TRIBAL PNEUMATOLOGY

Paper Prepared by

Group 3

KERING, RESHIMENLA, ECHI, NEM, SOUMYA, JAMES & WILLIAM

BDIV, 2017-2018

For the Course

TRIBAL THEOLOGY (BTT14)

Submitted to

REV. DR. LAMBOI HAOKIP

September 2017

Union Biblical Seminary

Bibvewadi, Pune, Maharashtra

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Outline:

1. Introduction

2. Definitions of terms used

2.1 Tribal

2.2 Pneumatology

3. Methodological Issues

3.1 The grounding of Tribal Theology

3.2 Approaches

3.3 Sources

4. Tribal Understanding of spirit

4.1 Nagaland

4.2 Mizoram

4.3 Manipur

4.4 Meghalaya

4.5 Arunachal Pradesh

4.6 Rest of India

5. Overview and Evaluation

6. Concluding Remarks

Bibliography

Internet References

____________________________________________

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1. Introduction

When we talk of tribal pneumatology and attempt to put it in writing, we come to a realm where
we are almost alone, save for a few mentions about spirits here and there in some journals and
books. Such was the situation we were in when we began to prepare this paper. But with much
studies and research, we have come up with something, which is, by no means complete, but one
that sheds some light on the views of the tribals on the pneuma, the Spirit. To get to that, in this
paper we are presenting tribal pneumatology by first introducing and explicating the terms
‘tribal’ and ‘pneumatology’ and then moving on to show the ground on which tribal theology
stands. This includes working on the term tribal theology itself and its methodologies of
approaches and sources. While it is possible to present it in truly general terms by using the
terms ‘tribes’ or ‘tribals’ only, or even by talking about each and every tribe and their
pneumatology in India, we have chosen to do it state-wise so that we may be able to cover more
grounds with only a few sweeps. Therefore, this paper will touch upon tribal understanding of
the spirit in Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and the rest of
India. We have focused more upon Northeast India because the group presenting it has more
primary knowledge about the region. After having done this, the paper revisits the presentation
and offers concluding remarks in the end.

2. Definitions and explanation of terms

2.1. Tribal

Defining the term tribe is a task that is easier said than done because of the ambiguity of its
usage especially in India. Since the term is defined in different ways by different scholars, there
can be no universally accepted definition.

K. Thanzauva describes it as, “a group of people speaking a common language, observing

uniform rules of social organization, and working together for some common purposes such as
trade, agriculture or warfare. Other typical characteristics include a common name, a contiguous
territory, a relatively uniform culture or way of life, and a tradition of common descent.”1

In addition, some attempted to explain it by elaborating on common features and characteristics

possessed by tribal groups and others by proposing criteria on which a tribe can be recognized.2
But in India, there is the peculiar difference that has to be made between a ‘tribe’ and ‘scheduled
tribe’. Vinay K. Srivastava and Sukant K. Chaudhury wrote, “While tribe is an anthropological
1
K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community (Aizawl: Mizoram Theological Conference, 1997) 1-6, in R. Zolawma,
“Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” Journal of Tribal Studies, Vol. XXI (1&2), Jan-June & Jul-Dec 2016, 1-20, 2.
2
For example, GS Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes (Bombay: Popular Book Depot, 1963; TK Naik, “Applied
Anthropology in India,” in Survey of Research in Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. III (Bombay: ICSSR, 1972);
Rajendra K. Sharma, Indian Society, Institutions and Change (New Delhi: Atlantic, 2004).

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concept referring to a particular type of society… scheduled tribes is an administrative and
political concept. The concept of scheduled tribe applied is not only to individual communities
but also to whole territories.”3 Indeed, the Constitution of India does not explicitly define the
term tribe alone, but defines ‘scheduled tribes’ in Article 366 (25) as, “such tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under
Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution.”4 An interesting thing to
note is the mention of Article 342 within this definition. Article 342 specifically says that the
President and the parliament can decide who may be included in the list of scheduled tribe. Thus,
in this sense, the concept or identity of tribe becomes very shallow and artificial. Looking at
Articles 14, 15 and 16 of the Indian Constitution where there are seemingly advantageous
provisions for tribals in India, Jangkholam Haokip commented, “Although the constitutional
provisions appear to be for the interests of the people concerned, the approach was assimilative
and the purpose of tribal development was to ‘catch up’ with others.”5 At this point, it should
also be remembered that, as R. Zolawma writes, “The condition of tribals in India… can be
described as politically powerless, economically exploited, socially stigmatized and culturally
alienated.”6

