Process Plant Layout

Process Plant Layout

Second Edition

Seán Moran

AMSTERDAM G BOSTON G HEIDELBERG G LONDON G NEW YORK G OXFORD G PARIS

SAN DIEGO G SAN FRANCISCO G SINGAPORE G SYDNEY G TOKYO
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 Dedication

For Marian Moran, 1941 2016

Contents

Acknowledgments xxi 2.5.12 Isometric Piping Drawings 22

2.6 Layout and the Law 25
2.6.1 Civil Law 25
Part I 2.6.2 Criminal Law 25
2.7 Parties to the Design Process 26
General Principles 2.7.1 Client/Sponsor/Operating
Company 26
1. Introduction 2.7.2 Consultant 27
1.1 What Kind of a Book Is This? 3 2.7.3 Process EPC Company 27
1.2 Why a New Book on Layout 2.7.4 Mechanical and Electrical EPC
Design Is Needed 3 Company 27
1.3 What Is New in This Book? 4 2.7.5 Process Design Houses 27
1.4 How Is the Book Structured? 4 2.8 Liaison Between Disciplines 27
1.5 What Is Layout Design? 5 2.8.1 Mechanical Engineering 28
1.6 Terminology 6 2.8.2 Piping Engineering (“Pipers”) 28
1.7 Stages of Layout Design 7 2.8.3 Electrical Engineering 28
1.8 Hazard Assessment 7 2.8.4 Instrument Engineering 28
1.9 A Note on Calculations and Spacings 8 2.8.5 Software Engineering 28
Further Reading 8 2.8.6 Civil/Structural Engineering
and Architects 29
2. The Discipline of Layout in Context 2.8.7 Installation, Commissioning,
and Validation 29
2.1 General 9 2.8.8 Procurement and Inspection 29
2.2 Abbreviations/Legislation 2.8.9 Process Engineering 29
and Standards/Terminology 10 2.9 Liaison Outside the Design Team 30
2.2.1 Abbreviations 10 2.9.1 Regulatory Authorities 30
2.2.2 Relevant Standards and Codes 11 2.9.2 Emergency Services 31
2.2.3 Terminology 11 2.9.3 Transport 31
2.3 The Importance of Layout 13 2.9.4 Quality Assurance 31
2.4 General Design Considerations in 2.9.5 Publicity and the Press 31
Layout 13 2.9.6 Insurance 31
2.5 Project Deliverables 15 2.9.7 Equipment Suppliers 31
2.5.1 Design Basis and Philosophies 15 2.9.8 Raw Material Suppliers and
2.5.2 Specification 16 Product End Users 32
2.5.3 Process Flow Diagram 16 2.9.9 Utility Suppliers 32
2.5.4 Piping and Instrumentation 2.9.10 Waste Disposal Facility
Diagram 16 Suppliers 32
2.5.5 Equipment List/Schedule 19 2.9.11 Construction Companies 32
2.5.6 Functional Design Specification 20 2.9.12 Commissioning Team 32
2.5.7 General Arrangement Drawings 20 2.9.13 Operating and Maintenance
2.5.8 Cost Estimate 20 Personnel 32
2.5.9 Datasheets 22 2.10 Relation of Layout to Other
2.5.10 HAZOP Study 22 Activities 33
2.5.11 Zoning Study/Hazardous Area 2.11 Layout and Project Planning
Classification 22 Control 34

vii
viii Contents

3. Site Layout Principles 5.2.2 Standards and Codes 67

5.2.3 Terminology 67
3.1 General 37 5.3 The Project Life Cycle 68
3.2 Abbreviations/Legislation, Standards 5.4 The Organization of Conceptual Design 70
and Codes of Practice/Terminology 39 5.5 The Organization of Front End
3.2.1 Abbreviations 39 Engineering Design 70
3.2.2 Standards and Codes 40 5.6 The Organization of Detailed Design 71
3.3 Design Considerations 41 5.7 The Organization of Design for
3.4 Segregation 43 Construction 72
3.5 Emergencies 44 5.8 The Organization of Post Construction
3.5.1 Access 44 Design 73
3.5.2 Control 44 5.8.1 Site Level Redesign 73
3.5.3 Water 45 5.8.2 Posthandover Optimization 73
3.6 Central Facilities 45
3.7 Pollution Abatement 46
3.7.1 Solids 46
3.7.2 Liquid 46 6. Methods for Layout, Conception,
3.7.3 Gas 47 and Development
3.8 Transportation 47
6.1 General 75
3.9 Security 48
6.2 Abbreviations/Standards and
3.10 Environmental Aspects 49
Codes/Terminology 76
3.11 Geographical Factors 52
6.2.1 Abbreviations 76
3.12 Site Selection 52
6.2.2 Standards and Codes 76
Further Reading 54
6.2.3 Terminology 76
6.3 Design Reviews 76
6.3.1 Informal Design Reviews 76
4. Plot Layout Principles 6.3.2 Formal Design Reviews 77
4.1 General 55 6.4 Economic Optimization 78
4.2 Abbreviations/Standards 6.5 Rating Classification Methods 78
and Codes/Terminology 56 6.5.1 Area Classification (Electrical) 78
4.2.1 Abbreviations 56 6.5.2 Restricted Access Zone
4.2.2 Standards and Codes 56 Classification 79
4.2.3 Terminology 58 6.5.3 Classification of Flammable
4.3 Process Considerations 59 Liquid Storage Facilities 80
4.4 Economic Considerations 59 6.5.4 Classification of Firefighting
4.5 Operational Considerations 59 Equipment 80
4.6 Maintenance Considerations 59 6.5.5 Spacings by Mond Index 80
4.7 Safety and Emergency Considerations 60 6.6 Mathematical Modeling 80
4.8 Construction Considerations 60 6.7 Software 81
4.9 Appearance 60 6.8 Critical Examination Review 81
4.10 Future Expansion 61 6.9 Combined Application of Methods:
4.11 Considerations for Solids Handling Plant 61 Base Case 82
4.12 Plot Buildings 61 6.9.1 Conceptual/FEED Layout
4.13 Forming Plots 62 Methodology 82
4.14 Plot Layout Rules of Thumb 62 6.9.2 Detailed Layout Methodology 82
Further Reading 63 6.9.3 “For Construction” Layout
Methodology 83

