour visible on the radiographs was due to
inflammatory changes, and in cows 7 and 24 no changes were visible either on the ultrasonograms or at slaughter.

One of the greatest advantages of ultrasonography is that the motility of the retieulum ean be assessed. In spite of severe
adhesions and abseessation, the reticulum maintained its contractile rhythm and attempted to eontraet at regular intervals
in many cases. However, the amplitude of the contractions was often severely impaired by the inflammatory changes. The
reticular motility may be a good parameter for estimating the prognosis of a cow with thick-walled lesions. Preliminary
observations indicate that cows with extensive changes but with good reticular motility have a better prognosis than cows
with complete reticular atony.

Radiographic changes are difficult to localise precisely because only laterolateral exposures are possible, and as a result
structures cannot be visualised in two planes at right angles to each other. Ultrasonography overeomes this problem; not
only can changes be located exactly but their size can be determmed, and a centesis can be made.

Although either radiography or ultrasonography alone provide a limited amount of information, the two techniques
complement one another well. In the authors' experience, a radiographic examination is ideal for diagnosing acute
traumatic reticuloperitonitis due to a foreign body, penetrating the reticulum. However, the information gained from a
radiographic examination of cows with the chronic condition with localised or extensive peritoneal changes, and without
a foreign body is usually limited. In such cases, ultrasonography provides excellent data about reticular motility, fibrinous
deposits and abscesses. Thus, clinical, radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations are all of importance in the
diagnosis of traumatic reticuloperitonitis in cattle.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGE 479

Mastitis incidence in low cell count herds


E.A.Berry
THERE is a widely held belief that low cell count herds have more serious mastitis problems (Schukken and others 1989,
Togerson and others 1992). This survey was carried out to investigate the mastitis control measures and incidence of
clinical mastitis in herds with bulk milk cell counts below 100,000 cells/ml.

The survey was also to determine if there were any commonly used control measures, in addition to those in the generally
recommended five point plan: a regular milking machine test; dry cow therapy, prompt detection and treatment of clinical
cases; teat disinfection after milking; and culling of chronic cases.

Thirty-five herds in England and Wales with a 12-month rolling mean bulk milk cell count of less than 70,000 cells/ml in
January 1992 were identified and 11 were selected from the counties Hereford and Worcester, Gloucester, Shropshire,
Staffordshire, Cheshire, Devon and Somerset. All the farms were visited in February 1992, while the cattle were housed,
and a questionnaire was completed during the visit (Table 1).

All the cows were milked in milking parlours with the exception of one in which the cows were housed, tied in standings
over the winter and miLked with a fixed pipeline system. Nine herds had a regular milking machine test. Of the two herds
which had updated his machine and the other had the fixed milking pipeline, last tested l0 years previously.

TABLE 1: Summary of the results of the questionnaire with reference to the five point plan recommendations
Herd Size Average
103 57 30 80 64 39 32 28 57 30 60 45
. Breed HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF F HF
. Average number 4 4 3 4 4 5 5 5 3 5 3 4
of lactations
. Yield (litres) 5500 6300 5300 5800 7000 6750 6500 5500 7000 5500 6500 6150
. Five point plan
1 Milking machine Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
test
2 Dry cow 1 2 1&3 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 5
therapy
3 Detection and Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
treatment of
clinical cases
4 Teat disinfection S S D D D D D D D D D
after milking and
type
5 Culling of chronic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
cases Y

HF Holstein Freisian, F Freisian, Y Yes, N No, 1 Cepravin Dry Cow, 2 Orbenin Dry cow, 3 Orbenin Extra Dry Cow, 4 Streptopen Dry Cow, 5 Kloxerate DC, S
Spray, D Dip, I lodine, C Chlorhexidine

All the herds used dry cow therapy on all the cows, and aimed for a dry period of at least six weeks. Eight herds dried off
abruptly, the other milked once a day for three to seven days. Five herds used Cepravin Dry Cow (Pitman-Moore), two
used Orbenin Extra Dry Cow (SmithKline Beecham) and one herd alternated between these two products. The other three
used Kloxerate DC (Solvay Duphar) (double tubed to give a dry cow period of eight weeks), Streptopen Dry Cow (Pitman-
Moore) and Orbenin Dry Cow (SmithKline Beecham).

