LECTURE # o

Introduction to Environmental Engineering & Sciences

Environmental Science
Science can be differentiated into the social sciences and natural sciences.

Natural sciences include

• core sciences chemistry, biology, and physics
• Numerous applied sciences such as geology, meteorology, forestry,
and zoology.
• Environmental science is an integrative applied science that
draws upon nearly all of the natural sciences to address
environmental quality and health issues.
• Environmental engineering uses environmental science
principles, along with engineering concepts and techniques, to
assess the impacts of social activities on the environment, of the
environment on people, and to protect both human and
environmental health.
• Environmental engineering requires a sound foundation in the
environmental sciences.

The Interdisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science and

Engineering
• Groundwater contamination by leaking gasoline storage tanks – material
science, hydrogeology, geochemistry, microbiology, hydraulics AND
environmental engineering.
• Urban air pollution – chemical/mechanical/automotive engineering,
meteorology, chemistry, AND environmental engineering.

Key Elements of Modern Environmental Science and Engineering

• Based on chemistry – environmental quality described by chemical
composition of the system.
• Quantitative – magnitude of the problem and feasibility of the solution are
described numerically.
• Driven by government policy, which is increasingly set on the basis of risk.

Primary Topics
• Introduction to environment
• Water demand
• Water quality
• Water treatment
• Water supply systems
• Wastewater collection systems
• Wastewater treatment
 • Solid waste engineering & management
• Water quality modeling
• Global environmental issues
• National environmental issues
• Air and noise pollution control
• Environmental impact assessment
Books

Text Book:
 Water Supply & Sewerage by E.W Steel and McGhee 4th, 5th, 6th Edition.
(whichever available)
 Introduction to Environmental Engineering Third Edition by Davis &
Cornwell, McGraw Hill.
 Environmental Engineering Laboratory, by Dr. Khurshid Ahmad.

Reference Books
• Waste Water Engineering, Treatment, disposal, Reuse by Metcalf and
Eddy, 3rd Edition. (Available in Reference Section of Main Library)
• Introduction to Environmental Engineering Second Edition by Davis &
Cornwell, McGraw Hill
• Environmental Assessment in Practice by D. Owen Harrop & J. Ashley
Nixon
• Integrated Solid Waste Management by George Techobanoglous, Hilary
Theisen & Samuel A. Vigil
• Elements of public health engineering by K.N Duggal
• Water and Waste water Engineering by Fair & Gayer
• Water and Wastewater Technology by Mark J, Hammer

Material for the Presentation

• Relevant literature/theory
• Equations/graphs/photographs
• Related issues/problem statement
• Solved problem/example
• Tables (if required)
• Conclusions/Recommendations
• References
LECTURE # o1

Global Environmental Issues

• Ozone depletion
• Global warming
• Solid and hazardous wastes
• Fresh water quantity and quality
• Degradation of marine environments
• Deforestation
• Land degradation
• Endangerment of biological diversity

Environmental engineering
• Air Pollution
• Noise pollution
• Solid waste engineering & management
• Hazardous waste management
• Water quality modeling
• Environmental ecology
• Water treatment and supply systems
• Wastewater collection and treatment
• Environmental impact assessment

Air Pollution
• Indoor air pollution
• Out door air pollution
Factors
• Traffic
• Industries
• Forest fire
• Volcanic irruption
• Composting and burning of solid waste
• Dust storm
• Query blasting

Noise Pollution

Sources
• Traffic (Roads, railways and planes)
• Industries
• Construction works
• Workshops
• Query blasting
• Nuclear and weapon testing
Solid Waste Engineering & Management
• Systems
• Disposal

Factors
• Open burning
• Open dumping
• Unhygienic disposal
• Dispose off in open drains
• Impacts on environment

Hazardous waste management

• A very sensitive issue
• Very complex and dangerous to handle
• No proper guideline for disposal
• Sources are still not define
• Response to environment is also complex
• Advance techniques are involved

Water Quality Modeling

• Under ground water modeling
• Surface water modeling
• BOD & DO model
• Variation in BOD & DO concentration
• Dissolved Oxygen Analysis-Tidal rivers and Estuaries
• Lakes modeling
• Stream water standards
• Improvement of water quality

Ecology and the Environment

The Technology needed to satisfy that consumption, and dispose of the
waste generation. These two factors decide how much environmental damage is
done per person. Multiply by the third factor, population, and you arrive at the
total level of damage.

Definition
• The study of living organisms and their environment or habitats
• How pollution impacts our environment

What is ecosystem?
• Basic study area for ecologists
• An organism or a group of organisms and their surroundings
• Tropic levels within an Ecosystem
Population
• Effects of increased population
• Energy consumption
• It makes possible the higher standard of living enjoyed in the
more developed countries.
• Energy consumption vs. population (USA)
• 123 million (1930) è 249 million (1990)
• Energy consumption increased by a factor of 10 in the past
40 years
• Estimating population Growth
• For reasonable calculations of world resource consumption and
pollution loads.
Habitat

Wetlands
• A semi-aquatic area that is either inundated or saturated by water
for varying periods during each year and that supports aquatic
vegetation specifically adapted for saturated soil conditions
• To provide fish and wildlife
• To improve water quality
• To protect surrounding lands from floods and erosion
Rain Forests
• Treed areas with a closed canopy and more than 25 inches of
rainfall per year
• To hold 50% or more of all species, but only 7% of the earth’s
surface

What Does a Civil Engineer Do?

• Design, analyze, and construct
• Structures
• Dams, buildings, pipelines, and bridges
• Geotechnical
• Soils, foundations, slope stability
• Transportation
• Roads and traffic
• Monitor, model, and improve
• Water Quality
• Wastewater, drinking water, groundwater
• Air Quality
• Outdoor, indoor, atmospheric
• Waste
• Solid, hazardous, recycling
What Does a Green Design Engineer Do?
• Prevent pollution, waste
• Analyze multi-faceted problems
• Engineering and science
• Economics
• Public policy
• Deal with uncertainty
• Build tools (computer models) to solve problems and assist decision
makers

Green Design Research

• Life cycle analysis or assessment
• Energy and electricity in the economy
• Green construction
• Harvesting methane from landfills
• Tracking metals through the environment
• Feasibility of cellulose ethanol (fuel from plants) for transportation

Water treatment and supply systems

Surface Water Treatment
1. Chemical Mixing (Rapid Mixing)
2. Flocculation
3. Sedimentation
4. Rapid Sand Filter
5. Disinfection
6. Fluoridation
7. Pumped to community

Unit Processes
Groundwater Treatment
1. Aeration (if necessary to release any gases)
2. Disinfection
3. Fluoridation
4. Pumped to community

Coagulation & Flocculation

 Coagulation
o the chemical alteration of the colloidal particles to make them stick
together
o Hydrophilic particles – water loving – absorbs to water
o Hydrophobic particles – water hating – does not absorb to water
 Hydrophobic particles are negatively charged and don’t like
to aggregate and are hydrophobic
 A positively charge coagulant destabilizes the negatively
charged particles and brings them together.
• Rapid Mixing - 20 to 60 seconds
 • Flocculation Gentle mixing 20-60 minutes to aggregate the
particles
• Coagulants
• Aluminum sulfate (alum)
• Ferrous sulfate (ferric)
• Ferric chloride

Settling
• When flocs have been formed they have to be separated from the water.
• Gravity Settling Tanks
• All sedimentation tanks are modeled as plug flow reactors.
• Rectangular or Circular design.
• Their design is determined by the Vs of the particle size to be
removed.

Qin
V
Qout
VS
Sludge Zone

Filtration
• Two types of Filtration
• Slow Sand Filtration = 0.1 to 0.2 m/h
• Rapid Sand Filtration (Rapid Gravity Filtration) = 5-20 m/h
• In the 1930’s switch to RSF from SSF, (higher loading, less space, lower
construction costs)
• However, SSF resurgence due to its removal of smaller particles.

Disinfection
• All of the previous treatment processes remove > 90% of bacteria and
viruses
• A disinfectant is used to:
• Kill microbes fast and efficiently
• Not kill humans or other animals
• Last long enough to prevent re-growth in distributions systems
• Factors that inhibit disinfection:
• Turbidity: particles shelter bacteria
• Resistant organisms
• Fe+2 and Mn+2: form particles that shield bacteria
 •Oxidizable compounds: become food for microbes in distribution system
•Commonly used disinfectants:
• Chlorine
• Chlorine Dioxide
• Chloramines
• Ozone
• UV light
•
Why Worry About Water Supplies?
• Supports virtually everything we do: agriculture, industry, energy, and
domestic needs.
• Major pathway into the body for contaminants.
• Easy to contaminate, difficult (costly) to remediate.
• Expensive to transport, necessitating local supplies for most communities.
• Different countries would respond in different ways to this question
(United States, Lithuania, &Bangladesh).
• Health aspects in water are connected to many broader issues of
management.
•
How much water is in the world?

Water Sources and Treatment

• Water
Cycle
•

Groundwater
• Surface water
• Treatment

Water Cycle
Water Treatment Methods
• Flocculation/Sedimentation Flocculation refers to water treatment
processes that combine small particles into larger particles, which settle
out of the water as sediment.
• Filtration
• Ion Exchange Ion exchange can be used to treat hard water. It can also
be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride, nitrates, radium,
and uranium.
• Adsorption Organic contaminants, color, and taste- and odor-causing
compounds can stick to the surface of granular or powdered activated
carbon (GAC or PAC). GAC is generally more effective than PAC in
removing these contaminants. Adsorption is not commonly used in public
water supplies.
• Disinfection (chlorination, ozonation) Water is often disinfected
before it enters the distribution system to ensure that dangerous microbes
are killed. Chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone

Major Water Quality Indicators

• Microorganisms, Disinfectants & Disinfection Byproducts, Inorganic
Chemicals, Organic Chemicals,
• Safe Drinking Water Act and state laws
• Overview: Origin, Mitigation, Treatment, Health Effects

Safe Drinking Water Act

 • Originally passed in 1974 and regulates 170,000 public water systems in
U.S.
• Standards and Treatment Requirements
• Expanded in 1996 in the areas of sole source water supplies, protection
and prevention, and public information.

Drinking water issue (Arsenic in Bangladesh)

• 20% of the countries wells affected
• 900,000 of the country's four million tube-wells were sunk with UNICEF
assistance
• Estimated that the number of people exposed to arsenic concentrations
above 0.05 mg/l is 28-35 million (more than 0.01 mg/l is 46-57 million)
(BGS, 2000)
• Long-term exposure to arsenic via drinking-water causes cancer of the
skin, lungs, urinary bladder, and kidney, as well as other skin changes such
as pigmentation changes and thickening.
• Government was slow to respond
• Needed steps: identify safe wells, techniques for reducing exposure,
purification and other water sources

LECTURE # o2
Water Treatment and Water Supply Networks

 Importance of Water Supply Systems

 Basic requirement
 Comforts of living
 Variety of purposes
o Drinking
o Bathing
o Washing
o Laundering
o Gardening
 Different other use for recreational and other purposes

Development Of Public Water Supply

• Pressure from the dwellers
• Migration of peoples from rural to urban areas
• Multipurpose requirements
• Congestion of population at single spot
• Civilization advancements
• Trend of high-rise buildings

Need For Protected Water Supply

From the public heath point of view, it is necessary that all water supplies
must be invariably free from all types of impurities whether suspended or
dissolved in water and no untoward risk should occur to the health of the public
as a result of any water contamination.

Objectives of water supply systems

• To supply safe and wholesome water to consumers
• To supply water in adequate quantity
• To make water easily available to consumers so as to encourage personal
and household cleanliness
• To provide economical water supply system
• To supply water to the consumers at a good pressure

Role of Agencies
• To provide a better and economical system
• To look after and maintenance of different components
• To maintain the quantity and quality of water
• To execution of new water supply systems
• To manage the whole system properly

Quantity of Water
 • Estimating requirements is of prime importance in the design of the water
supply system, is the framing of an estimate giving the total quantity of
water that will be required by the community after the completion of the
works. The estimate enables the determination of sizes and capacities of all
the constituents of the water supply system. This is arrived at with the help
of two factors:
• The probable population estimated at the end of the design period
• Rate of water supply per capita per day

Design Period
This is the period into the future for which the estimate is to be made. The
period should neither be too long so that full financial burden is not thrown on
the present generation, nor should it be too short so as to avoid the design
becoming uneconomical. In practice, a period varying from 20 to 30 years is
considered sufficient for design purpose.

Per Capita Consumption

For the purpose of estimating total requirement of water of a community,
it is usual to calculate the consumption or an average basis and express it in liters
per capita per day

Factors Affecting Per Capita Consumption

• Climate
• Class of consumer
• Industries and commerce
• Quality of water
• Pressure in distribution
• Extent of metering system
• Sewage facilities
• System of supply
• Number of habitants

Effect of Population on Rate of Consumption

a= with maximum permissible variation of 20%

b= industrial plus commercial uses including air conditioning or 180 lpcd which
ever is greater

Consumption for Various Uses

• Domestic use
• Industrial use
• Commercial use
• Public use
• Loss and waste

Per Capita Per Day Estimation Of 135 lit.

Water Supply Requirements for Public Buildings Other Than
Residences

Fire Demand
• It is the quantity of water required for fire-fighting purposes. As compared
to the total consumption, it is seldom more than 5 - 10 per cent. Heavy
demands for brief periods are usually the deciding factors in fixing
capacities for pumps, reservoirs and service-pipes of distribution system.
• Fire demand is a function of population but with a minimum limit,
because greater the population, greater the number of buildings and
greater the risk of fire. By the minimum limit of fire demand is meant the
amount and rate of water supply required to extinguish the largest
possible fire that could be started in the community.
• The estimate of fire demand can be made with the help of the following
empirical formulae
• National Board of Fire Underwriters Formula:
Q = 4637 (P) 0.5 [1 - 0.01(P)0.5]

• Freeman Formula:
Q = 1136.5 (P/5 +10)
Where
Q = Fire Demand in lpm.
P = Population in thousands
 • The above formula usually gives quite high results. The following empirical
formula has been found to give satisfactory results:

Q = 3182(P) 0.5

At a demand rate to be maintained at a minimum pressure at the hydrant

of 1-1.5 kg/cm². Lasting for at least four hours and with automobile pumping
in service.

Indian Standards
Recommend that the fire reserve should be provided at the rate of 1800
lpm for every 50,000 population and an additional 1800 lpm for each 0.1million
population more than 0.3 millions. For towns of population 0.1million and
below, the total requirement should be doubled. The fire reserve should be
maintained for at least 4 hours.

Fluctuation in Rate of Consumption

So far we have considered per capita consumption which is only an
average amount of water per day over a period of a year that the community on
the basis of one person will require. In practice, it will be found of little use as
consumption varies depending upon the season- or month, day and hour. These
are variously termed as seasonal or monthly, daily and hourly variations or
fluctuations in the rate of consumption.
Seasonal or monthly variations are prominent in tropical countries like India.
The rate of consumption reaches a maximum during the summer season owing to
greater use of water for street and lawn sprinkling etc. It goes down during the
succeeding months and becomes minimum during winter season. The fluctuation
in the rate of consumption may be as much as 150 per cent of the average annual
consumption.
Daily and hourly variations depend on various factors as general habits of the
consumers, character of district being served (whether residential, industrial. or
commercial) and climatic conditions. Thus higher consumptions on Sundays and
other holidays may be due to washing of clothes, bathing etc. Consumption on
Sundays may not begin to rise until 8 hours (8 A.M.) whereas it may be earlier
say 6 hours (6 A.M) on other week days. The peak flow hours may be at 8 -10
hours (8 A.M.-I0 A.M.) and minimum flow 04 hours (12 A.M. - 4 A.M.). Certain
industries may be working in day and night shifts and consuming more water. It
is, therefore, essential to study the characteristics of the district before deciding
upon the rate of consumption. Taken on an average, the maximum daily
consumption may be 250 per cent of the average daily consumption and the
maximum hourly consumption 200 per cent or more of the average hourly
consumption of the day.
The effect of these variations is pronounced in the design of water works system.
Monthly variations are of much use in the design of large impounding or storage
reservoirs, while daily and hourly variations find applications in the design of
pumps, service reservoirs, mains etc. As for an instance water mains in the
distribution system are normally designed to discharge 250-300 per cent of the
average daily requirement of water.

Prediction of Population
The present population-may be obtained from recent census with
reasonable alterations. Future prediction is based on a knowledge of city and its
environments, trade and expansion, development of surrounding country, raw
materials and communications around and such extraordinary possibilities as
discoveries of mineral deposits, oil, coal and power generations, railway stations
etc. Helpful in predictions will be the study of population trends of similar cities
and consultations with local officials.
• Annual rate of increase method
• Arithmetical progression method
• Geometrical progression method
• Incremental increase method
• Changing rate of increase method
• Graphical method

Annual Rate of Increase Method

In this method, the rate of increase per annum is first determined and the
population predicted there from.

Pn = P (1 + i) n
Where
Pn = Population at the end of n years
P = Population at any time
i= annual rate of increases of population
Arithmetical Progression Method
In this method, a constant increase in the growth of population is added
periodically: The population may be determined at the end of n years or n
decades.

Pn = P + ni
Where
P = Present population
i = per year or per decade increase of population.
The method is good for old cities or small towns which have stabilized.

Geometrical Progression Method

In this, a constant percentage growth is assumed for equal periods of time. Thus,
the population at the end of n years or decades is given as

Pn = P (1 + i/100) n
Where
i= per year or per decade percentage rate of increase.

This method should be used carefully as it may give erroneously high results
when applied to young and rapidly advancing cities having expansion of short
duration only.

Incremental Increase Method

In this, the average of increase in population is found out as per
Arithmetical Progression method and to that is added the average of the net
incremental increase once for every future decade. Evidently, this method
embodies the advantages of both the preceding methods and the value of
population obtained is therefore more correct.

Changing Rate of Increase Method

This is similar to the Geometrical Progression method except that a
changing rather than a constant rate of increase is assumed. The changing rate
for large and grown up cities is usually considered to be a decreasing rate. This
method gives quite rational results.

Graphical Method
These mostly involve extension of the plotted data on a population-time
curve. Considering towns which were in similar situations over 30 or 40 years
ago and drawing graphs of their increase of population, the extension of plotted
data for the city under consideration can then be reasonably assumed. This
method being logically based gives quite accurate prediction of population and is
therefore frequently used when population figures of othr similar cities are
known.
 Drinking Water Quality and Health

Engineered Water Systems

Water and Health

• 80% of sickness in the world is caused by inadequate water supply or
sanitation
• 40% of the world population does not have access to safe drinking water
• It is estimated that water-borne diseases kill 25,000 people per day
• In many populated areas of the world, water-borne diseases represent the
leading cause of death.

Sources of Drinking Water

• Groundwater
• shallow wells
• deep wells
• Surface water
• rivers
• lakes
• reservoirs
Ground- vs. Surface Water

Groundwater Surface water

constant composition variable composition

high mineral content low mineral content

low turbidity high turbidity

low color colored

low or no D.O D.O. present

high hardness low hardness

high Fe, Mn taste and odor

Introduction to Water Treatment

Surface Water Treatment

• Primary objectives are to
1. Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
• Treatment technologies largely based on coagulation and flocculation

Groundwater Treatment
• Primary objectives are to
1. Remove hardness and other minerals
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
• Treatment technologies largely based on precipitation

Coagulation and Flocculation

• Goal: To alter the surface charge of the particles that contribute to
color and turbidity so that the particles adhere to one another and are
capable of settling by gravity.
Coagulants
• Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
• Ferric chloride: FeCl3
• Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
• Polyelectrolytes

Type I Settling -- Stokes’ Law

g (s   )
vs  d2
18
Where
νs = settling velocity
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
μ = dynamic viscosity

Overflow Rate

Q
v
As
Where
v = overflow rate (m/s)
Q = water flow (m3/s)
As = surface area (m2)

Types of Particle Settling

• Type I settling applies to particles that settle with constant velocity --
particles will be removed if v > vs
• Type II settling if particles flocculate during settling, velocity generally
increases
 • Type III As particle concentration increases with depth, zone settling
occurs
• Type IV At bottom of tank compression settling occurs

Filtration
• The final step in removing particles is filtration.
• Removal of those particles that are too small to be effectively removed
during sedimentation
• Multiple removal mechanisms depending on design
• Single media: sand
• Dual media: coal and sand
• Multimedia: anthracite coal, sand and garnet

Filter Design
Q
va 
As

Where
va= face velocity (m/day) or loading rate (m3/day·m2)
Q = flow rate (m3/day)
As= filter surface area (m2)
Slow Sand Filters
va = 2.9 – 7.6 m3/day·m2

Rapid Sand Filters

va = ≥ 120 m3/day·m2
• Removal mechanisms are different
• Rapid sand widely used in US, slow sand more common in other countries
• As particles are removed - filter becomes clogged – head loss increases,
turbidity increases
• Must backwash (takes about 10-15 min) done about once per day
• Must design to handle flow with one filter out of service
• Backwashing is accomplished by forcing water (and sometimes air) up
from the clear well back through the filter.
• The particles in the filter become suspended, releasing the trapped
particles.
• Backwash water retreated or disposed of.
LECTURE # o3

Water and Wastewater Disinfection

Disinfection
• Disinfection is any process to destroy or prevent the growth of microbes
• Many disinfection processes are intended to inactivate (destroy the
infectivity of) the microbes by physical, chemical or biological processes
• Inactivation is achieved by altering or destroying essential structures or
functions within the microbe
• Inactivation processes include denaturizing of:
• proteins (structural proteins, enzymes, transport proteins)
• nucleic acids
• lipids (lipid bi-layer membranes, other lipids)

Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant

• Broad spectrum: active against all microbes
• Fast acting: produces rapid inactivation
• Effective in the presence of organic matter, suspended solids and other
matrix or sample constituents
• Nontoxic; soluble; non-flammable; non-explosive
• Compatible with various materials/surfaces
• Stable or persistent for the intended exposure period
• Provides a residual (sometimes this is undesirable)
• Easy to generate and apply
• Economical

Disinfectants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

• Free Chlorine
• Mono-chloramines
• Ozone
• Chlorine Dioxide
• Mixed Oxidants
• Electrochemically generated from NaCl
• UV Light
• Low pressure mercury lamp (monochromatic)
• Medium pressure mercury lamp (polychromatic)
• Pulsed broadband radiation

Summary of Disinfectants for Microbes in Water and Wastewater

• Historically, the essential barrier to prevention and control of waterborne
microbial transmission and waterborne disease.
• Free chlorine: HOCl (hypochlorous) acid and OCl- (hypochlorite ion)
• HOCl at lower pH and OCl- at higher pH; HOCl a more potent
germicide than OCl-
 • strong oxidant; relatively stable in water (provides a disinfectant
residual)
• Chloramines: mostly NH2Cl: weak oxidant; provides a stable residual
• Ozone, O3 , strong oxidant; provides no residual (too volatile and reactive).
• Chlorine dioxide, ClO2,, strong oxidant; unstable residual (dissolved gas)
• Concerns due to health risks of chemical disinfectants and their
by-products (DBPs), especially free chlorine and its DBPs
• UV radiation
• low pressure mercury lamp: low intensity; monochromatic at 254
nm
• medium pressure mercury lamp: higher intensity; polychromatic
220-280 nm)
• reacts primarily with nucleic acids: pyrimidine dimmers and other
alterations
Some Factors Influencing Disinfection Efficacy and Microbial
Inactivation
• Microbial strain differences and microbial selection:
• Disinfectant exposure may select for resistant strains
• Physical protection:
• Aggregation
• particle-association
• protection within membranes and other solids
• Chemical factors:
• pH
• Salts and ions
• Soluble organic matter
• Other chemical (depends on the disinfectant

Factors Influencing Disinfection Efficacy and Microbial Inactivation -

Water Quality
• Particulates: protect microbes from inactivation;
Dissolved organics: protect microbes from inactivation; consumes
or absorbs (for UV radiation) disinfectant; Coat microbe (deposit on
surface)
• pH: influences microbe inactivation by some agents
• free chlorine more effective at low pH where HOCl predominates
• neutral HOCL species more easily reaches microbe surface
and penetrates)
• negative charged OCl- has a harder time reaching negatively
charged microbe surface
• chlorine dioxide is more effective at high pH
• Inorganic compounds and ions: influences microbe inactivation by some
disinfectants; depends on disinfectant
Reactor Design, Mixing & Hydraulic Conditions
Disinfection kinetics are better in plug-flow (pipe) reactors than in
batch (back-mixed) reactors

Disinfectant Disinfectant

Flow

Plug-flow or Pipe Reactor

Batch or Back-mixed Reactor

Disinfection Kinetics: Chick’s Law

First-Order or Exponential Kinetics
Assumes:
• all organisms are identical
• death (inactivation) results from a first-order or “single-hit” or exponential
reaction.
Chick's law:
- dN/dT = kN
where:
N = number (concentration) of organisms
T = time
ln Nt/No = -kT
where No = initial number of organisms
Nt = number of organisms remaining at time = T
No = initial number of organisms (T = 0)
Also:
N/No = e-kT

Disinfection Activity and the Contact Time Concept

• Disinfection activity can be expressed as the product of disinfection
concentration (C) and contact time (T)
Assumes first order kinetics (Chick’s Law) such that disinfectant
concentration and contact time have the same “weight” or contribution in
disinfection activity and in contribution to CT
• Example: If CT = 100 mg/l-minutes, then
• If C = 10 mg/l, T must = 10 min. in order to get CT = 100 mg/l-min.
• If C = 1 mg/l, then T must = 100 min. to get CT = 100 mg/l-min.
• If C = 50 mg/l, then T must = 2 min. to get CT = 100 mg/l-min.
 • The CT concept fails if disinfection kinetics do not follow Chick’s Law (are
not first-order or exponential)

Factors Influencing Disinfection of Microbes

• Microbe type: disinfection resistance from least to most:
vegetative bacteria ®viruses ® protozoan cysts, spores and eggs
• Type of disinfectant: order of efficiency against Giardia from best to worst
• O3 ¬ ClO2 ¬ iodine/free chlorine ¬ chloramines
• BUT, order of effectiveness varies with type of microbe
• Microbial aggregation:
• protects microbes from inactivation
• microbes within aggregates can not be readily reached by the
disinfectant
•
Free Chlorine - Background and History
• Considered to be first used in 1905 in London
• But, electrochemically generated chlorine from brine (NaCl) was
first used in water treatment the late 1800s
• Reactions for free chlorine formation:
Cl2 (g) + H2O <=> HOCl + H+ + Cl-
HOCl <=> H+ + OCl-
• Chemical forms of free chlorine: Cl2 (gas), NaOCl (liquid), or Ca(OCl) 2
(solid)
• Recommended maximum residual concentration of free chlorine < 5 mg/L
(by US EPA)
• Concerns about the toxicity of free chlorine disinfection by-products (tri-
halomethanes and other chlorinated organics)

Mono-chloramines - History and Background

• first used in Ottawa, Canada (1917)
• became popular to maintain a more stable chlorine residual and to control
taste and odor problems and bacterial re-growth in distribution system in
1930’s
• increased interest in mono-chloramine:
• alternative disinfectant to free chlorine due to low THM potentials
• more stable disinfectant residual; persists in distribution system
• secondary disinfectant to ozone and chlorine dioxide disinfection to
provide long-lasting residuals

Reaction of Ammonia with Chlorine: Breakpoint Chlorination

• Presence of ammonia in water or wastewater and the addition of free
chlorine results in an available chlorine curve with a “hump”
• At chlorine doses between the hump and the dip, chloramines are being
oxidatively destroyed and nitrogen is lost (between pH 6.5-8.5).
Ozone
• first used in 1893
• used in 40 WTPs in US in 1990 (growing use since then), but more than
1000WTPs in European countries
• Colorless gas; relatively unstable; reacts with itself and with OH- in water;
less stable at higher pH
• Formed by passing dry air (or oxygen) through high voltage electrodes to
produce gaseous ozone that is bubbled into the water to be treated.

Chlorine Dioxide
• first used in Niagara Fall, NY in 1944 to control and algae problems
• used in 600 WTP (84 in the US) in 1970’s as primary disinfectant and for
taste and odor control
• very soluble in water; generated as a gas or a liquid on-site, usually by
reaction of Cl2 gas with NaClO2 :
• 2 NaClO2 + Cl2 ® 2 ClO2 + 2 NaCl
• usage became limited after discovery of it’s toxicity in 1970’s & 1980’s
• neurological disorders and anemia in experimental animals by
chlorate
• recommended maximum combined concentration of chlorine dioxide and
it’s by-products < 0.5 mg/L (by US EPA in 1990’s)

• High solubility in water

• 5 times greater than free chlorine
• Strong Oxidant; high oxidative potentials;
• 2.63 times greater than free chlorine, but only 20 % available at
neutral pH
• Generation: On-site by acid activation of chlorite or reaction of chlorine
gas with chlorite
• About 0.5 mg/L doses in drinking water
• Toxicity of its by-products discourages higher doses.

Disinfection: Barrier against Microbes in Water and Wastewater

• Free chlorine still the most commonly used disinfectant
• Maintaining disinfectant residual during treated water storage and
distribution is essential.
• A problem for O3 and ClO2, which do not remain in water for very
long and for UV, which produces no disinfectant residual
• A secondary disinfectant must be used to provide a stable residual
• UV may have to be used with a chemical disinfectant to protect the
water with a residual through distribution and storage.
Design of Disinfection Systems
• Chick’s Law:

- dN/dT = kN

Where
N = number of organisms
k = first-order rate constant (day-1)

• Design requirements may include

• reduction in number of organisms (e.g. 99.9% kill)
• number of organisms allowed in finished water (e.g. < 1/100 mL)
• contact time
• residual chlorine
• Requirements can be both at plant and at consumer.
LECTURE # o4

Water Treatment and Water Supply Networks

Sources of Water Supply
The primary source of all water supply is Precipitation which is the
water falling from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth in the form of rain,
snow, hail etc. Rainfall is the most important part of precipitation. In falling on
the ground surface, it is carried off in four different ways as illustrated in Figure:

• Run-off is that portion which flows over the surface of ground as storm
water or flood flow to appear in the form of stream.
• Percolation is the portion penetrating into the interstices of the soil and
eventually becoming a part of the ground water.
• Transpiration is the portion taken up and disposed of by the leaves of the
growing vegetation.
• Evaporation is the part lost to the atmosphere from the land and water
surfaces due to the heat of the sun. This part, however, is later recovered in
the form of precipitation; evaporation and precipitation thus manifesting
an ever-lasting cycle in nature which is responsible for the creation and
maintenance of the different sources of water supply.

Hydrologic Cycle and Its Importance In Water Supply Sources

All the above mentioned phases comprise in nature what is known
as the Hydrological Cycle. This is the descriptive term applied to the general
circulation of water from seas to the atmosphere, to ground and back to the seas.
Beginning with evaporation from the sea surface into the atmosphere, the vapor
condenses by various processes, causing precipitation on the earth's surface. A
part of this is retained on the land in the soil, the surface depressions and on
vegetation, again to be returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and
transpiration and the balance goes back into the sea by surface run-off through
channels and by percolation into the ground and then flowing through
underground channels. An outstanding property of the hydrological cycle is that
the source is inexhaustible as it is available every year again and again in varying
quantities.