5. Planning of Layout Activities

5.1 General 65
7. Layout Analogues and Visual Aids
5.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes 7.1 General 85
of Practice/Terminology 66 7.2 Abbreviations/Standards and
5.2.1 Abbreviations 66 Codes/Terminology 85
Contents ix

7.2.1 Abbreviations 85 8.7 Hazard Mitigation 120

7.2.2 Standards and Codes 85 8.7.1 Inherent Safety 120
7.2.3 Terminology 86 8.7.2 Separation of Source
7.3 Coordinate Dimensioning 86 and Target (Receptor) 121
7.4 Drawings 87 8.7.3 Protection of Target 121
7.4.1 Site-Wide General Arrangement 8.7.4 Containment of Hazard
(GA) Drawings 88 at Source 122
7.4.2 Plot GA Drawings 88 8.8 Minor Leaks and Area Classification 124
7.4.3 Piping and Arrangement Study 8.8.1 Minor and Major Hazard
Drawings 90 Assessment 124
7.4.4 Piping General Arrangement 8.8.2 Minor Hazards 124
Drawings 92 8.8.3 Sources of Minor Loss 124
7.4.5 Piping Isometrics 93 8.8.4 Targets 125
7.4.6 Miscellaneous Drawings 96 8.8.5 Design Steps 125
7.5 Models 96 8.8.6 Extension From Electrical
7.5.1 Cutouts 96 Area Classification 126
7.5.2 Block Models 97 8.8.7 ERPG/WEEL Handbook
7.6 Photography 97 Toxicity Zone Classification 129
7.7 Computer Models 98 Further Reading 129

8. Hazard Assessment of Plant Layout

8.1 General 101 Part II
8.2 Abbreviations/Standards
and Codes/Terminology 102
Detailed Site and Plot Layout
8.2.1 Abbreviations 102
8.2.2 Standards and Codes 103
9. Transportation
8.2.3 Terminology 104 9.1 General 133
8.3 Relevant Hazards 104 9.2 Abbreviations/Standards
8.3.1 Release of Material 105 and Codes/Terminology 133
8.3.2 Behavior of Material at Release 105 9.2.1 Standards and Codes 133
8.3.3 Vapor Dispersion in the Open 106 9.2.2 Terminology 134
8.3.4 Vapor Dispersion in Buildings 107 9.3 Design Considerations 134
8.3.5 Fire and Explosion Hazards 108 9.4 Site Emergencies 135
8.3.6 Comparison of Flammable 9.5 Storage Location 136
and Toxic Hazards 108 9.6 Roads and Parking Areas 136
8.4 Implications for Layout 109 9.7 Rail Tracks 137
8.4.1 Ideal Approach 109 9.8 Docks and Wharves 137
8.4.2 Current Approach 110 9.9 Case Studies 138
8.4.3 Accident Modeling 111 9.9.1 Texas City Disaster, Texas City,
8.5 Appropriate Criteria 111 United States, April 16, 1947 138
8.5.1 Criteria for Blast Pressure 9.9.2 The “Havkong” Incident at Braefoot
Damage 111 Bay Terminal, Aberdour, Fife,
8.5.2 Criteria for Flammable Limits 112 United Kingdom, 1993 138
8.5.3 Criteria for Toxic Limits 112 9.9.3 Railcar Shunt Causes Propylene
8.5.4 Criteria for Exposure to Thermal Release 139
Radiation 113 9.9.4 The Camelford Incident, Camelford,
8.5.5 Risk Criteria 114 Cornwall, United Kingdom,
8.6 Hazard Assessment Procedure 115 July 6, 1988 139
8.6.1 Conceptual/FEED Layout 116 9.9.5 Truck Driver Trapped in Cabin
8.6.2 Detailed Layout 118 Door, Singapore, Early C21 140
8.6.3 Design for Construction Layout 120 Further Reading 140
x Contents

