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Chapter 3
Properties in Tension and Compression
2
Tensile Test Procedure
The procedure is as follows:
Make
Make necessary measurements on
fractured specimen
Convert load
load-elongation
elongation graph into
stress-strain diagram
3
Stress-Strain Curves for Various Materials
4
Behaviour of Materials
h For all types of materials, there are two modes of behaviour under loading:
h Elastic behaviour: This is the initial mechanical behaviour during g which
the specimen returns to its original dimensions upon release of the load.
The termination of elastic behavior is known as “elastic limit” of material.
h Plastic behaviour: When the load is increased beyond elastic limit, a part
of deformation on the specimen
p is p
permanent and does not disappear
pp upon
p
release of the load. Such deformation is called “plastic deformation”.
5
Elastic Behaviour
h For most engineering materials, elastic behaviour of material obeys
“Hooke’s Law” (i.e. there is a linear relationship between stress and strain,
as given in Fig. 1a). Such materials are called “linearly elastic”.
stress
(b)
are not linearly elastic. They exhibit a nonlinear
stress-strain
t t i curve as ini Fig.
Fi 1b.
1b
h Upon unloading,
unloading both types of materials will follow
the loading curves in the reversed direction. strain
Figure 1
h “Elastic limit” is defined as the greatest stress that can be applied without
resulting in any permanent strain upon release of load. It is an important
material property in design applications since allowable stress values in
design
g work are based on the elastic limit.
6
Elastic Behaviour
h The chief design principle concerning elasticity is that the allowable stress
must lie within the elastic range. This is ensured by either thicker cross
sections or materials of greater “elastic strength” that resist loads without
being deformed plastically (“yielding”).
7
Elastic Behaviour
h Elastic behaviour of a metal is not necessarily linear up to elastic limit. In
Fig. 3, the point marking the end of linear relationship is “proportional
limit”. For practical purposes, linear relationship is assumed to be valid
until elastic limit without introducing serious error.
ess
ess
a
stre
stre
when
h it obeys
b H k ’ law
Hooke’s l b
and stress (σ) - strain (ε) a b
response is simultaneous.
simultaneous
Time dependence of elastic a. proportional limit a. upper yield point
b. elastic limit b. lower yield point
stress strain relationship is
stress-strain
called “anelasticity”. strain strain
8
Elastic Behaviour - Stiffness
h “Stiffness” is the ratio of incremental normal stress to corresponding direct
strain for tensile/compressive stress below proportional limit of material.
ess
stre
ratio
ti cannott be
b obtained
bt i d (e.g.
( f cases off brittle
for b ittl
materials), there are other definitions of stiffness
(explained in the next slide).
slide) dı
dİ
strain
9
Elastic Behaviour - Stiffness
(a) Initial Tangent Modulus: the slope of stress-strain curve at the origin
(i.e. the slope of OM in Fig. 6a).
(b) Tangent Modulus: the slope of stress-strain curve at any given stress
((i.e. the slope
p of TPM in Fig.
g 6b).
)
(c) Secant Modulus: the slope of secant drawn fom origin to any specified
point on the stress
stress-strain
strain curve (i.e.
(i e the slope of OP in Fig.
Fig 6c).
6c)
(d) Chord Modulus: the slope of chord between any two specified points
on the stress-strain
stress strain curve (i.e.
(i e the slope of PQ in Fig.
Fig 6d).
6d)
σ σ σ σ Figure 6
M
M
σp σq
P Q
σp
P
T σp P
(a) (b) (c) (d)
O ε O ε O ε O ε
10
Elastic Behaviour - Stiffness vs Rigidity
h Stiffness of a material should not be confused with the overall “rigidity” of
a machine element that depends upon the dimensions as well. Rigidity is
the design terminology when the functional requirements demand that
deformations must be small.