Classification of Sources of Water Supply

• Surface water
• Rivers
• Lakes
• Impounding Reservoirs
• Ground water
• Springs
• Infiltration Galleries
• Wells
•
Rainfall and Runoff
Water from rainfall when used as a source of water supply is
required to be collected and stored in underground reservoirs. The collection may
be either from the surface of the ground or from the roofs of houses. When
collected from the surface of the ground as may be done in water scarcity areas in
plains, catchments area should specially constructed to serve the purpose. The
reservoir which is open, trapezoidal shaped has sides and bottom provided with
impervious lining to minimize losses or infiltration of subsoil water. The entire
area should be fenced to prevent the encroachment of both humans and animals
which may cause pollution of the watershed.
For the collection of rain water, as is done in the hilly areas of India (U.P) and
other places, rain water from clean roofs preferably made out of galvanized iron
sheets is collected into masonry or concrete storage. It is usually found necessary
to waste the first portion of rainwater which contains lot of suspended matter,
excreta of birds, dead leaves etc.
Rainfall Measurement
The amount of rain falling during a given period is measured on the
basis of the depth of water which would accumulate on a level surface if it all
remained as it fell and none flowed, soaked, away or lost by evaporation.
Rainfall is measured in inches (or mm.) of depth in a standard rain gauge.
Symons’s rain gauge is the most commonly used in India. The rain gauge is fixed
in a masonry block 61 cm cube with the top of the gauge projecting 30.5 cm above
the ground level. The rainfall is admitted through a funnel into a glass bottle
contained in the body of the gauge. The contents of bottle are measured by means
of graduated cylinders reading up to 1 mm.
For measuring the variations in the intensity of rainfall other types
of rainfall gauges fitted with self-registering recording devices are used. In one
such type, called the automatic recording rain gauge the rain is led into a float
chamber containing a light hollow float, the vertical movement of the float, as the
level of the water rises is then transmitted by a suitable mechanism, into
movement of the pen on the chart set to a suitable scale. To provide a continuous
record for a useful period (say 24 hours), either the capacity of the float chamber
is to be increased or what is more usual a, siphoning arrangement is provided for
automatically emptying the float chamber quickly whenever it become full, the
pen then returning to the bottom of the chart.
It is necessary to locate the rainfall gauge either in a flat and open lot
unobstructed by large trees or roofs of buildings enclosed by parapet walls, since
collection of rainfall in the gauge is affected by strong winds against which its
should be protected.

Automatic Recording Rain Gauge

Variation in Rain Fall
The variations in rainfall may be geographical, monthly or annual.
The geographical variations are due to direction of prevailing winds and location
of mountain ranges. They are not of much consequence in water supply problem
as compared to the monthly and annual variations. The rainfall during summer
months is partly used up by vegetation. The remaining rainfall along with snow
melt is available for storage in reservoirs. Some rainfall during winter though in
small quantity may also be available for storage. It is necessary to have rainfall
data spread over longer periods in order to know the amount of rainfall in a 'dry
year' and for a series of successive dry years in order that sufficient storage may
be provided to take care of deficiency in the supply of water from rainfall and to
replenish the ground water storage.
The actual quantities of rainfall from month to month and from year to year are
systematically observed and the record is usually kept with the Meteorological
Department. Graphs are then plotted to show the monthly variations in different
years and the annual variations in different decades. From these graphs can be
computed maximum, average and minimum quantities of rainfall in different
periods. This information is useful in deciding upon the storage capacity of the
reservoir, the probable quantity of water available for supply and the maximum
or peak flood discharge available from the storage reservoir.

Run-off Measurement
 Run-off is the portion of rainfall which flows over the ground
surface to ultimately join drainage channels or streams. It is measured, therefore,
as a stream flow in the following units:
• Cubic meter per second
• hectare-meter

Run-off is measured by the following methods:

• Rainfall-runoff records,
• Empirical formulae
• Gauging

Rainfall-Runoff Record
The rainfall record for a number of years is first used to determine
the average depth of rainfall over catchments. The value when multiplied with a
suitable coefficient gives the amount of runoff. This is mathematically expressed
by the relationship:
R =KP
R = run-off in cm
P = precipitation in cm
K = run-off coefficient

It is observed that relationship between rainfall and the resulting runoff is quite
complex and is influenced by a host of factors related to the catchments and
climate. The rainfall-runoff relationship is therefore nonlinear and even non-
deterministic because of the paucity of available data. This means K, strictly
speaking, cannot be regarded as a constant coefficient However, the formula
could be used as an approximate evaluation of the runoff for a catchments
provided suitable values of K are assumed. In practice K is found to have a wide
range from as low as 0.05 to as high as 0.8.

Empirical Formulae
These essentially involve relationship between rainfall and runoff
with the introduction of third or fourth parameters to account for climatic or
catchments characteristics, suitable for particular regions. Based on this we have
the following important empirical formulae.
• Khosla’s Formula
• Inglis-Desouza Formula
• Lacey’s Formula
• Strange’s Curve

Strange’s Table of Runoff Coefficient Ks

Mass Diagram
The run-off records are the most important data required for
determining the quantity of water which will flow from a given drainage basin
during different periods of time. The longer the duration of the records, the more
accurate will be the estimate of the quantity and variations of the run-off. The
run-off record of the stream for different months of the years is often made use of
in constructing the hydro graph showing a graphical relationship between them.
In practice, an integrated hydro graph or mass diagram is found to be of greater
use, as it shows the accumulated flow from month to month and year to year in
units of second-meter or hectare-meter.

Rivers
 The water received from precipitation i.e., rain or melted snow is the surface
water which flows in the form of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. In India, many
cities like Delhi, Calcutta and Ahmedabad derive their water supply from rivers.
The principal advantage of river as a source of water supply is the large quantity
of water available for supply throughout the year. However, since water has to
travel a long distance from the source located in mountains where it is fairly pure
to the towns in plains, its quality deteriorates as river more or less serves as a
natural drain for all discharges from the region. Though river water may be softer
than ground water, it contains large amount of organic matter.
Besides, it picks up lot of suspended matter, clay, silt etc and becomes muddy in
appearance. Some of the tributaries of Indus River are known to contain harmful
dissolved salts like mica or magnesium sulfate in excess quantities which lead to
diarrheic disorders in human beings. Being easily accessible, rivers are freely
used for washing, bathing, etc. In India, it is usual for dead bodies to be burnt on
the banks of rivers. Besides, places of pilgrimage are normally situated on the
banks of rivers and pilgrims bath at a time causing pollution of water as a source
of water supply. Pollution may also be caused by discharges of trade effluents
from industries. It is, therefore, necessary that river water should be thoroughly
treated and protected before it can be made as a source of water supply for towns.

Impounding Reservoir
An impounding reservoir may be defined as an artificial lake
created by the construction of a dam across a valley containing a water course.
The object to be achieved is to impound or store a portion of the stream-flow so
that it may be used for water supply. The reservoir essentially consists of three
parts:
• a dam to hold back water,
• a spillway through which excess stream-flow may discharge, and
• a gate chamber containing the necessary valves for regulating the flew of
water from the reservoir.

Design Factors
Since storage of reservoir is the essential principle on which an
impounding reservoir is based, the general factors to be considered in its design
are
• The run-off or the quantity of water flowing from the drainage area for
successive intervals of time. This, as we have seen, would be determined
from the long-term records of the rainfall and run-off for the catchments
area considered
• The total demand of water for all purposes including the consumption
requirements, loss of water due to evaporation from the surface of
reservoir, leakage, and percolation losses and the necessary withdrawals
to satisfy the demands of the riparian owners downstream for like
intervals of time.

Location of Impounding Reservoirs

 Considerations affecting the location of impounding reservoirs are :
• Existence of suitable dam site. The shortest dam to impound the requisite
volume of storage is the best. This would be possible if the river flows
through a narrow gorge and the valley rapidly widens upstream from the
site.
• The quantity of water available. It should be sufficient to meet all the
demands throughout the year. This would depend on the rainfall, run-off
and the catchment’s area. The catchment’s area should be such as to drain
off waters from all points in the catchments.
• Distance and elevation of the reservoir with reference to the point of
distribution. A longer distance means greater cost of the conduits while
proper elevation of the reservoir ensures adequate supplies through
gravity flow.
• Density and distribution of population over the catchment’s area. From
the point of view of stream-pollution, it would be desirable to have a small
density of population per sq. kilometer on the catchment’s area above the
reservoir
• Existence of towns, highways, rail-yards and other cultivable areas. These
should be excluded from the submerged area of the reservoir.
• Geological conditions of the storage basin. The existence of bed rocks of
calcareous stone is likely to impart quality of hardness to water. Also if the
rocks are deeply fissured, there will be considerable loss of water due to
percolation.
• Freedom of water shed from swampy areas. The extensive growth of
micro-organisms inside water, is difficult to be treated, hence
objectionable

Ground Water
It is the accumulation of water below the surface of ground, caused
by the portion of rainfall (about 60 per cent) which percolates through soil pores
of rock crevices, flows by gravity till it reaches an impervious stratum, when it
moves in a lateral direction to some point of escape appearing as springs, wells or
infiltration galleries. The surface of the ground water is called ground water level
or more generally as the water table.

Springs
Management of Wells for Drinking Water

Possible Well Contaminants

• Fertilizers
• Pesticides
• Septic systems
• Animal feed lots
• Leaking fuel storage tanks

Well Location
• Locate wells uphill from:
• Septic systems.
• Animal feed lots.
• Fertilized farm fields.
• Fuel storage tanks.
• Divert surface water away from the well.
Conditions around the Well
• Contamination of groundwater is more likely if soils are:
• Shallow (a few feet above bedrock).
• Highly porous (sandy or gravely).
• Shallow soil means contaminants do not have far to travel to reach
groundwater.
• If bedrock is fractured water seeps rapidly. This can increase
contamination.

Well Age
• If your well is over 20 years old, have it inspected for defects.
• Wells over 50 years old are more likely to be contaminated due to:
• Poor construction.
• Thinner casings that may be cracked and leaking lubricating oils.

Dug and Driven-Point Wells

• Dug wells are:
• Large diameter holes that are usually more than 2 feet wide.
• Shallow and generally constructed by hand.
• Driven-point wells are:
• Installed only in areas with loose soil.
• Constructed by driving lengths of pipe into the ground.

Drilled Wells
• Are common in Kentucky.
• Are the least likely to become contaminated of the three types of wells.
• Have set construction standards in Kentucky.
• Must be drilled by a certified well driller.

Well Casing and Cap

• Casing should be:
• 12 inches or more above the surface and 1-2 feet above flood level.
• Inspected periodically for cracks.
• Cap should be:
• Firmly attached to casing and have a vent to allow air to enter.
• Tightly attached to the vent, with the vent facing the ground and
properly screened.

Well Inspection
• Have your well inspected by a qualified well driller every 10 to 15 years.
• Regular inspections ensure a safe water supply.
• Detailed records of maintenance visits and inspections can be
valuable assets for repairs.
• Retain information about construction of your well.
Water Testing
• Water testing is important because:
• It monitors water quality and identifies possible health risks.
• Most contaminants cannot be seen.
• Test well water at least once a year for:
• Bacteria.
• Nitrates.
• Total dissolved solids.
• pH.

Unused Wells
• Need to be closed because they:
• Provide a direct channel for waterborne pollutants to reach
groundwater.
• Pose a hazard to small children.
• Are potential health hazards to your family?
• Can be expensive to fix if problems occur.
• By Kentucky law, a licensed, registered well driller must be hired to close
any wells.

Overview
• Introduce the common methods used to construct wells.
• Discuss the different types of wells
• Discuss what types of wells a landowner plug.
• Discuss reasons for hiring a contractor.
• Conclusion

Introduction
• There are many different types of well construction methods.
• The method used for each well depends on geological formations.

What are the common Methods Used to Construct Water Wells?

• Hand dug
• Driven
• Drilled
Well Construction Techniques
There are eight different types of well construction techniques.

Type I – Dug Well

Land Surface

Sealed Rock or Brick Lining as Casing

Open Hole

Total Depth

Type II – Drilled Well

 Land Surface

Casing

Cemented Annulus

Seal

Open Hole

Total Depth

Type III – Drilled Well

Land Surface

Casing

Smaller Casing

Seal

Open Hole

Total Depth
Type IV – Drilled Well
Land Surface

Casing

Cemented Annulus

Seal

Gravel or Sand Pack

Casing with Selected, Perforated, Slotted, or

Screened Intervals

Total Depth

Type V – Drilled Well

Land Surface

Casing

Cemented Annulus

Seal

Gravel or Sand Pack

Casing with Selected, Perforated, Slotted, or

Screened Intervals

Seal

Open Hole

Total Depth

Type VI – Drilled Well

 Land Surface

Large Casing

Cemented Annulus

Smaller Casing with Selected, Perforated, Slotted, or

Screened Intervals

Total Depth

Type VII – Drilled Well

Land Surface

Casing

Cemented Annulus

Seal

Gravel or Sand Pack

Seal

Casing with Selected, Perforated, Slotted, or Screened

Intervals

Total Depth

Type VIII – Drilled Well

 Land Surface

Casing

Gravel or Sand Pack

Casing with Selected, Perforated, Slotted, or Screened

intervals

Total Depth

What Type Wells Can A Landowner Plug?

• A landowner can plug type I-V wells, assuming there is less than 100 feet
of standing water in the well.
•
Even With a Type I-V Well, Why Might It Be Better to Hire A
Contractor?
• A contractor may have better equipment and understanding of the geology
conditions that affect how the well should be plugged.

Conclusion
• Landowners have the authority to plug
type I-V wells if there is less than 100
feet of water in the well.
• Only licensed well drillers should plug
type VI-VIII wells.
• In some cases it may be better to hire a
contractor for type I-V wells
LECTURE # o5

Wastewater Collection And

Treatment
(Design Criteria)

Sewers

Average Sewage Flow

Normally about 80 to 90 percent of the per capita consumption of
water becomes wastewater, considering 200 litre per capita water consumption
and sewage flow of 80%, the per capita flow will be 160 litre/capita/day.

Peak Factor
Sewage flow does not remain uniform; it varies form time to time.
Sewerage network will be designed for the peak sewage flow.
The peak factor will be calculated as follows:
Peak factor = 5.75
P0.2
Where P = Population in thousands.
The peak factor shall not be greater than 6 and not less than 2 in any case.
Flow Velocity
Minimum velocity in the sewer will be such that there should be no deposition in
the sewer line. Minimum self cleansing velocity is 0.6 m/sec. under flowing full
condition. Preferably it is taken as 0.75 m/sec for the designing of the system.
Maximum velocity will not be greater than 2.4 m/sec.
Following Manning's equation will be used to determine the
velocity in the sewer lines:
V=1/n (R2/3 S1/2)

Where;
V=Flow velocity in m/sec.
R=Hydraulic Radius of pipe in meters
S=Slope of the pipe
n=Manning's Coefficient of Roughness of the pipe

Sewer Capacity
The full carrying capacity of the pipe will be calculated as follows:
Q = AV
Where;
Q=Flow in m³/sec.
A=Cross-Sectional Area in m²
V=Flow velocity in m/sec.

Sewer Slopes
The minimum slope for a section of sewer will generally be based
on the minimum velocity requirements.

Design Depth of Flow

Sewers will be designed to flow at 0.75 of full depth under peak flow
conditions to provide requisite air gap under which condition the sewer will flow
up to 90% capacity at peak flow. Thus the design flow will be calculated by
multiplying peak flow with a factor of 1.12.

Determination of Pipe Sizes

Minimum sewer pipe size will be 200 mm except for house
connections which will be 150 mm. All other pipe sizes will be determined from
design flow calculations and velocity criteria.

Pipe Materials
The type of pipes to be used for sewerage system depends upon the
following factors:
• Corrosion resistance
• Capital cost
• Local availability
 • Ease of installation
• Efficiency of joints
• Load sustaining ability
• Useful life

The pipe materials mainly include unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC),

Vitrified Clay (VC), Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC), Asbestos Cement (AC)
and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) etc. All of these pipes are technically
acceptable for use in sanitary drainage system although each material has its own
particular merits for a given condition.
The market investigations carried out so far indicate that UPVC and HDPE pips
are locally available. The cost comparison of the two pipes indicates that rates of
both pipes are competitive and either of the two can be used. These two pipes are
almost equally technically suitable but considering the growing trend of using
HDPE pipes, HDPE pipes will be used for sewer lines. For house connections
UPVC pipes will be used.

Depth of Cover to Sewers

In order to provide building connections, minimum earth cover
over the pipes will be 1.0 m.

Trench Widths
Trench widths for lying of pipes of various sizes in the network are
shown in table:

Pipe DiameterTrench Width

(mm) (mm)
150 650
200 700
250 750
300 850
350 900
400 950
450 1050
500 1100
600 1250
 700 1400

Bedding
Sand bedding will be used except where the pipes require additional support
in the form of concrete surround as appropriate.

Location of Sewers
• Sewers will be generally located keeping in view the natural ground slopes
in order to minimize the depth of excavation.
• Sewer will be positioned in accordance with the utility/service reservation
requirements of the local Municipality.

Sewer Alignment
Sewer lengths between manholes will be laid at a uniform gradient and
diameter and straight in plan.

Crossings of Other Utilities

Where the proposed sewers cross the existing utilities the sewer
should be laid in such a way so as to avoid interference with these utilities.
Sewers will be laid below water pipes wherever possible. If the water main
underpasses any sewer line it will be protected by sleeving or concrete
encasement at the crossing to minimize the risk of contamination of water
supply.

Manholes Location
Manholes will be located according to conventional sewer network
design i.e. at starting points, junctions between sewers (except building
connections to sewers) and changes in direction and grade. Based on sewer size,
the spacing between manholes will be as follows:

• 200 diameter< 50 metres

• 300 to 600 diameters for 50 to 80 metres
• 700 to 1200 diameter for 80 to 100 metres

Manhole Dimensions
For sewer lines up to 700 mm diameter manholes will have a
circular chamber of 1.2 metre internal diameter. For large diameter pipes
manhole chambers will be of 1.5 metre internal diameter.

Pipe Connections to Manholes

To allow for limited differential settlement between manholes and
the connecting pipelines, there will be a flexible pipe joint located at the external
face of the manhole and a second flexible joint approximately 750 mm from the
face of the manhole
Adjustment for Height of Manholes
Manholes will be constructed with a minimum of two and
maximum of three courses of concrete blocks between the manhole cover slab
and manhole cover to allow for future adjustment of the top level to suit changes
in final road or ground level but manhole neck will not exceed 750 mm.

Change in Sewer Diameter at Manholes

To minimize the risk of blockage in sewers, the diameter of the
outgoing sewer must not be less than the diameter of the largest incoming sewer.
The top of smaller sewers entering a manhole will normally be at the same level
as that of the outgoing sewer.

Slope of Channel within Manhole

All manhole invert levels used in the sewer calculations will be the
centre of the manhole and all distances and gradients will be calculated between
centres of manholes. Where the incoming and outgoing pipes are of the same
gradient and diameter the pipe gradient will be continued through the channel in
manhole.

Drop Connection to Manhole

The drop connections to manholes will be provided if the difference
in pipe invert elevation is greater than 600 mm otherwise no drop connection
will be provided.

Manhole Material
Manholes will be of reinforcement cement concrete.

Building Connections
Cleanouts will be used for single building connections and these will be
constructed just outside the boundary of each property served.

Inspection Chambers
Inspection chambers will be used for multiple building connections.
Chambers will be constructed just outside the boundary of each property served
and will be sufficiently deep to allow connection with the drain/sewer within the
boundary at satisfactory gradients and to ensure that the connection to the sewer
will have a minimum cover of 1.0 m. The diameter of inspection chambers will be
900 mm.

Connection Pipe Size and Grade

Connection pipes will be 150 mm diameter or greater depending on the
population of the buildings and the available grade.

Connection to Sewer
• All connections to the main sewer made will be through Y r T fittings.
• Risers will be incorporated in the building connection where the depth of
sewer exceeds 2.5 metres
Ventilation
• Ventilation of sewers is necessary to avoid the build up of noxious gasses
and to minimize septic conditions.
• In developed areas sewers will naturally ventilate through the ventilation
stacks provided as part of each building sanitary system. Therefore, there
is no need of additional ventilation stacks.

Sewage Lift/Pump Station

Sewage Lift Station

Lift station will be provided where necessary. It will consist of a wet
well and a dry well to house two centrifugal pumps, one in operation and the
other standby. The pumps will operate automatically as a function of waste water
level in the sump (wet well). Provision of ventilation and odour control system
will be made.

Sewage Pump Station

The sewage pump station (if required) will pump the wastewater
collected from the entire project area to the screening chamber of the treatment
plant. This will be a complete pump house building with a wet well and dry well.
This will also be equipped with centrifugal pumps. Provision of ventilation and
odour control system will be made. These will also be operating automatically
depending upon the water level. Positive suction head will be provided to the
pumps, standing provision of pumps will be 50% of peak sewage flow.

SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Process of Sewage Treatment

The proposed sewage treatment plant will be based on extended
aeration, activated sludge process.

Capacity of Treatment Plant

The rated capacity of the plant will be average annual daily sewage
flow. The flow will be worked out on the basis of per capita sewage flow and
design population. The per capita domestic sewage flow will be 160 liter/day
whereas the design population will be worked on the basis of adopted household
size and number of plots in the project area.

Domestic Sewage Production

As discussed above, per capita domestic sewage production will be
adopted as 160 liters/day; the day will be defined as 24 hrs.

Industrial Wastewater Production

 The wastewater production hours will be considered as 8 hours in a
day, from 8.00 am to 4.00 pm.

Sewage Flow Variations

The following sewage flows will be considered for the design of
various treatment plant facilities mentioned below:
• Peak hour flow for Pumping equipment
• Peak hour domestic flow will be equal to peak factor x
average daily flow.
• Maximum day flow for Sludge pumping system and Sedimentation
tank
• Minimum hour flow for Low range of plant flow.

Influent Characteristics
The characteristics of domestic wastewater have been considered in
the following ranges, the design parameters will be established after the sample
testing of wastewater.

Characteristic Concentration
- Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BODs) 200-400 mg/l
- Suspended Solids (SS) 220-350 mg/l
- Free Ammonia (as N) 25-50 mg/l
- Total Nitrogen (as N) 40-85 mg/l
- Total Phosphorous 8-15 mg/l
- Design Temperature 20 °C

The discharge from workshops etc. will be considered to be free from substances
which will hinder the biological process or could not be removed through the
process. Such substances will be removed at site by industry owners at their own
expenses before discharging effluent into the proposed sewerage system. The
substances which hinder the biological processes are classified as follows:
• Fats, oils and grease
• Priority pollutants
• Surfactants

Average sewage temperature for the coolest month will be adopted as design
temperature which is taken as 20°C.

Effluent Characteristics
The sewage will be so treated that it meets the wastewater
standards set by Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment according
to situation like following are the major typical characteristics:

Characteristic Concentration
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) 15 mg/l
Suspended Solids (SS) 15 mg/l
Nitrogen: Ammonia (as N) 5 mg/l
Nitrate (as NO3) 50 mg/l
Phosphorus (total as P) 30 mg/l
Faecal Coliform 200/100 ml

Screen and Screen Chamber

Mechanical screen will be provided to aim at safety of the pump
and to remove solids that may retard treatment process and malfunctioning of
equipment of treatment plant. The design criterion for screen chamber is given
below:
• Velocity in approach channel : 0.5-1.0 m/sec
• Velocity through screen : 0.5-1.0 m/sec
• Average spacing between the bars : 20 mm
• Angle of inclination : 60° – 90°
• Head loss : 10 – 15 cm
• Vertical velocity component perpendicular: 0.15 m/sec to the screen
section.

Oil Separator
An oil separator will be designed to remove the oil from wastewater
which hinders the process of treatment. The oil will be trapped in a chamber from
where it could be disposed off to appropriate site.

Aeration Tank / Reactor

Aeration tank based on extended aeration system (oxidation ditch)
will be provided. Design of the tank will be based on following parameters:

• Hydraulic Retention Time

Hydraulic retention time of reactor will be taken as more than 20
hours and will be calculated as under:

Reactor Volume (m³)

HRT (days) = -------------------------------
Max. Daily flow (m³/day)
• Organic Loading Rate
The organic loading BOD rate will be less than 0.3 kg/m3. day.

Organic loading rate=BOD

V
Whereas
BOD=BOD in kg/day
V=Volume of reactor in m³
• Sludge Loading Rate
F/M ratio or sludge loading rate will be adopted as less than 0.15
and will be related as
 [BOD] Q
F/M ratio = ---------- x ---
[MLSS] V
Whereas
[BOD] = Sewage BOD concentration in kg/ m³
[MLSS] = Biomass Concentration in reactor, 2-5 kg/ m³
Q = daily influent discharge in m³
V= volume of reactor in m³

Aeration System
Vertical type mechanical surface aerators will be provided in a
rectangular aeration tank/reactor.

Clarifier
Circular RCC tank(s) will be provided for final settlement of suspended solids.

• Overflow Rate: 24 m³/m². day

• Solids Loading Rate: 10 kg/m². hr.
• Depth: 4 - 6 m.

Rapid Sand Filter

The effluent from final sedimentation tank will be passed through filters in order
to further reduce the BOD and suspended solids. The filters will be designed at
filtration rate of 5 m³/ m²/hr.

Disinfection of Treated Effluent

Disinfection of treated effluent will be carried out through
chlorination which will be carried out through dry feed chlorinators and gas will
be fed in treated effluent tank.
Treated Effluent Tank
Treated effluent will be stored in a tank. The tank will be designed
for one day (annual average) retention time.

Disposal of Treated Effluent

The disinfected effluent will be utilized by the different users for
irrigation purpose. In case, conveyance of treated effluent is not possible through
gravity, pumps will be proposed to pump the treated effluent from storage tank.

Sludge Thickener/Holding Tank

Circular gravity thickener(s) will be provided for gravity settling of
sludge. The basis of design is given as under:

• Solid loading rate: 30 kg/m2. day

• Sludge concentration :2 – 3% (i.e. 20–30 kg/m3)
 • -Sludge production rate:0.4 – 0.6 kg/kg BOD removed

Sludge Drying Beds

Conventional sludge drying beds will be provided to dewater the
stabilized sludge. The basis of design will be as under:

• Thickness of wet sludge : 250 mm

• Sludge retention time : 14 days

Sludge Disposal
The dewatered sludge through drying beds will be transported
through vehicles and disposed off at landfill site; the site should be of sufficient
capacity to store the sludge minimum for 100 days.

Interconnecting Pipe Material

Buried pipes will be of HDPE pipes, however exposed pipes will be
of DI.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Code and Standards

• All reinforced concrete structures including water retaining
structures shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of
the latest editions of British Standards B.S. 8110, B.S 5337 and
other relevant Standards and Codes of Practice.
• All material used shall conform to the latest British Standards.
• In addition, loadings, design procedures and material specifications
may also fulfill the requirements of American Standards and Codes
i.e. ACI/ANSI/ASCE/ASTM etc.

Material Strengths
• Concrete
The grade of concrete appropriate for use shall be selected from the
preferred grades in BS 5328.
• Reinforcing Steel
All reinforcing steel to be used in reinforced concrete works shall
conform to BS 4449 and BS 7295 having a minimum yield strength
(fy) of 460 MPa (66,650 Psi).

Units and Design Loads

Units
The International System of Units (S.I. Units) shall be used for the project.
Design Loads
The structures should be so designed that adequate means exist to transmit
the design ultimate dead, wind, and earthquake and imposed loads safely from
the highest support level to the foundations. The characteristics load in each case
should be the appropriate load as defined in and calculated in accordance with BS
6399.
Dead Loads
The dead loads on the structure will be computed from the unit weights of
the materials. Following unit weights will be used for computing dead loads,
unless otherwise specified.

Material Unit Weight (kN/m³)

Reinforced Concrete 23.5

Plain Concrete 22.5

Water 9.8

Brick Masonry 18.8

Saturated Soil 21.1

Steel 76.9

Backfill Compacted 18.14

Live Loads
Live load at different buildings/locations shall vary according to the
functional requirements.

Equipments/Machinery
Machine and equipment loads shall conform, to the requirements of the
Manufacturer.
Wind Loads
The wind loads on the structures will be calculated using the following
formula:
Wk = 0.613 Vs² N/m²
Where,
Vs = Design wind speed in m/sec = V S1 S2 S3
V = Basic wind speed in m/sec = 45 m/sec
S1 = Multiplying factor relating to topology
S2 = Multiplying factor relating to height above ground and wind
Breaking
S3 = Multiplying factor related to life of structure.
Earthquake Loads
Acceleration coefficient for seismic loads shall be taken as recommended
in the Geotechnical Investigation Report of the project and Highway Design
Manual.

Temperature Effects
 The temperature effects will be investigated against a maximum
differential temperature of + 20 degree centigrade and included in the design.
Unless otherwise specified, the maximum daily temperature shall be assumed as
55 °C. (According to the location of site)

Load Cases and Load Combinations

The design will be based on Ultimate Limit State using BS 8110.
Load Cases:

Case – 1 Earthquake ‘E’

Case – 2 D.L (self + imposed)

Case – 3 L.L

Case – 4 Earth Pressure ‘E.P’

Case – 5 Temperature (T = 20 °C)

Case – 6 Water pressure in tank (F)

Case – 7 Wind ‘W’ (Basic wind speed=45 m/sec)

Case – 8 D.L+L.L+T+F+W….working loads

Case – 9 D.L+L.L+T+E+F….working loads

Case – 10 (1.4 DL+1.6 LL)

Case – 11 (1.4DL + 1.6 LL+ 1.4 E.P)

Case – 12 (1.4 DL+ 1.4 E.P + 1.4 W)

Case – 13 (1.2 DL + 1.2 LL+ 1.2 E.P + 1.2 W)

Case – 14 (1.4 DL + 1.4 EP + 1.5 E)

For water retaining structures the provisions of BS 5337 shall be followed.

Geotechnical Parameters
The geotechnical parameters relating to the bearing capacity, lateral
earth pressure and depth of foundations shall be used as recommended in the
Geotechnical Investigation Report of the Project

Stability Criteria
 The following stability criteria will be used:
• Factor of safety (Sliding) = 1.50
• Factor of safety (Overturning) = Resultant of forces within middle
third, in normal load cases.

Vibration Analysis
The reinforced concrete foundations of heavy vibratory equipment
shall be so designed that the computed amplitude of vibration at the top of the
foundations will remain within the permissible limits specified by the equipment
supplier. Vibrations caused by unbalanced machine forces shall also be
considered.

Computer Software
Computer program STAAD-III/STAAD-Pro shall be used for
analysis and design of the project structures. Sewer CAD or Excel for sewer
design and analysis according to the requirements.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

In order to effectively monitor and control the parameters of
sewage treatment plant, information of status and measurements must be
gathered at various points of the system and means must be provided to remote
control important devices from control room. The control and monitoring
parameters can be categorized as
• Status/Alarms
• Measurements
• Control
The scope of signals for each of the above category in the sewage
treatment plant is explained below:
• Status/Alarms
• Pumps and blower running (Status)
• Pumps and blower stopped (Status)
• Measurements
• Temperature
• pH value
• Water levels in screening chamber, sedimentation and
storage tanks
• Flow to screening chamber
• Sludge level
• Chlorine dosing
• Control
• Start pumps and blower (ON)
• Stop pumps and blower (OFF)

Controlling Modes
With this information following technique will be possible:
 • Primary Control: This type of control is a low level control
which means that the pumps and blowers will be operated manually
from the plant room when remote control from control room is
disabled.
• Secondary Control: In this type of control the control room
software will automatically control and monitor the pumps, blowers
and other equipment and available flow and levels in the tanks and
chambers.

All the information like level, flow, temperature and pH value measurements will
be relayed to the control room for monitoring and control of pumps and blowers
will be carried out from control room. However option will be provided for
manual control of pumps and blowers at the plant floor when remote control is
disabled.
Requirement for Control Room
For control and monitoring of various parameters discussed above,
a control room with proper furniture and air-conditioning is required. The
control room will act as controlling and monitoring hub for the entire sewage
treatment plant.
Following facilities shall be provided in the control room:
• Hardware Facilities
• Main processor
• Video display units (VDU)
• Input devices (keyboard, mouse)
• Printers
• AC UPS
• Software facilities
• Operating system
• Process Control Software based on Graphical User Interface
LECTURE # o6
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Methods of Moving Water

• Direct pumping
• Gravity
• Combination systems (most communities use combination systems)

Treatment Facilities
• Methods include: coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, chemicals,
introducing bacteria/ organisms.
• Spring and well water generally do not need further purification.
• Maintenance errors, loss of power, or natural disasters concern fire
departments as they may reduce volume and pressure of water.