2.2. Pneumatology

In simple words, pneumatology means the study of the Person and work of God the Holy Spirit.
It is taken from the Greek words pneuma which means wind, breath or spirit, and logos which
means word, matter or thing. The Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms puts it as, “The
division of Christian doctrine dealing with the Holy Spirit. The word arises from the Greek
words pneuma (spirit) and logos (the teaching about). Pneumatology explores the person and
work of the Spirit, especially the Spirit’s involvement in human salvation.”7

3. Methodological Issues

Before proceeding into tribal pneumatology, it is imperative that tribal theology be understood
first by looking into the grounding, approaches and sources of tribal theology itself so that the
presentation on tribal pneumatology may be grounded on proper methodology. Songram
Basumatary writes, “Tribal theologies can be called authentic examples of contextual theology.

3
Vinay Kumar Srivastava and Sukant K. Chaudhury, “Anthropological Studies of Indian Tribes,” in Yogesh Atal
(ed.) Sociology and Anthropology in India (New Delhi: ICSSR-Pearson, 2009) 50-117, 69.
4
“The Constitution of India” available at https://india.gov.in/sites/upload_files/npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf, accessed
September 7, 2017, 1:45AM.
5
Jangkholam Haokip, Can God Save My Village?: a theological study of identity among the tribal people of North-
East India with special reference to the Kukis of Manipur (Cumbria: Langham, 2014) 26.
6
R. Zolawma, “Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” Journal of Tribal Studies, Vol. XXI (1&2), Jan-June & Jul-
Dec 2016, 1-20, 3.
7
Stanley J. Grenz et al (eds.) The Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, 1999) 92.

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These theologies are of the tribals and are constructed by the tribals for the tribals, emerging
from within the unsung stories of their traditions and cultures. These are the most innovative and
creative theologies which are being articulated, not merely in academic centres or institutes of
higher learning, but right in the midst of and out of the conflicts and contradictions of the tribals’
everyday realities.”8 It is both a political theology and contextual and experiential.9 Thus, we can
say, in simplistic manner, that tribal theology is a theology developed for and by the tribals.

3.1. The grounding of tribal theology

As Wati Longchar says, land/creation or space becomes the “foundation for understanding” their
“culture, identity, person-hood and religious ethos.”10 Nirmal Minz also asserted that “Tribal
reality includes four major ingredients: the people, their homeland, power and God (gods).”11 At
the same time, Yangkahao Vashum is of the opinion that it has often overlooked the significance
of creation in the image of God. He says, “tribal theology must reclaim the centrality of this truth
in its attempt to come up with a holistic theology of the people.”12 Therefore, for a proper
grounding of tribal theology, we must go back to the cultural past and values.13

3.2. Approaches

In writing an approach to the approaches of tribal theology, three scholars are chosen here as
usually done – Renthy Keitzar, K. Thanzauva and Wati Longchar.14 KP Aleaz talks of another
approach: “the gospel values are already present in the Tribal culture and worldview.”15 Firstly,
Keitzar proposes the indigenization and contextualization approach to tribal theology. He says,
tribal Christianity is still a “Xerox-copy of American Baptism, or a duplicate of Western
Presbyterianism or a carbon-copy of the charismatic movement of Pentecostalism, or even a
replica of Roman Catholicism of Pre-Vatican II.”16 Keitzar’s approach is also called “dynamic
equivalence” which means to maintain “the ‘kernel’ but changing the ‘husk.’17

8
Songram Basumatary, Ethnicity and Tribal Theology: Problems and prospects for peaceful co-existence in
Northeast India (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2014) 183.
9
M. Stephen, A Christian Theology in the Indian Context (Delhi: ISPCK, 2005) 102.
10
A. Wati Longchar, An Emerging Asian Theology: tribal theology: Issue, method and perspective (Jorhat: Tribal
Study Centre, ETC, 2000) 46-47.
11
Cited in M. Stephen, A Christian Theology in the Indian Context. 102.
12
Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology and its Methodology: A review and proposal,” Journal of
Tribal Studies, Vol. XIII (1), Jan-Jun. 2008, 34-53, 37.
13
Ibid. 36.
14
For example, Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu, “Tribal Christian Theology: Sources, Methods and Contents,” in Samuel
George and P. Mohan Larbeer (eds.) Christian Theology: Indian Conversations, Volume II (Bangalore: BTESSC,
2016) 145-180 and R. Zolawma, “Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” Journal of Tribal Studies, Vol. XXI (1&2),
Jan-June & Jul-Dec 2016, 1-20.
15
KP Aleaz, “A Tribal Theology from a Tribal World-View,” Indian Journal of Theology, Vol. 44 (1&2), 20-30, 20.
16
Renthy Keitzar, “Tribal Perspective in Tribal Hermeneutic Today,” Indian Journal of Theology, 1/3&4 (Jul-Dec),
310, quoted in R. Zolawma, “Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” 11.
17
Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu, “Tribal Christian Theology: Sources, Methods and Contents,” 148.