All the herds employed mastitis detection by either foremilking or using in-line detectors, and treated clinical cases

Teat disinfection after milking was by dipping in nine herds and spraying in two. In nine herds iodine based dips were
used and two herds used chlorhexidine based dips. All the teat disinfectants used contained emollients. One herd used the
bucket and cloth method to prepare cows' teats. In this herd cows were tied in the same position, often milked in the same
order, and several buckets and cloths were used per milking.

All the farmers would cull any cow which had a chronic or recurrent case of mastitis. However, most reported this was
seldom necessary and culling was usually for other reasons.

Greater care in management standards and extra attention to detail as noted below, was observed in all the herds. This
may have been partly due to the smaller herd size noted in the survey, compared to the national average of 71 (Booth
1991), and also the fact that most herds were milked and owned by the same person.

In eight of the herds the cows stood after being milked. This allows the teat sphincter to close after milking (before the
cows lie down again). In all the herds, including those kept in cowshed standings, the beds were cleaned and passageways
scraped out while the cows were being milked, so the cows returned to clean dry beds.

Housing hygiene was good in all the farms. Cubicles were used in all the herds except two herds where either straw yards
or standings were used. Bedding was replenished daily on all the farms and passageways were scraped at least twice daily.
All the farms allowed plenty of space per cow and had as many or more cubicles as cows, which reduced stress and
bullying. The collecting yards for three of the herds were covered, and half covered for another three. All were scraped
daily and some were scraped twice daily.

One herd used the California mastitis test every month on all the cows for subclinical mastitis detection. In one herd the
cows walked through a foot bath after milking. Six herds used chemical drying agents on the beds. The beds of the herd
tied in stalls were cleaned at least four times a day. In some herds calving boxes were disinfected after every calving.

All the herds except one bred their own replacements, the exception buying in heifers, usually from known sources.

All flushed out the clusters after milking cows with clinical cases or high cell counts and mastitis cases were milked last
in six herds. This meant that potential cross infection from cow to cow via the cluster was reduced. None carried out pre-
milking teat dipping.

All the herds reported a low clinical incidence of mastitis with a calculated range of seven to 21 cases per 100 cows per
year and none had lost any cows due to mastitis. This is half the average recorded in Genus monitored herds and ADAS
reported figures for 1992 and is contrary to the widely held belief that mastitis is more serious in low cell count herds.

In contrast to other reports, this survey showed it is possible to have a low bulk milk cell count and achieve a low
incidence of clinical mastitis. This may result from the greater attention to housing and management standards, not noted
in the herds surveyed by Schukken and others (1989), in which the average lactational yield per cow was 10,000 litres,
and the cell counts were below 150,000 cells/ml compared to the yield of just over 6000 litres seen in this survey, and
mean cell counts below 70,000 cells/ml.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGE 480

Tubal transfer of goat embryos using endoscopy


U.Besenfelder,N.Zinovieva,E.Dietrich,B.Sohnrey,W.Holtz, G. Brem

EMBRYO transfer in small ruminants is gaining in importance as techniques for manipulating embryos become
established. Since cloning, nuclear transplantation, in vitro fertilisation and gene transfer are usually done on tubal stage
embryos, the availability of a practicable method for tubal embryo transfer is most desirable. In rabbits an efficient method
involving laparoscopy has been reported which produces pregnancy rates of 90 per cent (Besenfelder and Brem 1993).
Although the laparoscopic transfer of embryos to the uterine horns of small ruminants is an established procedule (Mutiga
and Baker 1984, Schiewe and others l984, McKelvey and others 1985, Walker and others 1985), laparoscopic tubal
transfer in sheep has been shown to offer minimal invasive access to the oviduct (Besenfelder and others 1994. This paper
describes the successful laparoscopic transfer of early embryonic stages to the oviduct of goats.