10. Bulk Fluid Storage 11.5 Closed Warehouses 169

11.5.1 Building Layout 169
10.1 General 141 11.5.2 Filling Equipment 170
10.2 Abbreviations/Standards 11.5.3 Reclaiming Equipment 170
and Codes/Terminology 141 11.6 Bunker Storage 171
10.2.1 Abbreviations 141 11.6.1 Bunker Construction 173
10.2.2 Standards and Codes 141 11.6.2 Filling Equipment 173
10.2.3 Terminology 143 11.6.3 Discharge Equipment 173
10.3 Design Considerations 143 11.7 Bulk Solids Outloading Plant 173
10.3.1 Atmospheric Tank Storage 144 11.7.1 Road Outloading 174
10.3.2 Pressurized Tank Storage 144 11.7.2 Rail Outloading 176
10.4 Location 145 11.7.3 Sea Outloading 176
10.5 Tank Size 147 11.8 Case Studies 177
10.6 Tank Spacings 147 11.8.1 Metal Dust Flash Fires
10.7 Bund Areas 147 and Hydrogen Explosion,
10.7.1 Liquids 147 Hoeganaes Corporation,
10.7.2 Gases 149 Gallatin, Tennessee, May 27,
10.8 Bund and Tank Construction 150 2011 177
10.9 Pipes and Pumps 150 11.8.2 Grain Elevator Explosion,
10.10 Access Within Bunds 151 Bartlett Grain Co., Kansas
10.11 Loading Areas 151 City, Missouri, October 2011 177
10.12 Outdoor Drum Storage 153 Further Reading 178
10.12.1 Stack Size 153
10.12.2 Stack Segregation 153
10.12.3 Firefighting 154
10.13 Case Studies 154 12. Warehouse Storage
10.13.1 Boston Molasses Disaster,
Boston, United States, 12.1 General 179
January 15, 1919 154 12.2 Abbreviations/Codes
10.13.2 Fire in a Crude Oil Storage and Standards/Terminology 180
Tank, BP Oil, Dalmeny, 12.2.1 Abbreviations 180
Scotland, June 11, 1987 155 12.2.2 Codes and Standards 180
10.13.3 Gas Release at the Bulk 12.2.3 Terminology 180
Terminals Complex, Chicago, 12.3 Design Considerations 180
Illinois, United States, 12.3.1 Goods Inward 180
April 26, 1974 155 12.3.2 Storage 181
10.13.4 Rupture of a Liquid Nitrogen 12.3.3 Goods Outward 183
Storage Tank, Japan, 12.4 Case Studies 184
August 28, 1992 156 12.4.1 BASF, Wilton, Teesside,
United Kingdom,
October 9, 1995 184
12.4.2 The Fire and Explosions
11. Bulk Solids Storage
at B&R Hauliers, Salford,
11.1 General 157 United Kingdom,
11.2 Terminology 157 September 25, 1982 185
11.3 Bulk Solids Intake 159 12.4.3 Fire at Universal Freight
11.3.1 Road Intake 159 Warehouse, Yorkshire,
11.3.2 Rail Intake 160 United Kingdom,
11.3.3 Sea Intake 163 February13, 1982 185
11.4 Open Stockpiles 164 12.4.4 Fire at Allied Colloids Limited,
11.4.1 Location 164 Low Moor, Bradford,
11.4.2 Size of Stockpile 165 United Kingdom,
11.4.3 Site Preparation 165 July 21, 1992 186
11.4.4 Stockpile Equipment 165 Further Reading 186
Contents xi

13. Pollution Control 14. Utilities I: General

13.1 General 187 14.1 General 207
13.2 Abbreviations/Standards 14.2 Abbreviations/Codes
and Codes/Terminology 187 and Standards/Terminology 207
13.2.1 Abbreviations 187 14.2.1 Abbreviations 207
13.2.2 Standards and Codes 187 14.2.2 Codes and Standards 207
13.2.3 Terminology 188 14.2.3 Terminology 207
13.3 Design Considerations 188 14.3 Design Considerations 208
13.3.1 Gaseous Pollution Control 189 14.3.1 Degree of Centralization
13.3.2 Liquid Pollution Control 189 of Utilities 208
13.3.3 Solid Pollution Control 192 14.3.2 Electrical Distribution 208
13.3.4 Nuisance Control 193 14.3.3 Other Utilities 208
13.4 Types of Pollution Control 14.4 Types of Utilities 208
Technology 195 14.4.1 Electricity 208
13.4.1 Air Pollution Control 195 14.4.2 Other 209
13.4.2 Liquid Pollution Control 195 14.5 Location 209
13.4.3 Solid Pollution Control 199 14.6 Maintenance 210
13.5 Location 199 14.6.1 Electricity 210
13.5.1 Gaseous Waste Treatment 14.7 Piping and Cabling 211
Plants 199 14.8 Miscellaneous 211
13.5.2 Liquid Waste Storage and 14.8.1 Compressed Air 211
Treatment 200 14.9 Case Studies 211
13.5.3 Solid Waste Storage and 14.9.1 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Treatment 201 Disaster, Fukushima, Japan,
13.6 Spacing 201 March 11, 2011 212
13.7 Arrangement 202 14.9.2 Thunderstorm at a Refinery,
13.8 Support 202 Australia, 2002 212
13.9 Platforms 202 14.9.3 Explosion at Kaiser Aluminum
13.9.1 Gaseous Waste Treatment 202 and Chemical Corporation,
13.9.2 Liquid Waste Treatment 203 Gramercy, Louisiana,
13.10 Maintenance 203 United States, July 1999 212
13.11 Piping 203 14.9.4 Sulfur Oxides Release, General
13.11.1 Gaseous Waste Treatment 203 Chemical Corp., Richmond,
13.11.2 Liquid Waste Treatment 203 California, United States,
13.12 Instrumentation 204 May 2001 213
13.13 Miscellaneous 204
13.14 Case Studies 204
13.14.1 Tailings Pond Dam Failure, 15. Utilities II: Water and Steam
Baia Mare, Romania,
January 30, 2001 204 15.1 General 215
13.14.2 Pipeline Failure, 15.2 Abbreviations/Standards
Mill Woods, Canada, and Codes/Terminology 215
March 1976 204 15.2.1 Abbreviations 215
13.14.3 AZF, Toulouse, France, 15.2.2 Standards and Codes 215
September 21, 2001 205 15.2.3 Terminology 216
13.14.4 Poor Cold Vent Location Leads to 15.3 Design Considerations 216
Hazardous Process, 15.3.1 Water: General Use 216
United Kingdom, 1998 205 15.3.2 Water: Firefighting 217
13.14.5 Effluent Treatment Plant 15.3.3 Water: Cooling 218
Explosion and Fire, 15.3.4 Boiler Water 219
Shell Bacton Gas Terminal, 15.3.5 Purified and Ultrapure
Norfolk, United Kingdom, Water 220
February 2008 205 15.3.6 Steam 220
xii Contents

