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The functions of the fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in a form
suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the required quantity necessary for
easy starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating conditions. To
do this, one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the fuel spray
nozzles, which inject it into the combustion system in the form of an atomized
spray. Because the flow rate must vary according to the amount of air passing
through the engine to maintain a constant selected engine speed or pressure ratio,
the controlling devices are fully automatic with the exception of engine power
selection, which is achieved by a manual throttle or power lever.
A fuel shut-off valve (cock) control lever is also used to stop the engine, although in
some instances these two manual controls are combined for single-lever operation.
It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls that prevent the engine gas
temperature, compressor delivery pressure, and the rotating assembly speed, from
exceeding their maximum limitations.
The pilot of an aircraft powered by jet engines, does not directly control his engines.
He acts through an intermediary: the Fuel Control. The throttle in the cockpit does
not give the pilot direct control over the fuel throttle valve in the Fuel Control. By
placing the throttle in a given position, the pilot tells the fuel control how much thrust
he desires in approximate percentage of full thrust. The control monitors certain
variables, and provides sufficient fuel flow to the engine to produce the desired
thrust (or power, in case of turbo-prop), but at a flow rate which will not allow the
engine operating limits to be exceeded.
When the pilot moves the fuel control power lever (throttle lever) forward, fuel flow is
increased. This increase in fuel flow creates increased gas expansion in the
combustor which in turn raises the level of power in the engine. For the turbo-jet
and turbo-fan, this means a thrust increase. For the turbo-prop or turbo-shaft, it
means an increase in power to the output drive shaft.
The engine fuel system must supply clean fuel to the aircraft combustors at the
correct pressure and fuel flow. However, these fuel requirements change with
altitude and temperature, as well as the speed requirements of the engine. In order
to accomplish a correct fuel flow, the fuel control portion of the engine fuel system
must be capable of making decisions from the information of the various sensors
available to it, i.e., from the atmosphere and the engine.
The fuel control monitors these variations, compares them with the throttle position
request, and delivers the fuel to the combustors at the correct fuel flow. This
reduces the work load required by the flight crew.
The power (thrust) of a gas turbine engine is controlled by metering the quantity of
fuel injected into the combustion system. Varying the fuel flow will, in turn, vary the
engine speed – altering the airflow and thrust.
The thrust requirement is initially set by the control lever in the cockpit but, in order
to achieve and maintain the required thrust over a range of operating conditions
(and to safeguard the engine from excessive RPMs, temperatures and thrusts), a
complex fuel control system is required that is mainly automatic in operation.
Basically the HP fuel system of a gas turbine engine consists of an engine driven
positive displacement pump delivering a continuous flow of fuel to the burners in the
combustion chambers. The lever in the cockpit will set the RPM required. The
correct fuel flow for that RPM will be controlled by the fuel system. A fuel shut-off
valve (usually called a HP cock) is also used to stop the engine and to keep the fuel
system primed when the engine is stationary. In some cases these two manual
controls are combined.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
A gas turbine fuel system must satisfy the following requirements:-
•· The pilot must have control of the engine power at all times.
•· The fuel flow must be such that the engine has good acceleration capabilities.
•· The fuel fed to the burners must burn readily and easily.
•· Engine starting must be easy.
•· Automatic safety devices must be built into the system to prevent over speeding
and overheating (over temping) of the engine.
•· The system must be designed to automatically control the following variations:-
(i) Aircraft forward speed.
(ii) Altitude.
(iii) Acceleration.
(iv) Air temperature.
(v) Engine rpm.
(vi) Gas temperature.
The fuel passes to the engine driven pump at a fairly low pressure; this ensures an
adequate head of pressure at the inlet to the pump, preventing cavitations of the
pump during normal operation.
The fuel flow is then directed through the fuel heater. However, this may be an
optional extra depending on the design requirements of the system. The fuel
heater ensures that any ice particles are removed from the fuel before the fuel
reaches the Fuel Control Unit (FCU). Hot air for heating the fuel is drawn from the
engine compressor.
The fuel control unit meters and supplies the correct amount of fuel to the engine
burners depending upon throttle position and the various environmental conditions
that affect the engine performance. It is a hydro mechanical computer, consisting
of two parts, a metering section and a computing section. The fuel control unit
is fitted with a fuel filter.
A fuel flow transmitter indicates to the flight deck crew the amount of fuel flowing
from the fuel control unit to the engine.