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Secondly, Thanzauva made community centric approach to tribal theology in his book, Theology
of Community. As Zolawma writes, “he meaningfully and effectively demonstrates how tribal
communitarianism, or community centred-ness, can be used as a foundation for social ethics,
ecclesiology, eco-theology, and theological anthropology.”18 Additionally, Thanzauva also
proposes a “Synthetic-Praxis” approach to theology wherein there is a synthesis of the gospel,
culture and praxis, that is, transformation of the society through the gospel.

Thirdly, Wati Longchar propounded the “Space-centred” approach which argues for a shift from
an anthropocentric approach to a land/space centric approach in tribal theology. He says space is
that “sacred place which gives us an identity and sustenance.”19 He also says that although the
theme of space has a prominent place in the Bible, it has long been ignored and that “we cannot
do theology without relating to the issue of space.”20

3.4. Sources

Like all theologies, tribal theologies also draw from the Scriptures and teachings from Western
Christian theologians. But in addition to this, tribal theology also draws from many sources
including tribal traditional heritages, experiences, history and of course, Christian heritage.21
Takatemjen says, “out of the four sources given above, the least used resource is the fourth one:
Christian heritage in tribal theological writings.”22 In the same vein, Zolawma also wrote, “Tribal
Theology is formulated through resources is formulated through resources drawn from Christian
heritages, tribal traditional heritages, and tribals’ experiences.”23 Therefore, it may be said that
tribal theology draws mainly from the Christian, tribal traditional, experiential and historical
heritages and formulate a theology that synthesizes with the gospel to transform the society while
keeping in mind the importance of land/space, indigenization and contextualization.

4. Tribal Understanding of the Spirit

From this section, the paper will deal with tribal understanding and concept of the spirit world
through a state-wise survey of India. As mentioned in the beginning, this portion will deal mostly
with India’s Northeast states where there is a major concentration of tribal population and where
tribal theology is emerging at a quick pace.

18
R. Zolawma, “Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” 12.
19
A. Wati Longchar, An Emerging Asian Theology: tribal theology: Issue, method and perspective, 25.
20
Ibid. 27.
21
Yangkahao Vashum, “Sources for Studying Tribal Theology,” in Shimreingam Shimray (ed.) Tribal Theology: A
Reader, Tribal Study Series 12 (Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, ETC, 2003) 67-76
22
Takatemjen, “Forty Years of Tribal Theology in the Making,” in Samuel George and P. Mohan Larbeer (eds.)
Christian Theology: Indian Conversations, Volume II (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2016) 121-144, 128.
23
R. Zolawma, “Tribal Theology in Northeast India,” 17.

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 4.1 Nagaland

The Nagas believe in the existence of a Supreme Being or High God and the different divine
names are: Lotha- Potsow, Ao- Tsungrem, Sumi- Alhou, Angami- kepenuopfu, Konyak-
Kahwang Youngwan etc. They contribute some major attributes of the Supreme Being. They
perceive the One Supreme Being as the creator, sustainer and provider. This creator God is
recognized as the Sovereign and benevolent and as one above all other spiritual beings. Hence,
requiring no propitiatory sacrifices but only prayers of blessings and thanksgiving. However,
Keitzaravers argues that the Ao’s and Sumis’ belief in God is “tritheism”. He explains that the
Ao’s have three supreme gods: Lijaba- creator and god of earth; Lungkitsungba- god of heaven;
and motsungba or mojing- god of the death. The Semas also divide the deities into three classes:
Alhou- benevolent creator; Kugami- god of heaven; and Teghami- god of earth. 24Tribals
believed that nothing can be hidden from the Supreme Being. Writing from the Naga
perspective, Peihwang pointed out that “….Konyaks always tried to be honest bearing in mind
that Youngwan Kahwang knows and sees everything. Nothing is hidden for him. They believed
that one can hide anything from human knowledge, but there is someone above from whom
nothing can be hidden”. Renthy Keitzar propounded a “rooster” analogy by making a
comparison between the ritual of the Israelites and the Nagas on the basis of the Lev 16. By way
of similarity with Naga traditional practice, Keitzar connects the practice of the using a
rooster/cock to “carry away sickness, misfortune, or perhaps sins of the person” into the jungle.
According to other tribes like the Lothas, the rooster is usually believed to be demanded by the
Tsunghramvu- the Devil- in return for favors like the healing of sick person.25 In the Ao-Naga
folk story, Lijaba, disguises himself as a poor man and visits the house of two orphan sisters in
the fringe of the village. Despite their poverty, they invited Lijaba-in- disguise inside and offer
him food and shelter. Lijaba in turn blessed them with rice and meat and a bountiful harvest. On
this Lijaba’s gesture in relation to the two sisters, Takatemjen projects him as a co-sufferer, a
liberator and a defender of the poor. However, in the writing of Wati, Lijaba is the Supreme
Being not Jesus.26

