Conventional shaet-metal roofing is of the corrugated type, with some having

various spacin of V erimps. The "antisiphon" side-lap design is also common. Metal

They are conomical because they are easy to apply and can be used with loz-cost

dcks Both the 28-gage steel and the 0.024in-thicknes minum of the 2-in.

corrugation variety can be applied on a 2 by -in. purlin deck spaced 2 ft on center.

The 2- by 4-in. purlin deck requires rafter supports only every 4 ft on center if

plied flatwise and 6 to 8 ft on center if on e. This gives a low-cost but sound

and durable roof if properly applied. Metal roofing materials are good conductors of

The gage, thickness, and weight of conventional steel roofing are given in Table

TABLE 46-15. CoRRUGATID-SIERT-STEEL Roo

heat, and insulation must be provided for enclosed w

m-type building

15.

Weight per 100 sq ft, lb

Thickness

Std. 134

cornuggation corrugation

26 wide 26" wide 2734" wide

Std. 24 Std 236

ugation

030

153

24

125

125

0.018

0.015

0.014

85
action, New York, 1959.

American Institute of Steel

AISC Steel

Shingle

fing

material

Built

roots

-12

of pitches.

ents for

Fio. 46-94. Roofing re

The quality and durability of stel roofing de largely produce on the steel roofing which of is

1s coated with a least 2 oa of zinc per sqecial coatings will require periodie mainte-

of the sheet). Sheets with standard commer ara. As good coat of rust-inhibitive paint

than a 0.021-in. thickness, preferably in nails should be used with aluminum roofing to

eventing rust. Many m of Quality. This signifies that the r

zinc coating in

foot

oz per square foot on each side

nancee depending upon the geographi

should be kept over the sheets.

,Aluminum roofing is light to handle but is we

for farm buildings. Only alu

Prevent electrolytic coToSIOn.

weaker than steel. Therefore not less

orrgation type, is recommended

the 2-i

er 24 in. of roof
side laps of 1 to 2-in.

in 26-in.-wide sheets that cov

Sheet-metal roofing is manufactur

. end lap. Deformed shank nails such as the

ns and at least 6 in.

ring type have consider rably for more roofing resista are nce sunmed to withdrawal than 46-34. plain
shanked w

nail,

be tused on slopes of less than 6 in 12. Metal roofing

should not, however, on slpes as low as in 12. Built-up roofs are made of su

ang may be

ry oF NALS REQUIRED

QuA

TARLE 46-16. TyPE, Stz, A

FOR DIyFERENT RoorING MATERIALS

pprox. pousds of

nails per 100 se

Length, in.

Roośng material

Type of nail recommended

New Over old

roofing

Over old

,. Hot-dipped galvanized

Wood sbingles,

3-44

34-44-44

5-62
Asphalta

Roll roofing.

Stab square butt..

Hex strip

Giant A

Dutch Lap.

Indians Hex..

13

13

13

15

2%

135

1M

13

13

174

Large-h

(galvanized wire nails

sha

ted hot

194

Steel:

lLead-headed or galvani

J lead washers

ated or V

-24
134

114

15

Stasdin

Aluminsm

-IAlaminum with n

etallic washers

13

2-25 00 nails

Roll

Cenent-asbestor aliaglcs... Galvanied need lepoint

134

194

TALE 46-17. FACTORS FOR coxVERTINa HoRrZONTAL PROTG

D AREA TO RooF AREA

Rise, in/ft of

Fitch, degree. 18 26 22°37 26P54 30P16 33941 36952 3948

11

42°31

15

45 49g24 538 5619

16

12

14

tch fraction.

Conversion fe

-1:054 1 083 1-118 1.1571.20z12501

1.302 1.3561.414 1.537 1.667 1.803

TARLE 46-18. LABOR FOR APPLYING RooFING

Type of nof

Manhr/100 f

Asphalt shingles.

2.0

2.8

Wood shineles:

2.6

2.0

1.3

Ruf oather, 515 shingles per square...

Roll roofing..

eap rooling

asphalt

1.3

1.0

1.o

piy asphalt.