The fuel cooled oil cooler, although part of the fuel system has a primary function
to cool the oil from the engine lubricating system. The cold fuel cools the oil and at
the same time the oil heats the fuel.
The flow divider directs the fuel flow to either the primary or the secondary fuel
nozzles. These nozzles provide an atomized flow of fuel into the engine
combustion chamber for burning purposes.
Common Symbols
Generally speaking, the operator of a gas turbine engine does not control the
engine directly; he acts through an intermediary, namely the fuel control unit. The
means conveying orders to the fuel control unit is by the use of a throttle or power
lever.
In this case, the operator cannot ask for a certain amount of thrust or power, as in
a car for instance, but instead, positions his throttle for a given % of available
thrust. The fuel control unit, through signal sensing (inputs from the throttle) and
fuel metering, determines what the available thrust should be.
In this system, a fixed power lever (throttle) position represents a fixed engine
speed in rpm. This speed will not vary with compressor inlet temperature or burner
pressure changes.
Consider the illustration in Fig. 2 the Turbine Inlet Temperature (TT5) varies
inversely with Compressor Inlet Temperature when the compressor speed is
constant.
Note that the turbine inlet temperature (TT5) has to be limited to the coldest day,
the colder the air the greater the thrust. As the air warms up the thrust reduces
(due to density changes), then any drop in TT5 as the engine moves into the
warmer air, must be at the sacrifice of thrust and efficiency. However, these losses
are not so great as to render the engine unusable.
M.Omar Yazdani PIA Training Centre July 2009 13
BASIC GAS TURBINE
Engine Fuel Control System
With the dual compressor engine, the losses due to a lowering of TT5 because of
an increase in TT2 (inlet temperature) are prevented by the use of a variable speed
governor system. Instead of allowing TT5 to drop because of a reduction in air
density (warmer air) the high pressure compressor (N2) is made to go faster when
in warmer air. The required increase in speed is determined as that amount which
is sufficient to maintain a constant turbine inlet temperature. This condition is
illustrated in Fig. 3.
Here the Compressor Inlet Temperature (TT2) is used as the signal to change the
engine speed. This is achieved by having a sensor in the engine inlet that directs a
signal to the fuel control unit to increase or decrease fuel flow in order to achieve a
constant turbine inlet temperature.
Any movement of the throttle will, in general, be in excess of the engine's ability to
produce an immediate increase in thrust. For example, during acceleration,
(throttle advanced), the restraining forces of N2 speed, and TT2 will control the
fuel flow, this will happen irrespective of how rapid the throttle is moved. During
deceleration, Burner Pressure (PB) is the controlling factor. This ensures that the
engine passes through the transitory conditions as quickly as possible without
surging, over temping or flame out conditions (rich blow-out and lean die-out)
being reached.
Main fuel pumps are designed to deliver fuel to the engine at the correct pressure
at all times during the engine's operation. A satisfactory atomization at the fuel
nozzle is dependent upon the high pressure fuel delivery from the pump.
Engine driven fuel pumps can be divided into two categories:-
• Constant displacement (pressure relief controlled).
• Variable displacement (multi-plunger piston type).
A typical constant displacement gear type pump is shown in Fig. 4. The impeller
initially boosts the inlet pressure from the wing mounted boost pump to between 20
and 45 psi. This impeller is driven by a gear drive from .the engine accessory
gearbox. The fuel on leaving the impeller portion of the pump is directed through a
fuel heater, if fitted. Some aircraft engines do not require a fuel heater.
From the fuel heater the fuel is then directed through the filter assembly. The
system is protected from a filter blockage by a by-pass relief valve ensuring that
fuel flow will take place in the event of filter blockage. The fuel then enters the high
pressure portion of the pump and is boosted to a pressure of 900 psi, any excess
pressure above this figure is relieved through the high pressure relief valve.
M.Omar Yazdani PIA Training Centre July 2009 19
BASIC GAS TURBINE
Engine Fuel Control System
The cam plate provides a hardened circular track against which the ends of the
pumping pistons are bedded, and the angle of the cam plate is controlled by the
servo piston.
As the rotor rotates, the pistons move in and out as they rub against the camp late
which is at an angle. The greater the angle of the camp late the greater will be the
fuel pressure generated.