Ancient tribals also believed in the existence of the three types of spirits i.e harmful, helpful and
amenable. Amongst the Naga tribes some of the feminine names and meanings have been
replaced for masculine ones like the Zemes, the now call Tingwang (Cosmic King) that which
was once Tingrangpui (The Absolute Mother) and Mezetei Kemnabepui (Mother of Creation).
Similarly, the Konyaks call the Supreme Being by the name Youngwang Kahwang (Lord of
heaven and earth). There are also several tribes among the Nagas who continue to address God
with names clearly referring to the feminine prerogative of birthing. The names of God both in
Chakhesang, Ukumunupu, and Angami, U-Kepenuopfu, manifest God’s mothering attribute.

24
Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu, Christian Theology: Indian Conversations Vol-II Contextual Themes, edited by
Samuel George, P. Mohan Larbeer (Bangalore: National Printing Press, 2016), 154 & 155.
25
Ibid., 158 & 159.
26
Ibid., 161 & 162.

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Etymologically, both terms are a combination of three words: U- Us/Our, Kumunu/Kepenuo-
birth, and pu/fu is a feminine suffix, used commonly for a mother. In both cases it literally means
“she who gives birth,” or by virtue of being considered the Creator, aptly implies, “The mother
of all”.27 Nagas worshipped gods out of fear not love. However they longed for a God who is
loving and caring. The Nagas believed that gods revealed themselves to human being through
sign, dreams, noises and chirping of certain birds. But today, with the coming of Christianity, it
has made a remarkable contribution to Nagas life, especially in their perspective and belief
system regarding God. The Nagas were and are deeply religious people.

4.2 Mizoram

As is the case with many tribal groups of North East India, the Mizos also believed in the
existence of many spirits which are classified into-Benevolent spirits and Malignant spirits. The
Mizos consider Khuavang and Lasi as benevolent spirits. Khuavang, a glittering fairy, is the
creator of all humanity and is closely involved in human affairs. While Khuavang to C.L.
Hminga is the guardian spirit responsible for the destiny of every human being,28 Zairema
consider it as the God who blessed marriages.29 The Mizos call a mole on the human skin as
khuavang chhinchhia (mark of khuavang) and the natural boundary that divides jhum fields or
areas is known as khuavang ri kham (a boundary marked by khuavang), and they respect it.30

Lasi, the exquisite female spirit of the hunt, was also considered a benevolent spirit. Lasi is
believed to be the owner of all wild animals and she keeps a servant, sanghal (wild boar), to look
after them. It was considered impossible to kill wild animals without the permission. At times,
the Lasi falls in love with men and those whom they fall for are supposed to be blessed in
hunting wild animals.31

McCall stated that there were about fifteen known ramhuai (spirits of the forest) who were of
outstanding importance in relation to specific phases of life’s common experiences.32 Some of
the ramhuai known to the Mizos were: Phung, who had the power of inculcating madness,
causing fits and epilepsies; Khawhring, who could change and ruin the spirit of a person who
would then be known as possessed of an evil eye; Hmuithla, forerunner of death; Pheichham, the
provocative, willing to reward but for a price of fulfilling his wishes; Sihhuai, who could cause
sickness through the medium of innocent and clear-looking springs and so on.33 These malignant

27
Ibid., 171 & 172.
28
C.L. Hminga, “The Traditional Mizo Concept of God,” in Towards a Tribal Theology: The Mizo Perspective,
edited by K. Thanzauva (Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1989), 50-51.
29
Zairema, “The Mizos and their Religion,” in Towards a Tribal Theology: The Mizo Perspective, edited by K.
Thanzauva (Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1989), 50-51.
30
L.H. Rawsea, ”Indigenous Spirituality and Modernity: A Theological Response,” in Hearing the Voices of Tribals
and Adivasis,edited by Hrangthan Chhungi (Delhi: ISPCK, 2014), 248-263.
31
Rawsea, ”Indigenous Spirituality and Modernity…., 250.
32
A.C. McCall, Lushai Chrysalis (Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute, 1949), 68.
33
A.C. McCall, Lushai Chrysalis, 70.