Water Distribution Systems

• Delivers water from the pumping station throughout the area.
• Dead-end hydrant receives water from only one direction
• Circulating-feed hydrant receives water from two or more directions
• Grid systems provide circulating feed from several mains

Grid Systems
• Primary feeders - 16 inch (400mm) pipes
• Secondary feeders - 12 inch (300mm) pipes
• Distributor - 8 inch (200mm) pipes
• Hydrants

Recommended Pipe Sizes

• 12 inch (300mm) - main streets
• 8 inch (200mm) - business and industrial
• 6 inch (150mm) – residential

Pipe Capacities
• 4 inch (100mm) per 1000 ft main = 255 gpm
• 6 inch (400mm) per 1000 ft main = 740 gpm
• 8 inch (200mm) per 1000 ft main = 1575 gpm
• 12 inch (300mm) per 1000 ft main = 4650 gpm

Water Main Valves

• Indicating - identifies valve seat open, closed, or partially closed
• No indicating - does not identify position
• Controls water flow
• Maintained at least once per year
Friction Loss

Definition: that part of the total pressure lost as water moves through the
system or hose.
• Pipe construction (cast iron, ductile iron, asbestos cement, steel, plastic, or
concrete) cause different levels of friction loss due to internal surface
material and resistance to water flow
• Size of pipe
• Encrustation from mineral deposits and sedimentation
• Foreign materials - rocks

Fire Hydrants
• Spaced between 300 ft (105m) for industrial, to 400 ft (120m) for
residential (According to location) and at strategic intersections.
• Hydrant should be fully opened or closed to prevent soil erosion due to dry
barrel drain.

Hydrant Inspections
• No obstructions effecting pumped connection.
• Outlets face correct direction
• Ports have clearance from ground
• No physical damage or rust
• Caps are free to operate
• Stem easily opens and closes
• No internal obstructions

Drafting
• The term used for raising static water to supply a pumper
• Ensure 24 inches of water above and below strainer to prevent clogging of
pumps. Minimum of one to two inches.
• Strainers must be used and must not rest on the bottom

Pipe Networks
• Water Distribution systems
• Transmission lines
• Pipe networks
• Measurements ( Discharge & pressure)
• Manifolds and diffusers
• Pumps
• Storage tanks
• Distribution
Pipeline Systems

Pipe Networks
• Water distribution systems for municipalities
• Multiple sources and multiple sinks connected with an interconnected
network of pipes.
• Computer solutions!
• KYpipes
• WaterCAD
• CyberNET
• EPANET

Water Distribution System Assumption

• Each point in the system can only have one pressure
• The pressure change from 1 to 2 by path a must equal the pressure change
from 1 to 2 by path b

1 2

b
p1 V12 p V2
  z21  2  22  z 2  hL
p2 p21 g V1a  V22ga
   z1   z 2  hLa
  2g 2g
Same for path b!

V12a V22a V1b2 V22b

 z1   z 2  hLa   z1   z 2  hLb
2g 2g 2g 2g

a
Pressure change by path a
hLa  hLb 1 2
Or sum of head loss around loop is zero

• Pipe diameters are constant or K.E. is small

• Model withdrawals as occurring at nodes so V is constant between
Nodes.
b
Pipes in Parallel

Q1
Qtotal A B

Q2
• Find head loss given the total flow
• assume a discharge Q1’ through pipe 1
• solve for head loss using the assumed discharge
• using the calculated head loss to find Q2’
• assume that the actual flow is divided in the same proportion as the
assumed flow

Networks of Pipes
• Mass conservation at all nodes
• The relationship between head loss and discharge must be maintained for
each pipe
• Darcy-Weisbach equation
• Exponential friction formula
• Hazen-Williams
 A
3
0.32 m /s 0.28 m3/s

Network Analysis
Find the flows in the loop given the inflows and outflows.
The pipes are all 25 cm cast iron (e=0.26 mm).

0.32 m3/s B
0.28 m3/s
A

100
m
0.10 m3/s C D 0.14 m3/s

200 m
• Assign a flow to each pipe link
• Flow into each junction must equal flow out of the junction

Arbitrary

0.32 m3/s B
0.28 m3/s
A
0.32
0.00 0.04

0.10 m3/s C D 0.14 m3/s

Calculate the head loss in each pipe

h f1  34.7 m
 8 fL  h f 2  0.222m
h f   5 2 Q 2
è gD   f=0.02 for Re>200000 h f 3  3.39m
h f 4  0.00m
h f =kQ Q Sign convention +CW 4

h fi  31.53m
 8(0.02)(200)  k1,k3=339
i 1

k1     339
k2,k4=169
 (9.8)(0.25)5  2 
è 
0.32 m3/s 1 B
0.28 m3/s
A
4 2

0.10 m3/s C 3 D 0.14 m3/s

• The head loss around the loop isn’t zero

• Need to change the flow around the loop
• the clockwise flow is too great (head loss is positive)
• reduce the clockwise flow to reduce the head loss
• Solution techniques
• Hardy Cross loop-balancing optimizes correction
• Use a numeric solver (Solver in Excel) to find a change in flow that
will give zero head loss around the loop
• Use Network Analysis software (EPANET)

Numeric Solver
• Set up a spreadsheet as shown below.
• the numbers in bold were entered, the other cells are calculations
• initially DQ is 0
• use “solver” to set the sum of the head loss to 0 by changing DQ
• the column Q0+ DQ contains the correct flows.
Solution to Loop Problem

Q0+ΔQ
DQ 
DQ 



0.32 m3/s 1 A
0.28 m3/s
4
0.21 2
8
0.10 0.06
2 2
0.20
0.10 m3/s B 2 3 C 0.14 m3/s
D

Network Elements
• Controls
• Check valve (CV)
• Pressure relief valve
• Pressure reducing valve (PRV)
• Pressure sustaining valve (PSV)
• Flow control valve (FCV)
• Pumps: need a relationship between flow and head
• Reservoirs: infinite source, elevation is not affected by demand
• Tanks: specific geometry, mass conservation applies

Check Valve
• Valve only allows flow in one direction
• The valve automatically closes when flow begins to reverse

open closed
Pressure Relief Valve

Closed Open

relief flow

Low pipeline pressure High pipeline pressure

Valve will begin to open when pressure in the pipeline

_Exceed a set pressure (determined by force on the spring).

Where high pressure could cause an explosion (boilers, water heaters,)

Pressure Regulating Valve

Sets maximum pressure downstream

closed open

High downstream pressure Low downstream pressure

Valve will begin to open when the pressure downstream is less than the set-
point pressure (determined by the force of the spring).

Similar function to pressure break tank

Pressure Sustaining Valve
Sets minimum pressure upstream, Similar to pressure relief valve

Closed Open

Low upstream pressure High upstream pressure

Valve will begin to open when the pressure greater is upstream than the sets-
point pressure (determined by the force of the spring).

Flow control valve (FCV)

• Limits the flow rate through the valve to a specified value, in a specified
direction
• Commonly used to limit the maximum flow to a value that will not
adversely affect the provider’s system

Pressure Break Tanks

• In the developing world small water supplies in mountainous regions can
develop too much pressure for the PVC pipe.
• They do not want to use PRVs because they are too expensive and are
prone to failure.
• Pressure break tanks have an inlet, an outlet, and an overflow.

Network Analysis Extended

• The previous approach works for a simple loop, but it doesn’t easily extend
to a whole network of loops
• Need a matrix method
• Initial guess for flows
 • Adjust all flows to reduce the error in pressures
Pressure Network Analysis Software: EPANET

Reservoir
pipe junction

0.32 m3/s A 1 B 0.28 m3/s

4
0.218 2
0.102 0.062

0.202
0.10 m3/s C 3 D 0.14 m3/s

EPANET network solution

� 8 fL � 2 H i  H j  hij  rQijn  mQij2

hf  � 5 2 �Q
�gD  �
�Qj
ij  Di  0
� 8 fL �
r � 5 2 � AH = F
�gD  �
Aii  �pij
n2 j
Aij   pij
1
pij  1
� 8 fL � pij 
2 � 5 2 �Qij nr Qij
n1
 2m Qij
�gD  �
 ( )
yij  pij r Qij  m Qij sgn ( Qij )
n 2

( n
yij  pij r Qij  m Qij
2
) sgn ( Q )
ij

Qij  Qij  �
�yij  pij ( H i  H j ) �
�
 Pipe Networks
• Problem Description
• Hardy-Cross Method
• Derivation
• Application
• Equivalent Resistance, K

Problem Description
• Network of pipes forming one or more closed loops
• Given
• Demands @ network nodes (junctions)
• d, L, pipe material, Temp, P @ one node
• Find
• Discharge & flow direction for all pipes in network
• Pressure @ all nodes & HGL

1.5 cfs 2500', 4"

A B 3500', 5"

3000' 2000' 1 cfs

4" 8" C
.5 cfs E D
6000', 6"
1500', 8"

Hardy-Cross Method (Derivation)

For Closed Loop:

  
n
KQ
 hf  0 n KQ
a
n 1

 KQ  0
n a

  
n
KQ
 K (Q   )  0
n a
a
n KQ Q n

 K ( Q  nQ  )  0
n n 1 a a

 KQ
a a n

  a

n h Qf a
 n( n  1) n  2 2
( Qa   ) n  Qan Equivalent
 nQan 1  Qa 
Resistance, K n=2.0, Darcy-Weisbach
2!
n=1.85, Hazen-Williams

Example Problem

1.5 cfs 2500', 4"

A B 3500', 5"
1 cfs
3000' 2000'
C
4" 8"
.5 cfs E D
6000', 6"
1500', 8"

PA = 128 psi
f = 0.02
Hardy-Cross Method (Procedure)
• Divide network into number of closed loops.
• For each loop:
o Assume discharge Qa and direction for each pipe. Apply Continuity
at each node, Total inflow = Total Outflow. Clockwise positive.
o b) Calculate equivalent resistance K for each pipe given L, d, pipe
material and water temperature (Table 11.5 as shown in above
slide).
o c) Calculate hf=K Qan for each pipe. Retain sign from step (a) and
compute sum for loop S hf.
o Calculate êhf /Qa êfor each pipe and sum for loop Sêhf/ Qaê.
o Calculate correction d =-S hf /(nSêhf/Qaê). NOTE: For common members
between 2 loops both corrections have to be made. As loop 1 member, d =
d1 - d2. As loop 2 member, d = d2 - d1.
o Apply correction to Qa, Qnew=Qa + d.
o Repeat steps (c) to (f) until d becomes very small and S hf=0 in step (c).
o Solve for pressure at each node using energy conservation.

Design should be based not on present water demand but on future demand
estimation which is normally obtained by extrapolation.

Storage and Distribution of Water

• Service Reservoirs: Storage in water supply network

Purposes for Storage

• To balance supply and demand
• Protection against breakdown
• To provide a static head for gravity running
• Water treatment.

Sitting and Capacity of Reservoir

Sitting of Reservoir: It should be sited as close as possible to point of use

within constraints of available relief. This is to reduce the pipe cost due to the
higher discharge from storage to points of use.

Capacity of Reservoir: Inflows should be kept fairly even. Outflows can be

peaked. Storage is used to balance uniform inflow and non-uniform outflows. If
inflow is greater than outflow, then water is getting into storage and if outflows is
greater than inflows, water is coming out of storage.
Pipes
There are three categories of pipes:
• Mains: Trunk - not tapped and Distribution Mains – supply water.
They have relatively large diameter and are used for conveyance
and distribution. Materials used include cast iron, spun iron,
asbestos, cement, or steel.
• Service Pipes: Individual supply lines to farms, houses and
hospitals or standpipes. Materials used include copper, steel,
plastics (PVC or polyethylene).
• Plumbing: Pipe work within the building.

Pressure Classes of Pipes

There are three important pressures associated with pipes.
• Work Test: 2 to 3 times the working pressure. It is the pressure
used to test manufactured pipes.
• Maximum Field Test: One and half time the working pressure.
The specified design pressure should be tested in the field.
• Maximum Working Pressure: Maximum pressure derived in
the field. There are three classes of maximum working pressures
e.g. polyethylene Class B- 6 bars, Class C - 9 bars and Class D – 12
bars.

Pipeline Design
• The selection of pipes is an economic tradeoff between large diameter
which will give high capital cost and low friction losses and low pumping
costs (if there is pumping) OR small diameter, which will involve low
capital cost, more head losses and more pumping cost.
• Energy cost is a function of head losses while pipe cost is a function of
diameter.

Allowable Head Losses

• Allow 1 m (for big pipes) to 10 m (small pipes) head loss per 1000 m
of mainline
• Using velocity as criteria as head loss effects is related to velocity.

Normal practice in water supply for irrigation is to keep velocity within 0.6 to 1.5
m/s. Above that, there can be ‘water hammer’ or high rates of corrosion. Water
hammer is transient high pressure waves due to rapid valve closure. Below 0.6
m/s, there may be silting or sediment deposition.
Pipe diameter can be chosen using head losses and velocity using charts or
equations.

Pipe Layout: Types of Distribution Systems

• Individual Pipes: Connects two points in the distribution system say
from a reservoir to the point of use.
Example
A reservoir (Shown in Figure) is situated 65 m vertically above some farm
buildings. The length of pipe required to lead water from the reservoir is 750 m
and the pressure required at the buildings is 30 m head. Rate of flow required is
2 m³/h (2000 liter/hr).

Solution
If the head available due to the height of the reservoir is 65 m, and the
pressure head needed at the buildings is 30 m, the head available for overcoming
friction is 65 – 30 = 35 m being the difference in head between the ends of the
pipe.

The equivalent length of the pipe is:

Actual length (750 m) + 10% (75 m)
= 825 m
Plus (say) 1 tap + 2 stop taps = 235 m
Total = 1060 m

Solution Concluded
• The hydraulic gradient is Pressure difference/ equivalent length =
35/1060 = 1/30
• Since the maximum head is 65 m, a Class C (9 bar or 90 m) pipe is
required, and referring to Chart provided, it can be seen that a 32 mm
 nominal (internal) diameter Class C low density polythene pipe would
satisfy these requirements.
• Velocity is about 0.8 m/s which is acceptable (within 0.6 and 1.5 m/s).

Branching System
• The advantages are relatively few joints and the system is easy to build and
design.
• The disadvantages are that sediments may accumulate at dead ends of the
pipe. Secondly, it there is pipe bursts, a total cut off for zone beyond
failure results.
• This means that in case of bursts, the system will be cut off.
• Also there are limitations in adding to the system beyond a certain point.
• Because of these disadvantages, branch system is used in small community
projects.

Example

Example 2: For the branching pipe system shown below: At B and C, a

minimum pressure of 5 m. At A, maximum pressure required is 46 m and the
minimum is 36 m. Select a suitable diameter for AB and BC.

0.15 l/s
219 m A

2.9 m3/h 2.4 m3/h C (219 m,

700m
0.5m 3/h
825 m
B 189 m

Public water main

Solution
Pipe Flow Length Pipe Head Flow Head Elev. Ground Press Rem.
Sect. (m3/h) (m) Dia Loss Vel Loss of level Head
mm (m/100 m/s (m) hydr. elev (m) (m)
m Grade
(m)
 AB 2.9 700 32 3.3 0.85 23 A 260 189 46 O.K
B 237

BC 0.5 825 19 1.6 0.5 13 B 237 219 5 Just

C 224 O.K

Explanation of Table
• The average of the maximum and minimum pressure required at A is
41 m.
• If you subtract the minimum pressure needed at B (5 m) from 41 m, you
get 36 m.
• Since the length of the pipe is 700 m, the hydraulic head loss is 36/700 =
0.051 = 5/100 = 1/20.
• With the discharge of 2.9 m3/h and head loss of 1/20, the next higher
diameter of pipe is 32 mm from the chart.
• With now 32 mm diameter pipe chosen from the Table, and the same flow
rate, the actual head loss is now 1/30 from the chart which is 3.3 m/100m
as shown in table.
• The flow velocity is about 0.85 m/s which is acceptable.
• The head loss is now (3.3 x 700)/100 = 23 m. At A, the elevation of the
hydraulic grade line is now 41m + ground elevation (219 m) = 260 m.
• For B, it is 260 minus the head loss (23 m) which is 237 m.
• The ground elevation at B is 189, so the pressure head of water is 237 –
189 = 48 m which is adequate.
• For Pipe BC, the design flow is 0.5 m3/h. The hydraulic grade line at B is
still 237 m and the elevation at C is 219 m.
• The hydraulic grade line required at C is 219 m plus 5 m head of water,
making a total of 224 m.

Explanation of Table Concluded.

• The hydraulic gradient from B to C is then (237 – 224)/825 = 0.016 which
is 1.6/100 = 1/60.
• With hydraulic gradient = 1/60 and the flow rate of 0.5 m3/s, the diameter
of pipe from the Chart is exactly 19 mm.
• The velocity is 0.5 m/s which is barely acceptable.
• The head loss is 0.016 x 825 m = 13 m.
• The hydraulic grade line at C is therefore 237 m – 13 m, which is 224 m.
This will give the pressure head of 5 m required at C.

Grid Pattern/Looped Network

• Interconnected pipes – water reaches a point from a number of directions.
• The advantages are that there will be no stagnation i.e. no dead ends and
during repairs (pipe burst), there will be no need for complete cutoff.
 • Only some parts of the system will be cut off. There are also more even
pressures throughout the system.
• The disadvantages are that the designs are more complicated and there are
more pipes and more fittings.

Pipe Network Analysis Using the Hardy Cross method.

• The Hardy Cross system is used for water flow analysis in a more complex
system than the dead end system.

Procedure for Analysis

• Assign assumed flows to each pipe segment in network such that at each
junction:
• Calculate hf for each pipe using for example Hazen Williams equation:
hf = 10.67 CH -1.85 D- 4.87 Q1.85 L

Where hf is head loss (m), CH is roughness coefficient of pipe material; D

is diameter of pipe (m), Q is water flow rate (m3/s) and L is length of pipe (m).

Procedure Concluded
For any pipe that occurs twice, do the correction for the two loops.

A B E

D
C F
• BC occurs twice.
• Repeat involved step until desired accuracy is obtained.
 Example: Obtain the flow rates in the network shown below.

90 l/s

A 55 600 m B
45
254 mm
10
35 600 m
+ve
254 mm
600
600 m C C
152 mm
152 mm 15
15 60l/s
66600 600 m
E 600 m 5 D 152 mm
152 mm

Solution
• ABDE is one loop as shown above and BCD is the second loop.
• Note that the clockwise water flows are positive while the anti-clockwise
ones are negative.
• Positive and negative flows give rise to positive and negative head losses
respectively
 Solution
Circuit Pipe L (m) D (m) Q (m3/s) hf (m) hf/Q Q
AB 600 0.254 + 0.055 2.72 49.45
I BD 600 0.152 + 0.01 1.42 142
DE 600 0.152 - 0.005 - 0.39 78 0.008
EA 600 0.152 - 0.035 -14.42 412
Total - 10.67 681.45

BC 600 0.254 + 0.045 1.88 41.8

II CD 600 0.152 - 0.015 - 3.01 200.67 0.004
DB 600 0.152 - 0.010 - 1.42 142
Total - 2.55 384.47

Sample Calculation: Using the Hazen Williams Equation in Step 2 :

hf for pipe AB = 10.67 x 135 – 1.85 x 0.254 -4.87

x 0.055 1.85 x 600 = 2.72

  hf 10.67
DQ1   0.008468l / s
hf 1.85x681.45
m
Q
2.55
DQ2  0.003594l / s
1.85x384.47
 Correct the flows as shown below:

90 l/s

A 63 B

49

27
C
14
60 //s

11
E 3 D
30 l/s

Circuit Pipe L (m) D (m) Q (m3/s) hf (m) hf/Q Q

AB 600 0.254 + 0.063 3.5 55.5
I BD 600 0.152 + 0.014 2.67 190.71
DE 600 0.152 + 0.003 0.153 51 0.002
EA 600 0.152 - 0.027 - 8.92 330.37
Total - 2.6 681.45

BC 600 0.254 + 0.049 2.2 44.9

II CD 600 0.152 - 0.011 - 1.69 153.64 0.003
DB 600 0.152 - 0.014 - 2.67 190.7
Total - 2.55 389.25

  hf 2.6
DQ1   0.0022L / s
hf 1.85x627.58
m
Q
 2.16
DQ2  0.0033L / s
1.85x389.25
 Correct flows again for the third trial

90 l/s
65
A B
52

25
13
C

60 l/s
8

E 5 D
30 l/s

3
C ir c u it P ip e L (m ) D (m ) Q (m /s ) h f (m ) h f/ Q Q
A B 6 0 0 0 .2 5 4 + 0 .0 6 5 3 .7 2 5 7 .2
I B D 6 0 0 0 .1 5 2 + 0 .0 1 3 2 .3 1 1 7 7 .7
D E 6 0 0 0 .1 5 2 + 0 .0 0 5 0 .3 9 7 8 0 .0 0 1
E A 6 0 0 0 .1 5 2 - 0 .0 2 5 - 7 .7 3 0 8
T o ta l - 1 .2 8 6 2 0 .9

B C 6 0 0 0 .2 5 4 + 0 .0 5 2 2 .4 6 4 4 .9
II C D 6 0 0 0 .1 5 2 - 0 .0 0 8 - 0 .9 4 1 5 3 .6 4 0 .0 0 3
D B 6 0 0 0 .1 5 2 - 0 .0 1 3 - 2 .3 1 1 9 0 .7
T o ta l - 0 .7 9 3 4 2 .5

D Q 
  h f

1 .2 8
 0 .0 0 1  1 l / s
1
h f 1 .8 5 x 6 2 0 . 9
m  Q
0 .7 9
D Q 2   0 .0 0 1 2 5  1 l / s
1 .8 5 x 3 4 2 .5
Final Water Flows

Final Water Flows

90 l/s

66 l/s
53 l/s

24 l/s
13 l/s
60 l/s

7
30 l/s 6 l/s

Note: A computer programme exists for analysis using the Hardy Cross Met

Water Consumption & Demands

• Common water supply systems
• Cold water system
• Potable/fresh water
• Flushing (salt water in HK)
• Cleansing water
• Swimming pool filtration
• Irrigation (e.g. for landscape)
• Fountain circulation
• Make-up water of cooling tower, etc.
• Hot water system (e.g. in hotels & hospitals)
• Major tasks of water systems design:
• Assessment & estimation of demands
• Supply scheme & schematic
• Water storage requirements
• Piping layout
• Pipe sizing
• Pump capacity
• Designers require a wide range of information.
• Water usage, patterns of use, flow loads
• Practical info on water usage
• Very few experimental studies on this!
• Theoretical framework
• Fit the data & provide a design method
• Based on statistics & probability, e.g. binomial distribution
  n! 
Pm     P m (1  P ) n  m
è m!( n  m)! 

Pm = Probability of occurrence
And n is the total number of fittings having the same probability and m is
number of fitting in use at any one time.
• Design flow considerations
• A small increase in demand over design level will cause a slight
reduction in pressure/flow (unlikely to be noticed by users)
• Exceptional cases, such as:
• Cleaners’ sinks
• Urinal flushing cisterns (constant small flow)
• Team changing rooms at sport clubs
• Special events

Loading units and design flow rates

Pipe Sizing & Water Storage
• Pipe sizing procedure
• Assume a pipe diameter
• Determine the flow rate
• Determine the effective pipe length
• Calculate the permissible loss of head
• Determine the pipe diameter
• Usually, flow velocities shall be < 3 m/s
• The higher the temperature of the water, the lower would be the limit of
flow velocity

SIZING
• Pipe reference -Mark pipe reference on the schematic drawing and enter
the pipe reference on the table
• Loading units- Determine the loading units according to the outlet fittings

• Flow rate (l/s) - Convert loading units to flow rate

• Pipe size (mm diameter) - Make assumption to the pipe size
• Loss of head (m/m run) - Find friction resistance per meter.
• Flow velocity (m/s)- Find the flow velocity
• Measured pipe run (m)- Measure the straight pipe length
• Equivalent pipe length (m) - Find the frictional resistance in fittings (as
equivalent length)
• Effective pipe length (m)- Total length (= straight + equivalent length)
• Head consumed - total length x meter/ meter loss
• Progressive head (m) - Add head consumed to progressive head
• Available head (m) - Check available head available at point of delivery
• Final pipe size (mm) - Compare progress head with available head to
confirm any correction of pipe diameter.
• Water storage allowance depends on:
• Type and use of buildings
• Number of occupants
• Type and number of fittings
• Frequency and pattern of use
• Likelihood and frequency of breakdown of supply
• Often design for 24-hour reserve capacity
Stratification of Supplied Water
• Need to consider these factors:
• Any stratification of the stored water

Pump Systems & Performance

• Centrifugal pumps are commonly used
• Two types of systems:
• Closed systems
• Recirculation
 • Open systems
• Open to atmosphere

Pump Pressure Effects in an Open System

Pump Systems & Performance
• Pump considerations
• Practical suction lift is 5 m maximum
• Also known as net positive suction head (NPSH)
• Pump location is important for both closed and open systems
• Open system: not excessive to avoid cavitations
• Power
• Close system: Influence water level of open vent pipe & the
magnitude of anti-flash margin (temp. difference between water &
its saturation temp.)
• ‘Self-priming’ to evacuate air from suction line
• Pump characteristics
• Characteristics curves (e.g. from catalogue):
• Total head
• efficiency
• No-flow conditions (flow = zero)
• Close valve pressure
• Need to prevent over-heat

Pump Characteristics Curves (Centrifugal)

Q = Flow, p = Pressure, P = Power
Main Characteristics of Centrifugal & Positive Displacement Pumps

Centrifugal pumps Positive Displacement pumps

(Very few using in plumbing
system)

- Capacity varies with head - Capacity substantially

- Capacity proportional to pump
speed
- Head proportional to the square
of pump speed
- Non self-priming
- Suitable for low-viscosity liquid
independent of head
- Capacity proportional to speed
- Self-priming
- Suitable for various liquids
(reduced speeds usually necessary
for high viscosity

• Pump characteristics
• Pumps connected in series:
• Double the pressure
• Pumps connected in parallel:
• Double the flow
• Dissimilar pumps may not be in parallel

Pumps in
series
 Pumps in
Parallel

• Pump characteristics
• Pumps with steep characteristics
• Change in pressure -> small change in flow rate
• Useful where pipes tend to scale up
• Pumps with flat characteristics
• Change in flow -> small change in pressure
• Useful where extensive hydraulic balancing is needed
• For closed systems, pressure at zero flow shall be greater than static
height of the system to ensure initiation of flow
• Pumps with constant speed cannot respond to changes in load
• Require a bypass to ensure constant flow
• Variable speed pumps
• Provides for savings in pumping costs during partial load

Types of Centrifugal Pumps:-

• Vertical and horizontal
• Single and multiple stages

Pump materials to suit the environment, e.g. stainless steel pumps for salt water
system

Horizontal centrifugal pump

Pump impeller
Other Design Considerations
• Noise & vibration
• Pipe noise
• Pipe should not be fixed rigidly to lightweight panels
• Flow noise
• Keep velocities under control
• Pump noise
• Use rubber hose isolators, resilient inserts, acoustic filters
• Water hammer
• Such as when a valve is closed rapidly
• Pulsating type of noise by shock waves
• Preventive measures:
• Prevent sudden closing of the valve
• Absorb pressure peaks (e.g. by pneumatic vessels)
• Increase the attenuation of pressure waves when transmitted
through the pipe-work
• Design the pipe-work to avoid long straight pipe runs
• Restrict water velocities (e.g. to a maximum of 3 m/s)
• Back siphon-age
• Occur when water mains pressure reduce greatly
• Contamination of water may happen
• Contamination might also occur due to gravity & backpressure
backflow
• Anti-siphonage device and design precautions
• Water economy & energy conservation
• Economy of water
• A key factor in the design (to conserve water)
• Measures:
• Detect water leakage
• New & innovative flushing arrangements (e.g. low-
water and pressure flushing cisterns)
• Water plugs, self-closing taps, spray taps, aerators,
etc.
 • Energy conservation
• Insulation of hot water pipe, fittings & vessels
• Use of fresh water for cooling tower make-up
•
Other Friction Losses

Valves and Fittings

Goals
• Calculate frictional losses in a system containing valves, fittings, and
sudden expansions and contractions
• Express frictional losses in terms of velocity head
• Assess relative contributions of different sources to total viscous
dissipation

Sudden Expansion
 Frictional losses occur as result of turbulence generated immediately
downstream of the expansion.
Assume
Va2
h fe  K e
2

Ke is the expansion loss coefficient and which is related to flow properties.

Sudden Expansion (Mass Balance)

 aVa S a   bVb S b

Sa
Vb  Va
Sb

Sudden Expansion (Momentum Balance)

Assume turbulent: b1 = b2 = 1

 (  bVb   aVa )  pa S b  pb S b  Fw  Fg
m

Replaced Sa with Sb because

Pa is at the point of expansion.
 (Vb  Va )
S b ( pa  pb )  m

 Dp   m (Vb  Va )
è Sb 

 Vb (Vb  Va )


  Vb2  VaVb 
Mechanical Energy Balance
Assume turbulent: a1 = a2 = 1

( p  pa )  h
Wˆ  ( bVb2   aVa2 )  gDz  b
1
f
2 

Va2  Vb 2 pa  pb
hf  
2 
Va2  Vb 2  Dp
 
2 

Final Result
Sa
Recall Mass Balance Result: Vb  Va
Sb

2
 S  V2
h f  1  a  a
è Sb  2

Notes:
• Velocity head is based on smaller cross section
• What if flow becomes laminar in large pipe?