The rotor is bored along its axis and the outer (camp late end) is splined to receive
the fuel pump drive. The hole at the other end of the rotor aligns with a fuel inlet
port which is connected to the series of piston bores. This hole is fed with low
pressure fuel from the wing tank boost pumps. As the rotor turns, the pistons
pressurize this fuel to the high pressure values required by the engine speed
governor.
A sequence of the operation of the camp late is shown in Fig. 7 on the next page.
As the engine reaches its designated speed, the fuel pump may be providing more
fuel than is necessary, so the pump is off loaded. This is achieved by using a spill
valve to adjust the servo valve pressure which allows the angle of the cam plate to
reduce.
A typical device for controlling the spill valve is known as a kinetic spill valve, the
purpose of which is to:-
• Insert an interrupter blade to open the spill valve when the engine requires less
fuel.
• Withdraw the interrupter blade to close the spill valve when the engine requires
more fuel.
The trim adjusters allow for any minor alterations to the engine's performance to
ensure that the correct amount of thrust is produced for a given setting. This
information is normally given in engine trimming charts or graphs, the trimming
figures can change with differences in pressure and temperature. These charts or
graphs can be found in Chapter 71 of the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
The throttle lever is part of the mechanical linkage between the fuel control unit and
the aircraft’s flight deck. It is the means of controlling the selected speed or rpm of
the engine. The fuel shut-off valve or high pressure cock as it is sometimes known
shuts off the fuel to the engine, normally on engine shutdown. It can either be
mechanically operated from a lever on the flight deck that operates a valve within
the FCU (Fig. 1) or it can be electrically operated by an actuator remote from the
FCU. In both operations its purpose is to stop high pressure fuel from going to the
engine.
Its purpose is to alter the fuel flow from the FCU to the engine as the compressor
inlet temperature changes due to the aircraft and engine operations.
Although the basic requirements which a fuel control unit must fulfill apply, in
general, to all gas turbine engines, the means by which individual controls satisfy
these needs cannot be conveniently generalized. There are as many types of fuel
control unit as there are manufacturers, each manufacturer developing his own
means of control and design using the following basic parameters for his fuel control
unit calculations.
These basic inputs are:-
• N2 speed input.
• Compressor discharge pressure (CDP).
• Compressor inlet temperature (TT2 or CIT).
• Ambient pressure.
Illustrated in Fig. 2 on the next page, is a typical fuel control unit with system inputs.
This type of FCU is used in conjunction with a constant supply high pressure fuel
pump, hence the purpose of the pressure regulator.
Because the pump produces far more fuel pressure and volume of fuel than the
FCU requires, the regulator ensures that a predetermined fuel pressure is
maintained within the FCU for its correct function. Excess fuel is directed back to
the pump to be used again, in effect it is an idling circuit. Situated within the FCU
are various pilot valves and sensors that are dependent upon clean fuel for their
correct operation, therefore filters are fitted to the main fuel supply 'inlet' port and
also to the servo supply port.
Servo supply is used to operate various pilot valves and sensors within the FCU, it
also serves as a lubricant for the moving parts, and as a coolant during FCU
operations. The servo fuel supply is normally taken from the main fuel inlet supply
and is directed back into the by-pass circuit once it has been used.
The throttle valve is dependent upon many inputs for its operation; its main purpose
is to ensure that only the correct amount of fuel is allowed through to the engine fuel
nozzles and thus restrict the engine speed to the selected speed setting (rpm).
Consider Fig. 2, in this case the throttle valve has received all its inputs, so the
throttle valve will move and reposition itself to ensure that the correct fuel flow is
maintained automatically without relying upon the pilot to perform these adjustments.
in fact this is the whole essence of the fuel control unit.
The operation of the fuel control unit sensor, the compressor inlet temperature (CIT),
is a function of the density of the air entering the engine. In addition to compressor
inlet temperature sensing, the fuel control unit also senses N2 speed and engine
burner pressure. Note that engine burner pressure (BP) is rarely used and it has
been superseded by compressor discharge pressure (CDP). These three variables
affect the amount of thrust that an engine will produce for a given fuel flow. In
addition the CDP sensor will also protect the engine from any excessive internal
pressures which may build up within the engine. If the compressor discharges
pressure is above the recommended figure it would indicate that too much fuel was
being burnt. Because of fuel flow schedules within the FCU, the CDP limiter
shown in Fig. 2 would automatically trim back the throttle valve, thus reducing fuel
flow and speed with an eventual reduction in CDP back to within its limits.
