CE4411: Traffic Engineering and Planning

ROAD USE– CHARACTERISTICS

1
The Four Main Components of the Highway Mode of Transportation
+
Driver Pedestrian Vehicle Road
Bicycle

Driver
Driver Characteristics (1) Perception-Reaction Process (2) Older Driver’ Characteristics (3)

Driver Characteristics (1)

It is important that traffic engineers have some fundamental knowledge of visual perception as well as of hearing
perception.

The principal characteristics of the eye are visual acuity, peripheral vision, colour vision, glare vision and
recovery, and depth perception.

The ear receives sound stimuli, which is important to drivers only when warning sounds, usually given out by
emergency vehicles, are to be detected.
 Perception- Reaction Process (2)
1. Perception: The driver sees a control
device, warning sign, or object on road.

2. Identification: The driver identifies the

The actual distance
travels before coming to
object or control device.
rest;
= 1+2 +3+4 + Distance
3. Emotion: The driver decides what action travelled during the actual
to take. braking manoeuvre

4. The driver actually executes the action.

 Older Driver’ Characteristics (3)

• As one grows older, his or her sensory and physical functioning ability declines.

• These are include reduced visual acuity, ability to see at night, and flexibility and
motion range.

• It is important that traffic engineers consider these diminished characteristics

Driver Error:
40 percent of all traffic accidents involves driver error.

 Misjudgment by confusing information (sign, control device, traffic

situation, information from other drivers etc)

 Decreased performance by alcohol and drugs

 Speed: reduce visual field, restrict peripheral vision, limit time to receive
and process information

 Late perception & reaction time – old drivers: slower information

processing, reaction time, decision making, visual and hearing
deterioration, declined judgment ability
 Pedestrian

Pedestrian Characteristics may influence the design and location of pedestrian

control devices.

A part from visual and hearing characteristics, walking characteristics play a

major part in design of some of these controls. For example walking speeds
between 0.9 and 2.4 m/s. Normally a value of 1.2 m/s is used for design
purposes.
 Vehicle Vehicle
Characteristics
Static Characteristics Kinematic Characteristics Dynamic
Characteristics INVOLVE THE MOTION
INVOLVE THE FORCES
INCLUDE THE VEHICL’S WEIGHT OF THE VEHICLE
The primary element among THAT CAUSE THE MOTION
AND SIZE
kinematic characteristics is OF THE VEHICLE
The size of the design vehicle is an
the acceleration capability of The three major sources of
important factor in the determination of
the vehicle. Acceleration vehicle resistance are;
design standards for physical
capability is important in 1. Aerodynamic resistance
components of the highway. I.e. Lane
width, shoulder width, length and width of some traffic operations;
• Passing manoeuvres 2. Rolling resistance
parking bays and length of vertical
curves. • Gap acceptance
• Freeway ramps 3. Grade resistance
The axle weight of the vehicles expected
on highway are important when • Passing lanes
pavement depths and maximum grades
are being determined.
 Static Characteristics
𝑳𝑵
𝑾 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 + 𝟐𝟑𝑵+36
𝑵−𝟏
Where; W = Overall gross weight (calculated to the nearest 230 Kg)
L = The distance between extreme of any group of two or more consequent axles (m)
N = Number of axles in the group under consideration

In this
L
example
N=4 axles
Distance between the front
single axle and the first set
of tandem axels

Example of a Five Axles Truck

 Application 1
Estimate Allowable Gross Weight of a Truck
• A 5-axle truck
• Distance between the front single axle and the first set of tandem
axles = 6 m
• Distance between the first set of the tandem axle and the back set of
tandem axle = 15 m
If the overall gross weight of the truck is 36,100 Kg, determine wether
this truck satisfies Weight Regulation.
 Design Vehicle

Another key control factor in geometric design are the physical characteristics of
various vehicles using the highway.

Four general classes of design vehicles have been established in Green Book

(1) Passenger car (passenger cars of all sizes, sport/utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and pickup trucks)

(2) Buses (inter-city motor coaches, city transit, school, articulated buses)

(3) Trucks (single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, truck tractors with semitrailers in combination with
full trailers).