15.4 Types of Utilities 220 16.4.2 Explosion at Texas City Refinery,

15.4.1 Water 220 Texas, United States, March 23,
15.4.2 Steam 221 2005 248
15.5 Location 221 Further Reading 249
15.5.1 General 221
15.5.2 Cooling Water 221
15.6 Arrangement 222
15.7 Support 222
17. Construction and Layout
15.7.1 Steam Pipework 222 17.1 General 251
15.8 Maintenance 222 17.2 Abbreviations/Standards
15.9 Piping 222 and Codes/Terminology 253
15.9.1 Main Steam Lines 222 17.2.1 Abbreviations 253
15.9.2 Drain Points and 17.2.2 Standards and Codes 253
Condensate Removal 223 17.2.3 Terminology 253
15.9.3 Steam Branch Lines 226 17.3 Design Considerations 253
15.9.4 Steam Separators 228 17.3.1 Stick-Built Construction 254
15.10 Miscellaneous 236 17.3.2 Modular Construction 256
15.10.1 Fire Pumps 236 17.3.3 Standard Packaged Plants 263
15.10.2 Condensate Pumping 236 17.3.4 Disposable Modular Plant 264
15.10.3 Air Venting and Heat Losses 17.4 Case Studies 264
From Steam Pipework 240 17.4.1 Natural Gas Pipeline Puncture,
15.11 Case Studies 241 San Francisco, United States,
15.11.1 Explosion and Fire August 25, 1981 264
at Chemstar Ltd., 17.4.2 Release of Hydrofluoric Acid
Stalybridge, From Marathon Petroleum
United Kingdom, Refinery, Texas, United States,
September 6, 1981 241 October 30, 1987 265
15.11.2 Pemex LPG Terminal, Further Reading 265
Mexico City, Mexico,
November 19, 1984 242
15.11.3 Three Mile Island Reactor
Meltdown, Pennsylvania,
18. Details of Plot Layout
United States, 18.1 General 267
March 28, 1979 242 18.2 Abbreviations/Standards
and Codes/Terminology 268
18.2.1 Abbreviations 268
18.2.2 Standards and Codes 268
16. Central Services 18.2.3 Terminology 268
16.1 General 245 18.3 Choice of Plant Structure 268
16.2 Standards and Codes/Terminology 245 18.4 Economic Savings 269
16.2.1 Standards and Codes 245 18.4.1 Pumps and Elevation 269
16.2.2 Terminology 245 18.4.2 Minimizing Connections 270
16.3 Design Considerations 246 18.4.3 Saving Space and Structures 270
16.3.1 Amenities 246 18.4.4 Materials for the Structure 270
16.3.2 Laboratories 246 18.4.5 Foundations 271
16.3.3 Workshops and Stores 247 18.5 Safety Details 271
16.3.4 Emergency Services and 18.5.1 Operator Protection 271
Control 247 18.5.2 Spillage Containment 272
16.4 Case Studies 248 18.5.3 Vibration 273
16.4.1 Explosion and Fires 18.5.4 Heating Stresses 273
at Phillips 66, Pasadena, 18.5.5 Accidental Impact 273
United States, 18.6 Operational Requirements 274
October 23, 1989 248 18.6.1 Horizontal Access 274
Contents xiii

18.6.2 Vertical Access 276 Part III

18.6.3 Lagging and Access
18.7 Maintenance Requirements
278
278
Detailed Layout of Equipment
18.8 Firefighting and Escape 279
18.8.1 Firefighting 279
20. Tanks and Drums
18.8.2 Escape Routes 279 20.1 General 303
18.8.3 Consultation 280 20.2 Abbreviations/Standards
18.9 Appearance 280 and Codes/Terminology 306
18.9.1 Pipeways 280 20.2.1 Abbreviation 306
18.9.2 Towers 280 20.2.2 Standards and Codes 306
18.9.3 Exchangers and Pumps 281 20.2.3 Terminology 306
18.9.4 Sequences of Plant 281 20.3 Types of Vessel 306
18.10 Control Room 281 20.3.1 Tanks 307
18.10.1 Siting 281 20.3.2 Drums 307
18.10.2 Panel Arrangement 282 20.4 Spacing 307
18.11 Other Personnel Buildings 283 20.5 Arrangement 308
18.12 Case Studies 284 20.6 Support 308
18.12.1 Explosion and Fires at the 20.7 Platforms 308
Texaco Refinery, Milford 20.8 Maintenance 309
Haven, United Kingdom, 20.9 Piping 310
July 24, 1994 284 20.10 Nozzles 310
18.12.2 Shunt Derails Propane 20.11 Instrumentation 310
Railcars, Alberta, 20.12 Case Studies 311
Canada, 1978 284 20.12.1 Fire at Feyzin Refinery,
Further Reading 285 Lyon, France,
January 4, 1966 311
20.12.2 Fire at Hertfordshire Oil
19. Layout Within Buildings
Storage Terminal,
19.1 General 287 Buncefield, United Kingdom,
19.2 Abbreviations/Standards December 11, 2005 311
and Codes/Terminology 288 20.12.3 Explosions at Staveley
19.2.1 Abbreviations 288 Chemicals Limited,
19.2.2 Standards and Codes 289 Derbyshire, United Kingdom,
19.2.3 Terminology 290 June 27, 1982 312
19.3 Optimum Equipment Arrangements 290 20.12.4 MIC Release at Union Carbide
19.4 Operational and Emergency India Ltd., Bhopal, India,
Arrangements 291 December 3, 1984 312
19.5 Piping and Cabling 291 Further Reading 313
19.6 Ducting and Headroom 293
19.7 Maintenance 293
19.8 Planning Pipes, Ducts,
and Equipment Removal 295
21. Furnaces and Fired Equipment
19.9 Safety in Buildings 295 21.1 General 315
19.10 Illumination and Appearance 297 21.2 Abbreviations/Standards
19.11 Case Studies 297 and Codes/Terminology 315
19.11.1 Warehouse Fire 298 21.2.1 Abbreviations 315
19.11.2 Dust Explosion at West 21.2.2 Standards and Codes 315
Pharmaceutical Services, 21.2.3 Terminology 316
Inc., Kinston, North Carolina, 21.3 Design Considerations 316
United States, January 2003 298 21.4 Types of Fired Equipment 317
19.11.3 World Trade Center Attacks, 21.5 Location 318
New York, United States, 21.6 Spacing 319
September 11, 2001 299 21.7 Arrangement 319
Further Reading 299 21.8 Support 320
xiv Contents