Turbine inlet temperature is the main limiting factor on gas turbine engines, the
optimum thermal efficiency and maximum thrust is obtained by maintaining this
temperature close to its allowable limits. The turbine inlet temperature is not directly
sensed as a mechanical failure of a temperature sensor fitted close to the turbine
discs would lead to the ingress of the sensor into the turbine blades with catastrophic
results. Additionally, the sensors do not have a quick response, so any inputs of this
type of sensor to the FCU would be too sluggish.
This problem is resolved however, by the use of a 3D cam within the fuel control unit.
The variables, i.e., CDP and CIT are taken into account, and the scheduling of the
fuel control is achieved by movement of this 3D cam to ensure that the turbine
temperature is kept within operating limits.
The direct result of varying the fuel flow leads to a raising or lowering of the turbine
temperatures. As fuel is increased, the temperature of the air passing through the
burner increases, with a resultant increase in the pressure that reacts on the turbine
and the compressor. The turbine receives added heat and pressure energy, whilst in
the compressor there is a small back pressure. The compressor rotors accelerate in
spite of this back pressure, forcing additional air through the engine. The pilot, on
selection 'of his thrust requirement, causes the FCU to automatically increase or
decrease the fuel flow to keep the thrust constant with varying temperatures. This is
done by the compressor inlet temperature sensor (ClT).
The handling of the engine during steady-state operations is only one function of the
fuel control unit. When the engine is accelerated, the turbine is subjected to an
excessive amount of energy, more than it requires to maintain a constant rpm.
Should the fuel flow be increased too rapidly, an over rich mixture or over fuelling
may take place which could lead to an over temperature condition at the turbines, or
may causes a compressor surge leading to a rich blow out (flame-out) condition.
Equally, on deceleration, reducing the fuel flow too quickly may result in a lean die
out condition which is caused by reducing the fuel flow at a faster rate than the
compressor can reduce the rate of airflow to the burners.
The fuel control unit must maintain the engine's operation within limits of the fuel/air
ratio which will reduce the possibility of a flame-out condition during acceleration or
deceleration. This is achieved by using CDP air as a control medium onto the 3D
cam.
Finally with reference to Fig. 2, the fuel shut-off valve is operated mechanically via a
linkage from the flight deck. The shut-off valve ensures that on engine shutdown, fuel
cannot pass to the burners during the engine rundown. If this were to happen, fuel
would accumulate within the combustor section, and may cause a fire hazard during
the next start sequence.
The metering valve is provided with stops so as to obtain a maximum and minimum
fuel flow.
The minimum fuel flow for operation is 256 to 274 kg/h
The maximum fuel flow is 11565 to 12455 kg/h
Its pressurizing function is to keep the fuel supply pressure to a satisfactory value :
240 to 300 psi (above the bypass pressure) to ensure correct spray of fuel by the
nozzles in all operating configurations.
Some types of electronic control function as a limiter only, that is, should engine
shaft speed or E.G.T. approach the limits of safe operation, then an input is made
to the fuel flow regulator (F.F.R.) to reduce the fuel flow thus maintaining shaft
speed or E.G.T. at a safe level.
Supervisory control systems may contain a limiter function but, basically, by using
aircraft generated data, the system enables a more appropriate thrust setting to be
selected quickly and accurately by the pilot. The control system then makes small
control adjustments to maintain engine thrust consistent with that pre-set by the
pilot regardless of changing atmospheric conditions.
Full authority digital engine control (FADEC) takes over virtually all of the steady
state and transient control intelligence and replaces most of the hydro-mechanical
and pneumatic elements of the fuel system. The fuel system is thus reduced to a
pump and control valve, an independent shut-off cock and a minimum of additional
features necessary to keep the engine safe in the event of extensive electronic
failure.
Full authority fuel control (F.A.F.C.) provides full electronic control of the engine fuel
system in the same way as F.A.D.E.C., but has none of the transient control
intelligence capability used to control the compressor airflow system as the existing
engine control system is used for these.
Finally, View 'C' is the result of linking up the electronic engine control with the
advanced fuel control units. Take off power is provided at full throttle setting (max
stop) and throttle stagger is reduced to 1°. In this case, full rated take-off power is
achieved at full throttle position everyday irrespective of the ambient temperature
and pressure.