Combining

hf 
Va2  Vb2 1
2


 (
 Vb2  VaVb )

Va2  2VaVb  Vb2


2


(V a  Vb )
2

2
 For Tank Filling

 Sa 
1    1 for Sb  S a
è Sb 

Sb
Va

Va2
hf  ® K e  1. 0
2

Sudden Contractions

At sudden contractions, flow streamlines converge causing the downstream

developed flow to have an area smaller than the downstream pipe diameter. This
flow constriction is called the vena contracta. Viscous dissipation occurs in the
vortices developed in this area.
Development of an expression for sudden contraction proceeds in much the same
way as that for sudden expansion with the definition of a contraction coefficient.
Vb2
h fc  K c
2
For laminar flow experimentally, Kc < 0.1 and hfc is usually neglected

Turbulent (empirical):  S 
K c  0.41  b 
è Sa 
Note: Calculations again based on
small cross section

Tank Emptying

 Sb 
1    1 for S a  Sb
è Sa 

Sa
Vb

V 2 
h f  0.4  b  ® K c  0.4
è 2 

Velocity Heads

pa  pb  L V
2
 g ( z a  zb )   4 f  K c  K e  K f 
 è D  2
The above expression shows that friction loss in a complicated flow system can be
expressed as a number of velocity heads. It is a measure of momentum loss
resulting from flow through the system. For instance in making a 90° turn all x-
momentum is turned into y-momentum.
K Tee  1 K Globe  6

Alternate Method
The previous equation can be manipulated to change the Kf values into
equivalent lengths of pipe (see next slide) of diameter D. When this method is
used the equivalent lengths are add to the length of the actual pipe sections and
the equation becomes.
2
 L V
h f  ê4 f total 
 D  2

Note: The values in the table are L/D and must be multiplied by D to get
equivalent lengths

Example
 Water is pumped at 250 gpm from tank 1 to tank 2 as shown. Calculate
the required power input to the pump assuming a pump efficiency of 70%.

e
Pe = 30 psi

d Tank 2

L2=10 ft
5” Sch. 40 Steel
∆Zab = -10 ft
∆Zbc = +0.5 ft
L2=90 ft
a ∆Zcd = +75 ft
4” Sch. 40 Steel
c ∆Zde = +15 ft
b
Tank 1

gate valve (open)

Solution
V5"  2 5 0

 5

è
N RE 

k  0 .0 0 0

f  0 .0 0 4

V4 "  2 5 0

 4

è
N RE 

k  0 .0 0 0

f  0 .0 0 4
Pe

Pa

D (V 2
) 
gDz
 hf  Wp
  2gc gc

V 2 4 f L 
hf 5"  ê  fittings  contraction 
2 gc  D 

2
 4.0 ft   
  ê 4  0.0045  (10 ft ) 
è s 
hf 5"   ê  0  0.4   0
 32.2 ft lbm  ê  5.047  
2  ê   ft 
 lb f s2   è 12  
è 

V 2 4 f L 
hf 4"  ê  fittings  exp ansion 
2gc  D 

2

Pe gDz 
6.3 ft 
 ê 4  0.0042  (90 ft )
hf   è h f  Wp
s   ê  ( 2  0.75 ) 
4"
 2g
 c 32 . 2 ft lbm 

ê  4.026 
  ft
 lb f s2  ê
 è 12 
è 

30 lb f  144 in 2 
 
in 2 è ft 2  ft lb f
 (  10  0.5  75  15) ft  4.629  Wp
lbm lb
62.4 3 m
ft

ft lb f
154.4  Wp
lbm

 gal  min   8.33 lbm  lb

m  250      34.71 m
min è 60 s  è gal  s

lbm  ft lb f 
34.71 154.4 
s è lbm   13.9 Hp
P
ft lb f
550 (0.70)
s Hp
Study of Flow in Circular Pipes

Objective
• To measure the pressures drop in the straight section of smooth,
rough, and packed pipes as a function of flow rate.
• To correlate this in terms of the friction factor and Reynolds
number.
• To compare results with available theories and correlations.
• To determine the influence of pipe fittings on pressure drop
• To show the relation between flow area, pressure drop and loss as a
function of flow rate for Venturi meter and Orifice meter.

Apparatus used for analysis in laboratory

• Pipe Network
• Rotameters
• Manometers
Discussion
Fluid flow in pipes is of considerable importance in process.
• Animals and Plants circulation systems.
• In our homes.
• City water.
• Irrigation system.
• Sewer water system
• Fluid could be a single phase: liquid or gases
Mixtures of gases, liquids and solids
• NonNewtonian fluids such as polymer melts, mayonnaise
• Newtonian fluids like in your experiment (water)

Energy Loss in Valves

 • Function of valve type and valve position
• The complex flow path through valves can result in high head loss
(of course, one of the purposes of a valve is to create head loss when
it is not fully open)
• Ev are the loss in terms of velocity heads

U2
Ev  K
2
Dp U2 Leq U 2
hv   Kv 2f
 2g D g

Friction Loss Factors for valves

Valve K Leq/D

Gate valve, wide open 0.15 7

Gate valve, 3/4 open 0.85 40

Gate valve, 1/2 open 4.4 200

Gate valve, 1/4 open 20 900

Globe valve, wide open 7.5 350

LECTURE # o7

Water Supply and Distribution System

(Design Criteria)

WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

POPULATION PROJECTION
• The growth rate of population will be @ 40% increase in 10 years for
urban areas.
• The growth rate of population will be 30% increase in 10 years for semi
urban / town committee.
• The growth rate of population will be @ 30% increase in 10 years for rural
areas.
The above percentages will be amended on actual census reports when
finalized by Government of Pakistan from decade to decade. However from
September 1998 the rate of increase will be 2.24% for rural and 3.31% for urban
areas.

DESIGN PERIOD

Tube wells and treatment works 10 years

Pumping chambers (structures) 20 years

Machinery 10 years

Distribution system and rising main 20 years

NOTE: Distribution system to be designed on peak hour demand while tube well
and rising main on maximum day demand.
REQUIREMENT OF WATER
• Domestic water consumption

Design Per capita consumption per day

Population (inclusive of unaccounted for
water)
Upto ------- 5000 10 gallons
5000 ------- 10000 15 gallons
10000 ------- 25,000 20 gallons

10000 ------- 25,000 30 gallons (with sewerage

facilities)
25000 ------- 1 lac 40 gallons (with sewerage
facilities)
Above 1 lac 50 gallons (with sewerage
facilities)

• Industrial water consumption

The requirement of any industry be assessed separately and
included in total requirement of water.
• Institutional water consumption
• For institutions
Such as hospitals, hostels, schools etc. an allowance @ 10 gallons per
boarder and @ 5 gallons per day scholar is to be made.
• Short term variation in demand
Maximum day demand 1.5 times the average day
demand
Peak hour demand 1.5 times the average day
demand

TERMINAL PRESSURE
• For urban residential areas 30 feet (minimum)
• For urban residential areas 25 feet (minimum

VELOCITY OF FLOW IN PIPES

• Distribution mains 1 to 5 feet / second
• Rising mains 1.5 to 7 feet / second

MINIMUM SIZE
Recommended minimum size of distribution mains 3 inches in plain areas
and as per actual calculated for hilly areas. However velocity shall be the
controlling factor.

COVER OVER PIPES

 3 feet for all sizes of pipes except in hilly areas. However all road cuts are
to be filled in with pit sand / river sand.

PUBLIC STAND POSTS (PSP)

• The location of the stand-posts shall be made in such a manner that it is at
an approximate distance of about 350 feet from the end consumers in the
rural areas and many be avoided in the urban / semi urban areas as far as
possible to reduce losses.
• Each stand-post shall serve about 200 persons.
• PSP to be provided only after study of Resources Collection …… concerned
village.

FIRE HYDRANTS
Fire hydrants to be provided in urban / semi urban areas. The capacity of
the hydrants to deliver water should not be less than 7 gallons per second.

SLUICE VALVES
Valves shall be located at main control points for balancing and
regulations. Non return valve to be provided in rising main with length exceeding
5000 feet.

AIR VALVES AND WASHOUT

Air valves only at summits and washout at lowest points will be provided.

MASTER METERS
Masters meter shall be provided at source.

OVERHEAD RESERVOIRS
• Provide over head reservoir where it is needed due to:
• Strategic location of project
• Source is more than 5,000 feet away from village
• Difference of level between source and village is more than 100 feet.

• Capacity of reservoir will be 1/6th of the average daily demand

subject to minimum of 5000 gallons.

MACHINERY
• Spare parts, tools are recommended to be provided.
• Large units are economical. It may be kept in view that combination of
unit is possible for average and peak flows.
• Working hours:
• Tube wells:
Rural 8-12 hours
Urban 16 hours
• Machinery at treatment works:
For population above 25,000 gallons 16 hours
For population less than 25,000 gallons 8-12 hours
CHLORINATING
0.1 PPM residual at the farthest end of the distribution system

HIGH LEVEL TANK (RAW WATER)

One hour capacity of average daily requirement.

Slow Sand Filters

i. Raw water storage 50% of 21 days average

ii. Rate of filtration 40 gallons per day per Sft. Of
sand area
iii. Depth of filter sand 30 to 36 inches.
iv. Effective size of sand (d10) 0.3 mm – 0.35 mm
Top of filter
gravel to 1 feet 0.3 mm – 0.35 mm
1 to 2 feet 0.25 mm – 0.30 mm
Top layer 9 inches minimum 0.18 mm – 0.22 mm
v. Uniformity Co-efficient of Not greater than 2.5 (d 60/d 10)
sand
vi. Depth of water over the 3 – 4 feet
sand
vii. Velocity of water in underNot more than 0.75 feet /second.
drainage system
viii. Minimum number of
sedimentation tanks in water
treatment plant will be two.
ix. Sedimentation tanks will be
constructed in series to achieve
stage sedimentation prior to
filtration.
x. Filter Gravel
Range Depth
3 to 1 inches 6 inches
1 to 3/8 inches 2 inches
3/8 to 3/16 inches 2 inches
Total Depth: 10 inches

The gravel should to placed over the under drains but not within 2 feet from the
side walls, so that only sand will rest in the 2 feet zone along sides of the filters.
The outlet systems will be provided with telescopic arrangement of pipes to
adjust required flow of filtered water according to varying resistance in filter
media. The difference in inlet and outlet will be kept 24-30 inches

GROUND WATER STORAGE

• Ground water storage tank at intermediate point to be provided due to
excessive head.
• Capacity of ground water storage tanks @ ¼ the average daily demand
will be provided.

Rapid Sand Filters

i. Rate of filtration 2 – 4 gal/sft./min.

ii. Minimum depth of filter Should not be less than 8.5 feet

iii. Depth of water on the sand Should not be less than 3 feet

iv. Depth of filtering sand 24 inches to 30 inches

v. Effective size of filtering sand 0.35 – 0.50 mm

vi. Uniformity co-efficient of sand 1.3 – 1.7

vii. Supporting Gravel:

Range Depth
2-1/2 to 1-1/2 inches 5 to 8 inches

1-1/2 to ¾ inches 3 to 5 inches

¾ to ½ inches 3 to 5 inches

½ to 3”/16 2 to 3 inches

3/16 to 3/32 inches 2 to 3 inches

Total depth: 15 to 24 inches

Test Pressure for Land Water Lines

50% above class of pipe used.
Projection of Pipes
M.S. pipes should be provided with bituminous coating and polythene
wrapping

Water Standards

SUBSTANCE OR UNDESIRABLE HIGHEST MAXIMUM

CHARACTERISTICS EFFECT THAT DESIRABLE PERMISSIBLE
MAY BE LEVEL LEVEL
PRODUCED

Substances causing Discoloration 5 units (a) 50 units (a)

discoloration

Substances causing Odor Unobjectionable Unobjectionable

Odor

Substances causing Taste Unobjectionable Unobjectionable

Tastes

Suspended matter Turbidity 5 Units (b) 5 Units (b)

Possible
Gastrointestinal
irritation

Total solids Taste 500 mg/l 1500 mg/l

Gastrointestinal
irritation

PH range Taste corrosion 7.00 to 8.5 6.5 to 9.2

Anionic detergents Taste and 0.2 mg/l 1.0 mg/l

foaming

Mineral oil Taste and odor 0.01 mg/l 0.30 mg/l

after chlorinating

Iron (total as Fe) Taste 0.1 mg/l 1.0 mg/l

Discoloration
Deposits and
growth of iron
bacteria Turbidly
Magnesium (as Mg) Hardness Taste Not more than 30 150 mg/l
Gastrointestinal mg/l if there are
irritation in the 250 mg/l of
presence of sulfate, if there is
sulfate less sulfate,
magnesium up to
150 mg/l may be
allowed

Magnesium (as Mg) Taste 0.05 mg/l 0.5 mg/l

Discoloration
deposits in pipes
Turbidly

Sulfate (as So4) Gastrointestinal 200 mg/l 400 mg/l

irritation when
magnesium or
sodium are
present

Zinc (as Zn) Ashingent taste 5.0 mg/l 15 mg/l

opalescence and
sand-like
deposits

Phenol compounds Taste, 0.001 mg/l 0.002 mg/l

(as phenol) particularly in
chlorinated water

Total hardness Excessive scale (100 mg/l CaCo3) (500 mg/l

formation CaCo3)

Calcium (as (Ca) Excessive scale 75 mg/l 200 mg/l

formation

Chloride (as (CI) Taste Corrosion 200 mg/l 600 mg/l

in hot water
systems

Note
• On the platinum-Cobalt scale.
• Turbidity units
• If the hardness in much less than this, other undesirable effects may be
caused, for example, heavy metals may be dissolved out of pipes.
Strom Water Drainage

The capacity of storm water drainage be calculated according to Burkliziegler

formula taking into consideration, slope of calculated area, type of development
and intensities of rainfall based on rational assessment of the last 10 years
covering 80% of rain storms.
This discharge is calculated as follows:
_____
Q = ARC x 4 √ S/A
Where:
Q = Discharge in cusecs
A = Drainage area in acres
S = Average slope of the water shed in feet per thousand feet
C = Co-efficient of impermeability
R = Average intensity of rainfall in inches per hours.

Value of “R” depends upon the time of concentration i.e. T, which is the time
taken for water to flow from omits of the area under consideration to a specific
point of the sewer. This also includes time of entry whose usual values are as
below:
• Large mansions is very large plots 2 min
• Semi detached houses 1 min
• Closely built area 1½ min

According to Punjab Engineering Congress paper No. 295 (1952) on analysis of

heavy rainfall in short periods at Lahore by R. S.M. Naqvi.

Value of “R” 4.32-0.0901

This formula is applicable only to maximum intensity of rainfalls and is limited to

a duration of 45 minutes, Where T = Duration of heavy rainfall in minutes.

For other cases the following value of “R” may be adopted.

• R = 30/T + 10
When T = 5 to 30 minutes (Time of concentration)

• R = 40/T + 20
When T = 20 to 100 minutes.

Where time of concentration cannot be calculated, the following formula be used

for finding out the discharge:
Q = 6.5 x R x A x C
Where
Q = Discharge in cubic ft/min
R = Average intensity of rainfall in inches/hours.
A = Drainage area in acres
C = Co-efficient of impermeability
 The percents of imperviousness of various types of surfaces very commonly
used are those of Kuichiling which are shown below: “Vide page 344 of book
Water Supply & Sewerage by E.W. Steel, 1947”

Type of Surface Co-efficient of

impermeability

Water tight of roof surface 0.70 – 0.95

Asphalted pavements in good order 0.35-0.90

Stone, brick and wood-block pavement with tightly 0.75-0.85

cemented joints

Same with un cemented joints 0.70-0.80

Inferior block pavement with un cemented joints 0.70-0.80

Atomized roadways 0.25-0.00

Gravels roadways & walks 0.15-0.30

Parks, gardens, lawns, meadows, depending and 0.05-0.25

surface slope and character of sub-soil.

The percent of imperviousness for the whole area is then arrived at after
estimating on ascertaining the proportions of the various surfaces to the whole
area.

Following figures which are usually adopted may serve as good guide:

Surface Co-efficient

Most densely built up area 0.70 - 0.90

Adjacent well built up sections 0.50 - 0.70

Residential areas with detached houses 0.25 – 0.50

Sub urban sections with few buildings 0.10 – 0.25

Consideration of Rainfall Intensity in Punjab
For Southern Punjab, an intensity of 1/30 in. per hour may be taken
except for industrial cities whereas higher intensity (1/4 in per hour) be assumed.
For Northern Punjab, an intensity of ¼ in. per hour be assumed for small towns
while ½ in. per hour or a figure based on rational assessment be assumed for
larger cities

Design of Outfall Works

Outfall pumping stations are proposed to be designed to cater for the
maximum peak load plus a 50% standby (50% of peak load).
The pumps would be located in dry well adjacent to collecting sumps with at least
10 minutes retention capacity. There would be at least 2 units. The sump will be
preceded by coarse screens with 2 inches mesh.
For the present only works and machinery needed for the present maximum
discharges would be provided.
The pumps will be vertical centrifugal type in dry sumps designed for passing
solids of 2 to 3 inches size. These will be powered by A.C electric motors. For
safeguard against power failures at least 50% pumping capacity will have
additional diesel engine drive in addition to the normal electric driven 50%
standby prescribed above

Capacity
• Present average flow (if it be less than, ½ of ultimate average) or ½
ultimate average.
• Present and ultimate peak flows

Planning and Design Criteria for Solid Waste Management

System

General
This section presents the design criteria to be used for the design of
proposed solid waste management system including estimation of generation,
onsite storage, collection, and transportation and disposal systems. Solid waste
management system services will be provided to secure maximum benefits at
minimum cost and to be compatible with local conditions using appropriate
technology.

Design Period
The design horizon for the Project is up to year 2026. However estimation
will be carried out for the requirements up to year 2016. (Conditionally)

Design Life of Components

The design period of different components of SWMS will be adopted as
discussed below:
 SWM Machinery 10 years

Tractors/Trolleys 10 years

Tractors/Trolleys 3 years

Civil works 25 years

Machinery and electrical 10 years

components of Motor vehicles

Population
• Existing Population
As per District Census Report of year 1998, population growth rate
of the MC under study (e.g district Chiniot) during the period from 1981-1998
was 2.93% which is near about the national average, which is 2.8%. Population of
Town for the year 1998 is 172,522 and present population is estimated as 217,360
persons using growth rate of 2.93%.

• Projected Population
The formula used for population projection based on compound method is
given below.

Pn = Po (1+r) n
Where:
Pn = Projected population for required year
Po = Population of base year, year of known population
r = Annual population growth rate
n = No. of years, counted from base year

The baseline data used for the population projection is taken from the District
Census Report (1998), Chiniot. The projected populations of Chiniot town, for
planning horizon are given in Table. The graphical representation is shown in
Fig.

Year 1998 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026

Population 172,522 217,360 251,125 290,135 335,205 387,275

Level of Service
Level of service will be increased to achieve coverage of minimum of 80%
in year 2007 after implementation of proposed SWM Project. Post
implementation level of service will be increased every year to achieve 88% of
coverage in year 2026.

Per Capita Waste Generation

Per capita waste generation rate of 0.4 kg per capita per day will be used
for the design of the solid waste management system. This generation rate has
been adopted by considering the present solid waste generation rate of the Town
and the guidelines of World Bank for developing countries.
Per capita waste generation will be increased by 1.5% every year and compound
method will be used for future projections. This increase has been proposed in
accordance with city's population growth besides its social and economic
development.

Density
Density of solid waste varies at storage, collection and disposal stages. The
values obtained in other cities of Pakistan at the various stages are shown in
Table below. The equipment for storage, collection, transportation and disposal
of the solid waste will be designed on the basis of following densities.

Density of Solid Waste at Different Stages

Stage Range Adopted Value

(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)

Wheel Barrows 150 – 300 250

5m3 Containers 400 – 600 400

Hoist Trucks 400 – 600 400

Tractor-Trolleys 400 – 600 400

Disposal 1000 – 1300 1200

Criteria for Selection of Land Fill Site

• Land area and volume to provide the landfill capacity should be adequate
to meet projected needs for at least twenty years, so that costly
investments in access roads, drainage, fencing and weighing stations are
justified.
• The land area should not be at locations where adequate buffer zones are
not possible or in areas immediately upwind of a residential area in the
prevailing wind direction (s).
• Area characterized by steep gradients, where stability of slopes could
be/are problematic.
• The seasonally high table level (i.e. 10 years high) of the ground water
should be below the proposed base of any excavation or site preparation to
enable landfill development. Soils above the groundwater's seasonable
high table level are relatively impermeable (less than 10-6 cm/s
permeability when undisturbed).
• No environmentally significant wetlands of important biodiversity or
reproductive value, sensitive ecological and/or historical areas should be
present within the potential area of the landfill development.
• None of the areas within the landfill boundaries should be part of the ten-
year groundwater recharge area for existing or future water supply
development.
• There should be no private or public irrigation, or livestock water supply
wells exists down-gradient of the landfill boundaries because they will be
at risk from contamination.
• Area should not be in close proximity to significant surface water bodies
e.g. Water courses or dams.
• No major power transmission mains or other infrastructure (e.g. sewer,
water supply lines) should be crossing the landfill development area,
 unless the landfill operation would clearly cause no concern or rerouting is
economically feasible.
• No residential development should be adjacent to the perimeter of the
landfill site boundary. The waste disposal site should be away at least
outside a radius of one thousand meters from a residential or commercial
area and water sources.
• Landscaping and protective berms should be considered/included into the
design to minimize visibility of operations from residential
neighbourhoods.
• Unstable areas are not recommended i.e. there should not be any
significant seismic risk within the region of the landfill which could cause
destruction of berms, drains or other civil works, or require unnecessarily
costly protective measures.
• There should not be fault lines or significantly fractured geological
structure that would allow unpredictable movement of gas or leachate
within 500 meters of the perimeter of the proposed landfill development.
• Groundwater quality monitoring facilities should be provided during the
site development phase. Consideration has to made for when there will be
the need in the future to install a gas monitoring system near to buildings
close to the site which may become at risk from gas migration once waste
landfill filling has started.
• In areas falling under the jurisdiction of the concerned municipality, it
should be the responsibility of concerned municipality to identify the
landfill sites and hand over the sites to the concerned operator for
operation and maintenance.
• Selection of landfill sites shall be based on examination of environmental
issues. The concerned Provincial Environmental Protection Agency shall
coordinate with the concerned operator for obtaining the necessary
approval and clearances.
• The land fill sites shall be selected to make use of nearby wastes processing
facility. Otherwise, wastes processing facility shall be planned as an
integral part of the landfill site.
• Biomedical wastes should be disposed of in accordance with the
Guidelines for Hospital Waste Management 2002, issued by the
Environmental Health Unit, Ministry of Health, Government of Pakistan,
as amended from time to time.
• A buffer zone with no development shall be maintained around landfill site
and shall be the part of concerned municipality’s land use plans.
• Landfill site shall be away from airports. Necessary approval of airport or
airbase authorities like Civil Aviation Authorities of the Government of
Pakistan prior to the setting up of the landfill site shall be obtained in
cases where the site is to be located within 10 km of an airport boundary.
Facilities at the Landfill Site
• Landfill site shall be fenced or hedged and provided with proper gate to
monitor incoming vehicles or other modes of transportation.
• The landfill site shall be well protected to protect entry of unauthorised
persons and stray animals.
• Approach and other internal roads for free movement of vehicles and
other machinery shall exist at the landfill site.
• The landfill site should have wastes inspection facility to monitor waste
brought in for landfill and office facility for record keeping and shelter for
keeping equipment and machinery including pollution monitoring
equipments.
• Utilities such as drinking water (preferably bathing facilities for workers)
and proper lighting arrangements for easy landfill operations when carried
out in night hours shall be provided.
• Safety provisions including periodic health inspections of workers at
landfill site shall be made.
LECTURE # o8

Water Quantity and Water Quality

Outlines
• Water Supply and Its Variability
• Demand for Water
• Water Quality
• Water Pollution Control
• Quality, Quantity, and the Water-Supply Problem

The necessity of water as a resource for all life, humans included, is

obvious. All life forms require it to some degree, and they require water within
certain ranges of quality.
Water is essential to life in part because it is an excellent transporter of other
substances. It is sometimes called the universal solvent in that a wide range of
chemicals are readily dissolved in it. As a result, water serves to deliver nutrients
to organisms, especially plants, as well as remove waste products.
The movement of water between the atmosphere, the oceans, and the land is a
fundamental part of earth’s biogeochemical cycling systems.
Water carries heat to the atmosphere when it evaporates from the ocean surface
and condenses in the atmosphere to form precipitation.
It also carries many other substances with it as it flows from the land to the sea or
when it falls as precipitation
Humans have dramatically altered the hydrologic cycle, both locally and globally.
These alterations come from our use of water for irrigation, our modification of
the earth’s vegetation cover, and our withdrawal of water from rivers, lakes, and
subsurface aquifers for domestic and industrial use.
Water-quality and water-quantity issues are closely linked. The more water we
use, the more wastewater we generate.
The combination of significant water-supply depletion and water-quality
degradation means that water resources are increasingly stressed, especially in
the more populated areas of the world.
In this lecture we examine these problems by first reviewing issues associated
with water quantity and quality and then discussing the interactions between the
two.

Water Supply and Its Variability

Water storages on the land are of two basic types: surface water and
groundwater.
Surface water is liquid water and floating ice above the ground surface,
in rivers, swamps, lakes, or ponds. It is derived from direct precipitation or from
subsurface sources.
 Groundwater is water below the ground surface, in a saturated zone
below the water table.

Groundwater occupies pore spaces below the surface. Surface water is found in
lakes and streams.

The water table is simply the top of the saturated zone in which water fills pore
spaces and cracks in rocks or sediments.
Soil moisture above the water table is not considered part of ground-water.
Groundwater is derived from downward percolation of rainfall through the soil
and in some areas from seepage of surface water.
A porous body of material containing groundwater is called an AQUIFER.
If the water table is free to rise with additional water, the aquifer is said to be
UNCONFINED if there is an impermeable layer overlying the aquifer, it is
described as CONFINED
Such impermeable layers are called AQUICLUDE and they are particularly
important in segregating relatively clean groundwater from brackish or
contaminated groundwater.
Surface water and groundwater flows from high to low elevations.Surface water
flows according to the shape of the land, following channels to the sea.
But groundwater flows according to the slope of the water table and the
permeability of the materials through which it moves.
Usually, the shape of the water table approximately parallels the shape of the
land, so that groundwater flows from uplands toward lowlands, but this is not
always the case.

Water Supply and Its Variability

• Spatial Variation in Surface Supply
• Temporal Variability
• Water Supplies and Storage
Spatial Variation in Surface Supply
The renewable supply of fresh water is directly determined by
precipitation and transpiration rates, with runoff being the difference between
the two.

Surface Water Balance

• In the mid-1990s, 40% of the world’s population lived in water-stressed

(<1700 m3 per capita per year) and water-scarce (<1000 m3 per capita per
year) nations.
• It is estimated that slightly more than 2.3 billion people live in water-
stressed regions, and this is projected to increase to 3.5 billion in 2025.
• Other estimates suggest a more serious picture—one-third of the world’s
people already live in water-stressed regions, and this proportion will
increase to two-thirds by 2025.

Temporal Variability
• Runoff, the renewable supply of fresh water, is extremely variable in time,
and usually the water is least available when it is most needed.
 • Flows are more variable in small rivers and less variable in large rivers.
• In the tropics, seasonal variations in river flow usually correspond to
seasonal patterns of rainfall.
• In mid-latitude climates, low-flow periods usually occur in the summer
because plants are using more water at this time.
• Because of this temporal variability, the amount of water we can count on
withdrawing from a river is much less than the total amount that flows in
it over the year.
• In addition, precipitation variations from one year to the next further
reduce the amount of water we can depend on from rivers.

Surface Water Variations

The average annual peak discharge of the Missouri River shows considerable
variation, even though seasonal variation has been eliminated from this graph.

Water Supplies and Storage

• The natural supply of water in the world is highly variable, with some
countries (like Brazil) having very large renewable supplies of water per
capita and others (like China) having to divide a modest amount of water
among a large number of people.
• But natural supply alone does not ensure water availability.
Water Supply Systems

A typical water-supply system includes both natural and engineered components.

Its overall capacity is limited by the component with the lowest capacity.

• In virtually all cases, the collection system is natural: it is the drainage

basin of a river, a groundwater aquifer, or some combination of the two.
• Storage is necessary to smooth out the natural variations in water
availability and to save surplus water from high-rainfall seasons for dry
seasons or periods of high demand.
• Surface-water storage is accomplished by constructing dams on rivers and
impounding water in artificial lakes behind the dams.
• Transportation and distribution systems can be of many types, depending
mostly on the distance between collection site and use area and the nature
of final use.
• In many cases, transportation distances are so short that the entire system
is essentially just a distribution system.
• These facilities include canals, pipelines, and natural river channels, or any
combination of these.
• Thus, although water supply is constrained by natural factors, water
development in the form of engineering works also affects water
availability.
• One indication of the extent of water use can be gained by comparing
withdrawals to natural runoff.
California Aqueduct

The California Aqueduct. This aqueduct carries water from the northern Sierra
Nevada to agricultural lands in California’s Central Valley

Global Water Withdrawals

Terms Describe Water Use
• Withdrawal is the removal of water from a surface or groundwater
source for a variety of purposes such as municipal, industrial, or irrigation
use.
• Consumptive use is the use of that water in such a way that it is not
returned to the stream or aquifer; instead, it is returned to the atmosphere
by evapotranspiration.
• In-stream uses do not require removal of the water from a river or lake;
these include navigation, wildlife habitat, waste disposal, and
hydroelectric power generation.
• Withdrawals can exceed stream flow because not all of the water
withdrawn is consumed; some is returned to the stream. Nonetheless,
these withdraws place a heavy demand on water resources.
• In densely populated areas of the country, the most important in-stream
use is maintenance of water quality. Sufficient flow must be available to
dilute and transport sewage effluents and other pollutants, as well as to
provide habitat for aquatic life.
• Navigation is another important in-stream use that competes with other
in- and off-stream uses for the water in our rivers
• Depletion of stream flows caused by consumptive off-stream use,
particularly irrigation, is a major problem in semiarid and arid portions of
the United States.

Groundwater
• Groundwater is a more important storage of water for human use.
• The total volume of water stored in relatively accessible groundwater
aquifers is estimated at about 9000 km3, or roughly one-fourth of global
annual runoff.
• Much more-perhaps as much as 4 million km3—exists in deeper aquifers,
though most of this amount is not economically accessible.
• Most small-scale and domestic water-supply systems use groundwater,
whereas large industrial and commercial users depend mainly on surface
water.
• Typically, groundwater storages are replenished relatively slowly, taking
years to centuries or more to replace the total volume of a given aquifer.
• As a result, it is possible to withdraw water much faster than it is replaced,
a practice known as groundwater mining.
• In a few countries in the Middle East, total withdrawals of water exceed
the renewable supply, indicating significant overdraft of groundwater at
the national level.
• One impact of groundwater overdraft is declining well levels, often
requiring that wells be deepened for withdrawals to continue.
• In coastal areas, usually a boundary exists between fresh water and salt
water in the ground. Salt water is denser and thus is found underneath the
fresh water.
 • A decline in the elevation of the freshwater table causes saltwater
intrusion, an inland movement of the salt/fresh boundary, which
contaminates wells and makes them unusable for drinking water.

The Demand for Water

• Water demands fluctuate from year to year, depending on weather
patterns. In wet or cool years, demand is usually lower, whereas in dry
years demand is greater.
• Regional US demand is greatest in the western states, especially Idaho,
Montana, and Wyoming. There states have the largest per capita
withdrawals, with water used for irrigating.
• The smallest withdrawals are in the Northeast, where most of this water is
used for industrial purposes and steam electrical generation.

Freshwater Withdrawals over Time

Consumptive use continues to be a small proportion of total withdrawals in the

U.S.

Off-Stream Uses
• Withdrawal and consumptive uses of water are often defined by specific
types of use.
• This includes public supply, rural supply (domestic and livestock),
industrial supply, irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation (an in-
stream use).
 • Public and rural supplies include both domestic and commercial uses of
water, including those familiar to us in our everyday lives at home or at
work-washing, cooking, drinking, lawn watering, sanitation, and the like.
• Agricultural uses, principally irrigation, consume more fresh water than
any other use. Worldwide, agriculture uses about 71% of total freshwater
withdrawals. This portion tends to be higher in developing than in
industrialized countries.
• In the US, about 42% of water withdrawals are for irrigation. To conserve
more of the water, irrigation system must become more efficient.
• Irrigation efficiency is defined as the volume of applied water in the
root zone that is used by the crop. It is expressed as a percentage of the
volume of water diverted from surface sources or pumped from
groundwater supplies.
• Drip irrigation is one of the most efficient application methods, while
flood, furrow, and sprinklers average between 60-80% efficiencies.
• Industry takes the second-largest share of the world’s water withdrawals,
about 20%.
• Industrial uses include a wide range of activities, including water used for
washing products in the manufacturing process, removing waste
materials, and cooling. The greatest withdrawals of water in the industrial
sector are for cooling thermal electric power plants.
• Industrial users are turning away from once-through systems toward
water-recycling systems.
• Domestic uses take the least water, generally less than 10%, except in
urbanized regions with relatively less industry and irrigation, such as
South America and Oceania.
• Among the important domestic uses are cooking, laundry, bathing, toilet
flushing, and, in North America, lawn irrigation. Domestic water use is not
heavily consumptive—only about 8% in the US, and much of this is in
irrigating lawns.