h For a material that obeys Hooke’s law, the extension (under tension) or
th contraction
the t ti ( d compression)
(under i ) is
i defined b δ as follows:
d fi d by f ll
F : applied force (kg)
σ F A F∗
F ∗L
δ=
A : cross sectional area (mm2)
E= = L : the strained length (mm)
ε δ L A∗E E : Young s Modulus (kg/mm2)
Young’s
h This example
p shows systematic
y approach
pp for material selection based on rigidity:
g y
For a cylindrical bar: F = 500 kg, E = 7∗103 kg/mm2 (for an Al alloy), L = 1000 mm,
r = 7 mm ((here;; “radius” is facilitated as an independent
p parameter).
p )
F ∗L F ∗L 500 ∗1000
1. Lets
ets ca
calculate
cu ate e o gat o δ Al =
elongation: = = = 0.464 mm
2
( ) 2
( )(
A ∗ E πr ∗ E π 7 ∗ 7 ∗10 3
)
2 If we use steel
2. 2 104 kg/mm
t l (E = 2∗10 k / 2),
) δSt = 0.1624
0 1624 mm, which hi h is
i about
b t 2.85
2 85 times
ti
smaller. This shows that contribution of material to rigidity can be very significant.
5. In relation with above case, suppose that bar length is fixed as 350 mm and radius
as 7 mm, and elongation of up to 0.464 mm is permissible. The respective weights
will be WAl = 0.143 kg and WSt = 0.412 kg. Such difference in results of case 4 & 5
states that a design problem relies completely upon the conditions imposed.
h Assuming that the material obeys Hooke’s law, this work is converted into
an elastic
l ti potential
t ti l energy (U) off material
t i l (A is
i the hi h σ acts
th area over which t
uniformly, and uniform straining is produced along the bar length L) :
F ∗ δ (σ ∗ A) ∗ (ε ∗ L ) (σ ∗ A) ∗ ((σ E ) ∗ L ) 1 § σ 2 ∗ A ∗ L ·
U= = = = ¨¨ ¸¸
2 2 2 2© E ¹
h The maximum elastic energy is reached when the bar is strained to its
proportional limit (the elastic limit can also be used in equation).
h Total elastic energy also depends upon volume of material (as it is indicated
with the term A∗ L in the equation).
16
Elastic Behaviour - Resilience
h In a broad sense, resilience is the area under stress-strain curve until elastic limit,
as illustrated in Fig. 9. For linearly elastic materials:
σ
2 U : modulus of resilience (kg·mm/mm3) Tool Steel
1 S y S′y′
U= ∗ Sy : yield strength (kg/mm2)
2 E E : Young’s Modulus (kg/mm2)
Mild Steel
S′y
h Its unit is kg·mm/mm3. Hence,
Hence total elastic energy to be
absorbed by an element depends also upon the volume. U′′
Figure 9
U′ ε
h An ideally resilient material has high elastic limit
and low elastic modulus. This states that not all
Material U (kg·mm/mm3)
metals have high modulus of resilience (e.g.
(e g rubber
Tool Steel (S1) 11000 * 10-4
is more resilient than carbon steel).
Carbon Steel (1040) 306 * 10-4
Al A
Al. Annealed
l d (1100) 8 75 * 10-44
8.75
h Resilience is an important property in design where
Brass 147 * 10-4
energy absorption is required. Some examples are
Rubber 2100 * 10-4
springs,
i parts
t subjected
bj t d to
t impact
i t loading,
l di vibrating
ib ti
Acrylic 28 * 10-4
components, etc.
17
Special Definitions of Elastic Limit
h Special definitions of elastic limit are introduced for engineering materials without
a clear yield point (e.g. cold work steels, nonferrous metals, etc.):
1. Offset Yield Strength (Proof Stress): An offset strain (OA), 0.2% for St & Al and
0.5% for Cu and its alloys, is measured from the origin and a line parallel to linear
portion of ı-İ curve is drawn. The intersection of this line with the curve (point P) is
offset yield strength (Fig. 10). This method cannot be applied for metals undergoing
more than
th 0.5%
0 5% elastic
l ti strain
t i (equilavent
( il t to
t stress
t S Ӏ)
off SyӀ).
2. Johnson’s Apparent Elastic Limit: Figure 10 Figure 11
σ σ
A line (OA) with a slope of 50% of y
S′y P
initial slope is drawn, and line (xy) is
S′y′ Sy
drawn tangent to ı-İ ı İ curve and P