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spirits were believed to reside in various objects and places such as mountains, rocks, caves,
large trees, thick jungles, lakes (underwater) and deep pools of rivers. In the traditional Mizo
worldview, these malignant spirits were regarded as powerful beings who were jealous of
humans and could be easily provoked and angered. Care had to be taken to avoid untoward
inflictions. Hence, people would throw a handful of rice and chant “khua tlai” (Guardian-god be
satisfied) whenever they have meals in the forest.34 Laltluangliana Khiangte is convinced that the
Mizos in the past worshiped and greeted the unknown spirits as in Acts 17:23.35

4.3 Manipur

Barring the Naga tribal groups, most of the tribals of Manipur share a more or less similar beliefs
and practices with their Mizo brethren of Mizoram. In fact, the two states were declared as full-
fledged states only in 1972 (Manipur) and 1987 (Mizoram) respectively. They are a collective
tribal group now divided by administrative boundaries and nomenclatures. They are collectively
referred to as Chin-Kuki-Mizo group of the Tibeto-Burman family of the Mongoloid race. These
group of tribes include the Anal, Aimol, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Paite, Simte, Thadou,
Vaiphei, Zou among many more others. As they each have their own dialects, the various
terminologies may differ from one tribe to another. However, the basic concepts and core beliefs
are in line with each other.

Like the aforementioned Mizos (Lushais) of Mizoram, the hill tribes of Manipur believed in the
existence of spirits. Shakespeare has written, ‘Practically all division of Lushai-Kuki family
believe in a spirit called Pathian who is said to be the creator of everything and is a beneficent
being, but has, however, little concern with men.’36 To the Hmar people, the various spirits are
Khawchawm, Khuovang, Zasam, Phung, Lasi and so on.37 For the Thadou, Paite and other
kindred tribes as well, these spirits go by similar names.

Apart from the belief in the existence various spirits, the Chin-Kuki-Mizo groups of North East
India also belief in the existence of the human soul/spirit. It is a common belief that there is a
place where the spirit of the death go known as Mithikhuo (in Hmar), Mitthikhua (in Lushai),
Mithikho (in Thadou), Misikhua (in Paite) and so on. This Mithikhuo is believed to be an
underground abode or spirit world very much like the Hebrew Sheol. This is not the final abode,
Pielral/Pialral/Pialgial lies somewhere beyond Mithikhuo. This abode is one of bliss, a land of
happy home wheredirect entrance is granted to the Thangsuo. It is believed to be somewhere in
the sky. The last abode of the spirit world is Vanram (heaven or sky kingdom) and is
synonymous to the Biblical heaven. This is the place where all the good and holy ones are

34
L.H. Rawsea, ”Indigenous Spirituality and Modernity…, 251.
35
Laltluangliana Khiangte, “Rethinking about the Folklore and Culture of the Mizos,” in Theologizing Tribal
Heritage: A Critical Re-Look, edited by Hrangthan Chhungi (Bangalore: CWM, ISET-ECC, PCI, 2008), 300.
36
John Shakespeare, The Lushai-Kuki Clans (London: Macmillan & Company Ltd., 1912), 61.
37
Rochunga Pudaite, The Education of the Hmar People: With Historical Sketch of the Hmar Tribe of North East
India (Sielmat: Indo-Burma Pioneer Mission, 1963), 56.

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expected to go and live for eternity. Every spirit spends a considerable amount of time in
Mithikhuo or Pielral before entering into Vanram. In Vanram, there is no more distinction as on
earth, Mithikhuo or Pielral.38

The Tangkhul-Nagas also have similar patterns of beliefs in spirits. Numerous as they may be,
some of the more significant ones include-Shim Kameo (Spirit that dwells in the house and
offerings have to be made to this spirit relating to the family and house); Kaphung Kameo (Spirit
that dwells in the mountains); Kong Kameo (Spirit that dwells in the river); Khara Ngahong
Kameo (Spirit of the forest);39 Kokto (Spirit that lives at the entrance of another world called
Kazeiram where the departed soul goes); and so on.40