In-Stream Uses
• In addition to these off-stream uses, many important water uses take place
in rivers or lakes, without withdrawing water from them.
• While these uses do not result in any removal of water from the
environment, they do require considerable amounts of water, and thus
they compete with off-stream uses.
• Within a river basin, water taken in one area may not be available in
another.
• Waste Dilution
• The most important in-stream use of water is for waste dilution.
• Virtually all rivers in populated areas are used to remove wastes.
• The more water present and flowing in a river, the lower the
concentration of pollutants will be, and thus the better water quality
will be.
 • Navigation
• The major rivers of the world, especially in industrialized countries,
carry large amounts of freight.
• In US, for example, inland waterways carry about the same amount
of freight as is delivered to or from ocean ports.
• Hydroelectric Power
• Hydroelectric power is generated by storing water behind a dam
and releasing it through turbines when electricity is needed.
Hydroelectricity supplies about 11% of US electric production, or
5% of total energy production.
• Because electricity cannot be stored in large quantities, timing of
hydro-electric power production is relatively inflexible.
• In addition, the large dams best suited to generating electricity
inundate large areas and alter river habitats, causing additional
economic and ecological dislocations.
• Wildlife Habitat and Fisheries
• Although many rivers are severely degraded by pollution, these
systems contain habitats necessary for the maintenance of
important ecological communities and sport and commercial
fisheries.
• These habitat values depend on maintaining good water quality,
which in turn depends on water quantity. If the flow in a river is
depleted to the point that additions of waste cause high pollutant
concentrations, then habitat suffers.
• Recreation
• In many rivers, recreational uses—mostly fishing and boating—are
significant.
• These uses normally require good water quality for maintaining
reasonably natural conditions, good fish habitat, and safe
swimming and minimizing odors.
• They also require adequate flow, both for maintaining water quality
and for floating boats.
• Much competition prevails among in-stream and off-stream uses in
the populated parts of the world.
• Water quality has degraded, and public concern about this
degradation has risen to the point that further increases in
pollutant concentrations are unacceptable

Water Quality
• Impurities in water come from many different sources, both natural and
human, and it is often difficult to separate the two.
• Pollution or Pollutants, usually referring to substantial human
additions to a stream or lake’s load of an impurity or impurities.
• A polluted stream must be defined relative to its condition unaffected by
human activity rather than in absolute terms.
 • Similarly, acceptability of given levels of contamination depends on what
use we make of the water.
• Pollutants come from diverse human-made and natural sources.
• One way to classify pollutant discharges is by point versus nonpoint
sources.
• A point source is a specific location such as a factory or municipal sewage
outfall.
• A nonpoint source is a source that, as far as we know, originates from a
large, poorly defined area. Runoff, subsurface flow, and atmospheric
sources of water pollution are the primary nonpoint sources.

• Some pollutants, such as iron or suspended particulates, may have very

large natural sources, so that human activities only marginally increase
concentrations.
• Other pollutants, such as synthetic pesticides, are produced only by
humans.
• Most common impurities, however, are contributed by both human and
natural processes.

Major Water Pollutants

• Disease-causing agents (pathogens)
• Oxygen-demanding wastes
• Plant nutrients
• Suspended particulates
• Dissolved solids
• Toxic substances
• Heat
• Radioactivity
Disease-Causing Organisms
• Of the many living things found in natural or polluted waters, only a small
fraction can be regarded as important pollutants from a human
standpoint.
• These are the bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause disease in humans
and livestock.
• Sewage pollution and livestock operations are their primary sources.
• The presence of coliform bacteria is used as an indicator of the
possibility of contamination by infectious organisms.
• Coliform bacteria live in great numbers in human and animal digestive
systems. They are not dangerous in themselves, but their presence
indicates the possibility that disease causing organism could also inhabit
the water.
• Chlorination of public water supplies has eliminated these diseases from
common occurrence in the developed nations.
• In areas without such water treatment, as in most developing nations,
water-borne diseases are a major problem.

Plant Nutrients
• Although aquatic plants need many different substances for growth, algal
growth requires just a few key substances, primarily nitrogen and
phosphorus.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are found in large quantities in sewage, and they
enter waterways by the decay of organic particulates and by being
dissolved in sewage treatment plant effluent.
• Runoff from urban and rural areas is also an important source.
• When one or both of these nutrients are the factors limiting algal growth,
their introduction stimulates rapid algal growth, also called blooms. The
algae then die and decay, releasing still more nutrients and adding to BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand).
• One effect of increased nutrients in surface water is accelerated
eutrophication, which is the process whereby a water body ages over
geologic time, with the water becoming progressively shallower and
nutrient rich.
• In summer, lakes commonly develop a stratification, or layering, which
prevents mixing of bottom and surface waters. If algal blooms occur, the
algae settle to deeper waters, where decay depletes oxygen and deep-water
organisms suffocate.
• The absence of oxygen can also cause anaerobic decomposition of organic
matter on the bottom, which produces unpleasant odors and may make
water unsuitable for drinking or affect the aesthetic quality of a river or
lake.
• In drinking water, phosphorus is not a problem because it is an essential
nutrient that humans require, and we generally ingest far more in food
than in drinking water.
• Nitrate and nitrite, however, do present health hazards.
Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
• Organic matter is the pollutant that places the greatest burden on a stream
or lake as a pollution assimilator.
• The most widely used measure of oxygen-demanding wastes is
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is a measure of the amount of
dissolved oxygen that is required to decompose the organic matter.
• Organic matter is derived from surface runoff, internal production by
algae, agricultural wastes, various industries, especially food processing
and paper pulp, and sewage.

Sediment
• By weight, sediment is the largest pollutant in our waters.
• It is measured along with organic particles as total suspended particulates
in a water sample, and it consists of particles of soil and rock that are
eroded from the land and from stream beds.
• Health hazards associated with sediment pollution are minimal.
• The major harm are economic, including damage to turbines and pumps
and reduction in reservoir capacity.

Dissolved Solids
• Dissolved solids form a major part of the load of most rivers, and they
include many different elements and compounds.
• Most of these are derived from rock weathering and soil leaching.
• Hardness (CaCO3 and related minerals) is a major indicator of dissolved
minerals.

Toxic Substances
• The most troublesome are organic chemicals. They include herbicides,
insecticides, and a wide variety of industrial organic chemicals.
• Oils and grease can be included.
• They are toxic, carcinogenic, or both.
• They are found in higher concentrations in fine-grained sediments in
many waterways, with runoff sources being particularly important. In
groundwater, much higher concentrations have been found.

Heat
• Electric power generation, petroleum refining, and many other industrial
processes depend on the production and dissipation of large amounts of
thermal energy—heat.
• Another cause of thermal pollution in streams is the removal of
vegetation that shades the water, especially deforestation.
• The primary detrimental effects of thermal pollution are to fish.
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity, or the emission of particles by decay of certain radioactive
substances, is a subject of public concern today.

• Ionizing radiation, consisting primarily of alpha, beta, and gamma

radiation, is derived from many natural and human-made sources.
• Radioactive substances in water are derived primarily from rock
weathering, particularly by groundwater.

Groundwater Pollution Problems

• Groundwater pollution is a serious problem in industrialized countries and
stems from municipal and industrial sources as well as from agriculture.
• Groundwater replacement is very slow.
• So first, once an aquifer is contaminated, it is lost for an indefinite period
of time;
• Second, the contamination being discovered in wells today may result
from pollutant discharges that occurred years in the past.
• Many different sources of groundwater contamination exist, including
municipal and industrial landfills, industrial impoundments, household
septic systems, and waste disposal wells.

A toxic waste lagoon near the Shenandoah River, Virginia. Sources of

groundwater contamination include septic tanks, landfills, lagoons, and waste-
disposal wells.
 • Industrial impoundments such as storage lagoons and tailings ponds are
another important cause of groundwater pollution

Waste lagoon adjacent to a hog production facility in North Carolina.

Water Pollution Control

• Wastewater Treatment
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
• Non-point Pollution Control
• Pollution Prevention

Wastewater Treatment
• Sewage treatment methods include primary, secondary, and tertiary
techniques.
• Primary treatment consists of removal of solids by sedimentation,
flocculation, screening, and similar methods.
• Primary treatment may remove about 35% of BOD, 10 to 20% of plant
nutrients, and none of the dissolved solids.
• Secondary treatment removes organic matter and nutrients by
biological decomposition, using methods such as aeration, trickling filters,
and activated sludge. It moves about 90% of BOD, 30 to 50% of nutrients,
and perhaps 5% of dissolved solids.
• Tertiary methods have come into widespread use only in the past
decade or so. There are many methods, and they vary considerably in their
effectiveness, but generally they remove 50 to 90% of nutrients and
dissolved solids.
Non-point Pollution Control
• Non-point sources of pollution are the most difficult to control.
• In rural areas, they consist primarily of suspended and dissolved solids,
nutrients, and pesticides contained in runoff. Control of overland flow can
do much to limit these sources.
• In urban areas, runoff from streets, parking lots, and similar surfaces
contains large amounts of suspended solids and BOD and toxic
substances.
• The most cost-effective ways of reducing non-point water pollution is
through watershed management.
• It requires participation by a cross-section of people, from farmers to
industries to domestic water users and environmental interest groups.
• The process focuses on calculation of Total Maximum Daily Loads
(TMDLs), or the maximum amount of certain pollutants that can be
discharged to lakes and streams on a daily basis without impairing water
quality.

Pollution Prevention
• The cost of pollution control becomes a major problem as the amount of
control increases.
• Pollution prevention– the new approach focuses on activities that
reduce pollutants in the first place, rather than on removing them from
waste water before it is discharged to the environment.
• It is recognized as the best and perhaps the only practical means for
achieving higher levels of water quality than could be reached with
conventional approaches.

Quality, Quantity, and the Water-Supply Problem

• Relations Between Quality and Quantity
• Water Quality in Developing Regions
• Conclusions

Relations between Quality and Quantity

• Although many significant improvements have been made in water quality
in the past few decades, especially in wealthier countries, water quality
remains a critical problem worldwide.
• Water-supply limitations in most wealthy countries are increasing. In
developing nations, population increases and migration to urban areas are
severely stressing water resources as well.
• How can we remove more water from rivers and thus reduce their capacity
to dilute and remove wastes, while at the same time demanding lower
pollutant concentrations?
• But advanced sewage treatment is expensive, and publicly owned
treatment works have been slow to respond to calls for reduced discharges.
• Instead, industrial and agricultural water users have been forced to reduce
their use of water. Wastewater reclamation and reuse is also used to
supplement supplies of non-portable (non-drinkable) water.
 • The sustainable use and management of watersheds holds the
most promise for improving both the quality and quantity of water
resources in the future.

Water Quality in Developing Regions

• Water-quality problems in most developing countries are a stark contrast
to those in the wealthy world. In 1998, over 1.7 billion people, or nearly a
third of the world’s population at that time, did not have access to safe
water.
• Only about one-third of the population has access to sanitation.
• New sewage systems are being built, but the number of people served by
these systems is growing slower than the population, so the number
without access to sanitation services is increasing.

Changes in Access to Safe Water

Access to safe water (a) and sanitation services (b), 1990 to 1998.

• There is improvement in making safe drinking water available in

developing counties, with about 71% of people in less industrialized
countries now having access to safe drinking water.

Conclusion
• Clearly, the world’s water problems are acute. Water supplies scarcity and
contamination are critically in some developing counties.
• As the world’s population increase, improving access to clean water can be
achieved only through decreases in per capita consumption and increases
in water reuse.
Microbial Quality of Drinking Water and the Risk of
Waterborne Diseases

Risk factors for Waterborne Morbidity

• Accidental interruptions in the routine chlorination of water sources.
• Overwhelming contamination of the drinking water source (natural or
deliberate) even under routine chlorination.
• Contamination of drinking water with organisms resistant to chlorination
(ex. Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Noroviruses).

Schematic Diagram of an in-line Treatment System

Microbial Analysis

WHO Water/Health Facts

• Every 8 seconds a child dies of water-related disease
• 5 million per year die of illnesses linked to
• unsafe drinking water,
• unclean domestic environments, and
• Improper excreta disposal.
• Nearly ¼ of humanity remains without proper access to water and
sanitation

Classification of Water
• Ground water. Underground waters are protected for just one use, as an
actual or potential source of drinking water. All ground water is designated
as Class 1.
• Surface water. All surface waters, lakes, rivers, streams and wetlands in
Minnesota are either Class 2, protected for aquatic life and recreation, or
Class 7, designated as Limited Resource Value Waters. In addition, all
surface waters (i.e., both Class 2s and 7s) are protected for industrial use
(Class 3), agricultural uses (Class 4A and 4B), aesthetics and navigation
(Class 5), and other uses (Class 6). Thus, all surface waters are protected
for multiple uses.
 • Reliance on water quality determination alone is insufficient to protect
public health. As it is neither physically nor economically feasible to test
for all drinking-water quality parameters equally, monitoring effort and
resources should be carefully planned and directed at significant or key
characteristics.
• Some characteristics not related to health, such as those with significant
aesthetic impacts, may also be of importance. Where water has
unacceptable aesthetic characteristics (e.g. taste and odor), further
investigation may be required to determine whether there are problems
with significance for health.

Verification of Microbial Quality

• For microbial quality, verification is likely to include some microbiological
testing. In most cases will involve the analysis of fecal indicator micro-
organisms, but in some countries this may include assessment of pathogen
densities also.
• Approaches to verification could include testing of source water, influents
and effluents of unit processes, treatment end-point product and
distribution systems. Conventional fecal indicator bacteria such as E. coli
serves as the primary indicator for verification purposes, but at times and
under certain circumstances it may be desirable to include more resistant
microorganisms such as bacteriophages, bacterial spores.
• Such circumstances could include the use of source water known to be
contaminated with enteric viruses and parasites or high levels of viral and
parasitic diseases in the community.
• Since incremental improvement and prioritizing action in systems
presenting greatest overall risk to public health are important, there are
advantages in adopting a grading scheme for the relative safety of supplies.
More sophisticated grading schemes may be of particular use in
community supplies where the frequency of testing is low and reliance on
analytical results is particularly inappropriate.

Verification of Chemical Water Quality

• Assessment of the adequacy of the chemical quality of drinking-water
relies on comparison of the results of water quality analysis with Guideline
Values.
• For most chemicals leading to adverse effects after long periods of
exposures and arising from water sources, the quality of water in supply is
determined by chemical analysis and compared directly with tables of
drinking-water guidelines or national drinking-water standards.
• For additives, i.e., chemicals deriving primarily from materials and
chemicals used in the production and distribution of drinking-water,
emphasis are placed on the direct control of additives, rather than control
of water in distribution.
 • Some hazardous chemicals that occur in drinking-water are of concern
because of effects arising from single exposures or sequences of exposures
over a short period.
• Where the concentration of the chemical of interest varies widely, even a
series of analytical results may fail to fully identify and describe the public
health risk, for example nitrate which is associated with
methaemoglobinaemia in bottle fed infants.
• In controlling such hazards, attention must be given to both knowledge of
causal factors such as fertilizer use in agriculture and trends in detected
concentrations since these will indicate whether a significant problem may
arise in the future.
• Other hazards may arise intermittently, often associated with seasonal
activity or seasonal conditions. Once example is the occurrence of blooms
of toxic cyanobacteria in surface water.

Identifying Priority Water Quality Parameters

• These Guidelines cover a large number of constituents in drinking-water
in order to meet the varied needs of countries world-wide.
• There are a large number of constituents that may potentially occur in
water. Generally, only very few will be of concern under any given
circumstance. It is essential that the national regulatory agency and local
water authorities determine the relevance of constituents in local
drinking-water systems. This will ensure efforts and costs can be directed
to those constituents that are of public health relevance.
• Guidelines are established for potentially hazardous water constituents
and provide a basis for assessing drinking-water quality. It is recognized
that different parameters may require different priorities for management
to ensure public health.

In general the progression of priority is such that:

• Ensure an adequate supply of microbiologically safe water
• Manage key inorganic contaminants known to cause adverse health effects
in humans
• Maintain acceptability of drinking-water quality to prevent consumers
seeking other potentially less microbiologically safe supplies
• Address other chemical contaminants

Assessing Microbial Priorities

• The most common and widespread health risk associated with drinking-
water is microbial contamination, the consequences of which are such that
its control must always be of paramount importance. It may be impossible
to attain the targets population-wide in the short or medium term and it is
therefore necessary to ensure that priority is given to improving and
developing water supplies to populations at greatest public health risk.
• Microbial contamination of large systems has the potential to affect a large
number of people through potentially large outbreaks of water-borne
disease. Improvement of quality in such systems is therefore a priority.
 • Nevertheless, the majority (around 80 %) of the global population without
access to improved water supply is rural. Similarly small and community
supplies in most countries contribute disproportionately to overall water
quality concerns. Identifying local and national priories should take
factors such as these into account.

Assessing Chemical Priorities

• The selection of chemicals for consideration in the Guidelines for
Drinking-water Quality takes into account the frequency and
concentration that the chemical is detected in drinking-water, and/or
those for which member states have specifically requested guidance
because of a range of concerns. Guideline values are developed for those
chemicals considered to be potentially hazardous to human health and
occur significantly at concentrations of concern for public health.
• The selection of chemicals for consideration in the Guidelines for
Drinking-water Quality takes into account the frequency and
concentration that the chemical is detected in drinking-water, and/or
those for which member states have specifically requested guidance
because of a range of concerns. Guideline values are developed for those
chemicals considered to be potentially hazardous to human health and
occur significantly at concentrations of concern for public health.
• Risk management efforts and resources should give priority to those
chemicals in water systems that pose a risk to human health, or to those
with significant aesthetic impacts.
• Only a few chemicals have been shown to cause widespread actual health
effects in humans as a consequence of exposure through drinking-water.
These should be addressed in all circumstances in priority setting and
include fluoride, arsenic, nitrate and lead.
• In some cases, assessment will indicate that no risk of significant exposure
exists at national, regional or system level. However, the scale of health
effects associated with these chemicals indicates that they should be
considered under all circumstances.

Water, Sanitation and Health: The Current Situation

• The prevailing worldwide situation regarding water supply and sanitation
services is a source of concern in different respects.
• Globally, some 1.1 billion people are currently without access to improved
water supply and about 2.4 billion don't benefit from any form of
improved sanitation services (figures for 2000). The majority of these
people live in Asia and Africa. In Africa, for example, two out of five people
lack improved water supply.
• Significant discrepancies between rural and urban services continue to
contribute to the burdened life in rural areas. On the other hand, the
world-wide urbanization causes a great number of people to live in
informal, overcrowded peri-urban settlements where coverage remains
especially low.
 • Other points of concern are the increasing pollution of both surface and
groundwater sources from pesticides, industry and untreated household
waste waters.
• The over-extraction of water for agriculture and manufacturing, which
causes the water table to decline in many parts of the world, is another
bad practice which is producing severe consequences to the sustainability
of these resources.

Water Supply Data at Global Level

• The percentage of people worldwide who have access to an improved water
supply has risen from 78% in 1990 to 82% in 2000. Some 902 million
more people have been served during the decade (537 million in urban and
365 million in rural areas).
• Data representing 94% of the Asian population suggest that only 48% of
the population has sanitation coverage, by far the lowest of any region of
the world. The situation is even worse in rural areas, where only 31% of the
population has improved sanitation, compared with 78% coverage in
urban areas.
• Total water coverage in Asia is also the second lowest, after Africa, at
81%. But again, water supply coverage is lower in rural areas (75%)
compared with that in urban areas (93%).
• Because of the population sizes of China and India, along with other large
nations in the region, Asia accounts for the vast majority of people in the
world without access to improved services.
• Eighty percent of the global population without access to improved
sanitation, and almost two-thirds without access to improved water
supply, live in Asia.
• At present, approximately one-third of the Asian population is urban and
two-thirds live in rural areas. But this balance is predicted to shift over the
coming decades. By the year 2015, the urban population is projected to be
45% of the region's total, and grow to just over one-half of the total Asian
population by 2025.
• To meet the international development target of halving the proportion of
people without access to improved services by 2015, an additional 1.5
billion people in Asia will need to access to sanitation facilities, while an
additional 980 million will need access to water supply.

Water-related Diseases
• Potential water borne pathogens
• Bacteria
• Vibrio cholerae
• Shigella
• Campylobacter
• Francisella tularensis
• Aeromonas
• Legionella pneumophila
• Salmonella
 • Toxigenic
• Escherichia coli
• Leptospira
• Yersinia enterocolitica
• Helicobacter pylori

Typhoid and Paratyphoid Enteric Fevers

Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are infections caused by bacteria which
are transmitted from faeces to ingestion. Clean water, hygiene and good
sanitation prevent the spread of typhoid and paratyphoid. Contaminated water is
one of the pathways of transmission of the disease
Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection of the intestinal tract and bloodstream.
Symptoms can be mild or severe and include sustained fever as high as 39°-40°
C, malaise, anorexia, headache, constipation or diarrhea, rose-colored spots on
the chest area and enlarged spleen and liver. Most people show symptoms 1-3
weeks after exposure. Paratyphoid fever has similar symptoms to typhoid fever
but is generally a milder disease.

The Cause
Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are caused by the bacteria Salmonella
typhi and Salmonella paratyphi respectively. Typhoid and paratyphoid germs are
passed in the feces and urine of infected people. People become infected after
eating food or drinking beverages that have been handled by a person who is
infected or by drinking water that has been contaminated by sewage containing
the bacteria. Once the bacteria enter the person’s body they multiply and spread
from the intestines, into the bloodstream.
Distribution
Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are common in less-industrialized
countries, principally owing to the problem of unsafe drinking-water, inadequate
sewage disposal and flooding.

Scope of the Problem

The annual incidence of typhoid is estimated to be about 17 million cases
worldwide.

Interventions
• Public health interventions to prevent typhoid and paratyphoid include:
• health education about personal hygiene, especially regarding hand-
washing after toilet use and before food preparation; provision of a safe
water supply;
• proper sanitation systems;
• Excluding disease carriers from food handling.

Other Diseases
• Diarrhea: about 4 billion cases per year cause 2.2 million deaths, mostly
among children under five.
• Intestinal worms infect about 10% of the population of the developing
world and, depending upon the severity of the infection, lead to
malnutrition, anemia or retarded growth
• Trachoma: about 6 million people are blind from trachoma. Studies
found that providing improved water supply could reduce the infection
rate by 25%.
• Schistosomiasis: about 200 million people are infected with
schistosomiasis. Studies found that improved water supply and sanitation
could reduce infection rate by 77%.
LECTURE # o9

Purification of Water

What Do We Need to Remove?

• All impurities that could cause death, disease, or adverse health effects?
• Examples
• Colloidal, dissolved, and suspended material
• Pathogens, carcinogens, tastes, odors, color (atrazine standard)

How are We Going to Purify Water?

• Typical unit process train for purifying surface water (e.g., lakes,
reservoirs, rivers).
• Combination of chemical and physical treatment, although including
biology is becoming more popular.
Initial Steps for the Water Treatment

Purpose for Rapid Mix Basins

• Mix the chemicals such as Alum (Al2(SO4)3) or FeCl3 for coagulation; can
also add Cl2, KMnO4.
• Blender – thoroughly and instantaneously mix the chemicals

Alum Dose as a function of Water Source

Source Dose (mg/L

Reservoir 16

Lake 22

River 29

Full-scale vs. Pilot Scale

• The design equations we will discuss are intended for full-scale
• You must address their applicability for pilot-scale!
• Basic equation:
T = V/Q

Design of a Rapid Mix Basin

• Choose Detention time, t0 , between 10 and 30 seconds
• V < 8 m3; V=t0 Q where Q is the given flow rate
• Liquid depth: 0.5 - 1.1 times basin diameter or width
• G(t0), velocity gradient of 600 - 1000 s-1
• Turbine or Axial Flow Impeller, P=mVG2
• Impeller diameter, Di ® 0.3 - 0.5 times the tank diameter or width
• Baffles extend 10% of tank diameter or width
G values for Rapid Mixing

to G
0.5 (in-line blending) 3,500

10 – 20 1000

20 – 30 900

30 – 40 800

> 40 700

Purpose for Coagulation and Flocculation

• Bring small precipitates and colloidal particles into contact so that they
collide, stick and grow to a size that readily settles.
• Create big settling flocs such as [Al (OH20.28H2O]4+ that enmesh colloids
as it settles.

How do Coagulation and Flocculation Work

Add a coagulant such as Al2(OH)3 – alum or FeCl3 – ferric chloride that
provides positively charged ions to neutralize the negative charge of
colloidal particles resulting in aggregation
Desired properties of a coagulant
Trivalent cation
Non-toxic
Insoluble in the neutral pH range (i.e., coagulant must precipitate
out)

How Does Alum Work?

When added to water, it dissociates releasing an aluminum ion that
develops water clusters around it
This large particle precipitate (e.g., Al-OH-H2O, floc) settles enmeshing
colloids with it
Optimum pH range is b/w 5.5 – 6.5
Coagulant aids: pH adjusters, activated silica, clay, and polymers
Goal is to create larger, denser floc

Flocculation
Design Variables
Residence time
Volume (shape, dimensions)
Velocity gradient, G (large enough for mixing but avoid shearing
Tapered Flocculation à 3 G zones
G decreases from beginning to end
Average G is the design value
 Baffle design
Impeller design

G and t0 Values for Flocculation

Type G (s-1) Gt0 (unit less)

Low turbidity, color removal, coagulation 20 – 70 60000-200000

High turbidity, solids removal, coagulation 50 – 150 90000-180000

Softening, 10% solids 130 – 200 200000-250000

Softening, 39% solids 150 – 300 390000-400000

Design of Flocculator
Choose Velocity gradient, G (i.e., what kind of H2O?)
Get t0(G)
Get V=t0 Q where Q is the given flowrate
Liquid depth: 0.5 - 1.1 times basin diameter or width
Turbine or Axial Flow Impeller, P=mVG2
Impeller diameter, Di ® 0.2 - 0.5 times the tank diameter or width (Max
impeller diameter = 3 m)

Rules of Thumb
Minimum v = Length/ t 0Þ 0.5 – 1.5 ft/min
& t = 30 min

Rotators
X-section of Flocculator

Purpose of Sedimentation
Removal of particulate matter, chemical floc, and precipitates from
suspension through gravity settling

Types of Settlers/Clarifiers
Up-flow Clarifier
Horizontal flow Clarifier
Up-flow Clarifier

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

o Design Variables: Length (L), Height (h) and Width (W)
o Perforated Baffle Design to distribute the incoming fluid
o Effluent Weir Design to remove the effluent.
o Slope of the Sludge zone: 1 to 10% slope
1% for mechanically cleaned
5 to 10% for manually cleaned

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

Sedimentation Basin Zones
Inlet – evenly distribute the flow across x-sectional area
~ 25% of tank in theory
Settling – gravity settling
Outlet – remove effluent

Why do particles settle?

Stoke’s Law for spherical particles

Vs = g (s - ) d2
18 µ

Buoyancy

Drag

Weight

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

s = density of particles, kg/m3
 = density of fluid, kg/m3
d = diameter of sphere
µ = dynamic viscosity

Settling properties of particles are often categorized into one of three

classes:
Type I - particles settle discretely @ a constant settling velocity (i.e.,
no flocculation)
Type II - particles flocculate during sedimentation (since they
flocculate their size is constantly changing (i.e., vs is )
Type III - particles settle as a mass (i.e., lime softening)
Problems in using Stokes Equation
Particles are not spherical (Use equivalent diameter)
Particle diameter changes with settling (Use the minimum diameter :
Conservative Design)

Typical Sedimentation Tank Vo

Treatment Vo (m3/d.m2)

Alum or iron floc 14.5 - 22.3

Lime softening floc 22.3 - 82.1

Design of Horizontal Flow Clarifier

 vl
l Ql
vl  
h v
s t0 V

Condition for Settling: h  l Þ h  V Þ vs  Qh  Q  v0

vs vl vs Q V As

vs  v0

vs
100
v0
Percentage Removal, P =
Design of Horizontal Flow Clarifier
Q is the given flow rate
Calculate vs (d)
Choose v0 = 0.8 vs
Obtain As using v0 = Q/As
Choose L/W~5; As = l W; Use these to obtain l,W
Choose horizontal velocity, vl £ 0.5 ft/min
Obtain Detention time, t0 = L/vl
Obtain V using t0 = V/Q
Obtain h using V = LW h

Purpose of Filtration
Removal of flocs that do not settle in the Clarifier due to small size.
Reduce settled water turbidity of ~ 5 TU to below 0.3 TU.
 Most common design à Granular-media gravity filter

Filter Design

Loading Rate
The flow rate of water applied per unit area of filter
Va = Q / As
Where
Va = loading rate, gpm/ft2
Q = flow rate onto filter, gal/day
As = filter surface area, ft2

Design rates are between 2 – 10 gpm/ft2

5 gpm/ft2 is most common (slow, rapid, and high-rate filters)
Choose va and calculate As for a given Q.

Filter Depth
Typical depth ~ 9 feet
Filter Bed Breakdown
o Granular media ~ 2 feet
o Sand ~ 6 feet
o Course gravel ~ 1 foot
Under drain

Head loss
Head loss will increase overtime as filter collects impurities
Filter is back-washed (reverse flow) to remove impurities
o ~ 15 gpm/ft2 for ~ 10 – 15 min
Typically, filters backwash every 24 hours or when headloss is between 6 –
9 feet

Filter Media
Choose media to promote straining, flocculation, and sedimentation
Grain size – desired to retain large quantities of floc, but prevent passing
of small particles
Dual-media filter
Sand
Anthracite
Media specified by effective size and uniformity coefficient

Effective Size (E)

Definition: the 10 percent diameter, which means that 10% of the filter
grains by weight are smaller than the diameter
Suggested range –
0.35 – 0.55 mm for sand
Uniformity Coefficient (U)
Definition: ratio of the 60-percentile diameter to the 10-percentile
diameter
Typically < 1.7 for sand and anthracite

How does one determine E and U?