(4) Recreational vehicles (motor homes, cars with camper trailers, cars with boat trailers, motor homes with boat trailers,
motor homes pulling cars).
Design Vehicles

Typical design vehicles (source: adapted from NAASRA, 1986, page)

 In practice, vehicles normally do not follow a circular curve when turning. For design purposes,
turning templates for different types of design vehicles turning through various angles on different
radii are available

Design semi-trailer turning path (source: NAASRA, 1986, page 4)

 Kinematic Characteristics
The fundamental relationship connecting force and acceleration is given by the equation;
𝐹 =𝑚 ×𝑎 (1)

Force
(N) Mass Acceleration (m/s2)
(Kg)
If a is considered constant, then
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑎 (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 (3)
𝑣0 0
𝑣 = 𝑣0+ 𝑎𝑡 (4)
Also
𝑑𝑥
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 (5)
0 0
𝑡
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (6)
0
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 (7)
2

Final and initial speeds(m/s)

Sub. (4) into (7)
𝑣2−𝑣02
𝑥= (8)
2𝑎

Distance (m) acceleration (m/s2)

To account for the effect of grade Eq. 8 is modified as,

𝑣0 2
𝑥= (9)
𝑎
2𝑔 𝑔
±𝐺
Application 2
• A truck travelling at 40 (km/h)
• At time t0 and at a distance 18 (m) the truck begins to slow
down by decelerating 4.27 (m/s2)
• Will the truck be able to stop at time?
 Nonuniform Acceleration
In real-world the lower the speed the higher the acceleration rates that can be obtained;
𝑑𝑣
• = 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑣 (10)
𝑑𝑡
𝛼
𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 is the maximum
𝛽
possible speed

Following further steps ;

𝛼 − 𝛽𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡
𝑣= 1−𝑒 + 𝑣0𝑒 (11)
𝛽

• The equation od distance as a function of time is;

𝛼𝑡 𝛼 − 𝛽𝑡 𝑣0 − 𝛽𝑡
𝑥= - 1−𝑒 + 1−𝑒 (12)
𝛽 𝛽2 𝛽
• And the acerbation – time relationship is;

𝑑𝑣 − 𝛽𝑡
= (𝛼 − 𝛽𝑣0) 𝑒 (13)
𝑑𝑡
 Application 3
• An Impatient car driver stuck behind a slow-moving truck traveling at 32
(Km/h)
• The driver decides to overtake the truck
𝑑𝑣
• The acceleration characteristic of the car id given by; = 0.912 − 0.04𝑣
𝑑𝑡
• Where v is the speed (m/s), and t is the time (sec)
1. What is the acceleration after 2, 3, 10 and 120 seconds
2. What is the maximum speed attainable by the car?
3. When will the acieration of the car approach zero?
4. How far will the car travelled in 120 seconds?
 Application 4

• The impatient driver in application 3 approaches an intersection controlled by a

two –way stop sign.
• The through traffic is quite heavy, with an average gap of 5 sec.
• If this driver can achieve an acceleration of 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 =0.912−0.04𝑣 m/sec2 and his
perception-reaction time is 0.75
• Assuming that the width of the intersection is 7.3 (m) and his car is 6.2 (m)
Determine if he can clear the intersection
 Dynamic Characteristics
No matter how much force a vehicle’s engine makes available at the roadway surface, there is a
point beyond which additional force merely results the spinning of tyres and does not overcome
resistance or accelerate the vehicle.

Tractive Effort and Resistance

Tractive Resistance is defined Tractive effort is simply the force

as the force impending vehicle available , at the roadway surface , to
motion and expressed in (N). perform work and is expressed at
(1) (N). (2)

Tractive effort and resistance are the two primary opposing forces that
determine the straight-line performance of road vehicles
1. Tractive Resistance
Along the vehicle’s longitudinal axis:
Ff + Fr = ma + Ra + Rrf + Rrr + Rg (14)

• Simplified equation:
• Let F = Ff + Fr
• And Rr = Rrf + Rrr
• Then

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 + 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒓𝒍 + 𝑹𝒈 (𝟏𝟓)
 
Ra  CD Af V ............(16)
2

2
Aerodynamics resistance originates from a number of sources:
(1) The primary source (85% of Ra) is the turbulent flow of air around the vehicle
body. It is a function of the shape of the vehicle, particularly to the rear portion,
which has been shown to be the major source of air turbulence.

(2) To a much lesser extent (12%) the friction of the air passing over the body of the
vehicle contributes to resistance.