4.4. Meghalaya

4.4.1. Khasi

The Khasis believe in a Supreme and Absolute Being (U Blei ba Khraw Bor), a personal God yet
unseen.41 Traditionally, it was perceived through nine relational activities or functions- God, the
Creator of Heaven and Earth; God, an immanent and transcendent; God, the Lord of all; God, the
giver of things; God, the protector; God, the administrator; God, the wealth; and God, the Lord; a
thousand blessing, love, mercy, peace and righteousness. The Supreme Being is both a personal
and spiritual. He is not static but a dynamic God and above all He possesses the sovereign power
in terms of anthromorphism. Mr. Mawrie remarked the Supreme Being as external and formless
God but he has a close relationship with man in and through a concrete covenant. He is like a
man who has a body and a mind and dwells also in man. Man in other words invokes the
blessing of God in his daily life.42

4.4.2. Garo

The people of Garo Hills in Meghalaya prefers to call themselves as A.chik.43 They believe in a
number of deities and spirits relating as part of their lives. There are various names given to these
spirits- Misi Saljong (God of fertility), Susime (Goddess of Wealth), Goera Kalkame (God of
Strength), Tatara Rabuga (God of Creator-good and evil), etc. Marlene Marak is of the opinion
about Tatara Rabuga that the aural aspect of the name (Tatara Rabuga) is masculine to the A.chik
(Garos) but if we look at the characteristics of Tatara Rubuga, the reference is feminine. In fact
spirits such as ba-gipachi-gipa, meaning ‘one who hatches and one who gives birth’, are used for

38
Pudaite, The Education of the Hmar People, 57.
39
Rimai Joy, “Religion of the Tangkhul Naga in North East India: Continuity and Change,” International Journal
of Modern Anthropology 7 (2014): 75-76.
40
T. Rimai, A Brief History of Itham Baptist Church (Imphal: Panthoibi Printing Press, 1976).
41
Songram Basumatary, Ethnicity and Tribal Theology: Problems and Prospects for Peaceful Co-existence in
Northeast India (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2014), 230-231.
42
Tloyen Nongsiej, Khasi Cultural Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 2002), 25.
43
Bethelson Arengh, “The Clan system of the A Chik’s,” Journal of Tribal Studies, Vol. IX.Jan-Jun.2005, 44.

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the Creator. According to Garos, ritual is a must in order to please the Creator by offering the
blood of living animals.44

4.5 Arunachal Pradesh

Tribes of Arunachal are divided into 2 groups on the basis of their belief system. Mompas,
sherdukpens, Khamtis, Singphos, Membas Aka and Miji follow Buddhism. And the rest of the
tribes are animists. Tribe like Nyishi Adi, Apatani, Tagin, Nocte, Wangcho, Puriok, Galo and
Tangsa believe that spirit present in everywhere.45 Though their understanding of spirits are
same, they believe differently according to their context.

4.5.1 Apatani understanding of Spirit

Apatanis generally believe that they are surrounded by invisible beings, which are capable
of affecting their welfare.46 They believe that they must please to the spirits of the earth and
sky in order to have bountiful harvests. When a misfortune occurs, they believe certain spirits
cause them, and thus they make appeasement sacrifices of chickens, cows and other domestic
animals.

Stuart Blackburn in his book “The Sun rises: Shaman’s chant, ritual activity and fertility in the
Apatani valley” describes spirit as, Iig, uii kalo or uii my kalo. Iig according to Apatani belief is a
ghost and uii kalo or uii my kalo is the spirit of ancestors.47

Apatanis see spirit as the one who harms human being, therefore, human being needs to offer all
kind of sacrifice in order to please spirits according to their demands.

4.5.2 Nyishi understanding of Spirit

Nyishi believes that ‘uui’ (spirits) are present everywhere, from the time earth was created. Some
of them are: Chwtum Bot Uui, doji buur uui, geda uui.48

Chwtum bot uui: Cwtum is female spirit and Bot is male spirit. These spirits are considered as the
good spirits, they protect human being from harm. And their works are to guard family, help

44
Samuel George and P. Mohan Larbeer, Christian Theology: Indian Conversations. Vol. II Contextual themes
(Bangalore: BTESSC, 2016), 171.
45
Tamo Mibang and Sarit K. Chaudhuri (eds), Understanding Tribal Religion (New Delhi: Mittal, 2004)
46
http://dice.missouri.edu/docs/sino-tibetan/Apatani.pdf (Accessed on 11/9/17 at 9:10 pm )
47
Stuart Blackburn, The Sun Rises: A Shaman’s Chant, Ritual Exchange and Fertility in the Apatani Valley (Boston:
Brill, 2010) 132.
48
DT Taba, Nyoyin Nyokum: A Nyishi Custom of worshipping nature,(Doimukh: Rajiv Gandhi University Rono
Hills)