Determine the size distribution of a sample via a sieve analysis
Plot the sieve size versus the percentage of material retained on each sieve
(log-probability paper)
LECTURE # 1o

Water Treatment Process & Supply

Water supply- Water Quality

• Water for human consumption must be:
• Free from harmful bacteria & suspended matter
• Colorless
• Pleasant to taste
• For health reasons, moderately hard
• Water storage & treatment process to ensure good water quality

Typical Water Treatment Process

Water supply- Pressure & Piping

• Mains water supply
• Size of the water mains
• Pressure (or head) of water in them
 • Such as a 75 mm diameter pipe fed from both ends or a 100 mm
diameter pipe fed from one end
• Min. head of 30 m for firefighting purposes
• Max. head of 70 m to limit wastage and pipe noise
• A ring circuit & a grid of pipes
• To increase reliability & facilitate maintenance

Ring Main Distribution

Distribution Systems
• Direct supply system: conveys water directly from water mains to the
point of usage without any transit water storage tanks.
Direct supply system (without storage tank)

Direct supply system (with storage tank)

• Indirect supply system: conveys water from water mains to the point of
usage through a transit water storage tank
Indirect supply system (with sump and pump)

Indirect supply system (with pneumatic vessel)

Comparison of Direct and Indirect Water Supply Systems

 Direct supply Indirect supply

Less pipe work, smaller or no water More pipe work, large water storage
tank tank

No storage to satisfy peak demand Water storage to meet peak demand

period

Risk of contamination and pressure Less risk of adverse effects by water

fluctuation of mains mains

Not feasible for high-rise buildings Can be used in high-rise buildings

due to main pressure

Water supply- Piping

• Components and materials
• Pipe materials & fittings
• Suit the purpose & conditions
• Decision factors:
• Effect on water quality
• Cost, service life and maintenance needs
• For metallic pipes, internal and external corrosion
• Compatibility of materials
• Ageing, fatigue and temperature effects, especially in plastics
• Mechanical properties and durability
• Vibration, stress or settlement
• Internal water pressure
• Commonly used pipe materials, such as:
• Cast iron (BS 4622)
• Copper (BS EN 1057)
• GI with PVC-C lining (BS 1387)
• PVC, un-plasticized PVC, PB, PE, PE-X
• Stainless steel (BS 4127)

Water Supply- Other Components

• Commonly used fittings
 • Ball valve
• Butterfly valve
• Gate valve
• Non-return valve
• Pressure reducing valve
• Pressure relief valve
• Stopcock
• Float switch
• Expansion vessel

Water Supply- Component

Water tap

Gate valve

Ball valve

Water supply- Storage Cistern

Water tanks
• Materials: reinforced concrete, fiber glass, etc.
• Reinforced concrete is the most common material used.
• Fiberglass storage cistern for potable water shall be of an approved
type or certified, with no toxic materials and suitable for storage of
potable water.
Overflow pipe
 • To discharge overflow water to a conspicuous position easily visible
and accessible by the occupants.
• at least one commercial size larger than the inlet pipe (min. 25 mm in
diameter)
• A grating and a self-closing non-return flap at the overflow pipe outside
the storage cistern.
Warning pipe
• min. 25 mm in diameter
• At a level below the overflow pipe and be extended to outside of the
building periphery for roof cistern or outside the pump room for sump
cistern.
Outlet pipe
• Outlet pipes from the storage cistern be at the opposite side to the inlet
supply pipe to prevent stagnation of water.
Storage capacities
• Assessment of water consumption & demand
• Sump tank : roof tank = 1:3
• Recommend to meet one-day demand
• Domestic supply – follows WSD recommendations

Water Tank Basic Requirements (for a Gravity Supply)

Recommended Storage Capacities in Water Supply Systems

 Domestic water supply with Flushing Temporary
sump and pump supply using mains fresh
salt water water for
flushing
(TMF)
Up to 10 flats > 10 flats

135 liters/flat 90 liters for each Minimum 1/2 45 liters per

(total storage additional flat day consumption flushing
including sump apparatus,
tank) minimum 250
liters

Water Supply- Pumping System

• Water pumps
• Provide a duplicate set
• Pumping capacity >= designed out-flow of tank
• Minimize vibration and noise problems
• Adequate pipe work support & anchor
• Solid foundation
• Common pump types
• Horizontal end suction centrifugal
• Vertical multistage centrifugal
• Pump control
• Automatic control using pressure switches, level switches, high-
level & low-level electrodes
• Pump selector switch & ON/OFF/AUTO
• Low-speed preferred (longer life & quiet)
• Pump motor
• Such as squirrel cage induction type
• Overload protection
Typical Pump Room
Water supply - General Principles
The followings are the general principles for installing plumbing works :-
 All water fittings and pipe work shall comply with the relevant Waterworks
Regulations;
 All plumbing works shall be carried out in accordance with the relevant
Waterworks Requirements;
 All plumbing works shall be carried out by a licensed plumber.
 System main pipes should preferably not be run through the individual
premises.
LECTURE # 11

Internal Water Supply and Sanitary Drainage Systems

Introduction
• Drainage
• Above or below-ground systems
• Sanitation, foul drainage, soil & waste
• Soil or foul = from W.C.; waste = from basin/sink
• Storm-water / rainwater / surface-water
• Objectives
• Remove effluent quickly & quietly
• Free from blockage, durable and economic
• Expected to last as long as the building
• Sanitary appliances
• Common types:
• Flushing cistern, flushing trough, automatic flushing cistern,
flushing valve
• Water closets (W.C.), urinal, bidets
• Shower and bath
• Sink, cleaner’s sink
• Drinking fountain
• Wash basin or washing trough

Sanitary Appliances

Flushing cistern and water closets (W.C.)

Automatic flushing cistern and urinal

Bath

Drinking fountain
 • For footbath
• Hot and cold water supply to the rim
• An ascending spray
• Risk of contamination to the water supply =>
supply through cistern

Bidets
Materials Used
Ceramics, glazed earthenware, glazed fireclay, glazed stoneware, vitreous
china, pressed metal, acrylic plastic (Perspex), glass-reinforced polyester, cast
iron and terrazzo.

Introduction
• Sanitary provisions in HK
• Buildings Ordinance (Cap 123)
• Building (Standards of Sanitary Fitments, Plumbing,
Drainage Works and Latrines) Regulations.

Sanitary Drainage
• Fluid flow in waste pipes
• Waste, soil or drain pipes
• Discharge: random occurrence
• Surges and pressure fluctuation
• Two-phase flow (air + fluid)
• Vertical soil and vent stacks
• Open & ventilated on top, entrains air downwards
• High air flow rate (10-15 l/s)
• Friction losses, terminal velocity
• Suction pressure at branch connection
Discharge of Water from a Sanitary Appliance

Design of a Basin Waste Pipe to Avoid Self-Siphonage

Air Static Pressure in Discharge Stack

• Loss of water seal

 • Self-siphonage
• Induced siphonage
• Compression or back pressure
• Capillary action
• Wavering out
• Other causes:
• Evaporation bends and offsets, surcharging, intercepting
traps, leakage.

Self-siphonage
• Caused by a moving plug of water in the waste pipe.
• Avoided by placing restrictions on lengths and gradients and venting long
or steep gradients.

Induced siphonage

• Caused: discharge from one trap.

 • Overcame: design of the pipe diameters, junction layouts and venting
arrangements.

Compression or Back Pressure

• Water flowing à compresses air in pipe àforces out the trap water seal.
• Prevention: waste pipes not connected to the lower 450 mm of vertical
stacks (measured from the bottom of the horizontal drain).

Capillary Action
• A piece of rag or string caught on the outlet of the trap.
• Additional maintenance should be carried out in high-risk locations.

Wavering Out
• Gusts of wind blowing across the top of a stack.
• Site the vent terminal away from areas with troublesome effects.

Evaporation
 About 2.5 mm of seal loss per week while appliances are unused.

Bends and Offsets

Sharp bends in a stack à partial or complete filling of the pipe à large
pressure fluctuations.
Foaming of detergents through highly turbulent fluid flow increases pressure
fluctuations.
A bend of minimum radius 200 mm at the base of a soil stack

Surcharging
An underground drain that is allowed to run full causes large pressure
fluctuations. (Solution: Additional stack ventilation.)

Intercepting Traps
Where a single-stack system is connected into a drain with an interceptor
trap nearby, fluid flow is restricted. Additional stack ventilated is used.

Leakage
Leakage can occur through mechanical failure of the joints or the use of a
material not suited to the water conditions.
Maintain trap water seals by using resealing or anti-siphon traps, such as:
• McAlpine trap
• Grevak trap
• Econa trap
• Anti-siphon trap

McAlpine Resealing Trap

Grevak Resealing Trap

Econa Resealing Trap

Anti-siphon Trap
Minimum Depth of Water Seal

Pipe sizing
• Discharge unit (DU) method
• Similar to loading or demand units in water supply

Domestic use: WC=14 DU; basin=3; bath=7; urinal=0.3; washing machine=4;

sink=6
• Rule of thumb for vertical stack
• 100 mm diameter: up to 750 discharge units
• 125 mm diameter: up to 2500 discharge units
• 150 mm diameter: up to 5500 discharge units

Materials for Sanitary Pipe Work

Material Application Jointing

Cast iron 50 mm and above vent Lead caulking with molten or

and discharge stacks fibrous lead; cold compound
caulking

Galvanized steel Waste pipe Screwed

Copper Waste pipe and traps Compression, capillary, silver
solder, bronze weld or push-
fit rings seal

Lead Waste pipes and Soldered or lead welded

discharge stacks

ABS (Acrylonitrile Up to 50 mm waste and Solvent cement and push-fit

butadiene styrene) vent pipes ring seal

High-density Up to 50 mm waste and Push-fit ring seal and

polyethylene ventilating pipes and compression fittings
traps

Polypropylene Up to 50 mm waste and Push-fit ring seal and

ventilating pipes and compression couplings
traps

Modified PVC Up to 50 mm waste and Solvent cement and push-fit

vent pipes ring seal

Unplasticized PVC Over 50 mm soil and vent Solvent cement and push-fit
stacks; vent pipes under ring seal
50 mm

Pitch fiber Over 50 mm discharge Driven taper or polypropylene

and vent stacks fitting with a push-fit ring seal

• Types of sanitary drainage systems

• Single stack system
• Collar boss system
• Modified single stack system
• Fully ventilated one-pipe system
• Two-pipe system
• Selection depends on situations, costs & local design practices
• Design considerations: e.g. pipe size, distance

The Single Stack System

• Reduces the cost of soil and waste systems.
• Branch vent pipes are not required
• To prevent loss of trap water seals
• The trap water seals on the waste traps must be 76 mm deep.
 • The slopes of the branch pipes are: sink and bath, 18 to 19 mm/m; basin
20-120 mm/m; WC 18 mm/m (min.).
• Vertical stack at 200 mm below the centre of the WC branch connection.

The Collar Boss Single Stack System

• Eliminates the restrictions imposed between the bath waste pipe and the
stack.
• Bath waste connect to the stack at a higher point ( no risk of the WC
discharge backing up into bath waste pipe).
• Loop vent pipes to the basin / sink traps and connecting these to the collar
boss, the waste pipes from these appliances drop vertically before running
horizontally to stack.
• Loop vent pipe on the basin trap prevent its siphonage when the bath is
discharged.

Modified Single Stack System

• Close grouping of the sanitary appliances àinstall the branch waste and
soil pipes without the need for individual branch ventilating pipes.
• To prevent the loss of trap water sealsà WC branch pipe min. 100 mm
bore and the angle θ = 90.5° to 95°.
• To prevent the loss of trap water seals à basin main waste pipe min. 50
mm bore and the angle θ = 91° to 92.5°.
• Five basins or more / length of the main waste pipe exceeds 4.5 m à a 25
mm bore vent pipe connected to main waste pipe at a point between the
two basins farthest from the stack.

The Fully Ventilated One-Pipe System

• A large number of sanitary appliances in ranges.
• Each trap with an anti-siphon or vent pipe connected to the discharge pipe
in direction of the flow of water at a point between 75 - 450 mm from trap
crown.
• Vent stack connected to the discharge stack near to the bend to remove
compressed air at this point.
Two-pipe System
• The most expensive and in case with widely spaced sanitary appliances.
• Wash basins or sinks in rooms far away from main soil stack à to connect
these appliances to a separate waste stack.
• The waste stack connected to the horizontal drain either via a rest bends.
The Single Stack System
The Collar Boss Single Stack System
Modified Single Stack System
The Fully Ventilated One-Pipe System
Two-pipe System
Drainage for Basement
• The manhole discharging to outside locates at Ground floor.
• By a sump pit and pumps installed at the lowest floor
• Note the need of standby pump
• Pump on/off control by level switch

Drainage for Grease/ Oil Generating Area – Car-park and Grease Trap

Petrol Interceptor
• Water from car-park may contain oil (petrol)
• Water from car-park could not be directly discharged to public sewer
• Water must pass a petrol interceptor before discharging out

Grease trap
• Kitchen from food court and restaurant contains large quantity of
grease that is not permitted to be discharged out to the public sewer
• Water must pass through a grease trap before discharging out
• Food license needed before food court and restaurant starting
business. Provision of grease trap is a licensing requirement

Storm-water Drainage

• Storm-water or rainwater drainage

• Design for roofs, gutters and ground drainage
• Require integration with architect
• Select a suitable rainfall intensity based on:
• Assessment of acceptable risk to life and property
• Statutory requirements
• Assessment of economic viability
• “Return period” = average time for an event to occur again
• Typical rainfall intensities (for roofs)
• 75 mm/hr (5 minutes once in 4 years)
• 150 mm/hr (3 minutes once in 50 years)
• Drain water flow rate
• Q = (area drained, Ar, m2) x (rainfall intensity, mm/hr) x
impermeability factor
Rainfall intensity, mm/hr taken as 75mm/hr

Ground Impermeability Factors

Nature Of Surface Impermeability Factor

 Road or Pavement 0.9
Roof 0.95
Paths 0.75
Parks or Garden 0.25
Woodland 0.20
Drain Water Flow Rate

• Flow capacity of a level half-round gutter

• Q = 2.67 x 10-5 x Ag1.25 l/s
Where Ag is the cross-sectional area of the gutter mm2
• Other factors
• Fall or slope of the roof (increases flow capacity)
• Frictional resistance of gutter (reduce water flow)
• Water flow in down-pipes

Example of Flat-roof Drainage

 Size of Rain Water Outlet
Using the theory of rectangular weirs, the diameter of the outlets, D0
(mm) with large gutters as a function of roof area derived from the following
expression: -
2
Q  Cd 2 gh1 ( Bh1 )
3

Is presented by
2
 RA 
Do  5  
è 0.0017 

Where
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
Cd = is the discharge coefficient (=0.64)
h1 = is the head over weir (m)
h = is the width over the weir (m)
g = is the gravity acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
RA = is the roof area in m2

2
 RA 
Pipe _ Diameter  5  
è 0.0032 

Disposal of Storm Water

 • Sewer: combined or a separate surface-water
• Interceptors required for car parks and kitchens
• Soak away: ground permeability
• Using perforated precast concrete, dry stone or brick pit
• Storage : artificial pond or lake, or underground storage tank
• Watercourse
• Expected flow rates at normal and flood levels

Drainage Formulae

Chezy Formula

V  C mi

Crimp and Bruges Formula

V  84  m 2 / 3  i1 / 2
Vertical Stack at Quarter Full
q  K  d 8/3

Colebrook-White Equation

Drainage below Ground

• Basic design objectives
• Operate without the input of energy
• Reliable and require little maintenance
• Drains are not subject to undue stress
• Fully accessible for occasional clearance
• Design calculations: based on flow rates, discharge units, gradients, pipe
material & pipe diameter
• Hydraulic calculation may be done by civil engineers
• Pipe materials: cast iron, asbestos, concrete, vitrified clay, pitch fibre and
uPVC
• Concrete - larger sewer; clayware/uPVC - smaller drains
• System types
• Combined system (foul water + rainwater)
• Separate system
• Partially separate system
• Considerations: costs, load on sewers
• Fittings
• Rainwater gully (RWG), yard gully (YG)
• Inspection chamber (IC), rodding pod (RP)
• Shoe and rest band (smooth connection)

Separate Drainage System

• Two sets of drainsà increases the cost of building drainage
• Risk of a wrong connection (a foul water branch drain to a surface water
drain)
• The foul water drain not thoroughly flushed by rainwater
• Foul air passing through an unsealed rainwater gully trap
• Sewage disposal plant is much smaller
 • The cost of sewage purification is less
• Less sewage is pumped à reduction in pumping cost. Surface water flow
by gravity to a nearby river

Combined Drainage System

1. One drain for both foul and surface waterà reduces cost of building
drainage
2. No risk of making a wrong connection
3. Foul water flushed through the drain by the surface water
4. The loss of a trap seal in a rainwater gully allows the foul gas from the
drain to pass into the open air around the building
5. The size of the sewage disposal plant is greater
6. Greater cost of the sewage disposal
7. Possibly greater pumping costs (surface water and foul water to reach
sewage disposal works)
Partially Separate System
Most of the surface water conveyed by a surface water drain to a surface
water sewer or soak-away. Some rainwater is discharged to the foul water drain.
The rainwater can be conveniently connected to the foul water drain, usually at
the rear of the building.
Waste or rainwater gully Yard gully

Rainwater shoe Rest bend

Connection of Drainage to Sewer

• Must be made obliquely in the direction of flow
• Drain to another drain
• Drain to a private sewer
• Drain to a public sewer
• Cost and maintenance issues
• Public sewer: by government/authority
• Private sewer/drain: by building owner.
Use of Separate Drains

Use of Private Sewer

LECTURE # 12

SEWERAGE & SANITARY ENGINEERING

Introduction
It is the branch of public health engineering healing with collection,
conveyance and disposal of wastage (garbage, sullage, sewage). The main purpose
of sanitary engineering is to maintain such environment as well not affect the
public health in general.
Following are he various aspects of sanitary engineering: -

Collection
The solid and liquid works are collected in specially installed lavatory blocks

Conveyance
This includes provision of drainage line for the conveyance of solid and
liquid wastes, which are collected.

Disposal
The conveyed refuse / wastes is treated as the disposed off.

Sewage
It is the waste of foul water of the community conveyed by the sewer. There
are three types of sewage.

Domestic or Sanitary Sewage

The sewage from residential buildings business centers, institutions, etc.
this also contain human body waste (feaces & urine) and also sullage water.

Industrial Sewage
The liquid wastes obtained from industrial process such as dying,
papermaking, etc, are called industrial sewage.

Storm Sewage
It is that part of surface run off which is flowing in sewer during the rainfall.

Sullage
It is the waste water resulting from personal wasting, bathing, laundry, food
preparation and cleaning of utensils. It does not include discharge from hospitals
and slaughter houses which have high content of organic matters. Sullage is not
very foul and can be disposed off in open drain with out treatment.

Garbage
It is used for dry refuse of town containing organic, inorganic solids,
semisolids, combustible, noncombustible, putrecible and non-putrecible
substances. It includes sweeping from houses, streets, markets, public places,
garden etc. work paper, leaves, grass, panning of vegetable, decaying fruits etc.
with small quantities of sand, cinder, clay and gravel constitute garbage. It is
collected separately from sewage and sullage and disposes off separately.

Infiltration & Ex-filtration

Infiltration is the water which has leaked into the sewer from the ground
while ex-filtration is leakage of water out of the sewer to the ground.

Inflow
It is the water entering the sewer from surface source through manholes,
open cleanouts, perforated manhole cross, and root drain of basement sumps
connected to the sewers inflow occurs only during runoff.

Sewers
Sewer is a pipe or conduit carrying sewage, sewage are usually not flowing
full (gravity flow). The full flowing sewers are called fore main as the flow is
under pressure.

Types of Sewers

Sanitary Sewer
It is a sewer carrying sanitary and industrial sewage excluding storm
sewage. It is also some time called separate sewer.
Storm Sewer
It is the one which carried storm sewage including surface runoff and street
wash.
Continued Sewer
It is the one carrying domestic, industrial and storm sewage all together.

Sewerage
It is the science and art of collecting, treating and disposing of sewage. There
are three systems of sewerage.

• Separate System
• Combined System
• Partially Separate System

Separate Sewerage System

In this system the sanitary sewerage and storm water are carried separately
in two sets of sewers. The sewage is conveyed to wastewater treatment plant and
the storm water is discharge directly into rivers without treatment. The separate
system has the following advantages & disadvantages.
Advantages
• The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried to the plant.
• The size of sewers are small thus economical.
• When pumping is required the system process to be economical.
• Natural water is not unnecessarily polluted by sewage.
Disadvantages
• Cleaning of sewers is difficult due to their small size.
• The maintenance costs are high.
• The self cleaning velocity is not easily achieved.
• The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only.
• They may be chocked in during dry season by garbage.
• The separate system is suitable when separate outlets for storm water
are available and the topography is such that storm water can be
dispose off in natural drains.

Combined Sewerage System

In this system the sewage and storm water are carried all together in only
one set of sewers to the wastewater treatment plant before disposal. This
system has the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
• It is easy to clean combine sewers because of large size.
• The maintenance cost is reasonable.
• It reduces strength of sewage by mixing storm water with sewer.
• The system requires one sewer making it economical.
Disadvantages
• In storm seasons water may overflow and the sewer may damage causing
serious health risks.
• The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry days.
• The load on treatment plant is high because storm water is also carried
there.
• The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily.
• The system is uneconomical when pumping is need.
• The system is suitable when space available for laying two sets of sewers is
less and when pumping is not required.

Partially Separate Sewerage System

This system is the comprise between separate and combine system taking
advantages of both systems. In this case the sewage and storm water of
building are carried by one set of sewers while storm water from roads,
streets, pavements, etc are carried by other system of sewers usually open
drains. This system has the following advantage and disadvantages
Advantages
• It combines the good features of both systems.
• The setting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
• The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
• The sewers are of reasonable size.

Method of Disposal of Sewage

There are two methods collecting and disposing sewage.

• Conservancy System / Method or (dry system)

 • Water Carriage System / method
Conservancy System
This system also called dry system. Different types of wastes / refuses are
collected separately and disposed off.
Garbage is collected separately in dustbins and conveyed covered carts to suitable
place. The combustible and non-combustible garbage are sorted out.
The human and animal wastes (feaces & urine) are collected in panes from
lavatories and are then carried by labors in carts of lorries for disposal outside the
city where it is buried for manure. The human and animal wastes are also called
night soil.
The sludge & storm water are conveyed separately by close and open channel and
discharge into natural streams
This system is obsolete now and can be used in rural areas where there is scarcity
of water. It is not used now a day because of the following reasons.

Cost
The system has less initial cost but the operation cost is very high because of
working labors.
Design of Building
The lavatory has to be built separate from residential building which cause
inconvenience.

Reasons Why We are Not Using Dry System

In sanitary Condition.
The sewage is carried once in 24 hours while sewage becomes unsanitary
after 5 – 6 hours.
Labor problems
If the labor goes on strike the system totally fails.
Land requirement
It requires large area for disposal of sewage thus becoming inconvenient.
Foul Appearance
It is highly undesirable to allow night soil carts to pass through roads of
city.
Open drain
Storm water and sullage flowing in open drains cause unhygienic
condition in the area.
Pollution of Water
The liquid wastes from lavatories may seeps into the ground thus polluting
the ground water.
Risk of Epidemic
The sewage is conveyed openly and is not properly disposed off causing risk
of epidemic

Water Carriage System

In this system water is used as a medium to carry wastes to the point of final
disposal. The quantity of water is so large (99.9%) that the waste becomes a
liquid which is carried by sewers. The garbage is collected as separately as in
conserver with sanitary sewage. This is absolute system and is used now a days
universally because of following reasons
Cost
Through the initial cost of the system is high but he operation cost is very
low.
Compact Design
The lavatories can be accommodated inside the building which causes
compact design of house and convenience.
Hygienic System
The sewage is carried in covered drains thus the risk of and break of
epidemic is reduced.
Land Requirement
The land requirement is very low which make the system economical. (for
treatment & disposal)
Treatment
Proper treatment of sewage is possible to make the sewage suitable for
disposal.
The system has only disadvantage of wastage of water, which is used for making
the sewage in liquid form (about 99.9% of sewage is water).

Sources of Waste Water

Domestic
It is wastewater from residential buildings, offices, other buildings and
institutions etc.
Industrial
It is liquid waste from industrial processes like dying, paper making,
fertilizers, chemicals, leather etc.
Storm water
It include surface run off generated by rainfalls and street wash.

Types of Sewers
Sanitary Sewer
Sewer which carries sanitary sewage i.e. W.W originating from a
municipality including domestic and industrial wastewater.
Storm Sewer
It carries storm sewage including surface run off and street washes.
Combined Sewer
It carries domestic, industrial and storm sewage.
House Sewer
Pipe conveying sewage from plumbing system of a building to common /
municipal sewer.
Lateral Sewer
It receives discharge from house sewers.
Sub Main Sewer
It receive discharge from one or more laterals
Main / Trunk Sewer
Receive discharge from two or more sub mains.
Outfall Sewer
Receive discharge from all collecting system and convey it to the point of
final disposal (e.g. a water body etc.)

Problem
The residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 per / km2
and area of 120000 m². If the average water consumption in 400 lpcd find the
average sewage flow and the maximum sewage flow that can be accepted in
m³/day.

Solution
Total Population = 15000x120000/1000 x 1000
= 18000 persons
Per capita sewage flow = 0.8 x 400 = 320 lpcd
Avg. Sewage flow = 18000 x 320 = 576 m3/d
M = 1 + 14 / (4 +ÖP)
= 1 + 14 / (4 + Ö18)
= 1.74
Max / Peak Sewage Flow = 576 x 1.74
= 1007.3 m³/d

Design Period

Collection Works
Period of design is “Indefinite” as the system is designed to cater for the
maximum development of the area.
Disposal works
Design period is usually 10 years. Rates of flow required are: average daily,
peak and maximum flow rated, including infiltration.
Treatment Works
Design period is 15 to 20 years. Flow rate required are average and peak
rates both including infiltration.

Invert Level
It is the level of the INVERT of the sewer pipe.
Invert Level = G.L – Cover over pipe – thickness of pipe – diameter of pipe

Sewers Flowing Partially Full

It is necessary to determine velocity and depth of sewage in a pipe when it
is flowing only partially full. For this, use of the GRAPH will allow quick
computation of the hydraulic elements of partially filled circular sewer.
For using this graph, it is necessary to find first the conditions when a sewer is
flowing full. Then by calculating the ration of any two known hydraulic elements,
the others can be found significance of partial flow study.
Conditions during partial flow, must frequently be determine in combined
partially combined sewers due to the following reasons
To investigate velocities during dry weather flow to eliminate possibilities of
deposits accruing in pipes
Knowledge of depth of flow is of value in designing sewer interactions. Large
sewers should be brought together at elevation so that water may not back up
into the other.

Problem
A 915mm circular combined sewer is laid on a slope of 0.003 and it is
flowing full with n=0.013. What will be the velocity and depth of flow when the
sewer is carrying 8.5 m3/min (0.1416 m³/sec) discharge?

Solution
Q when flowing full = V = 1/n R 2/3 S1/2
= 1/0.013 x (D/4)2/3 (0.003) ½
= 1.57 m/sec
Q=AxV
= 3.142 / 4 x (0.915)2 x 1.57
= 1.036 m³/sec
Qd/Qf = 0.1416 / 1.036
= 0.14
d/D = 0.3 (from discharge line)
d = 0.3 x 0.915 = 0.275
= 275 mm at 0.1416 m3/sec
Find velocity at actual depth of flow:
Va/Vf = 0.6
Va = 0.6 x 1.57
= 0.94 m/sec

Design Flow in Sanitary Sewer

To find the design flow in sanitary sewers the following steps are followed:
• Forecast the design population (P) of the area.
• Find the sewage flow per day by multiplying population with flow per
capita of sewage. The sewage is taken as (70 – 80) % of average water
supply. If (q) is average per capita per day water consumption of water
then
Qavg = Average Sewage Flow
= (0.7 à 0.8) x P x q
• Select a peaking factor (P.F) to find the peak sewage flow according to
WASA.
P.F = 4 (for discharge up to 0.0283 m3/sec)
P.F = 2 (for discharge less than 5.66 m3 /sec)
i.e. peak discharge = Q peak = (P.F) (Qavg)
 Peaking factor M which is the ration of maximum rate of sewage to
average flow is
M = 1 + 14 / (4 + √P)
Some designers are using 22 instead of 14.
• Calculate the allowance for industrial and commercial sewage at a rate of
3734 m³ / km² / day
• Calculate infiltration from average sewage flow as given by WASA.
Qinf = (0.05 to 0.1) Qavg
• Find the design sewage flow by adding peak flow, industrial allowance and
infiltration flow.
Qdesign = Qpeak + Qind + Qinf
Normally Manning's formula is used for design of sanitary sewer which is :
V = l / n (R) 2/3 √S

Formulas
Some other formulas used for designed of sewage flow are:
• Chazy’s Formula
V = C√ RS where C Chazy’s Constant
• Kutter’s Formula for value of C
C = (41.66 + 1.811/n + 0.00281/S)
Where n = roughness coefficient
• Hazen’s William formula may also be used.

Design Procedure
The following steps should be followed.
• Calculate the design flow as already explained
• Select value of self cleaning velocity and compute area of pipe (sewer) by
A = Q / v and the diameter.
• Find the slope of sewer by Manning’s formula.
V = l / n (R) 2/3 √S
• Check the velocity; it should be greater then minimum self cleaning
velocity.

Sewage Treatment

Purpose
 Health Aspectà More than 50 diseases spread through untreated sewage
Pathogens, helminths, worms etc.
 Disposal Aspectà if sewage is disposed untreated in water bodies, it can
result in following problems: -
- Depletion of O2 resources of streams
- Cause turbidity, colour in water bodies
- Can be toxic to aquatic life
 Reuse aspect à Sewage is treated to be reused for
- Irrigation purposes
 - Ground water recharge

Methods of Treatment

Primary Treatment
 Purposeà Remove suspended, settle able and floating matters.
 Method Usedà Screens, Grit Chambers, Primary Sedimentation tanks
(primary Clarifier)
BOD removal = 30 – 45 %
S. S removal = 40 – 70 %
Screens
 Purpose à The purpose of screens is to remove large particles of floating
or suspended matter so that the pump is not clogged or damaged.
 Types à Screens consist of parallel bars, rods, wire mesh or perforated
plates. The opening may be of any shape. (generally rectangular)

Bar Screens
Mostly, BAR SCREENS of RACKS are used which are either hand cleaned
or mechanically cleaned.
Opening between bars ½” – 1 ½”

30 – 60o
To Grit
SECTION Chamber / P.S
Tank

bars

Sewage

Primary Sedimentation Tank (Primary Clarifier)

 Function
  They remove most of the settle able solids OR about 40 – 70% of the
suspended solids from sewage.

 Reduce BOD on secondary treatment unit since 80% of the total

BOD of municipal sewage is contributed by suspended and colloidal
solids, between 30 and 45% of the total BOD will be removal
during this process.

 Design Basis

 Designed on AVERAGE FLOW BASIS

 Surface loading rate: 20 – 60 m3/m2. Day

 Depth: 2 – 4 m

 Detention Time: 2 – 4 hour

 Sludge Accumulation:  2.5 kg of wet solids/m3 of flow

 Weir Loading: ≤ 120 m3/m .day (to prevent high approach velocity at
outlets)

 Shapes
Rectangular : Max L: W – 4:1
Max length = 30m,
Max width = 6 – 8 m
Circular: Dia = 10 – 30 m

Secondary Treatment

 Aerobic Process
CHON (organic matter) decomposes to Cell mass and
different gases like CO2, H2O, SO4-2, NO3
 So more sludge is formed in aerobic process. Bacteria that
work in the presence of oxygen are AEROBIC BACTERIA.
The bulk of available energy finds its way into CELL MASS
yielding a stable effluent which will not undergo further
decomposition

 Anaerobic Process
These take place in the absence of oxygen. CHON (organic
matter) decomposes to Cell mass and different gases like CO 2, H2O,
H2S, CH4, N2. Less sludge is formed in anaerobic process. The end
products of an anaerobic process are odorous. Bacteria that work in
the absence of oxygen are called ANAEROBIC BACTERIA.

Suspended Growth Process

A treatment process in which bacteria are kept in suspension by constantly
aerating the wastewater e.g. activated sludge process, Aerated Lagoons etc.
Floc body of micro organisms gathered in a crowd out line. A quantity of micro
organism and nutrient material supporting the growth

PST Aeration Tank SST

Sludge
Digestion

Where
Vs = Settle able solids (measured by imhoff cone)
MLSS = Mixed liqueur suspended solids (mg/l)
(A measurement of micro organisms in sewage) SVI from 50 to 150 indicate good
settling characteristics.
SVI = Sludge Volume Index

Sludge Bulking
Excessive carry over of flocs in the effluent resulting in inefficient
operation to find clarifier in referred as SLUDGE BULKING. It is usually due to
FILAMENTOUS MICRO ORGANISMS.
Reasons for sludge bulking may be
 Insufficent aération (D.O < 1.5 mg/l)
 Lack of nutrients (i.e. N, P)
  Presence of toxic substances
 OVER LOADING i.e. high F/M ratios

F: M Ratio
F: M ratio means FOODS to MICRO ORGANISMS ratio. F : M ratio is
expressed in terms of kg BOD applied per day kg of MLSS.
If Q is the sewage flow in m3/d and it has a BOD expressed in mg/l.
Then FOOD = Q x BOD / 1000 kg BOD / day
Also Qr/Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs (Recirculation ratio)
Where
Vs = Volume of settled sludge
Qr = Flow of retained sludge
Q = Flow of sewage
No of tanks: Generally more then one tank is provided.
Aeration Tank Dimensions: Depth 3-5 m , L: W

Aeration Tank
Diffuses

Diffuses

Plan

0.6 – 1m
Aeration Devices
 DIFFUSED AERATION
Air is passed through porous diffuses under pressure. Generally rows of
diffuses are 0.6 to 1 m apart. There are placed at the bottom of aeration
tank.
 MECHANICAL AERATION
In this type mechanical surface aeration are employed they agitate the
sewage machinery so as to promote solution of air from the atmosphere.
Impellers are generally used to agitate the sewage.