21.9 Platforms 320 23. Heat Exchangers

21.10 Maintenance 320
21.11 Piping 320 23.1 General 339
21.12 Nozzles 321 23.2 Abbreviations/Standards
21.13 Instrumentation 322 and Codes/Terminology 339
21.14 Miscellaneous 322 23.2.1 Abbreviations 339
21.15 Case Studies 322 23.2.2 Standards and Codes 339
21.15.1 Fire at Conoco Ltd., 23.2.3 Terminology 340
Humber Refinery, South 23.3 Design Considerations 340
Killingholme, Immingham, 23.4 Types of Exchangers 340
United Kingdom, 23.5 Location 341
April 16, 2001 322 23.6 Spacing 341
21.15.2 Boiler Explosion During 23.7 Arrangement 342
Plant Restart, Singapore, 23.8 Support 345
Early 21st Century 322 23.9 Platforms 345
Further Reading 323 23.10 Maintenance 345
23.11 Piping 345
23.11.1 General 345
23.11.2 Steam-Heated Exchangers 347
22. Distillation Columns and Towers 23.12 Nozzles 351
22.1 General 325 23.13 Instrumentation 351
22.2 Abbreviations/Standards and 23.14 Case Studies 351
Codes/Terminology 325 23.14.1 Heat Exchanger Rupture
22.2.1 Abbreviations 325 and Ammonia Release,
22.2.2 Standards and Codes 325 Goodyear Tire and Rubber
22.2.3 Terminology 325 Company, Houston, Texas,
22.3 Design Considerations 325 United States, June 11, 2008 351
22.4 Types of Towers 326 23.14.2 Catastrophic Rupture of Heat
22.4.1 Packed Towers 326 Exchanger, Tesoro Refinery,
22.4.2 Trayed Towers 326 Anacortes, Washington,
22.4.3 Vacuum Towers 327 United States, April 2, 2010 352
22.4.4 Stripper Columns 327 23.14.3 Gas Explosion, Esso Natural
22.4.5 Multieffect Distillation 327 Gas Plant, Longford,
22.5 Location 327 Victoria, Australia,
22.6 Spacing 327 September 25, 1998 352
22.7 Arrangement 327 23.14.4 Explosion of Condenser
22.8 Support 329 During Chemical Process,
22.9 Platforms 329 Singapore, Early 21st
22.10 Maintenance 329 Century 353
22.11 Piping 333 Further Reading 353
22.12 Nozzles 333
22.13 Instrumentation 335
22.14 Miscellaneous 335
24. Reactors
22.15 Case Studies 337
22.15.1 Explosion and Fire at DSM, 24.1 General 355
Beek, The Netherlands, 24.2 Abbreviations/Standards
November 7, 1975 337 and Codes/Terminology 357
22.15.2 Fire at Hickson & Welch 24.2.1 Abbreviations 357
Limited, Castleford, 24.2.2 Standards and Codes 357
United Kingdom, 24.2.3 Terminology 357
September 21, 1992 337 24.3 Design Considerations 357
Further Reading 338 24.3.1 Batch Stirred Tank Reactors 358
Contents xv

24.3.2 Continuous Stirred Tank 25.10.3 Mixing and Heating

Reactors 361 a Flammable Liquid in
24.3.3 Fixed-Bed Reactors 361 an Open Top Tank,
24.3.4 Fluidized Bed Reactors 361 Universal Form Clamp, Inc.,
24.4 Types of Reactor 362 Bellwood, Illinois,
24.5 Location 362 United States, June 14, 2006 375
24.6 Arrangement 362 Further Reading 376
24.7 Support 362
24.8 Platforms 363
24.9 Maintenance 363 26. Filters
24.10 Piping 363
26.1 General 377
24.11 Nozzles 364
26.2 Design Considerations 377
24.12 Instrumentation 364
26.3 Types of Filters 377
24.13 Miscellaneous 364
26.3.1 Line Filters and Strainers 377
24.13.1 Reactor Safety 364
26.3.2 Batch Filters 378
24.13.2 Aging 365
26.3.3 Continuous Filters 381
24.13.3 Heating 365
26.3.4 Cross-Flow Membrane
24.13.4 Cooling 366
Filtration 381
24.14 Case Studies 366
26.3.5 Rotary Vacuum Filter 382
24.14.1 Polymerization Runaway
26.4 Location 384
Reaction, United Kingdom,
26.5 Spacing 384
May 1992 366
26.6 Arrangement 384
24.14.2 ICMESA Chemical Company,
26.7 Platforms 385
Seveso, Italy, July 10, 1976 367
26.8 Maintenance 385
24.14.3 Explosion and Fire at Shell,
26.9 Piping 385
Stanlow, United Kingdom,
26.10 Nozzles 386
March 20, 1990 367
26.11 Instrumentation 386
Further Reading 368
26.12 Miscellaneous 386
26.13 Case Studies 387
25. Mixers 26.13.1 Explosion in a Carboxymethyl
Cellulose Production Plant,
25.1 General 369
Nijmegen, The Netherlands,
25.2 Design Considerations 369
July 11, 2009 387
25.3 Types of Mixer 369
26.13.2 Personnel Injuries from Hot Oil
25.3.1 Dynamic Solids Mixers 369
Leak at Shell Refinery, Martinez,
25.3.2 Static Solids Mixers 371
California, United States,
25.3.3 Dynamic Liquid Mixers 371
November 8, 2005 387
25.3.4 Static Liquid Mixers 371
26.13.3 Employee Suffers Chemical
25.3.5 Mixer-Settlers 372
Burns While Changing Filter,
25.3.6 Gas Liquid Mixers 372
Incon Processing LLC, Batavia,
25.4 Spacing 372
Illinois, United States,
25.5 Arrangement 372
September 13, 2008 388
25.6 Support 373
25.7 Maintenance 374
25.8 Piping 374
27. Centrifuges
25.9 Instrumentation 374
25.10 Case Studies 374 27.1 General 389
25.10.1 Unsafe Access to Lime 27.2 Standards and Codes/Terminology 389
Tank Mixer, 27.2.1 Standards and Codes 389
United Kingdom, 2015 374 27.2.2 Terminology 389
25.10.2 Sierra Chemical Co. High 27.3 Design Considerations 389
Explosives Accident, Mustang, 27.3.1 High Solids Feed 390
Nevada, United States, 27.3.2 Low Solids Feeds 390
January 7, 1998 374 27.4 Types of Centrifuge 390
xvi Contents