Sheet oetal (ealvanizcd i

oTRC. 1 Bae a

las of oll

selde

Parm Stroctures a" John Wiey & Sons, Ine, New York, 1950,

d for roofing farm cemented to

with tar and with gravel on 10p. They ast

re popular for industrial low pitches and fat

Table

ings bu

ecorntne ndations an etinating nformation for roofing nails a

46-16
given in

In esun

the roof slope factors known. for convertine

46-17 nating roofing require

the the orizontal roof area projected must first area be to determined area Table w

vhed

Table 46-18 provides so

e infortmation for determining labor cost.

LOSS PREVENTION

re.oiu 6sho graially sme of the rends of Iowa fire and wind

0year period begianing in 19350. A igh percentage of farm buldimgs

per cent of

14

13

12

1.1

1.0

o 0.9H

08

07

e06

0.5

S04

03

0.2

0.1

Linear regressions for fire

domage ore odjosted in

scale fo sfart from the tOO%

-7.0

-5.0

-4.5

-4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

-2.0

1.5

10g

-0.5

6.5 g

-volue for wind in 1930

Annoalind

damage

5.5

5.0

-4.5

4.0

-3.5

0.06

0018x

Wind damage

100% bosed on 19 30

-2.5 P

2.0
-158

Ysa 749 x +7

0.5

Yeor

Fa. 46-35.Tend of annual wiad and fire damage to lowa farn and ciy buildiag(Emay and

Giese Agr. Eng., May, 1951.)

100

Barns

80

+Dwellin5

10

1945

1940

demoliti

cent of farm dwellings. In spite of im-

1935

1930

Year

ug State Unisersity.)

Fio. 46.36. Per cent of building burains

arns Burning to demolitüion and ization the and equipment, the comparative isolation of

arms atill alows 90 per cent of the ns and 50 per cent o

he houses to burn to

ovements in fire-fighting

e of fire prevent

the ground, emphasizing the importancC

ses of farm-dwelling fires are fues, sparks on

roof, heat:

The five major

and oil and gas stoves. Figure 46-37 shows the trends in faating y

tems, wiring,a

the two major causes of lwelling fires, defecti fues and h

by ytem and dhingles wulnerableto spark, can be recognized by a conpee tat.

t in.

Defective flues ond heating

systems (dwellings

400

9s)

ro

Lightn

2s)

r rooded ldor

rns)

1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939

FIo, 46-37

re losses from the major ca

es. (lowa State Unirerity.)

STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

Demolitfon

Out of plemb

Off foundotion

Roof of!

End or side out

Struct mise

9 30
Amount of domage

r of losses

Srasl dage o

Eng

ef buildings in Oct. 10, 1919, wi

by mineral been surfacing tuccessful are not to a easily remarkable ignited lyiag degree, by embers or
both in discharged removing roosing from the hazard the protech bot aau

, (Emay and Giut

s1.)

spector Such

tions hav

by insurance companics and other interested orga

Preventing recurrence,

be chimney. prevented being As almost through to barn-loss perfect proper prevention, storage
practices. against properly installed and lightning spontancous are igTition credited can

shall Conductors. be used. If Cable vanized-steel of commercially star-section copper rod with weighing
copper-bronze not less coupling than 3 oz is per used, fs

WI

Specifications for installation of lig

ldings as given by

tational Electric Code are as ulture and conforming with the rules given in the

the rod shall be 4 in. in diameter. The cable or rod shall be coursed as directly as

Amoutt of damege

Number of losses

20

Per cent of tofal

10

May
escept hail. (may asd Giese, Agr. Esg

Fo. 46,39. towa farm-building wind dat

1951.)

o bends or loops and in such

er as t0

possible over the building with no sharp

onaect each air terminal to all othts or star r-section rods shall l be used with an in-

Air Terminals.

verted Y connection to the main and the star-section rod not less tha

the conductor Solid-copper bayonet air-termina

The walls of the tubing shall not be less

nductor

ewed to the upper end of

minals shall be placed above ridges, gables, and

nt

points s

inted parts of the building.