(3) Approximately 3% can be attributed to air flow through vehicle components such
as radiators and air vents.
 Aerodynamic Resistance
The power (P Ra) required to overcome the
aerodynamic resistance

PRa  C D A f V ..........(17)
3

2
 Grade Resistance

• Grade resistance is simply the gravitational force resisting vehicle motion:

𝑹𝒈 = 𝑾 sin 𝜽𝒈 (18)
• Highway grades are usually small, so that

• sin (qg)= tan (qg) = H/L = G

𝑹𝒈 = 𝑾 sin 𝜽𝒈 = 𝑾𝑮 (𝟏𝟗)
Rolling Resistance

V
f r  0.01(1  )...........(20)
45
Rolling Resistance
• 𝑅𝑟𝑙 = 𝑓𝑟𝑙 × 𝑊 × cos 𝜃𝑔…………….(21)
• For most cases, qg is very small, so it is safe to assume that cos (qg)=1
• 𝑅𝑟𝑙=𝑓𝑟𝑙×𝑊……………………………. (22)
• 𝑃𝑅𝑟𝑙 = 𝑓𝑟𝑙 × 𝑊 × 𝑉………………….(23)
 Curve Resistance
When the passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on
the front wheels of the vehicle.
(0.077𝑣2𝑊)
𝑅𝑐 = 0.5 (24)
𝑔𝑅
Where;
Rc = Curve resistance (kg)
V = Vehicle speed (km/h)
W = Gross vehicle weight
G = Acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)
R = Radius of curvature (m)
 The force produced by the car should be at least
equal to the sum of the acting resistance forces.
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑟𝑙 + 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝑐 25
Horsepower delivered, P (hp);
2.91 𝑅 𝑉
𝑃= (26)
746
Where;
R = Sum of resistance to motion (N)
V = Speed of vehicle (km/h)
 Application 5

• A Passenger car travelling at a speed of 105 (km/h) on a straight road

• Grade is 5%
• Weight of the car is1800 Kg
• The cross section area of the car is 3.8 m2
• Determine the horsepower produced by the car
 2. Available Tractive Effort
No mater how much force a vehicle’s engine makes available at the roadway
surface, there is a point beyond which additional force merely results in the
spinning of tyres and does not overcome resistance or accelerate the vehicle.
For the maximum tractive effort that can be developed if the car is
a front-wheel drive we take moment about B. This will result;
𝜇𝑊 𝑙𝑟 +𝑓𝑟𝑙 /𝐿
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (27)
1+𝜇ℎ/𝐿

For the maximum tractive effort that can be developed if the car is
a rear-wheel drive we take moment about A. This will result;
𝜇𝑊 𝑙𝑓+𝑓𝑟𝑙 /𝐿
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (28)
1+𝜇ℎ/𝐿
Engine-Generated Tractive Effort
For engine design, critical factors is determining output include the shape of the
combustion chamber, the quality of air drawn into the combustion chamber during
reduction phase, the type of the fuel used, and the fuel intake design;
2𝜋×𝑀𝑒×𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑒 = (30)
1000
Where;
𝑃𝑒 = Engine-generated power in (KW),
𝑀𝑒 = Engine torque (N-m)
𝑛𝑒 = Engine speed in crankshaft revolution per second
 Application 6

• An experimental engine has a torque curve of the form 𝑀𝑒 =

𝑎𝑛𝑒 − 𝑏𝑛𝑒2, where 𝑀𝑒 is engine torque in (N-m), is engine
speed in revelation per second, a and b are unknown
parameters
• If the engine develops a maximum torque of 125 (n-m) at 3200
rev/min.
• Determine the engine’s maximum power.
 Braking Distance
W = Weight of the vehicle
F = Coefficient of friction between the tyres
and the road pavement
ϒ = Angle between the grade and the
horizontal
a = Acceleration of the vehicle when the
brakes are applied
Db = Horizontal component of distance
travelled during braking

Friction force on the vehicle = 𝑊𝑓 cos 𝛾

𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑊𝑎
𝑊 sin 𝛾 − 𝑊𝑓 cos 𝛾 =
𝑔
𝑣2
deceleration 𝑎 = −
2𝑥
 𝑊 𝑣2
𝑊 sin 𝛾 − 𝑊𝑓 cos 𝛾 = −
𝑔 2𝑥
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑥 cos 𝛾

𝑊 𝑣2
−𝑊 sin 𝛾 + 𝑊𝑓 cos 𝛾 = cos 𝛾
𝑔 2𝐷𝑏
𝑣2
= 𝑓 − tan 𝛾
2𝑔𝐷𝑏
𝑣2
𝐷𝑏 =
2𝑔 𝑓 − tan 𝛾
tan 𝛾 is the grade G;
𝑣2
𝐷𝑏 =
2𝑔 𝑓 − 𝐺
G = 9.81 (m/s2) and U is expressed in (Km/h)
𝑣2
𝐷𝑏 = 𝐷𝑏 is given in (m)
254 𝑓−𝐺
𝑣2
𝐷𝑏 is given in case of uphill 𝐷𝑏 =
254 𝑓+𝐺
A general Equation
𝒗𝟐
𝑫𝒃 = (31)
𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝒇±𝑮
Similarly in reading the spaced of a vehicle from V1 to V2 in
Km/h during the manoeuvre
𝒗𝟏𝟐−𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝑫𝒃 = 𝒂 (32)
𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝟏.𝒈±𝑮
 Application 7
• A driver travelling at 100 km/h on a freeway
• The driver intends to leave the freeway using exit ramp with a
maximum speed of 60 km/h.
• This section of the freeway has a downgrade of 3%
• At what point on the freeway should the driver step on the
brakes in order to reduce the speed to the max 60 Km/h just
before entering the ramp
 Estimate of Velocities
To estimate the speed of a vehicle just before it is involved in a crash
Step 1. Average the length of the skid marks for each tyres