27.5 Location 392 29. Dryers

27.6 Spacing 393
27.7 Arrangement 393 29.1 General 419
27.8 Support 393 29.2 Abbreviations/Standards
27.9 Platforms 393 and Codes/Terminology 419
27.10 Maintenance 394 29.2.1 Abbreviations 419
27.11 Piping 394 29.2.2 Standards and Codes 419
27.12 Instrumentation 396 29.2.3 Terminology 419
27.13 Miscellaneous 396 29.3 Design Considerations 420
27.13.1 Centrifuge Safety 396 29.3.1 Product Flow 420
27.14 Case Studies 396 29.3.2 Airflow 420
27.14.1 Unbalanced Basket 29.4 Types of Dryer 420
Centrifuge Loses Shaft 396 29.4.1 Low-Airflow, Vacuum,
27.14.2 Explosion in Decanter and Freeze Dryers 420
Centrifuge, Redstone 29.4.2 Rotary Dryers 421
Arsenal, Alabama, 29.4.3 Belt Dryers 421
United States, May 5, 2010 397 29.4.4 Continuous Fluid Bed
Further Reading 397 Dryers 422
29.4.5 Batch Fluid Bed Dryers 422
29.4.6 Spray Dryers 422
29.4.7 Pneumatic or Flash Dryers 422
28. Solids Handling Plant 29.4.8 Tray and Tunnel Dryers 422
28.1 General 399 29.4.9 Evaporators 425
28.2 Abbreviations/Standards 29.4.10 Crystallizers 425
and Codes/Terminology 400 29.4.11 Aftercoolers 425
28.2.1 Abbreviation 400 29.5 Location 425
28.2.2 Standards and Codes 400 29.6 Spacing 426
28.2.3 Terminology 401 29.7 Arrangement 426
28.3 Types of Solids Handling 29.7.1 Belt Dryers 426
Equipment 401 29.7.2 Evaporators 427
28.3.1 Solids Size Reduction 401 29.7.3 Crystallizers 427
28.3.2 Solid/Solid Separators 405 29.8 Support 427
28.3.3 Gas/Solid Separators 407 29.9 Platforms 427
28.4 Location 410 29.9.1 Evaporators 427
28.5 Spacing 410 29.10 Maintenance 432
28.6 Arrangement 410 29.10.1 General 432
28.7 Support 411 29.10.2 Rotary Dryers 432
28.8 Maintenance 411 29.10.3 Spray Dryers 433
28.9 Miscellaneous 411 29.10.4 Flash Dryers 433
28.9.1 Environmental 29.10.5 Evaporators 433
Considerations 411 29.11 Instrumentation 433
28.9.2 Explosion Protection and 29.12 Miscellaneous 433
Prevention 415 29.12.1 Explosion Protection 433
28.10 Case Studies 416 29.12.2 Dryer Steam Pipework 437
28.10.1 Corn Starch Dust Explosion 29.13 Case Studies 439
at General Foods Ltd., 29.13.1 Dow Chemical Factory
Banbury, United Kingdom, Explosion, King’s Lynn, United
1981 416 Kingdom, June 27, 1976 439
28.10.2 Grain Storage Dust Explosion, 29.13.2 Benzoyl Peroxide Explosion,
Blaye, France, 1977 416 Catalyst Systems, Inc.,
28.10.3 Sverdlovsk Anthrax Disaster, Gnadenhutten, Ohio,
Sverdlovsk, Russia, United States,
March/April 1979 417 January 2, 2003 440
Further Reading 417 Further Reading 440
Contents xvii