Problem
An activated sludge process is to treat a domestic sewage flow of
6000m3/day with a BOD of 240 mg/l. The F: M ration is to be maintained at
0.4kg BOD/kg MLSS. The sludge recirculation 0.25 and it is desired to achieve an
SVI of 100 ml/gm calculate the MLSS concentration in aeration tank and the size
of the aeration tank.

Solution
Qr/Q = Vs / 1000-Vs
0.25 = Vs / 1000 –Vs
Vs = 200 ml

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

MLSS = Vs x 1000 / SVI
= 200x1000/100
= 2000mg/l

F: M = Q. BOD / V. MLSS
V = Q x BOS / MLSS x F: M
V = 6000 x 240 / 2000 x 0.4 = 1800 m3
Let depth = 4m
Area = 1800 / 4
= 450 m2

Use two aeration tanks.

Area of each tank = 225 m2
Let L: W = 5: 1
225 = 5W x W
W = 6.7 m
L = 33.5 m
Tank size 6.7m x 33.5m x 4m
Problem
An activated sludge process is to be designed to treat sewage flow of 8640
m3/day with a BOD of 200mg/l from the primary clarifier. Using F: M ratio of 0.4
per day and MLSS concentration of 3000 mg/l, calculate the volume of the
aeration tank of SVI is 100, how much sludge should be returned

Solution
Q = 8640 m3/day
F: M = Q x BOD / V x MLSS
0.4 = 8640 x 200 / V x 300
V = 1440m3

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

Vs = 100 x 3000 / 1000
= 300
Qr / Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs
= 300 / 1000 – 300
= 0.42
Qr= 0.42 x 8640
= 3702 m3/day

Problem
An activated sludge process with aeration tank volume of 900 m3 is
treating a sewage flow 4000 m3/day with a BOD of 250 mg/l. It is desired to
achieve an SVI of 80 by adopting a recirculation ratio of 0.25. Calculate the F : M
ration at which the aeration tank should be operated.

Solution
Qr / Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs
0.25 = Vs / 1000 - Vs
Vs = 200 mg/l

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

MLSS = 200 x 1000 / 80
= 2500 mg/l

F: M = Q x BOD / v x MLSS
= 4000 x 250 / 900 x 2500
= 0.44 per day

Problem
Domestic sewage flow of 8000 m3/d with a BOD of 260 mg/l is to be
treated by an activated sludge process. If a recirculation ration of 0.25 and SVI of
100 is desired, calculate the size of the aeration tank take F : M ratio as 0.3.

Solution
Q = 8000m3/d
 Qr/Q = 0.25
SVI = 100
Qr/Q = Vs / 1000 – Vs

0.25 = Vs / 1000 – Vs
Vs = 200 mg/l

SVI = Vs x 1000 / MLSS

MLSS = 200x1000/100
= 2000mg/l
Let
F: M ration 0.3 per day
F: M = Q x BOD / V x MLSS
V = 3466.6 mg/l
Let depth = 4m
Area = 3466/4
= 866.6 m2

Take 2 units of aeration tank:

Each = 433.3 m2
L: W = 5: 1

A=LxW
A = 5W2
W = 9.3 m
L= 46.5 m
So
Size 9.3m x 46.5m x 4 m

Trickling Filters
Trickling filter utilize a relatively porous bacteria growth medium like
ROCK or FORMED PLASTIC SHAPES. Bacterial growth occurs upon the surface
while oxygen is provided by air diffusion through void spaces.
Wastewater is applied to the surface and percolates through the filter, flowing
over the biological growth in a thin film.
Nutrients, oxygen and organic matter are transferred to the fixed water layer and
from there to bacteria and waste products are transferred to the moving water
layer, primarily by diffusion.
As the bacteria on filter medium metabolize the waste they will reproduce,
gradually producing an increase in the depth of SLIME LAYER with thickening of
biological layer, the inner side become anaerobic and bacteria starts dieing
breaking the contact between slime layer and contact medium and slime layer
will slough off and be carried from the filter with waste flow. These solids are
then removed in a secondary clarifier.
 Fixed water layer

BOD O2

Support
Medium

Oxidized Organics

CO2

Anaerobic Zone Aerobic Zone

Primary
Sedimentation Tank Dosing Tank

Rotating
Distribution drain

Under drain
system

Stone To secondary
(60-90 mm dia) sedimentation tank

Types of Trickling Filters

 Low rate
 High rate (mostly used these days)
 Factor Low Rate High Rate

Medium Stone Plastic balls

Hydraulic loading 1.9 – 3.8 m3/m2.d 9 – 27 m3/m2.d

Depth 2–3m 1 – 2.5 m

Recirculation Nil 1:1 to 4: 1

operation Simple Skilled

Odour / Fly problem More Less

Organic loading 0.3 – 1.5 kg/m3 filter vol.day 1.5 – 18.5

Role of Recirculation
Recirculation of effluent either from trickling filter or final clarifier is done
in modern Trickling filter to following advantages:
 Return of viable organism thus improving efficiency
 Reduce odour and fly problem
 Dilute influent and help in handling shock loads
Disadvantages
 High construction cost
 Large area required
 Odour and fly (Psychoda fly) problem
Performance
National research council (NRC) empirical formula is used. It is based upon data
collected in USA during World War –II
E = (Ci-Ce)/ C i
= 1/ (1 + 0.532 (QCi/VF) 0.5)

Problem
A settled sewage flow of 11355 m3/day containing 150 mg/l of BOD is to be
treated by a Tricking filter with a depth of 2 m. It is desired that effluent BOD
should be 20 mg/l. Calculate the required diameter of the filter and hydraulic
loading on the filter. Recirculation ration is 4.

Solution
Q = 11355 m3/d
= 7.88 m3/min
Qr = 4 x 11355
= 45420 m3/d
r=4
 F = 1 + 4 / (1 +0.4)2
= 2.53
(Ci-Ce)/ C i = (150 – 20) / 150
= 0.8667

E = 1/ (1 + 0.532 (QCi/VF) 0.5)

0.8667 = 1 / (1 + 0.532 (7.88 x 150 / V x 2.55)0.5)
Solving this equation we can get the value of V:
V = 5540 m3
Let
Depth = 2m
Area of filter = 2770 m2
A =  / 4 D2
D = 59.4 m
Total flow of filter = Q + Qr
= 56775 m3/d
Hydraulic Loading = 56775 / 2770
= 20.4 m3/m2.d

Problem
22700 m3/d of settled wastewater containing 300 mg/l of BOD is to be
treated in a Trickling filter. It is 2m in depth and hydraulic loading is 15 m3/m2.d
with a recirculation ratio of 2. Calculate filter size, %age BOD removal and
effluent BOD.

Solution
Try to solve by yourself.
Answer:
Area = 4540 m2
E = 78.97 %,
Ce = 63 mg/l

Waste Water Stabilization Ponds (WSP)

Wastewater stabilization ponds provide a useful method of Wastewater
treatment and disposal for growing communities where both FUNDS and
TRAINED PERSONNEL are in short supply.
In these ponds, “beneficial organisms” stabilize the Wastewater into a liquid that
can be released to the environment adversely and that does not place an under
cost burden on a downstream user.
WSP are best solution where:
 Financial resources are limited
 Technical expedite are lacking
 Sufficient land area is available at cheap cost.
DEFINITION:
A stabilization pond is a relatively shallow body of water contained in a
earthen / lined basin of controlled shape which is designed for the purpose of
treating wastewater.
Drawbacks
 Require large area
 Anaerobic ponds have odour problem.
Types
 Anaerobic ponds
 Facultative ponds
 Maturation ponds
Mostly, these are used in combination / series. A typical arrangement is shown
below: -

F M

An F M

An F M M

Anaerobic Ponds

Scum Baffle

Influent CH4 H2S CO2 NH Effluent

3
3-5 m

Sludge
Problem
Design an anaerobic pond to treat a sewage flow of 5000 m3/d with a BOD
of 400 mg/l. the ponds are to be loaded at 200 g BOD / m3.d

Solution
Total BOD load = 5000 x 400
= 2000000 gm BOD / l
Volume of pond = 2000000 / 200 = 10000m3
Take two ponds
Volume of one pond = 5000 m3
Let depth = 4m
Area (Mean Depth) = 5000 / 4 = 1250 m2
Let L: W = 2.5: 1
W = 22.3 m ~ 22
L = 55.9 m ~ 56
Surface = 28 x 54
Bottom = 16 x 50

Facultative Ponds
Mostly used for domestic sewage of ordinary strength

O2 Sunlight

Aerobic

Influent Effluent
1.5 - 2 m Algal
Facultative
Growth

Anaerobic

Three zones exist in a facultative pond:

 The surface zone where aerobic bacteria and algae exist
 Anaerobic zone near bottom in which accumulated solids are decomposed
by anaerobic bacteria.
 An intermediate zone that is partially aerobic and partially anaerobic in
which decomposition is bought about by FACULTATIVE bacteria.
Design Criteria
There is design on SURFACE LOADING RATES i.e. kg BOD / ha / day.
The area thus calculated is MID DEPTH SURFACE AREA (M.D.S.A)
Surface loading : 100 – 400 kg BOD/ha/day
No of ponds : At least two
Detention time : 7 – 20 days
Side Slopes : 1V: 3H
Depth : 1.5 – 2m
L: W : 3 – 2.5: 1
De-sludging : 10 – 15 years
The effluents have no small, greenish in colour and have a BOD of around 50 – 75
mg/l

Formula for Effluent Quality

Following formula is used to find out effluent quality: -
Le / Li = 1/ (1 + Kt)
Where
Le = effluent BOD, mg/l
Li = Influent BOD, mg/l
K = Reaction rate constant, per day
(Normally 0.3d-1 for domestic sewage at 200C)
t = Detention time, days
Note: 90% of ponds in world are FACULTATIVE PONDS.
Température affect on K
K2 = K1 (Ө) T2-T1

Mara Formula far BOD Loading

Mara (1988) gave the following formula to find the surface loading for a
specific region. According to this formula surface loading depend upon average
temperature of the coldest month
S.L = I5T – 50
Where
S.L = Surface loading in kg BOD / ha.day
T = Average temperature of coldest month.

Bacteria Algae Symbiosis (Mutually Beneficial)

In aerobic zone of ponds, bacteria and algae exist in a MUTUALLY
BENEFICIAL or SYMBIOTIC relationship algae produce O 2 during
photosynthesis which is needed by bacteria to metabolize matter. Whereas
bacteria release CO2 and other inorganic matter likes N and P, which are needed
by algae to grow and meet its food requirement. Hence under normal light
conditions, the metabolic action of these two microbial groups complements each
other.
Problem (Facultative Pond)
Design two facultative ponds to treat a flow of 5444 m3/d with a BOD of
150mg/l. take BOD loading as 200 kg BOD /ha.d and assume the depth of the
pond as 2m. Find the detection time in the pond and efficiency of the pond.
Assume K = 0.23 per day.

Solution
Q for each pond = 5444/2
= 2722 m3/d
Mid depth area = Total BOD load / S. L
= {(2722 x 150)/ 1000}/200
= 2.04 ha
= 20415 m2
Let
L: W = 3:1
A = 3W2
W = 82m
L = 249 m
Surface Dimension = 85 x 252
Bottom Dimension = 79 x 246
Volume = 20415 x 2
= 40830 m3
Détention Time = V/Q
= 40830 / 2722
= 15 days

Le = Li {1/ (1+Kt )}
= 150 {1/ (1+ 0.23x15)}
= 33.7 mg/l
E = (Li – Le) / Li
= 150 – 337 / 150 = 77.5%

Maturation Ponds
These are fully aerobic and used after FACULTATIVE PONDS with the
purpose of
 Polishing of Effluent
 Removal of Pathogens
Pathogens die due to sunlight and long detention time. HELMINTHS also settle
at the bottom where they eventually die.
Application
 Primarily used for reduction of PATHOGENS
 Removal of organic matter (BOD)
 Sunlight

Influent
1 – 1.5 m

Fully Aerobic

Design Criteria
Depth =1 – 15 m
Detention Time = 4 – 14 days
No. of Ponds = At least two
L: W = 2.5: 1
De-sludging = 20 years
Design of maturation ponds is based on CLOIFORM REMOVAL and no
BOD reduction consideration is made.

Formula
To design the maturation ponds on the basis of coliform removal,
following relationship is used: -
Ne / Ni = 1/ (1 + Kt)
Where:
Ni = No of coliform in influent / 100ml
Ne = No of coliform in effluent / 100 ml
K = Bacterial die away constant
(Usually taken as 2.6 per day at 200C)
t = Detention time in pond, days
Effluent from maturation pond (Generally)
BOD = 30 mg/l
F.C < 1000/100ml
Problem (Maturation Pond)
Design a maturation pond to treat a flow of 2722 m3/d of 200C with
coliform in the influent as 4 x 105 / 100 ml. Assume a detention time of 10 days.
Find out the coliform in the effluent of the pond and the pond efficiency. Assume
K = 2.6 d-1 at 200C.

Solution
Ne / Ni = 1/ (1 + Kt)
Ne = 4 x 105 {1/ (1+ 2.5x10)}
= 14814 / 100 ml
Volume of Pond = 2722 x 10
= 27220 m3
Let depth = 1.5 m
Mid depth area = 27220/1.5
= 18146 m2
= 18200 m2
Mid depth dimension = 213.3 x 85.3

Side slope 1V: 3H

Surface Dimension = 217.5 x 89.5
Bottom Dimension = 2085.5 x 80.5
Pond Efficiency h = {(4 x 105 – 14814) / 4 x 105} x 100
= 96.2%

Waste Stabilization Ponds in Pakistan

10 YEARS RESEARCH AT I.E.E.R (UET LAHORE
EVALUATION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
Applications
Karachi, Hyderabad, Lahore, Okara, Faisalabad, Peshawar
Effluent is mostly used for irrigation.

Aerated Lagoons
Aerated lagoons occupy a position in between WSP and activated sludge
process.
An Aerated Lagoon is a basin in which wastewater is treated on a FLOW
THROUGH BASIS. Oxygen is supplied by means of surface or diffused aerations.
Aerated Lagoon operates at low MLSS concentration i.e. 200 – 400 mg/l but with
long retention time as compared to activated sludge process. In Aerated Lagoon
NO SLUDGE RECYCLING is EMPLOYED. The effluent from an Aerated Lagoon
is settled in a sedimentation tank before discharge.
As a matter of fact Aerated Lagoon was originally developed from ANAEROBIC
and FACULTATIVE ponds.
 Screens PST Aerated SST
Lagoon

Sludge Drying Beds

DESIGN CRITERIA / CONSIDERATIONS:

Empirical approach is used
Detention time 4 – 9 days
Depth 3–5m
Power input 20 watt / m3 of lagoon volume
Effluent quality can be estimated by using following formula
Le / Li =1/ (1+ Kt)
BOD removals 70 – 90 %
F.Col 90% (Poor)
Provide MATUARTION POND to further upgrade the effluent for further
REUSE.
ADVANTAGES
 Required less area as compared to WSP
 Low capital cost as compared to ASP
 Easy to operate / maintain
 Highly skilled plant operators not required as compared to ASP
 A good treatment option for a wide range of induction e.g. textile, tannery,
dairy, fruits etc.
LIMITATIONS
 Poor coliform removal
 Sludge handling problems
 Cannot be used where space is very limited.
TYPES
 Partially Mixed (Facultative):
Limited aeration done to satisfy oxygen demand only. Settled
sludge at bottom undergoes ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION.
 Fully Mixed:
More aeration done to keep all suspended solids in suspension.
More power is required in this case.
Sludge Digestion
All conventional wastewater treatment processes produce large quantities
of waste material in the form of DILUTE SOLID MIXTURES know as SLUDGE.
The composition and solid content are a function of raw wastewater. Primarily
and secondary sludges are mainly composed of water with a solid content of only
0.5 to 5%.
Huge volumes of sludge are generated daily in treatment plants which need to be
treated and disposed.

Purpose of Sludge Digestion

Sludge digestion and subsequent disposal falls among important functions
carried out at a treatment plant. Following statistics reveal this fact:
Sludge handling
30 – 40% Capital cost
50% Operational cost
90% Operational problems in a treatment plant
Other functions are
 To reduce the sludge volume for disposal
 To reduce the water content of sludge for easy handling
 To recover valuable GAS
 To use it as FERTILIZER.

Amount and Characteristics of Sludge

Sewage sludge consists of the organic and inorganic solids present in raw
sewage and removal in primary clarifier plus organic solids generated in
secondary treatment and removal in secondary clarifier.
Specific gravity of organic content of sludge is lightly greater than water and
normally lies in a range of 1.01 to 1.06. The Specific gravity of inorganic fraction
is sludge can be assumed as 2.5.

PROBLEM (Sludge Digestion)

Estimate the solids production from Trickling Filter plant treating 1000
m3/d with a BOD of 210 mg/l and S.S of 260 mg/l. Assume that primary
clarifications remove 30% of BOD and 60% of influent solids.

Solution
Removal in primary clarifier = 0.6 x 260
= 156 mg/l
Production in secondary = 0.7(210) (0.5)
= 74 mg/l
Total solids production = 156 + 74
= 230 mg/l
= 230 gm / m3
= 230/1000 x 1000
Solid production = 230 kg / day
Solids generated in primary clarifier = 60% of S.S
Solids generated in secondary clarifier
T.S à 0.4 to 0.5 kg/kg of BOD applied
A.S.P à 0.2 to 1.0 kg/kg of BOD applied

Effect of Moisture Constant upon Sludge Volume

The effect of moisture constant upon sludge volume is tremendous. Sludge
handling techniques are directed towards reducing the moisture content and
thereby the volume of sludge.
Through digestion, the water content of sludge reduces significantly as compared
to raw sludge as shown below:

Type Raw Sludge Digested Sludge

(Moisture Content) (Moisture Content)
Primary Sedimentation 94 – 96 % 88 – 94 %
Sludge tank
Activated Sludge 98.5 – 99.5 % 94 – 96 %

Trickling Filter Sludge 96 – 97 % 90 – 94 %

PROBLEM (Sludge Digestion)

A wastewater plant produces 1000 kg of dry solids per day at a moisture
content if 96%. The solids are 70% volatile with a specific gravity of 1.05 and 30%
non-volatile with a specific gravity of 2.5. Determine the sludge volume.
 As produced
 Digestion reduce the volatile solids content by 50% and decreases the
moisture content to 90%

Solution
 As produced
Mass of Sludge = 1000/0.05
= 20000 Kg
95 % = 19000 litre
1000 kg is solid:
70 % volatile = 700 kg
Specific gravity = 1.05
Volume = 700/1.05 = 667 litre
30% non-volatile = 300 kg
Specific gravity = 2.5
Volume = 300/2.5 = 120 litre
Volume of Solids = weight / specific gravity
Total volume of sludge= 19000 + 667 + 120
= 19787 litre (As produced)
  After Digestion
After digestion Volatile Solids are reduced to 350 kg. The total
solid content is therefore 350 + 300 = 650 kg
Mass of sludge = 650/0.1
= 6500 kg

650 kg is solid:
Water =5850 litre
Volume of V.S = 350 / 1.05 = 333 litre
Volume of Non V.S = 300/2.5 =120 litre
Total volume of sludge = 6303 litre
% reduction in volume = (19787 – 6303)/ 19787
= 68%

Formulas
 Volume of Solids for organic/inorganic
Volume of solids = Weight of solids / Specific Gravity

 Weight of sludge
Mass (weight) of sludge = (Weight of solids in Kg)/ Kg
(Fraction of solids)

Types of Digestion
Sludge digestion may be ANAEROBIC of AEROBIC. Both have their
merits and de-merits. Traditionally anaerobic digesters are used.

Parameter Aerobic Anaerobic

Volatile Solid reduction Similar Similar

BOD if supernatant LOW HIGH

Capital Cost LOW HIGH

Operating Cost HIGH LOW

Useful by Product Nil Yes

Dewatering of digested sludge Difficult Difficult

System upsets Less More susceptible

Design approach Empirical Empirical

Theory of Anaerobic Digestion
Under anaerobic conditions, sludge digestion occurs through the action of
two groups of bacteria.
 Acid Forming Bacteria
These bacteria convert complex organic substances like fats,
carbohydrates, proteins etc. present in the sludge into simple organic
compounds and fatty acids.
Carbohydrates à Fatty acids (low pH)
Proteins à Amino Acids à NH3 + Fatty Acids
 Methane Forming Bacteria
These bacteria form CH4 and CO2 by using acid and NH3 and other
products of the first group. They get best in the pH range of 6.5 to 8 and more
précising within pH rage of 7.2–7.4.
NH3 + Fatty acids à CH4 + CO2
Methane forming bacteria require an in organic source of nitrogen for their
nutrition. They are inhibited by lowering pH. Acid forming bacteria are a bit
resistant to low pH. Acid forming bacteria may be adversely affected. As a
result the process may fail.
Maintenance of proper pH can be obtained with lime. However, the lime
should be thoroughly mixed up to avoid local concentration build up. Usually
2 to 5 kg of lime per 1000 persons is added daily to the digester.

Modern Digesters
Sludge digestion is accomplished in air tight steel tanks. Modern digesters
are both heated and mixed.
The first digester is heated and mixed. The second digester is quiescent and
serves primarily as a thicken for the digested sludge.
Digester tanks are usually 6m to 15m deep. Hopper bottom slope is kept as 1
Vertical: 3 Horizontal. Diameter of the digester may vary from 6m to 40m
depending upon the capacity.
Cover of the digester may be FLOATING of FIXED. Fixed cover are low cost
but nor preferable. Floating covers are costly but they minimize the danger of
mixing oxygen with the gas to form explosive mixture. Also with floating
covers, the removal and addition of sludge remains independent of each
other.
The methane produced in anaerobic digestion is nearly universally used to
heat the digester and in some instances to provide mechanical power for other
plant processes.
The digested solids from anaerobic processes may be dewatered without
further treatment upon open drying beds.

Design Criteria
Detention time à 10 – 20 days
Volume of m3/person (of first digester) à 0.1 m3/person biological
process, 0.05m3/person for P.S.T Sludge
 Sludge Drying Beds
The purpose of sludge drying beds is to dewatered digested sludge and to
further reduce its volume. After drying, the volume of sludge gets reduced to
around 60%.Dry sludge cakes can be used as fertilizer

Problem
Estimate the quantity of solids produced in an Activated Sludge Process
with flow of 5500 m3/day with BOD and S.S of 250 mg/l each assuming that
PST remove 30% of BOD and 50% of SS and sludge production in the
secondary unit is 70% of BOD applied.
Calculate volume of sludge if its solid content is 5%. 70% Volatile Solids
with specific Gravity 1.05 and 30% non-volatile with specific gravity 2.5.

Solution
Solids removed in P.S.T = 0.5 x 250
= 125 mg/l
BOD applied to secondary unit = 0.7 x 250
= 175 mg/l

Solid production in secondary unit = 0.7 x 175

= 122.5 mg/l
Total Solids produced= Primary + Secondary
= 125 + 122.5
= 247.5 mg/l
= 247.5 x 5500/1000
Weight of sludge = Solids / Solid fraction
= 1361 / 0.05
= 27220 kg
Water = 27220 – 1361
= 25859 kg
= 25859 litre
Volatile Substances (V.S) = 0.7 x 1361 = 952 . 7 kg
Volume of V.S = 952.7 / 1.05 = 907
Volume of Non V.S = 0.3 x 1361 / 2.5 = 163.3 litre
Volume of sludge = 25859 + 907 + 163.3
= 26929.3 litre
= 1361 kg/day
Details
The most common method of preparing digested sludge for final disposal
is air drying on sand beds. A sand drying bed is shown on next page.
 300 mm

Sludge Layer
200 – 300 mm

Coarse Sand
150 – 300 mm
RCC

Graded Gravel

300 mm

5m
Under drain

It consist of 150 – 200 mm depth of coarse sand underlain by layer of graded

gravel ranging from 3 to 6mm dia at top to 20-40mm dia at the bottom. The total
gravel thickness is 300mm.
The bottom of the bed slope towards under drains. The under drain consist of
drain tiles places upon trenches with open bed sections are concrete. A free board
of 300 mm is given
Beds are 6 to 10 m wide and up to 40m long. At least two beds must be provided
in even the smallest plants.
Dewatering occur as a result of drainage and evaporation and is heavily
dependent upon CLIMATE. Covering drying beds with glass of plastic sheets is
helpful in wet climates.

Operation of Sludge Drying Bed

The beds are operated by filling with digested sludge to a depth of 200 to
300 mm. a small amount of sand may be lost with each drying cycle. The time
required for dewatering may range from several months to a few weeks
depending upon the climate conditions.

Design
 Area requirement à 0.2 m2 / person
 Common dimensionsà 10m x 40m
 Minimum no. of units à 2
 Reduction in sludge vol. à 60%
Problem (Sludge Drying Beds)
Estimate the size of sludge drying beds for a sewage flow of 19000 m3/d
with a BOD of 200 mg/l.

Solution
BOD contributed/capita/day = 80 g BOD/Person/day
Population equipment = 19000 x 200 / 80
= 47500 person

Per person area required = 0.2 m2

Total area required = 47500 x 0.2
= 95000 m2
Let area of one bed = 10 x 40 = 400m2
No of beds required = 9500 / 400
= 23.75
= 24 beds

Design Parameters for Septic Tank

 Detention Time à 24 – 48 hr
 L: W à 3: 1
 Depth à 1 – 1.5 m
 Sludge Capacity à 0.04 m3 /person/year
 De sludging Period à 1 – 2 years
 Effluent disposal à Through soakage pit
 Compartment Vent Pipes
Manhole (Gases)
Baffle

Sludge Sludge

1st Comp (2/3 Length) 2nd Comp (1/3 length)

Soakage Pit
In the absence of any sewage collection system, the effluent from septic
tank can be disposed in a SOAKAGE PIT. It is a circular pit in which water is
absorbed in the surrounding soils.

Design Parameters:
o Bottom above water table = at least 10’
o Away from wells = at least 50’
o Diameter = 6 ‘– 12’
o Depth = 10’ – 20’
o Distance between two pits = 3 times diameter of larger pit.

Soil Application retention m3/m3 – day

Coarse to medium sand 0.049

Fine sand, loamy sand 0.032

Sandy loam and loam 0.024

Silt loam 0.018

Silty clay 0.001

CAPACITY
Detention time = 48 hrs
Sludge = 0.04 m3/person/year
 Sludge Capacity.
A = Pnfs (litre)
Where
P = No. of person
n = No. of years between desludging (Normally 3 years)
f = Factor related to ambient temp.
(For Pakistan f = 1.0 for 3 years desludging period)
s = Rate of sludge and scum accumulation
Take 0.04 m3/person/years (40 litters)
 Capacity for Liquid Retention
B = Prq (litters)
Where
P = Persons
q = Average flow litre/day of sewage
r = Minimum retention time (in days) for sewage in tank just before
desludging is carried out (At least 1-day)
 Total Capacity = A+B

Shape and Dimension

L: W = 3: 1
Depth = 1.22 – 1.83 m

Inlet and Outlet

Diameter should not less than 4”
Slope should not be less than 1.5%

Gas Deflecting Devices

 Ventilation Arrangement
Height above ground = 10’
 Access and Inspection
Manholes at both inlet and outlet
 Construction Material
R.C.C is used inlet and outlet should be properly sealed

Installation
Most important is maintenance of proper grades. Check for water
tightness.

Periodic Maintenance
Desludging is done after some period. Never clean completely. Leave some
sludge inside after cleaning.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Assessment (EA)

EA has become established worldwide as an environmental management
tool used by government agencies, companies and other organisations to identify
predict and evaluate the potential physical, biological and social effects / impacts
of the projects and other development actions.

Terminology
EA or EIA – Environmental assessment or environmental impact assessment are
the terms used to describe the overall process.
 Many countries like Pakistan use the term EIA
 World Bank has the procedures for EA
 UK use the term EA, particularly, to avoid the impression the process is
restrict to the analysis of negative impacts.

ES or EIS – Environmental statement or Environmental Impact Statement

describe the written report arising from the studies.

Definition
“Whenever there is a planned activity, it will cause some impacts / effects
on the environment, the assessment of these impacts is called EIA”.

IMPACT à Effect of one thing on another.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT à The change in environment parameter, over a
specified period and within a defined area, resulting from a particular activity
compound with the situation which would have occurred had the activity not
been initiated.
 PLANNED ACTIVITY
DAM
High way
Air Port
Building
Etc
Assessment
IMPACT
Procedures
Methods
ENVIRONMENT
Physical
-Land
-Water
-Air
-Biological
-Flora
-Fauna
Social
-Human
 Project Disposal

Is EIA required? Screening

What are key issues? Scoping

Baseline data collection

Potential Env Impacts

Identifications & Analysis
of Information

Analysis Env Alternates

Mitigation Measures

Prepare EIS Present Findings

Env Monitoring Post Project analysis

Screening
Screening procedure include both project and environment criteria /
thresholds.
 The criteria is based on the scale and size of the project proposal, the
nature of the activities and sensitivity of the environmental setting
 Procedures for screening are currently in practice in Malaysia, Thailand,
and other countries i.e. UK etc.

e.g. Thermal power plant of more then 300 MW (MANDATORY Required

EIA.)

UK regulations; states that new road schemes may required EIA if their length
exceeds 1KM and their route passes through a National Park of through or within
100 m of a conservation area.
Two-Stage Screening Procedure

All Projects

No Req of EIA is Mandatory req

requirement of uncertain of EIA
EIA
Initial
Screening

IEE
“Preliminary
Assessment”
Secondary
Screening

IEE is EIA should be

sufficient carried out

Baseline conditions
Baseline conditions define the characteristics of the existing and shape projected
future conditions, assuming no project is undertaken.

 Base line data Collection

Data about the physical, biological and cultural environment is collected.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Includes all such major areas as topography, soil & geology, hydrology, air
quality & Noise levels

Physical Environment
Includes all such major areas as topography, soil & geology, hydrology, air
quality & Noise levels

Biological Environment
Refers to flora and fauna of the area, including a specified of trees, gasses,
fish, birds. Specific reference should be made to endangered plants and animals.

Cultural Environment
Includes human population, trends and population distribution, historic
site, public facilities, i.e. schools, hospitals, mosques, per capita income,
commercial activities etc.
Analysis of potential Environmental Impacts
Environmental impact analysis consists of comparing the expected
changes in the physical, biological and cultural environment with and without the
project.

 IMPACT CHARACTERISTICS
o Magnitude of Impacts
o Direction of Impacts
LECTURE # 15

Solid Waste Engineering & Management

Types of Solid Wastes with Physical, Chemical & Biological Properties

Types of Solid Wastes

• Paper Category
• Plastic Category
• Glass Category
• Metal Category
• Yard Waste Category
• Organic Category
• Other Waste Category
• Special Waste Category

Paper Category
• Mixed Paper
• Newspaper
• High Grade Ledger Paper
• Non Recyclable Paper
Plastic Category
• Polyethylene tri-phthalate containers (PET no. 1)
• High density polyethylene containers (HDPE no. 2)
• Polyvinyl chloride containers (PVC no. 3)
• Low density polyethylene (LDPE no. 4)
• Poly propylene (PP no. 5)
• Polystyrene (PS no. 6)
• Other plastics (other no. 7)
Glass Category
• Recyclable Glass
• Non Recyclable Glass
Metal Category
• Aluminum Cans
• Ferrous Metals
• Non Ferrous Metals
• White Goods
Yard Waste Category
• Yard Waste
Organic Category
• Organic Compactable
• Organic Non Compactable
• Tires & Rubber
• Wood Waste
 Other Waste Category
• Inert Slides (Inert Wastes)
• Household Hazardous Wastes
Special Waste Category
• Sewerage Sludge
• Other Special Wastes

Physical Properties
• Composition Of MSW
• Moisture Content
• Generation Of Solid Waste
• Density Of Solid Waste
• Particle Size Distribution
• Field Capacity
• Permeability Of Compacted Waste

Composition of MSW
• By composition we mean components of solid waste by % wt.
• Varies with location, season, economic conditions
• Food waste, largest component in low income countries, being not
trimmed & absence of grinder.
• Percentage of plastic waste and paper waste is increasing with the passage
of time.