Step 2. Determine the coefficient of friction f by performing trial runs at the site
under similar weather conditions. This is done by driving the vehicle at a
known speed vk and measuring the distance travelled Dk while braking vehicle
to rest. Using the general equation of braking distance:
𝑣 𝑘2
𝑓𝑘 = ±𝐺 (33)
254 𝐷𝑘
Alternatively, a value of 0.35 for a/g can be used for 𝑓𝑘 .
Step 3. Use the value of fk obtained in step 2 to estimate the unknown
velocity Vu just prior to impact; that is, the velocity at which the vehicle was
traveling just before observing the crash.
𝑣 𝑢2 𝑣 𝑢2
Eqs. (31) & (33) 𝐷𝑏 = 𝑣𝑢2 =
𝑣 𝑘2
Dk (34)
245 254
±𝐺±𝐺

1
𝐷𝑏
𝑣𝑢 = 2 𝑣k (35)
𝐷𝑘
If the vehicle involved in the accident was involving at speed v1 when the
impact took place and the speed v1 is known then using equation (31), the
unknown speed Vu just prior to the impact may be obtained from;
 𝑣𝑢2−𝑣12 𝑣𝑢2−𝑣12
𝐷𝑏 = 2
𝑣𝑘 = Dk (36)
254 ±𝐺±𝐺 𝑣 𝑘2
254𝐷𝑘

𝐷𝑏 1 2
𝑣𝑢 = 𝑣𝑘2 + 𝑣1 2 (37)
𝐷𝑘
 Application 8

• A traffic engineer measured the length of the skid marks in order

to estimate the speed of a vehicle just before it hit a light pole
• This engineer also performed trial runs;
Length of skid marks = 178 m, 180 m, 177 m, and
181 m
Speed of trial run = 48 (Km/h)
Distance travelled during trial run = 90 m
Note: Examination of the vehicle just after the crash indicated
that the speed of impact was 56 (Km/h).
Determine the unknown velocity.
 Application 9

• A car is travelling along a road at a uniform velocity when at

time zero the driver recognises a hazard
• At a moment 0.8 second later, the driver brakes (locking the
wheels). This resulted the vehicle to slid 27 (m) in the same
direction, at which time it strikes a tree at 40 (Km/h)
• The road surface is dry and f = 0.75
• The driver was travelling on a rural road with a speed limit of
90 (Km/h)
Was the Driver exceeding the speed limit?
 Tyre Friction
Tyre Friction Mechanism

Forces Acting on a Standing Tyre Forces Acting on Rolling Tyre. The

Rolling Resistance of a Tyre is the
Force Required to Pull the Tyre
Vehicle Loads are Transmitted Through the Over a Surface. Rolling Resistance
Wheels to the Tyres and then to the Road is Connected with the Bending and
Straightening of the Treat as it
Meets and Leaves the Road
Surface.
Load-carrying Capacity of Load-carrying Capacity of the
the tyre material. The Compressed Air in the tyre.
Basic Strength and The Inflation Pressure
Stiffness of the side walls Multiplied by the Constant
Account for the rest (app. Patch ate Contributes app.
15%) 85% to the Load-Carrying
Capacity of a Tyre
 Tyre Friction (Cont.)

Tyre Friction Mechanism

• A tyre that subjected to a braking action develops a sheer
or traction force between its contact patch and the road
surface
• The braking torque acting between the brake shoe and
brake drum causes the tyre to decelerate
• The velocity of the tyre circumference is less the forward
velocity of the vehicle. The difference in velocity causes the
tyre to slip over the road surface
Tyre Friction (Cont.)
Tyre Friction Mechanism (Cont.)
• A locked sliding tyre has 100% slip, and a free-rolling tyre exhibits
Zero slip. Tyre slip, ST, is given by;

𝑉𝑣−𝑉𝑇
𝑆𝑇 = (38)
𝑉𝑣
Where;
ST = Tyre Slip (%)
Vv = Vehicle Velocity(m/s)
VT = Circumference Velocity of Tyre (m/s)