30. Filling and Packaging 31.13.1 Lack of Flooded Suction,

Pharmaceutical Site, United
30.1 General 441 Kingdom, 2015 461
30.2 Abbreviations/Standards 31.13.2 Explosion at Aztec Catalysts,
and Codes/Terminology 441 Elyria, Ohio, United States,
30.2.1 Abbreviations 441 August 27, 1993 461
30.2.2 Standards and Codes 441 Further Reading 462
30.2.3 Terminology 441
30.3 Design Considerations 444
30.3.1 Line Layout 444 32. Compressors
30.3.2 Process and Packaging
Reconciliation 446 32.1 General 463
30.3.3 Filling Equipment 446 32.2 Abbreviation/Standards
30.3.4 Labeling 448 and Codes/Terminology 463
30.3.5 Wrapping and Palletizing 448 32.2.1 Abbreviation 463
30.3.6 Product Checking 449 32.2.2 Standards and Codes 463
30.4 Case Studies 449 32.2.3 Terminology 464
30.4.1 Fire and Explosions at Barton 32.3 Design Considerations 464
Solvents, Des Moines, Iowa, 32.4 Types of Compressors 464
United States, October 29, 32.4.1 Positive Displacement
2007 450 Compressors 464
30.4.2 Fire at North West Aerosols Ltd., 32.4.2 Rotodynamic Compressors 464
Liverpool, United Kingdom, 32.4.3 Fans 465
December 13, 2005 450 32.5 Location 465
32.6 Spacing 465
32.7 Arrangement 465
32.8 Support 467
32.9 Maintenance 467
Part IV 32.10 Piping 468
Detailed Layout: Materials 32.10.1 Positive Displacement
Transfer Systems Compressor Piping 468
32.10.2 Centrifugal Compressor
31. Pumps Piping 468
32.11 Case Studies 469
31.1 General 453 32.11.1 Reciprocating Compressor
31.2 Abbreviations/Standards Valves Destroyed by Poor
and Codes/Terminology 453 Pipework Layout, Korea,
31.2.1 Abbreviations 453 1989 469
31.2.2 Standards and Codes 453 32.11.2 Explosion and Fire, Shell
31.2.3 Terminology 454 Chemical Company, Deer
31.3 Design Considerations 454 Park, Texas, United States,
31.4 Types of Pumps 454 June 22, 1997 469
31.4.1 Centrifugal Pumps 454 Further Reading 470
31.4.2 Positive Displacement Pumps 457
31.4.3 Momentum Pumps 457
31.5 Location 457 33. Conveyors
31.6 Spacing 459
31.6.1 Centrifugal Pumps 459 33.1 General 471
31.7 Arrangement 460 33.2 Standards and Codes 471
31.8 Support 460 33.2.1 International Standards
31.9 Maintenance 460 and Codes 471
31.10 Piping 460 33.2.2 European Standards
31.11 Nozzles 461 and Codes 471
31.12 Instrumentation 461 33.2.3 British Standards and Codes 472
31.13 Case Studies 461 33.2.4 US Standards and Codes 472
xviii Contents

33.3 Design Considerations 472 34.4.3 Location 487

33.3.1 Belt Conveyors 472 34.5 Use of Piperacks 488
33.3.2 Pneumatic Conveyors 472 34.5.1 General 488
33.3.3 Vibratory Conveyors 474 34.5.2 Design Methodology 494
33.3.4 Worm Conveyors 474 34.5.3 Rules of Thumb
33.4 Types of Conveyor 474 for Piperack Design 495
33.4.1 Belt Conveyors 474 34.6 Plot Piping 498
33.4.2 Pneumatic Conveyors 474 34.6.1 General 498
33.4.3 Vibratory Conveyors 474 34.6.2 Piping Within Buildings 499
33.4.4 Worm Conveyors 476 34.7 Utility Systems 500
33.4.5 “En Masse” Flow Conveyors 34.7.1 Steam Piping and Tracing 501
and Elevators 476 34.7.2 Air Piping 501
33.4.6 Bucket Elevators 477 34.7.3 Cooling Water Piping 501
33.4.7 Other Conveyors 477 34.7.4 Fuel Piping 502
33.5 Support 477 34.7.5 Refrigerant Piping 502
33.6 Maintenance 477 34.7.6 Firefighting Water Piping 502
33.6.1 Belt Conveyors 477 34.7.7 Vent Connections 502
33.6.2 Air Slide Conveyors 478 34.7.8 Washing Down Facilities 502
33.6.3 Worm Conveyors 478 34.8 Valves and Bleed Points 502
33.6.4 En Masse Conveyors 479 34.8.1 Vents, Drains, and Sample
33.6.5 Bucket Elevators 479 Points 502
33.7 Piping 480 34.8.2 Valve Location 503
33.8 Case Studies 480 34.8.3 Shutoff Valves 503
33.8.1 Mining Disaster, Creswell 34.8.4 Throttling Valves 505
Colliery, Derbyshire, 34.8.5 Check Valves 505
United Kingdom, 34.8.6 Control Valves 505
September 26, 1950 480 34.8.7 Relief Devices 506
33.8.2 Fire at Biolab UK Ltd., 34.9 Testing and Inspection 507
Cheltenham, United Kingdom, 34.10 Case Studies 507
September 2006 481 34.10.1 Chemical Release and Fire
Further Reading 481 at the Associated Octel
Company Ltd., Ellesmere
Port, Cheshire, United
Kingdom, February 1, 1994 507
34. Piping 34.10.2 Fire at BP Oil, Grangemouth
34.1 General 483 Refinery, Falkirk, United
34.2 Abbreviations/Standards Kingdom, March 13, 1987 508
and Codes/Terminology 483 34.10.3 Pharmaceutical Process
34.2.1 Abbreviations 483 Vessel Hanging From
34.2.2 Standards and Codes 483 Pipework, United
34.2.3 Terminology 484 Kingdom, 2015 508
34.3 Design Considerations 485 34.10.4 Cyclohexane Release Due
34.3.1 Standards and Codes 485 to Cold Weather,
34.3.2 Pipe Materials Selection Chalampé, France,
and Sizing 485 December 17, 2002 508
34.3.3 Bends and Fittings 485 34.10.5 Dangerous LPG Chiller
34.3.4 Flanges 486 Layout as a Result of
34.4 Piping Layout Considerations 486 Failure to Carry
34.4.1 General 486 Out Hydraulic Analysis,
34.4.2 Maintenance Access and Asia, 2016 509
Headroom 486 Further Reading 510
Contents xix