Tholitare at roof above the tops dep, of chimneyss by drilins p and made then by inserting driving a the
ground ground rod to rod per into the

r plate or stranded cable. The down conductor sl

unding it with a

be protected against injury by livestock

Bubntantial guard at places designated.

er Connecting and Grounding of Metal Work. The gutters and dowapouts

that extend for a consideralble distance parallel to the lightning conductors shatl be

586
should gage copper be connected wire or its w it equivalent. Pipes and the other lightning w conductor,
the buildine

connect to them at one end and grounded within the building at the other d

No. masses 6 of gage metal copper in the wire barns or s its equival grounded shall to be used, and
joints from clamped. induction. Small

Inner

Wind Losses. The trend of wind damage to farm buildings in Iowa has en up-

ward, as shown in Fig. 46-35. Many observations and studies of wind losses to farm

buildings established that poor f fasteners are the critical weakness. Nails do not ade.

quately tie the members together.

The conventional two-story barn with clear-spa mow space for hay storage has

and qsualy wind damage. from brn the is wind. generally the tallest ganbr build

been on particularly farms

nstruction has at the sill line, plate line, rafter joints, and ridge line mailed

joints that may fail in tension on the leeward side of buildings subjected to high-w

rool

stresses.

Figure 46-38 strates es graphically the proportion of wind damage sustained by the

various buildings on the farmstead in a 1949 Iowa windstorm. Barns suffered nearly

5 per cent of the dollar loses, whereas the dwelling loss was only 2 to 5 per cent of

the total. This indicates that it is possible to design and construct buildings that are

littl damaged by winds other than tornadoes. Complete demolition of many barns has

been observed where only superficial damage occurred to the house at the same time.

Figure 46-39 shows graphically the major items of lowa farm building damage froz

wind action.

CONCRETE
To give maximum service, concrete must be of good quality. The making of quality

concrete involves the following steps:

2. Proper proportioning

1. Selecting ingredien

3. Careful mixing

. Making, shaping, and adequate bracing of forms

5. lacing concrete in forms

6. lequate finishing

7. Thorough curing

Cement is usually packed in cloth or paper sacks containing 94 b. This is 1 cu ft

of loose-volume

Containing 376 Ib, or the equivalent of 4 sacks.

ent. Cement quantities are often referred to in terms of bartels

The co

nmonly used aggregates are sand, gravel, crushed stone, and blast-furnac

s, burnt clay, and expanded blast-furnace slag are also used for light

w weight will concrete pas a mixes. No t By definition, sand or fine aggregates include those

than ticles

sTHUerURAL RgUImENENTA Or ARM BULDINOS

4 screen and stmaller than the

ular conerete job.

The grading of the coarse a ageregate

557

allowable

RiZe of ageregate for the par-

thin a given size range may be varied over a

nge with little effect on the ce

bility. On uirement if the n

proportion of fine agrre

d, if the proportion of fine

other

100

-No.4

Coarse

oggregate

No 4 to 1

Coorse

Q9gregote

Na 4 to 7724

100

4 Va 1 1V2

Standard sizes of square mesh sieves

Fa 46-14. Standard specifications for co

crete agteCate (ASTM C33) for fine

ra te and for

O s2es of

e aggreAte.

1400

1,000

2 800D

9 600DH

400

22 24

18

14

12

Support spocing
. in, center-to-center

Fia, 46-15. Allowable upport spacing for Plyform. endicular Deflectionli to suPportss limited panels to
ýne coni of span., Stress limited

to 2,00 psi. Conditio

Tmore spans. (Doxglas Fir Pywood Asm.)

face grain perpeta

e gradings will result in

within the limits indi

ate

aggregate is held constant, variations becoming uneconomie in ome cases. For best

changes in the cement requirement,

result, an aggregate should be selected with a grada

Conerete mistures should consist of the most economical and practical and the proporti required

which will produce the necessary worki

558

, Strength, durability. and aatertightnes o of

qualities olled in the by hardened concrete. water uied per saek of cement. In eneral

proportioning a concrete mix is to deter rnine the

the less

nd

ounts of water and be exposed and on the strength desired. Recommendedoa

workable. The first, step in

to be used. This must be based on the condito

ses of work and sussested proportions of cement quant.

which the concrete is

ties of water for different cla

and co
se agsregate to use in trial batches are given in Table 46-10.

TAsLE 46-10. How To SLKCT TIn PROPER MIx

fne

of Water to Cement and Suggested Trial Mixc

nended Proport

(Recom

Gallons of water to

add to each sack

batch if sand is

Suerested mixtu

for trial batch

Materias t

yard ofe

Per cubie

Aggrega

Kinds of work

Ag

Damp

Nacks

sand)

cu ft

cu ft

cu f

Caft

cather, or weak acid and allali solutions

S-gal paste for concrele subjected to He

(AMaximum-sire aggregate 34 in.)