TABLE 1: Results of laparoscopic tubal transfer of goat embryos


Synchronised Days after Progesterone Embryos transferred Kids
Recipient Yes/No oestrus (ng/ml) Number Stage Quality Number Sex
1 Yes ?*** 2.3 2 4- to 8-cell 2 0 -
2 Yes 2 1.1 2 8- to 16-cell 2 2
Males and Females
3 ** Yes 2 0.6
4 Yes 1 1.4
5 Yes ?! 8.4
6 No 2 2.6 2 8-cell 2 0
-
7 No 1 0.9 2+2 ! 8-cell 2 3
All males
8 No 1 3.0 1+2 ! 8-cell 2-3 0
-
9 No 1 1.0 3 8-cell 1-2 1
Female

* serum progesteronE concentration on the day before transfer


** This doe retumed to oestrus within six days
*** No oestrus symptoms observed
! Embryos transferred to both oviducts

The study was conducted in late autumn during the natural mating season of goats. Donors and recipients were mature
Boer goats from a closed herd kept at Gottingen Department of Animal Husbandry and Genetics. Donors were
synchronised by insertion of subcutaneous silicone implants containing 15 ml norgestomet (Crestar; Intervet) (Holtz and
Sohnrey 1992) and superovulated by six intrarnuscular injections of purified follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
supplemented with 40 per cent luteinising hormone (supplied by Professor J. F. Beckers, University of Liege), at 12 hour
intervals beginning two days before implant removal. The dosages of FSH were 4, 4, 2, 2, 2 and 2 mg, respectively. With
each of the last two FSH injections, 5 mg prostaglandin F2-alpha (Dinolytic; Upjohn) was given. Animals were mated on
each of the two days after the end of treatment. Three days after the last mating, animals were anaesthetised by xylazine
and halothane and the genital tract was exteriorised via mid-ventral laparotomy (Nowshari and Holtz 1993). Oviducts
were flushed with 10 to 15 ml flushing medium from the infundibulum by inserting a thin (1.6 mm) polypropylene tube
(PP 100, Portex).

Flushings were collected via a number 8 Foley catheter which was inserted through a punch hole in the uterine horn. The
flushing medium was Dulbecco's phosphate buffered saline supplemented with 1 g/litre of sodium pyruvate, 10,000
iu/litre of penicillin, 50 mg/litre of streptomycin and 2 per cent (vol/vol) heat inactivated goat serum

Embryos were recovered from the flushings under a stereo microscope at 20-40 x and examined under an inverted
microscope at 200 x. Embryos with no or only slight visible imperfections were considered transferable. They were judged
to be excellent (1), good (2) or reasonable (3) on the basis of morphological appearance (symmetry of blastomeres and
homogeneity of cytoplasm).

Ten recipients were synchronised in the same way as the donors. Instead of the superovulatory FSH-treatment, recipients
received a single injection of 250 iu pregnant mare's serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) at the time of implant removal. Due to
insufficient numbers of synchronised recipients, five non-synchronised does at the appropriate stage of the cycle were
included.

Blood samples were drawn from the jugular veins of donors and recipients three days and one day before transfer. Serum
progesterone concentration was determined by enzyme immunoassay in order to monitor luteal function.

Five days after removal of implants and, in non-synchronised animals, one or two days after the last day of standing
oestrus, laparoscopic embryo transfer was performed. After receiving 0.1 ml xylazine/10 kg bodyweight, the goats were
suspended head down at an angle of 45°. Under local anaesthesia (lignocaine hydrochloride) a small skin incision was
made at the ventral midline cranial to the udder. Through the incision a trocar and cannula with automatic valve and
pyramidal tip (diameter 7 mm) was inserted into the peritoneal cavity, which was then insufflated with air. A second
incision was performed 7 to 8 cm to the right of the midline to insert a 5-5 mm trocar and cannula. The trocars were
replaced by an endoscope (Hopkins, wide angle optic forward oblique telescope 30°, 6 5 mm diameter) and an atraumatic
grasping forceps, respectively. A small cold light fountain (150 watt) connected to the endoscope by a fibreoptic light cable
produced sufficient light inside the peritoneal cavity to check the ovaries for corpora lutea and manipulate the oviducts
under visual control. Laparoscopic equipment was supplied by Karl Storz Company, Tuttlingen.

The infundibulum ipsilateral to an ovulation was grasped with the forceps in such a way that the entry to the ampulla
formed a funnel. A rigid venous catheter (51 x 2.5/2.9 mm) (Abbocath-T) was passed through the abdorninal wall to allow
entry for the insertion of a thin glass capillary connected to a 1 ml syringe. Under visual control the glass capillary
containing medium with embryos was introduced into the ampulla via the infundibulum. Embryos were deposited about 4
cm into the lumen of the ampulla (Fig 1). At the end of the operation the air was released from the abdominal cavity and
the small incisions were sutured.