Part V 36.7.2 Temperature Sensors 539

Detailed Layout: Other 36.7.3 Level Sensors
36.7.4 Flow Sensors
539
539
36.8 Support 539
35. Pipe Stress Analysis 36.9 Platforms 539
35.1 General 513 36.10 Maintenance 539
35.2 Abbreviations, Standards, and Codes 513 36.10.1 Flowmeters 539
35.2.1 Abbreviations 513 36.11 Piping 540
35.2.2 Standards and Codes 513 36.11.1 Orifice Plate Flowmeters 540
35.3 Design Considerations 514 36.11.2 Rotameters 540
35.3.1 Pumps 514 36.12 Nozzles 540
35.3.2 Turbines 514 36.13 Instrumentation 540
35.3.3 Compressors 514 36.14 Case Studies 540
35.3.4 Fired Heaters 515 36.14.1 Release of Chemicals From
35.3.5 Heat Exchangers 515 International Biosynthetics
35.3.6 Piping 515 Limited, Widnes, United
35.3.7 Pipe Supports 516 Kingdom, December 7,
35.4 Analysis Methods 528 1991 541
35.4.1 General Pipe Stress Analysis 528 36.14.2 Fire Due to Sight Glass Leak,
35.4.2 Flexibility Analysis of Singapore, Early 21st
Pipework 530 Century 541
35.4.3 Visual Analysis 533 36.14.3 Contact With Hydrofluoric
35.4.4 Approximate Estimation 533 Acid During Decommissioning
35.4.5 Comprehensive Calculation 533 of Pressurized Tank,
35.5 Case Studies 533 Singapore, Early 21st
35.5.1 Flixborough (Nypro UK) Century 541
Explosion, June 1, 1974 533 36.14.4 Loss of Containment
35.5.2 Operators Scalded by Hot at Elevated Flare Tower,
Liquid From Incinerator, Singapore, Early 21st
Singapore, Early 21st Century 534 Century 542
Further Reading 534 36.14.5 Explosion and Fire
at Chemical Manufacturing
Plant, Singapore, Early
36. Instrumentation 21st Century 542
Further Reading 543
36.1 General 535
36.2 Abbreviations/Standards
and Codes/Terminology 535
36.2.1 Abbreviations 535 Part VI
36.2.2 Standards and Codes 535 Appendices
36.2.3 Terminology 535
36.3 Design Considerations 535 Appendix A: CAD 547
36.4 Types of Instrument 536 Appendix B: Hazard Assessment Calculations 565
36.4.1 Sensors 536 Appendix C: Plant Separation Tables 619
36.4.2 Actuators 537 Appendix D: Variations on the Methodology 643
36.5 Location 537 Appendix E: Masterplanning 685
36.5.1 Sensors 537 Appendix F: Conversion Factors for Older
36.5.2 Actuators 538 and “British” Units 693
36.6 Spacing 538 Appendix G: Consolidated Glossary 697
36.7 Arrangement 538 Appendix H: Consolidated Codes and Standards 707
36.7.1 Pressure Sensors 538 Index 717
Acknowledgments

Producing a book like this, relevant to more sectors than any one engineer experiences, requires a large number of inter-
actions with other engineers. I discussed the content with over 250 other engineers, architects, and pipers, all of whom
in one way or another added something to the book, even if it was simply to confirm that what had been written was
complete, current, and correct.
However, a small number of people contributed very significant amounts of content toward the book, most notably
Ian Fleming at Spirax Sarco for arranging reuse of their valuable tutorial material, Glen Worrall and Jerard Marsh at
Bentley who kindly redrafted many of the first edition’s images and, not least, Richard Beale, Rob Bowen, Jim
Madden, Kieron Channon, and Peter Waite who provided invaluable assistance with the Appendices. Geoffrey Blumber
at Intergraph provided access to several key images including the striking front cover design.1
I am grateful to all of these key contributors, as I am to all of the following who assisted by reviewing chapters, con-
tributing case studies, illustrations, and so on:
Abraham Pennamon, Amanda Luxmore at WorkSafe Victoria; Andrea Crovato and Alison Patey at AVEVA; Alan
Ramsay, Alejandro Villanueva, Alejandro Ramirez De Loza, Ali Gul, Alun Rees, Basudev Kshatri, Carlo Castaldi,
Charles Ye, Chinna Devudu, Christopher Davis, Chuck Lohre, Chrit Gudde, Dave Penman, David Ellis, Douglas
McDonald, Ed Tsang at BSI; Elise Dijkhuizen Borgart, Emmanuelle Maucci-Hagey, G. Vishwanathan, Georgi Ignatov,
Humberto Barreda, Jeff Hunziker, Jim Franklin, Jithin Pellissery, John Cockburn, John Pena, Jon Brooking, Keisha
Antoine, Larbi Hammoun, Laurence Kurz-Misslin, Logan Milford, Lorenzo Montani, Ludo Declercq, Marc Enel, Mike
Rush, Mohamed Al Khusaibi, Mohan Karmarkar, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Tayyeb Javed, Mukund Chiplunkar,
Nacho Palacios, B. Paul, Peter Fletcher, Peter Karran, Peter Owoade, Pier Paolo Greco, Raghd Muhi Al-Deen Jassim,
K. Ravisankar, Richard Farnish, Rick Rhead, Roger Freestone, Sanjay Bhagat, Sarah Garwood on behalf of Chemical
Engineer magazine, Satish Inamdar, Shalija Goyal, Shree Nanguneri, Shuja Siddiqui, Steve Lancaster, Steven Colbert,
Sudershan Sivasubramanian, Tony Amato at Doosan Enpure; Tony Bird, Trish Sentance, Turky Feddah, Vetjaera
Haakuria, Virgil Strachan, Wim Dobbelaere, Yacob Banitaha, Yve Huang, Zac Meadows, Margaret Toomik at GE
Healthcare; and Edison J. Loh at Workplace Safety and Health Council Singapore.
Thanks as ever go to my publisher, Elsevier, for acquiring the rights to publish a second edition of this text and
guiding me through the process of preparing the book. I am particularly grateful to Fiona Geraghty, Cari Owen, Maria
Convey, and Lisa Jones at Elsevier as well as Claudia Flavell-White at the IChemE who was instrumental in resolving
the early copyright issues.
Finally, a special mention is due to Professor Barry Azzopardi of the University of Nottingham who first brought
Mecklenburgh’s Process Plant Layout to my attention, and gave me the hard copy of the first edition which formed the
basis of this updated version.

1. Cover image: Intergraph Drivers of Success CADWorx Runner-Up Award Winner 2014, FLSmidth (Courtesy: Intergraph).

xxi