Endustrial,

dairy plant foors, et

33

435

194

14

16

6-gal paste for co

crete to be watertight or ubjncted to m

erate water and weather

(Ma

mum-size aggregate14 in.)

Watertight floors, such as industrial plant

t, dairy barn: watertight foun-

dations driveways, walks, tennis co

nming and wadin pools, septic

tanks, storage tanks, structural beams,

444

s, slabs, residence floors,

S%

234

634

14

19

7-gal paste for c

Rubjected to wear, weather, or water

(Ma

15 in.)

aum size aggregate a

Foundation walls, footings, mas ce

43
544 64

23

14

Quantities are cstimated on wet aggregates usi

nuggested trial mises and medium consistencies and will

vary accordin to the grading of aggregat and the workability desired

jected to

is strongly i

It may be necesary to ute a richer paste than is shown in the table because the conu

rete may be sub-

ere conditions than are usual for a structure of the type being constructed. For example, a

th a G-gal paste. However, the pool may be built in a place where soil water

ine, in which case a S-gal paste s required.

The concrete mixture should be placed in the forms just as soon as possible after

should be taken to prevent egrega or separation of coarse from fine particles

te should be placed in level layers of not more than 12 in. deep at one time.

when fon Working the çonerete next to the forms ensures an even, dense surface

(within 45 min at the mnost).

nsporting concrete to the forms, care

dense

not Crete sufficient forms must tha be forms su bstantial enough to retain their correct shape when
filled. It is

uce a

torms are removed. Freshly mixed concrete exerts great pressure therefore con-

rong they must also be rigid. Estimates of lateral pres

Sures to be expected from fresh concrete a

graphically the rec

-15

torms.
FARM nUTLDINGS

The type of fnith put on conerete foons den

559

k floors, paved yards, driveways, sidewalks depends on the expected usage. For live-

and other work where a t nonakid sur-

nfomed surface is recom

lening continues as long as temperature caction between portlandc

hydrat

t and water,

te the cement. Concrete darnp-cured for are month favorable and moisture nately is Present 100 per to

TABLE 46-11. SuGaEST

D CoNCRETE Drsto

Ps

Vibrated

Unvibrated

Rate of pour,

ft/hr

At SoP

At 70F

At 70F

650

S50

650

750

450

750

1,050

1.350

450
550

1,050

1,200

1,350

1,050

1,200

1,350

750

1,050

m pressure, P:

Depth, D, a

(vibrated) D2 +

i (unvibrated)

150

150

nch variation in concrete

Tet data indicate mi

e icking. They are taken from M L. Ekins, Design Ass

n inclade data furniched by the U'niversal Form Clamp Co. for vibrated con

rd where better data

nures, Tbe above vi

amptions for the New Keely PtyForm C

In case form height is less than D (depth at maximum pr

tion ofI fortn beight to D. For example, with a S-f-hich wall poured with unvibrated con

re may be reduced by

e at 70° at

re), desigo p

proporta

f/hr
re is 750 psf, and

timum

750

150

7 ft

2+

Then denign presure would be

X 750536 paf.

CEat strongerthan similar te in dry air. Damp curing may t can be done be done by covering without

with wet burlap, canvas, sand, or straw coverings as soon as can

marring the surface. The covering material must be kept wet continuoush

cement Having ratio, deternined the quantity the of materials may be accurately calculated by the
absolute

e aggregate

aterial is defined as the actual volume of the

weight of loose material

solid particles only, with no voids.

specific gravity) (unit weight of water)

volume

Absolu

The physical propertice of the materials are as ollows:

Abs.

specifc

gravity

Wt. in loose

Material

lb/cu ft

3.10

2.65
2.65

1.00

110

100

Cement

Fine aggregate

Coarse aggregate

Water

62.5

e, using a 5-gal

udired for 100 ca yd of con

Example; ermine materials requir

water-cement ratio and a 1:2:3 mix.

sTEAD STR

560

nine vofurne of concrete produced by sack of cenment.