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both husband and wife in their fertility, and intercede on behalf of the family to Supreme Being.
But at the same time, they can curse human being if human being do not listen to them.49

Doji bur uui: This is the spirit of the sky dwells in the atmosphere and when displeased happens
on earth, it creates lighting, thunders, heavy rain, and sometimes storm. By making this, it (Doji
bur) shows that it is angry.50

Geda Uui: Geda Uui is the spirit who protects forest. Nyishi believe that this kind of spirit lives
in the deep hidden forest, where people do not go easily.51 This kind of spirit also presents in the
unique creatures. Apa Moro and Aat Sw, they are the guardians of forest. As the Nyishis
depended on jhum cultivation, they protect jhum field.

4.6 Rest of India

Apart from North Eastern tribes, there are numerous other tribal lands in various parts of India.
Some of the major tribal areas are as follows- Bihar-30 tribes; Gujarat-29; Karnataka-49; Kerala-
35; Madhya Pradesh-46; Maharashtra-47; Orissa-62; Rajasthan-12; Tamil Nadu-36; Uttar
Pradesh-5; and West Bengal-38.52

All of these tribes have a distinct identity and their own way of life, they are distinct ethnic
groups, culturally specific and different from others. They possess different world views, value
systems, symbols and social structures. Tribal world view has a holistic approach that operates in
Man God interaction through a 'man-nature-spirit' configuration that implies the unity of the
human, material and the spirit world. This unity is arranged hierarchically consisting of Dharmes
or the Supreme Being, spirits, human beings, animals and other material creation. 53

The Tribals of Chotanagpur, as many others, have the concept of God as one Supreme Being;
Creator and Sustainer. According to them, the spirits too are creatures; the good spirits are
benevolent whereas the evil spirits are malevolent. They greatly fear the malevolent spirit that
results in sickness and harassment and hence is a source of great discomfort to the belief.
However, those tribal of these areas who are now Christians, find Christ as the answer to the
problem of evil spirit.54 According to Bhils of Rajasthan, similar to other tribal belief system, the
entire sphere of their lives is full of spirits. They believe in the survival of the dead and that soul
continues to exist as spirit. The tribes of South Rajasthan consider all spots and places holy as
they are the seats of spirits, even the dead are no exceptions, as they still exist through soul or are
reborn. Spirits, therefore, have a central and most important place in the life of the tribals. The

49
Interview with Rev. Likha Tach.
50
Tamo Mibang and Sarit K. Chaudhuri (eds), Understanding Tribal Religion (New Delhi: Mittal, 2004)
51
Interview with Rev. Likha Tach
52
Harish Chandra Upadhyay, States of Scheduled Tribes In India(New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999) 305
53
F. Hrangkhuma & Joy Thomas, Christ among the Tribals (Bangalore: Fellowship of Indian Missiologists, 2007),
85.
54
Ibid.,75.

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tribal Christians, draw their understanding of the Holy Spirit, from their irrespective world-
views.55 In this regard K.P. Aleaz is of the view that, the adivasis view the Holy Spirit, as
someone who works not only in the hearts of the believers but also in the whole creation, since
spirit enlivens the whole creation and nature, it becomes a dynamic reality. It inspires all and
speaks to all including animals and plants; nothing exists without the work of the Holy Spirit.

5. Overview and Evaluation

It is understood from the paper that in India the tribals comprise of the not so privileged section
of the society. The tribals are far behind the rest of the population in many ways: economically,
socially, politically and culturally. Christianity which was introduced to India was purely
Western; theology itself had a Western inclination. It failed to address the struggles and
challenges faced by the tribals. Therefore, in the light of this, tribal theology emerged; it was
centered on their everyday experiences and problems. It ultimately called in for a fresh
interpretation of the Gospel relating to their context.

Tribal theology takes into account the cultural past and values that the tribals identify themselves
with. This theology echoes the struggle of the tribals to emancipate and to liberate themselves
from all unjust structures and orders. There are several approaches in doing tribal theology:
indigenization and contextualization; community centric approach; and space-centered
approaches.