As shown in Table 1, all embryos were transferred in or just before or after the eight-cell stage. In six recipients, two
embryos and in one recipient, three embryos were transferred to the oviduct ipsilateral to an ovary having at least one
corpus luteum. In two recipients, embryos were distributed to both oviducts.

Upon return to the herd, animals were routinely checked for oestrus with an aproned buck. Pregnant does were permitted
to carry them to term.

Of the eight donors receiving the superovulatory treatment, six showed a significant increase in serum progesterone
between the last day of oestrus (0.4 +/- 0.1 [SEM] ng/ml) and two days thereafter (11.1 +/- 1.8 ng/ml). These animals had
19.7 +/- 4.2 ovulations and yielded 9.0 +/- 3.5 ova or embryos, 4.4 +/- 1.5 of which were transferable.

The response of the 10 recipients treated with implants and PMSG varied. Three ariimals had to be eliminated because
their serum progesterone levels remained high and one did not receive embryos because it had not ovulated. The doe that
had come into oestrus two days earlier was discounted. Of the five non-synchronised does, one had not ovulated.

The results of the nine accountable recipients are summarised in Table 1. In four does (two synchronised and two non-
synchronised) pregnancy was not established. One of these returned to oestrus within six days, indicating luteal
insufficiency. Three does had singletons. and one had a twin and one a triplet. The sexes were evenly distributed.
The kids born were healthy and no losses were encountered until weaning. Embryo survival rate was 62 per cent for the
pregnant recipients and 36 per cent overall.

The laparoscopic transfer of embryos to the oviducts of goats presented in this pilot study was successful. Considering that
two recipients (1 and 5) did not show signs of oestrous and were used on the basis of increasing serum progesterone and
that one recipient (3) had a short cycle resulting from luteal insufficiency, the results were reasonable. The transfer
process took, on average, 15 minutes, however, these data include the authors' first attempts at laparoscopic embryo
transfer in goats. Used routinely, the technique described here should take less than five minutes. After manipulation of
the reproductive organs, there were no visible alterations or injuries. Three of the recipients have since been inseminated
or mated and all became pregnant.

This new procedure of embrryo transfer represents a practical and economic alternative to surgical transfer.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGE 482

Flaccid oesophageal paralysis in a Friesian heifer associated with encephalitis


P.R.Scott,C.J.Henshaw,C.J.Clarke

PROFUSE salivation in cattle can result from a number of common conditions affecting the mouth, pharynx or
oesophagus including foreign body, calf diphtheria, actinobacillosis and oesophageal obstruction. This case report
describes the detailed clinical investigation of profuse sralivation in a recently-calved heifer. Despite intensive therapy the
hiefer was destroyed on humane grounds and the diagnosis of encephalitis involving areas of the brainstem was confirmed
at necropsy.

A two-year-old Holstein heifer was presented for veterinary examination five days following an assisted parturition. The
heifer had been treated by the farmer for retained fetal membranes for three days with amoxycillin (10 mg/kg clamoxyl;
SmithKline Beecham) injected intramuscularly. Examination revealed a dull animal with a normal rectal temperature and
a poor milk yield of 5 kg per day. There was moderate salivation. The heifer was treated with 2-2 mg/kg flunixin
meglumine (Finadyne solution; Schering Plough) and baquiloprim sulphonamide (Zaquilan; Pitman Moore) injected
intravenously and referred to the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies Field Station Teaching Hospital later that day.

On examination the heifer was dull, depressed and showed mild pelvic limb ataxia. The body condition score was 1-5
with a dry staring coat' There was marked enophthalmus and the skin tent was prolonged to five seconds, consequently
the animal was estimated to be 8 per cent dehydrated. The sublumbar fossae were sunken and the abdomen had a drawn
up appearance. The heifer stood with a slightly roached back stance and a grunt could be elicited following pinching the
withers region. There were no ruminal contractions and there was a loss of normal stratification of contents, with fibrous
material displacing fluid from the ventral sac of the rumen. The heart rate was elevated at 88 beats per minute. The
respiratory rate was elevated at 32 breaths per minute but no abnormal sounds were detected on auscultation of the chest.
There was a moderate amount of salivation but the heifer made no swallowing movements. Careful examination of the
mouth and pharynx failed to reveal any abnormality. A probang was passed without difficulty into the cardia region of the
reticulorumen. There was no evidence of any oesophageal obstruction and there was no halitosis. While the probang was
in the oesophagus approximately 300 ml of saliva was regurgitated out of the mouth and nostrils, but there was no fibrous
food material present. The submandibular Iymph nodes were of normal size and there was no localised abscessation or
cellulitis in the neck region. There was no evidence of any cranial nerve deficits. Endoscopic examination of the pharynx
and oesophagus failed to reveal any abnormality. Plain radiographs of the neck failed to reveal any abnormality.
Fluoroscopy examination over a five-minute period following administration of 200 ml of barium contrast medium into
the middle one third of the cervical oesophagus showed collection of the medium in this area. No propulsive muscular
contractions of the oesophagus were observed.