First determine

Abs. vol. of cementi 3.1 X 62.5

Ab, vol. of fine aggregate z6s x 25

1 X94

rope

0.49 cu ft

xcess

menc

TAB

2x 110

1.33 eu ft
3 X100

Abs. wol. of coarse aggregate; 2.65 X 62.5

Ats. vol. of water: 5/7.5

1.82 cu ft

0.67 cu ft

4.31 cu ft

ete produced by 1 sack

Vol. of c

figures by (27/4.31)ao), or 625.

For 100 u yd, multiply al

wwidt

CONCRETE BLO 0C

ry building units are designated as:

Concrete-t

1. Hollow load-bearing oncrete block, 8 by 8 by 16 in., 8 by 12 by 16 in.

2Soid load bearing concrete bock, 4 by á by i6 in.

S Hollow non-load-bearing concrete block, 4 by 8 by 16 in., 6 by 8 by 16 in.

4. Concrete building tile, 5 by 8 by 12 in.

te brick, 2 by 4 by 8 in.

5 Con

The mnost common unit is the hollow load-bearing block of 8 by 8 by 16 in. nomi

size weighing pproximately 40 to 50 1b when made with heavyweight conerete and

from 25 to 35 Ib when made of lightweight aggregate, Heavyweight units are made

with such a

gregates as sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air-cooled slag. Lightweight

units are made with coal cinders, expanded shale, clay or slag, and natural

materials such as volca

cinders, pumice, and scoria.

The insulation value of sand-and-gravel concrete block wals is low so that light-
weight concrete blocks are used extensively. Eight-inch concrete blocks made from

expanded slas, clay, or shale have a coefficient of heat transmission (U) 38 per cent

egular sand-and-gravel block (Fig. 48-3). Additional insulation may be

s with fill insulation, by building a cavity wall with two

below

obtained by filling the co

4in. tiers of blocks, by applying insulation board on one surface, and by furring out

and plastering or using rigid insulation board,

In designing walls for concrete masonry, all horizontal dimensions should be multi

ples of nominal half-length units and all vertical dimensions multiples of nominal full.

height units. Thus, with the nominal 8 by 8 by 16 in. block both horizontal and

vertical dimensions should be designed in multiples of 8 in. The standard 8- and 12

in.-width blocks will suffice for most farm uilding construction.

Lateral support for walls is one of the critical Timitations, Lateral supports may be

obzained by cross walls, pilasters, or buttresses. The limiting horizontal distances are

as follows

1. Walls of solid block or brick units, 20 times the nominal wall thickness

2. Walls of hollow concrete masonry units, 18 times the nominal wall thickness

Cavity walls, 14 times the nominal wall thickness

Quantities of terials required for concrete-masonry walls may be estimated from

Table 46-12.

The proport

of mortar for masonry walls is very important. Recommended

Hydrated lime

(portions)

Mortar sand

(por tions)

Cement (p

hry cement,
1-portand cement.

2-3

14

For detailedc

per Srading of the sand and by the thorough job a hand. mising Workabili rather than through the use of

sobtained through the

prep

anounts of ces

entitious mi

material.

For rtight wall constructio

nded

ncave and Vahaped mortar joints arTe

in preference to struck or raked joints that f

r 46-12. WEaGuTS AND łUANTITES oF tATERIALS OR CosCRET-

form all ledges which may hold

RY WALLS

TA

For 100

fr owal

Nominal

tual unit sires,

Average weight o

finisbed Wall

For 10

hX beight X lengh, thickne

Morta
Heavywelght L.ightweight

aggregase,

39% X 6 x

554 X 356 X 1596

79% X 39% X 1596

225

225

3,050

4350

5,700

1.9

19

2,150

3050

3,700

4.3

3X 5x

221

221

221

3,000

4.500

5,650

1.7

1.7

1.7

37

37

3.7
$34 X SX113

784X5X 119

3,700

3%x 79s x 154

112.5

112.5

112.5

112.5

2,850

4.350

5500

7,950

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.6

26

2.6

X 79 X 1536

2950

3600

4,900

79% X 75 X1 159%

196 X 7% X 153%

12

sonry units, mortar joints should be approximately

in.

r With modular-size m
water.

asonry walls can be made weathertight by the application of tw

thick. crete-

coats of portland-cement base paint. For basement construction, the earth side of the

oncrete masonry should be given two complete coatings of bitumi

s material for

additional protection.

ll door and window lintels should be designed to support the bearing load above.