The Christian concept of trinity is very much related to the tribal understanding of god. God is
considered as the Supreme Being (The Father), a co-sufferer (The Son) and a personal God who
is unseen (The Holy Spirit). Life itself is believed to be intrinsically woven with the spiritual
realm beyond this world- where spirits exist. The tribal understanding of spirits has largely to do
with the malevolent and benevolent spirits. Benevolent spirits are those spirits that help the
people in their day to day lives by ushering in blessings and protection. On the other hand,
malevolent spirits are those spirits that bring about wrath and destruction when angered. The
only way to escape the fear from these spirits is by embracing the Holy Spirit who alone is able
to elevate them from all problems. Suffering and problems are nothing but the work of the evil
spirits; hence a being superior to all other spirits alone can come to the aid of humanity. This
Holy Spirit dwells in our midst and here the tribal idea of god comes into play where God is seen
as a spirit. The belief of the tribals in life after death further strengthens the belief in the Holy
Spirit who is spirit yet lives in our midst.

Nonetheless, there are several problems in explaining the doctrine of pneumatology according to
the tribal understanding of spirits. The varying views on spirits and spiritual world make the task
55
P.C. Jain, Christianity, Ideology and Social Change among Tribals (Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 1995), 70, 72 &
74.

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of correct interpretation of spirit challenging and complex. Views are so varied that it is difficult
to rest on one view by suppressing the others. Besides, equating the Holy Spirit with the spirits
of the tribals’ belief system would in some way limit ‘It’. Doing so would reduce the position of
the Holy Spirit by categorizing ‘It’ as one among the spirits that they believe in. Moreover, an
over-emphasis on contextualization, poses the danger of confining the Holy Spirit and its
attributes within the four walls of our needs.

When a new type of spirituality, which was alien to them, was introduced, the tribals found
themselves in a chaotic situation. There have been astonishing experiences of the new spirituality
like the one in Saitual, Mizoram way back in the 1920s. In that incident, the local elder
indentifies himself as the beloved John while some women were Mary Magdalenes and the men
Peters and Johns. When the tribals use a theoretical framework of the westerners to express their
spiritual existence or reality, they struggle either emotionally or rationally. So, the urgent task for
them is to build up a relevant methodology that would address their problems by using their
indigenous spirituality or values: (a) to unclothe all the western elements that subjugated them,
(b) to modernize their indigenous or intrinsic spirituality in its own, and (c) to apply the
indigenous spirituality to enrich their life in order to attain life in its fullness. Our task then is to
apply indigenous spirituality to our Christian life; a spirituality that gives centrality to “space”,
that embraces justice, equality and integrity, one that has myths, legends, folktales and sayings
and that uses land as its source.56

Concluding Remarks

There is no doubt that there are hundreds of indigenous people groups within India. This paper
had attempted to focus more on the tribal peoples of North East India as it is inevitable because
the indigenous peoples in India have certain homogenous characters. Each tribe has its own
identity, custom, religious beliefs and practices. A basic difference between the tribals of North
East India and the rest of India is that the majority of the tribes in other parts of India are more or
less Hinduised; where as in the case of the tribes in North East India, except for a few tribes in
plain areas, most of the hill tribes have their roots in their own culture and civilization.57 So, in
the pre-colonial era, the Tribals enjoyed spirituality of their own. They have a certain amount of
distinctive ways of insights-practically significant, theologically relevant, socially and
economically liberative, and ethically just-to enrich their spiritual life. However, in their
encounter with modernity, the Tribals lost their values and started considering themselves as
primitive, uncultured and uncivilized. This is mainly because Tribal religions and spirituality

56
L.H. Rawsea, ”Indigenous Spirituality and Modernity: A Theological Response,” in Hearing the Voices of Tribals
and Adivasis,edited by Hrangthan Chhungi (Delhi: ISPCK, 2014), 258-260.
57
A. Wati Longchar, “The Need for Doing Tribal Theology” in An Exploration of Tribal Theology, edited by A.
Wati Longchar (Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 1997), 2.

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have been derided as demonic, superstitious and evil under the theoretical frameworks of the
Westerners.

Before their conversion to Christianity, all the hill tribes of North East India worshipped similar
gods and goddesses. To some scholars, the basis of their religion was a combination of ancestor
worship and animism, a belief in fairies and gnomes, terrifying spirits which they believed hid in
caves and trees, the power of light and darkness and other natural phenomena. In fact, they
regarded all things associated with good or evil as god or some sort of supernatural entity. The
rituals and sacrifices associated with the spirits were not worship or praise, nor was it
thanksgiving; rather, it was an appeasement and of seeking favour.

_______________________________________________________

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*******

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