Routine haematological examination failed to reveal any significant changes in the leukogram. The serum albumin
concentration was low, 20.5 g/litre, consistent with chronic weight loss. The globulin and fibrinogen concentrations were
within normal ranges indicating the absence of chronic inflammation. Venous blood gas analysis revealed an acidaemia
(pH 7.23) with a negative base excess of 12.9 mmol/litre. Cerebrospinal fluid, collected under local anaesthesia from the
lumbosacral site, revealed a markedly raised protein concentration (2.1 g/litre, normal less than 0.3 g/litre) with normal
white cell concentration with an occasional macrophage present. These cerebrospinal fluid changes were not inconsistent
with an encephalitis lesion such as listeriosis (Rebhun and de Luhunta 1982).

Seven days following admission the heifer looked bright and alert and attempted to eat some rolled barley. During fluid
administration by stomach tube a small amount of barley and approximately 400 ml of saliva was regurgitated. Twelve
days following admission there was evidence of mild bloat. Due to the lack of response to treatment and the appearance of
bloat the heifer was euthanased.
At necropsy the carcase was in reasonable condition. The pharynx and oesophagus were free of ingesta but the
forestomachs contained a lot of relatively dry vegetable matter. Abomasal and intestinal contents were relatively fluid and
unremarkable. Detailed gross examination of the oesophagus and forestomachs failed to reveal any obstruction or other
abnormality. Other organ systems, including the brain and vagus nene tracks, appeared normal. Selected tissues were
fixed in formalin.

Histopathological examination of sections of brain showed lesions throughout the brainstem. Perivascular cuffing by
mononuclear inflammatory cells (two to six layers deep) and loose aggregates of similar inflammatory cells surrounding
blood vessels and small foci of necrosis were obsened in grey matter areas. The brainstem was also affected by a diffuse
gliosis. These signs indicated an encephalitis of uncertain cause. Cerebral areas showed milder lesions of perivascular
cuffing and diffuse gliosis within the neocortex. A few small aggregates of inflammatory cells (mostly mononuclear plus a
few granulocytes) were observed in meningeal areas.

Histological examination of peripheral nerve tissues including the vagal tracts did not reveal any obvious lesions. Tissues
from other organ systems were also examined. There was some very mild focal interstitial nephritis in the renal cortices
but no other significant lesions were found.

The possibility of oesphageal foreign body or intraluminal mass were discounted once the probang was passed freely into
the cardia. Endoscopic examination and contrast radiography failed to reveal significant oesophageal dilatation. In
addition only 300 to 400 ml of saliva was regurgitated during electrolyte solution administration using a stomaah tube,
thus this case was unlike reports of bovine megaoesophagus. Megaoesophagus occurs rarely in cattle, the principal
clinical signs are regurgitation or vomition shortly after eating, and mild recurrent bloat (Smith 1990). Megaoesophagus
has been reported in association with pharyngeal trauma and resultant inflammatory involvement of the vagus nerve
(Ross and Rebhun 1986). Diaphragmatic herniation of the reticulum (Anderson and others 1984) or herniation of the
oesophagus (Kirkbride and Noordsy 1968) can each result in megaoesophagus but no evidence of hiatal hernia was found
at necropsy. Anorexia, mild abdominal pain, continual salivation and passive regurgitation during administration of oral
fluids by stomach tube, rather than vomition soon after eating, were the important clinical signs in the present case report.
The abdominal pain exhibited by the heifer was attributed to rumen impaction associated with loss of saliva. This
association has also been reported in bovine listeriosis where cranial nerve deficits result in flaccid paralysis of cheek
musculature with consequent loss of saliva and secondary rumen impaction (Rebhun 1987).

The exact cause of the encephalitis lesions was not determined. The differential diagnosis considered included bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and listeriosis. While the mild pelvic limb ataxia, roached back stance and bruxism
were consistent with BSE, there was no apprehension or hyperaesthesia. In addition there are no changes in cerebrospinal
fluid in cases of BSE (Scott and others 1990). Depression, salivation, abdominal pain and occasional vomition are
reported for bovine listeriosis but detailed examination of this heifer failed to reveal any clinical evidence of unilateral
cranial nerve deficits, particularly involving the trigeminal and facial nerves. The encephalitis lesions were not
inconsistent with resolving lesions resulting from infection with L monocytogenes but this could not be proved.

This case report indicates that focal encephalitis lesions in the brainstem should be added to the list of clinical conditions
that may cause oesophageal dysfunction with secondary signs of salivation, anorexia and weight loss.

SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
THE VETERINARY RECORD, NOVEMBER 12, 1994, VOL 135, PAGES 483

Obstipation secondary to coccygeal Vertebral separation in a cat


N. J. Trout

A SEVEN-year-old castrated male domestic longhair cat was referred to the Angell Memorial Animal Hospital, Boston,
for evaluation of a coccygeal spinal luxation. The cat had been involved in a road traffic accident six months earlier, and
sustained a complete separation of the tail between coccygeal vertebrae one (Cyl) and two (Cy2). The distal portion of the
tail had been traumatised and was amputated at that time, leaving the remaining coccygeal vertebrae to 'float'. The owner
reported that the cat was able to walk and urinate normally; however, defecation was becoming increasingly difficult. The
cat frequently licked at the skin overlying the separation site.

On physical examination, a 2 cm x 2 cm ulcerated thickened area of skin was noted dorsal to the cranial portion of the
remaining tail. Firm stool within the rectum could easily be palpated below the skin between Cyl and Cy2. Perineal reflex
was normal. There was crepitus and reduced range of motion in the left coxofemoral joint and the owner confirmed that a
healed femoral fracture existed. Other clinical parameters were within normal limits.
Plain radiographs of the sacrococcygeal spine demonstrated dorsal deviation of the rectum and concurrent obstipation (Fig
1).

A blood sample submitted for presurgical haematology and serum biochemistry was unremarkable. Under general
anaesthesia, faecal material was removed from the cat's rectum and a rectal examination performed. The ventral floor of
the pelvis was normal. However, complete rupture of the dorsal, ventral and lateral muscle groups between Cyl and Cy2
meant that no dorsal support to the rectum existed at this site (Evans and Christensen 1979).

A dorsal approach to the sacrum and coccygeal vertebrae was performed and the ends of the Cyl and Cy2 debrided of
fibrous tissue. Underlying rectal serosa was examined and appeared normal. The vertebrae were reapposed using two
0.875 mm (0.035 inch) Kirschner wires aligned in cross-pin configuration directed from caudal to the articular facets of
Cy2, cranioventrally into the body of Cyl. Four 22 gauge cerclage wires were placed, two below each dorsal lamina. The
ends of each of the two wires from Cyl were crossed and twisted on the ends of each of the two wires from Cy2 to make
four dorsally located wire sutures. The ulcerated skin was resected before closure. Postoperative rectal examination
confirmed the restoration of dorsal rectal support and intact anal tone.

The cat was re-evaluated two weeks later. The surgical site had healed, the tail was stable and the cat had resumed normal
defecation. Follow-up communication with the owner four months following surgery confirmed that the cat had no further
problems with respect to defecation.

Secondary obstipation is caused by any condition that obstructs the normal passage of faeces or causes pain on defecation
(Aronsohn 1993). This coccygeal vertebral separation grossly appeared to cause a deviation or flexure of the rectum which
was presumably painful during defecation, resulting in obstipation and excessive licking and chewing at the site
(Bellenger and Canfield 1993).

Although the vertebral separation in this case occurred distal to the Sl, S2 and S3 nerve roots, it is important routinely to
evaluate bladder function and anal tone in all cases of tail trauma (Oliver and others 1987).

Surgical restoration of normal coccygeal anatomy would appear to have been an appropriate treatment option over tail
amputation in this case.

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