Moisture Content
• Expressed in two ways
• Wet weight measurement (% wet weight of material)
• Dry weight method (% dry weight of material)
• Wet weight commonly used in SWM
• Moisture content of samples analyzed in lab.
m = w – d x 100
W
Where,
M = moisture content
W = initial wt of sample, (kg)
D = weight of sample drying at 105oc (kg)

• For food & yard waste, various 15-40%,

• Plastic & inorganic, 3%

Generation of Solid Waste

• Expressed in per capita.
• 0.65 kg/c/day in 2002. (for Rawalpindi City)
• Assumed to be continue for next ten years.
• Total generation, 713 tons per day.
(For Rawalpindi City)
 Physical Composition of Solid Waste of Rawalpindi City by Random
Sampling Techniques

Sample Pandora Block-E Block-E ChungiNo.8 Bny Chowk 6th Road Collage S.S Rd V.N Avgas
Loc Chongi Road Collage

Area Poor Rich Rich Poor Poor Rich Middle Middle Middle
Community Community Community Community Community Community Income Income Income

Food
Waste 58.9 60.5 58.3 53.3 55.7 57.8 56.4 59.4 55.5 57
Plastic
6.2 5.6 6.2 5.5 8.3 5.7 5.5 6.6 6.6 6
Card/
Paper 3.6 5.3 3.3 3.9 5.3 5.3 3.9 2.8 2.7 4
Rags 3.3 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.8 4.7 6.8 3.9 4.2 4
Wood 6.0 2.2 2.2 6.3 4.2 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.8 3
Total
Organic
78 77.8 74.4 73.4 78.3 75.1 74.2 74.3 71.8 74
Metal 15.2 14.1 13.8 14.7 16.9 13.2 12.7 12.2 14.3 14
Other 6.8 8.1 11.6 11.7 4.8 11.7 13.1 13.5 13.9 12
Total In-
Organic
22 22.2 25.6 26.6 21.7 24.9 25.8 25.7 28.2 26
Grand
Total
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Density of SW
• Specific wt, expressed in material per unit volume, lb/yd3
• Data needed to assess total mass & volume of solid waste
• Vary with location, season & length of time in storage

Particle Size Distribution

• Important consideration in recovery (recycling & reuse) of material,
especially with mechanical means such as magnetic separators.

• Relevant to incineration & biological transformation methods.

• Largest dimension is up for sizing facilities like conveyor belts & grinders
etc.
• Shredders & separators are used to reduce to desirable sizes for treatment
of composting etc.
MSW Generation Rate for Rawalpindi City for the Years (2003-2013)

Year Population Generation Rate

Kg/Capita/Day Daily (tons) Yearly (tons)
2003 11,34,212 0.65 737.24 2,28,544
2004 11,75,044 0.65 763.77 2,36,768
2005 12,17,346 0.65 791,27 2,45,294
2006 12,61,170 0.65 819.76 2,54,125
2007 13,06,572 0.65 849.27 2,63,273
2008 13,53,609 0.65 879.84 2,72,750
2009 14,02,339 0.65 911.52 2,82,571
2010 14,52,823 0.65 944.33 2,92,742
2011 15,05,125 0.65 978.33 3,03,282
2012 15,59,309 0.65 1013.55 3,14,200
2013 16,13,884 0.65 1049.03 3,25,197

Field Capacity
• Total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample subject to
downward pull of gravity.
• Water in excess of field capacity will be released as leachate
• Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure & state of
decomposition of the waste.
• Field capacity of un-compacted commingled wastes from residential &
commercial sources, 50-60%.

Permeability of Compacted Waste

• Hydraulic conductivity governs the movement of liquids & gases in a infill.

• Sludge in land fills tends to resist the movement of water down through
then due to low hydraulic conductivity by virtue of very high moisture
content. Instead, rainfall is converted to surface runoff & sludge material is
transported to surface streams.
• Paper & packaging has no resistance to rain in filtration
• Hydraulic conductivity of soil governs the transport rate of leachate within
the solid waste fill.
Chemical Composition of MSW
Chemical composition is important in evaluating alternative processing &
recovery options.
If solid wastes to be used as fuel, four most important properties to be known are:
• Proximate analysis
• Fusing point of ash
• Ultimate analysis (major elements)
• Energy content

Where organic fraction of MSW to be composted or to be used a feedstock for the

production of other biological conversion products, not only will information on
the major elements (ultimate analysis) that compose the waste be important, but
also information will be required on the trace elements in the waste.

Proximate Analysis
• Proximate analysis for combustible components of MSW included
following tests:
• Moisture content by % wt (loss of moisture when heated to 1050c
for 1 hr)
• Volatile combustible matter (loss of wt on ignition at 9500c in a
covered crucible)
• Fixed carbon (combustible residue left after volatile matter is
removed)
• Ash (wt of residue after combustion in an open crucible)

Fusion Point Ash

• Temperature at which ash resulting from the burning of waste will form a
solid (clinker) by fusion & agglomeration.
• Typical fusion temp ranges from 2000-2200F (1100-1200 C)

Ultimate Analysis of SW Components

• Determination of percent of C, H, O, N, S & Ash
• Used to characterize the chemical composition of the organic matter in
MSW
• Use to define proper mix of waste materials to achieve suitable C/N ratios
for biological conversion processes

Energy Contents of SW Components

• Can be determined by using a full scale boiler as a calorimeter
• By using a lab bomb colorimeter.
• By calculation, if elemental compose is known

Potentially critical element in incineration can be measured or calculated using

DuLong Formula:

Btu/lb = 145C +610(H -1/8 O) + 40S +10N

 • Btu per lb on a dry ash-free basis is btu/lb (dry ash-free) = btu/lb (as
discarded)
• Approximate btu values for indle waste material can be determined by
using modified dulong formula.
• Btu/lb = 145c+610 (h2-1/8 o2)+40s+10n
• Constituents are % by weight.

Biological Composition of MSW

• Excluding plastic, rubber & leather components organic fraction of most
MSW can be categorized as follows:
• Water soluble constituents-as sugars, starches, amino acid &
various organic acids
• Hemi cellulose-a condensation product of 5 or 6-carbon sugars.
• Cellulose a condensation product of 6-carbon sugar glucose
• Fats, oils & waxes, which are esters of alcohols & long-chain fatty
acids.
• Lignin a polymeric material containing aromatic rings with methoxyle
groups (-OCH3), the exact chemical nature of which is still not known
• Lignocelluloses-a combination of lignin & cellulose.
• Proteins-composed of chains of amino acids.
• Almost all organic fraction of MSW can be converted biologically to gases
& relatively inert organic & inorganic solids.
• Production of orders & generation of flies are related to put risible nature
of organic material found in MSW.

Bio Degradability of Organic Waste

• Biodegradation can be aerobic or anaerobic.
• Volatile slides contents, determined by ignition at 5500C, are often used as
a measure of degradability of organic fraction of MSW.
• Use of VS in describing the biodegradability of organic fraction is
misleading as some constituents are highly volatile but low in
biodegradability.
• Alternatively, lignin content of a waste can be used to estimate the
biodegradable fraction, as:
BF = 0.83 – 0.028 LC
BF = biodegradable fraction expressed on a VS basis
0.83 – 0.028 = Empirical Constant
LC = Lignin content of VS, expressed as a % by wt.

Production of Odor
• Develop when SW stored for long periods of time on – site
• More significant in warm climates
• Typically, results from the aerobic decomposition of the organic
components found in MSW.
Breeding of Flies
• In warm climate, it is an important phenomenon.
• Flies develop in less than two weeks.
• Maggot (larval) once develop, difficult to remove, & can develop to flies.

Types of Solid Waste Collection System

The Detail Comparison of Haul Container System and Stationary

Container System

Collection System
• After the generation, the solid waste is picked up according to a
collection system.
• In the last decade several systems are used for the collection of solid
waste.
• A variety of equipment used for the solid waste collection
Types of Collection systems
Collection systems may be classified w.r.t.
• Mode of operation
• The equipment used
• Types of waste
Mode of operation
According to mode of operation, the collection system classified into two
categories viz ;
• Haul Container System (HCS)
• Stationary Container System (SCS)

Haul Container System (HCS)

Definition
These are collection systems in which the CONTAINERS used for the
storage of waste are:
• Hauled to the disposal site
• Emptied and
• Returned to their original location or some other location.
Types of Haul Container System
There are three main types of Haul Container Systems:
• Tilt-frame Container Systems
• Trash-trailer.
• Hoist-Truck

Stationary Container System (SCS)

These are collection systems in which the CONTAINERS used for the storage
of waste are:
• Remain at the point of generation, except for
 • Occasional short trips to the collection vehicle for empty.

Types of Stationary Container System

There are two main types of Stationary Container Systems:
• Systems in which Self loading compactors are used
• Systems in which Manually loading vehicles are used
Typical Data on Vehicles Used for the Collection of Solid Waste
Labor Requirement
• HAUL CONTAINER SYSTEM (HCS)
• Single collector is used
• For safety (in some cases) driver and helper are deployed
• For hazardous waste driver and helper always be deployed

• Stationary Container System (Mechanically Loaded)

• Single collector is used
• For container mounted on roller, driver and helper are brought into
play.
• In congested ,inaccessible locations driver and two helpers are used

• Stationary Container System (Manually Loaded)

• Number of collectors varies from 1 to 3.
• Single collector for curve and alley service generally used.
• Multi person crew is used for backyard carry service.

Comparison of HCS & SCS w.r.t. Merits & Demerits

HCS SCS

Unsightly & unsanitary Unsightly & unsanitary

conditions: Less with use of large conditions: More with use of
container. numerous smaller containers.
Utility of driver: Less as spend more Utility of driver: is greater as to
time in driving. collect several containers

Time: Handling time reduced Time: Accumulative handling time is

more but trip to disposal site time is
saved.

Suitability: Ideally suitable where SW Suitability: Suitable where SW

rate of generation is higher. Suitable for quantity is less and generation points
all types of wastes are more. Suitable for all types of
wastes
except Heavy Industrial Waste & Bulk
Rubbish

Container size: Large Container size: Small

Flexibility: Containers of many Flexibility: The use of smaller

different sizes & shapes are available for containers offer greater flexibility in
all types of SW terms of shape, ease of loading &
special features available.

Utilization of containers: Use of Utilization of containers: can be

large containers often leads to low increased by using small, easier to
volume utilization, unless loading aids load, containers.
(platform, ramps etc.).

Data for Computing Equipment and Labor Requirement

 Collection
Time required Time
to pickup required to
loadedcontain empty
Loading Compaction At-site time
Vehicles er & to contents of
method ratio h/ trip
deposit empty loaded
container container
h /trip h/container
Hauled container system
Hoist truck Mechanical _ 0.067 0.053
Tilt-frame Mechanical _ 0.4 0.127
Trash-trailer Mechanical 2.0-4.0 0.4 0.133
Stationary container system
Compacter Mechanical 2.0-2.5 0.05 0.1
Compacter Manual 2.0-2.5 _ 0.1

SCS Source Separation-multicompartment Wheeled Container

SCS Source Separation-multicompartment Wheeled Container

SCS (Mechanically Loaded Truck)

HCS Tilt-frame Container Loading Mechanism

Solid Waste Systems in Pakistan

Masonry Bin

Open Body Truck

Hoist Container
Hoist Truck

Metal Container

Animal Cart
Transfer Stations
• Alternative to direct haul
• Justified when cost to transport waste from generation point to disposal
site is greater than cost to transport from generation point to transfer
station plus haul to the disposal site

Benefits
• Large trailers replace many collection vehicles
• Get collection vehicles back to work rapidly
• Locate disposal site far from population areas
• Opportunity to inspect waste
• Opportunity to process waste
• Use multiple disposal sites

Need
• Presence of illegal dumps and litter
• Remote disposal sites
• Small capacity collection vehicles
• Low density residential areas

Types
• Direct discharge – waste pushed into open trailers
• Storage pit – tip onto floor, into hoppers to compactor that pushes waste
into vehicle.

Transfer Station Tipping Floor Compactor

Surge Pit

Open Top Transfer Trailers

Compactor System
 Pre

-compactor System

Baler
Intermodal Container System

Problem
Determine the break-even haul time between a direct haul system and a
transfer station operation with the following properties:
•
Direct haul system uses a 10 yd3 container
•
Direct haul cost = $20/hr
•
The transfer trailer has a capacity of 100 yd3
•
Tractor- trailer haul cost = $40/hr

TS Facility Costs
• Function of amortized capital cost, capacity, operating costs
•
Cost $3,750,000 (for building, equipment, tractor/trailer)
•
Capacity of 300,000 yd3 per year
•
CRF is 0.08 (capital recovery factor is a function of interest rate and
years to pay off – converts capital cost to $/yr), yr-1
•
TS operating cost is $225,000/yr
• Normalize all costs by capacity

Step 1a: Calculate Capital Cost Elements (TS)

TS total cost/yd3 = annual capital cost plus annual op cost

Amortize Capital cost = $3,750,000 x 0.08 = $300,000/yr

Total annual costs ($300,000 + $225,000) yr-1 = $525,000/yr
Cost/yd3 ($525000/yr)/300,000 yd3/yr = $1.75/yd3

Step 1b: Calculate Hauling Operating Cost

TS trailer haul operating cost = $40/hr/100 yd3 = $0.40/hr-yd3
Direct haul operating cost = $20/hr/10 yd3 = $2.00/ hr-yd3
 Direct Haul Operating Cost ($2.00/
yd3-hr)

TS Operating Cost ($0.40/ yd3-hr)

$/yd3

$1.75/
yd3

Hours
1.1 hours

Equate Direct Haul Costs to Transfer Station Costs to Calculate the Break Even
Haul Time (x)

$2.00/hr-yd3 x = $1.75/yd3 + $0.40/ hr-yd3 x

x = 1.1 hours

Composting

Introduction
Composting is an anaerobic process in which the micro-organisms, in an
oxygen environment, decompose the organic food waste as a result minerals and
humus are obtained as a final product.
• Key Inorganic Nutrients
• nitrogen
• phosphorus
• sulphur
• potassium
• magnesium
• calcium
• sodium

Process Requirements
• Key Inorganic Nutrients
• Temperature
• Moisture content
• Oxygen
• C/N ratio
 • Microbes
• pH
• Biochemical composition and texture

Temperature
• Psychrophilic 15 o to 20o C
• Mesophilic 25 to 35o C
o

• Thermophilic 50 o to 60o C
Moisture content
• Compost should be kept moist, but not soggy
• At the ideal moisture level, 50-60%
Oxygen
• Optimum oxygen levels are 15 to 20 per cent At the ideal
moisture level, 50-60%
• Composting inhibits at oxygen less than 10 per cent (by volume).
• Turning and ventilating compost are meant to keep the oxygen
content at a sufficient level.

C/N Ratio:
• Nitrogen is required for cell synthesis.
• Carbon is used as energy source
• Optimum C/N ratio is 30
• Composting operates down to C/N Ratios of 20
• Materials that are a good source of nitrogen are called "Greens”
• Materials that are high in carbon are called "Browns"

Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio of some Waste Material

Material % nitrogen (dry) C/N Ratio
Fish Scrap 6.5-10 -
Farm Yard Manure 2.15 14-1
Kitchen waste 2.0 25-1
Seaweed 1.92 19-1
Wheat Straw 0.32 128-1
Rotted Sawdust 0.25 200-1
Raw Sawdust 0.11 510-1
Food Waste 2.0-3.0 15-1
Total Refuse 0.5-1.4 30/80-1

Microbes:
• Psychrophiles - the low temperature bacteria
• Mesophiles - the medium temperature bacteria
• Thermophiles - the high temperature bacteria
 pH
• optimum pH range is 6 to 8
Biochemical composition and texture:
• composition of waste influence the process rate
• Reducing the particle of the raw material will in crease the rate of
composting.

Composting systems
• Traditional Wind-row.
• Aerated static pile
• In-Vessel Composting

Traditional Wind-row.
• 1~2 meter high.
• Takes about 3 months
Aerated Static Pile:
• 1~2 meter high, 3~ 4 meters wide and about 20 meter long laid on
floor of ventilation pipe system
• Covered with stabilized compost
• Takes about 4~6 weeks.

In-Vessel composting
Environmental Benefits
• Compost enriches soils
• Compost helps cleanup contaminated soil
• Compost helps prevent pollution
• Using compost offers economic benefits

Problem with Composting

• Heavy Metals
• Mercury
• Cadmium
• Copper
• Zinc

Worm Composting
Worm composting is using worms to recycle food scraps and other organic
material into a valuable soil amendment called vermicompost, or worm compost.
Worms eat food scraps, which become compost as they pass through the worm's
body. Compost exits the worm through it’s' tail end. This compost can then be
used to grow plants. To understand why vermicompost is good for plants,
remember that the worms are eating nutrient-rich fruit and vegetable scraps, and
turning them into nutrient-rich compost.

Materials to be Used or Avoided in a Worm Composting Bin.

 Worms have been hard at work breaking down organic materials and
returning nutrients to the soil. Though worms can eat any organic
material, certain foods are more palatable for composting purposes.
 Raw fruits and vegetable scraps are recommended mostly for worm
composting at small scales. Stay away from meats, oils and dairy products,
 which are more complex materials than fruits and vegetables. Thus, they
take longer to break down and can attract pests. Cooked foods are often
oily or buttery, which can also attract pests.

Setting up a Worm Bin

 Setting up a worm bin is easy. All you need is a box, moist newspaper
strips, and worms. To figure out how to set up a worm bin, first consider
what worms need to live. If the bin provides what worms need, then it will
be successful. Worms need moisture, air, food, darkness, and warm (but
not hot) temperatures. Bedding made of newspaper strips or leaves, will
hold moisture and contain air spaces essential to worms.
 Use red worms or red wigglers in the worm bin. The scientific name for the
two commonly used red worms is Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus.

Harvesting
 Harvesting means removing the finished compost from the bin.
 In a favorable environment worms will work tirelessly to eat the "garbage"
and produce compost. As time progresses, bedding will reduce and
compost will increase in the bin. After 3-5 months, when bin is filled with
compost (and very little bedding), it is time to harvest the bin.
 To prepare for harvesting, do not add new food to the bin for two weeks.
Then remove compost from the bin by using appropriate methods of
harvesting.

Using Worm Compost

 Compost can be used immediately after harvesting or it can be saved for
the gardening/farming season. The compost can be directly mixed with
soil or garden soil as a soil amendment, which helps make nutrients
available to plants. Or, the compost can be used as a top dressing fro the
fields or plant pots.
 “Compost Tea” can also be made with compost by Simply adding 1-2“of
compost or in suitable proportions to water. Allow compost and water to
"steep" for a day, mixing occasionally. Then water plants/farms. The
resulting "tea" helps make nutrients already in the soil available to plants.

A Step By Step Photo Guide to Home worm Composting:

 Home worm bin with lid, Strip up the newspaper for
bottom tray and air vent bedding and spread it.

Bedding in Bin. Add dry leaves and fluffs up the mixture

Add a handful of sand and soil. Add waters the mix

500 red wriggler worms are Raw veggies and fruit, coffee
placed on top. grounds, tea bags and egg shells go in.
They crawl to the bottom.

Open a hole in the bedding in The fork marks the corner. Feed a d
one corner and deposit food. different corner every week.

Finished compost can be To harvest, put compost in piles.

expected in 3-4 month Under light. Worms move center
Remove worms from compost. Place worms in fresh bedding and
start again.

Design of Sanitary Landfill Site

Site Preparations
The following steps should be taken immediately for the detail design of the
proposed site and are essential to develop and start the actual treatment process.
• Topographic survey of the site.
• Detail leveling of the site.
• Contour plan.
• Cutting of the 150mm top soil of the whole area and saving it for earth
cover over the solid waste.
• Preparing site for proper drainage of rain water by cutting of high level
ground and giving it a down slope (1:400) soil obtained from this cutting is
used in providing embankment for fencing of the area.
• Construction of all weather roads of 5m width, to facilitate easy approach
of trucks to all points at site.
• Providing infrastructure with all accessories, a watchman hut with
attached toilet, Weight Bridge, wash trough (3 x 5 x 10m) and a vehicular
as well as a pedestrian entrance gate.
• Proper fencing on the top of the embankment towards the exterior side.

Parameters Adopted for Design

• All the calculations will be based on the population of the city and the
same can be projected for the land requirements till the end of the design
period.
• It is considered that 30% of the waste generated is land filled, 60% is
composted, while the remaining 10% is recycled.
• Waste will be compacted in four layers, one below the ground level and
three above the ground level. Depth of each later will be 2m.
• Excavated soil will be used as cover material.
• Cover will be 0.15m for intermediate layers while final layer will be
covered by 0.6m (2ft) of cover material.
• Excavation for one year will be made in advance
• A bond will be provided in each layer after one year.
• Waste will be compacted to density of 1000 to 1300 Kg/m 3.
• Embankments will be provided at the periphery, high enough to enclose
the site with the fencing mounted on top.
• One standard size of cell will be adopted considering the width of the
compactor and the tractor blade.
Problems
Problem
The Town of Waytogo, population 56,789, has decided to burn its as
collected MSW which amounts to about 6 lb/capita.day. Find how many barrels
of oil they save on a daily basis. Energy of as collected MSW is 4600 Btu/lb.
1bbl oil = 5.8x106BTU
Solution
Energy in the MSW = 4600 Btu/lb x 56,789 cap x 6 lb/capita.day
Energy in the MSW = 1.57 x 109 Btu
Oil Barrel saved = 1.57 x 109 Btu / 5.8x106BTU
Oil Barrel saved = 270 barrels/day

Problem (Home separation and curbside collection of recyclables )

A community is purchasing specialized vehicles for the curbside collection of
source-separated wastes. Three recycling containers are to be provided to each
residence and residents will be asked to separate newspapers and cardboard,
plastics and glass, and aluminum and tin c ans. the homeowner is to place the
separate materials in the appropriate containers and then move the recycling
containers to curbside once per week for collection by special recycling vehicles.
Estimate the relative volumetric capacity required for each material in recycling
collection vehicles. Assume 80% of the recyclable material will be separated and
that newsprint represents 20% of the total paper waste.
The number of homes that will participate in the separation program is estimated
to be 60%. if the separated wastes are to b e collected from a subdivision of 1200
homes, determine the number of trips that will be required if the size of the
collection vehicle is 15 cubic yard. Assume 3.5 residents per home.

Total solid waste Specific weight

Components
lbs lbd/ft3
Food Waste 8.0 18.0
Paper 35.8 5.6
Cardboard 6.4 3.1
Plastics 6.9 4.1
Textiles 1.8 4.1
Rubber 0.4 8.1
Leather 0.4 10.0
Yard Waste 17.3 6.3
Wood 1.8 14.8
Glass 9.1 12.2
Tin cans 5.8 5.6
Aluminum 0.6 10.0
Other metals 3.0 20.0
Dirt, Ash, etc 2.7 30.0
Total 100.00
Solution
 First of all rearrange the table to calculate the relevant volume of recycled
material. By the given statement that 80% recycled material will be recovered but
in the case of news prints the %age given is 20 % of that 80% recovered material.
Thus we use 80% in all other cases but we will take 20% of that 80% in the case
of newsprints.
•
Now calculate the relative volume of the recycled materials:
•
Newspaper + cardboard = 1.02 + 1.65 = 2.67 ft3
•
Plastics + glass = 1.34 + 0.60 = 1.94 ft3
•
Aluminum + tin cans = 0.82 + 0.05 = 0.87 ft3
Now we will calculate the volume of required components in 15 yd3 vehicle.
Volume of newspapers + cardboard = (2.67/5.48) x 15
= 7.3 yd3
Volume of Plastics + glass = (1.94/5.48) x 15
= 5.3 yd3
Volume of Aluminum + tin cans = (0.87/5.48) x 15
= 2.4 yd3

Waste
Total solid
Specific weight materials Volume
Components waste
lbs/ft3 separated ft3
lbs
Lbs
Food Waste 8.0 18.0
35.8 5.6 =35.8x0.8x0.2 1.02
Paper = 5.7
Cardboard 6.4 3.1 5.1 1.65
Plastics 6.9 4.1 5.5 1.34
Textiles 1.8 4.1
Rubber 0.4 8.1
Leather 0.4 10.0
Yard Waste 17.3 6.3
Wood 1.8 14.8
Glass 9.1 12.2 7.3 0.60
Tin cans 5.8 5.6 4.6 0.82
Aluminum 0.6 10.0 0.5 0.05
Other metals 3.0 20.0
Dirt, Ash, etc 2.7 30.0
Total 100.00 5.48

Numbers of trip required to collect separate waste

Assume that waste generation= 3.82 lbs/capita
Solid waste production per home= 3.5 persons x 7 day/week x 3.82 lbs/capita.day
= 93.6 lbs/week

Separated quantity of separated newspapers and cardboards

Quantity of newspapers in total production (home) = (5.7/100) x 93.6
= 5.3 lbs/week
Quantity of cardboard in total production (home) = (5.1/100) x 93.6
= 4.8 lbs/week

Weekly volume of separated newspapers and cardboard

Separated newspapers = (5.3 lbs/week)/ (5.6 lb/ft3)
= 0.946 ft3/week
Separated cardboards = (4.8 lbs/week)/ (3.1 lb/ft3)
= 1.54 ft3/week

Number of trips per week

= [{(0.946 + 1.54) ft3/week .home} x 1200 homes x 0.6]/ (27 x 7.3)
= 9.081
= say 9 trips/week
LECTURE # 16

Forests

Introduction
• About 30% of the Earth’s land surfaces (excluding Antarctica) are covered
with forest and woodland.
• This portion has changed considerably over the centuries, generally
decreasing as cultivated land has expanded.
• The original forest cover of the Earth approached 50% of land area.

Forests as Fiber Resources

• Principles of Sustainable Forestry
• Forest Management
• Forest Products Technology

Forest Harvest Techniques

• Clear-cutting
• Selective Cutting
• Shelter-wood Cutting
• Chipping

Shelter-wood Cutting
• Shelter-wood cutting is a two-phase timber-harvesting technique in which
not all trees are taken in the first phase so that some trees may provide
shelter for young seedlings; when these are established, the remaining
older trees are cut.
• Shelter-wood cutting is an efficient technique in small plots with relatively
homogenous tree species.
• It is costly in terms of labor inputs for larger acreages and so is not practiced
widely on large tracts of commercial forestlands.

Selective Cutting
• Selective cutting is a timber-harvesting technique in which only trees of
specified size or species are taken, leaving other trees.\
• Selective cutting is used primarily in hardwood forests.
• When used in mixed-species forests, selective cutting leads to a loss of
diversity.
• Selective cutting is costly and appropriate only when the value of the
harvested trees is high relative to those left uncut.

Clear-cutting
• Clear-cutting is a forest harvest technique in which all trees in a particular
area are cut, regardless of species or size.
• Clear-cutting is the most widely used method of harvesting and also the
most controversial.
 • About two-thirds of US timber production is harvested this way.
• Is appropriate when the tree is relatively uniform in species and age or when
it provides the most desirable form of regeneration.
• It does remove the entire forest canopy and leads to soil erosion and wildlife
habitat destruction.
• It also leaves a more disrupted and scarred landscape than other harvesting
techniques.
• It produces much more timber per unit of acre harvested than selective
cutting or shelter-wood cutting.

Biomass harvesting
• Biomass harvesting is a forest harvest technique in which whole trees are
chipped and used as fuel or to make pulp.
• Chips are easier to handle in large quantities than logs and are easy for
quick transportation.
• Loggers cut selectively or consume all standing timber, depending on the
requirement of the job.
• The method has great economic appeal for harvesting the vast majority of
US forestlands.
• It also is used in the developing world.

Silviculture
• Silviculture is intensive management of forest lands for increased
production of trees.
• Intensive silviculture on productive lands produces much larger yields of
timber than occur in natural forests.
• Intensive silviculture as a forest management strategy results from a
shortage of timber available for harvest

Use of Wood
• In most of the world, harvested wood generally is used for fuel.
• In the industrialized world today, most wood is used for industrial purpose.

Non-fiber Uses of Forest Resources

• Habitat
• Water Resources
• Recreation
• Carbon Storage
• The Role of Fire

Water Resources
• Forest vegetation has two contrasting impacts on that runoff: it protects the
quality of the water but decreases its quantity.
• In most cases, maintaining good water quality is a prime concern and thus
takes precedence.
• When a forest is harvested, the soils is disturbed, increasing the amount of
overland flow and erosion, with negative impacts on water quality.
 • In addition to regulating overland flow and erosion, forests play a critical
role in evaportranspiration.
• When a large forest region is deforested, the decrease in evaportranspiration
actually reduces the amount of water vapor in the air and thus may reduce
precipitation

Carbon Storage
• Much of the concern about tropical deforestation focused on its impacts on
the global carbon cycle.
• We should not forget that fossil fuel combustion discharges vastly more
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than does deforestation.

The role of Fire

• In the past, fire was believed to be harmful to forest, but today forest fires
are recognized as a natural and important part of most forest ecosystems.

Fires also have beneficial effects.

• They allow the release of nutrients stored in dead biomass, which stimulates
growth after fire.
• They also remove old stands of timber that are particularly susceptible to
insect or disease infestation, thus inhibiting the spread of pests.
• Removing the forest promotes rapid growth of early succession species.
• Most important, frequent fires allow accumulated fuel to burn off relatively
harmlessly, preventing the severe fires that occur in areas of high-fuel
buildup.

Types of Forest Fires

There are three basic kinds of forest fires.

• Ground fires are fires that burn within the organic matter and litter of the
soil. They smolder slowly and have little effect on trees.
• Surface fires burn on the ground surface, consuming litter as well as the
herbaceous and shrubby vegetation of the forest floor. They burn faster
than ground fires and clear all the low vegetation of the forest, but they
have little effect on large trees.
• Crown fires burn treetops as well as low vegetation, usually killing all or
almost all above-ground vegetation.

These fires are the most destructive to timber, wildlife, and the soil.

Concerns about the Amazon Deforestation

• Loss of Biodiversity: the tropical rainforests constitute only about 7% of
the world’s area yet contain more than half of the world’s species.
• Emissions of Carbon dioxide: first, they store large volumes of carbon
in living biomass. Second, they have very high rates of productivity and
thus have an enormous capacity to absorb carbon from the atmosphere.
 • Disruption of Regional Hydrologic Cycle: if the forests were removed,
the amount of evapotranspiration would decrease. This would increase the
runoff, causing more erosion; it would decrease atmospheric humidity and
thus precipitation in the interior.
• Destruction of Indigenous Cultures: the Amazon is home to numerous
groups of people, deforestation represent a significant disruption of
established life-styles and a potential loss of the cultural knowledge of
indigenous peoples.

The Siberian Forest

The Siberian forest is about 22% of the total forest area of the world and
about 72% of the boreal or northern coniferous biome.

Biodiversity and Habitat

Introduction
• Biological diversity refers to both the genetic variability among
individuals of a species and the abundance of individuals within a species.
• The number of different species, the abundance of individuals in that
species, and the number of species present at a particular time within a
specific geographic area are also indicators of biological diversity.
• The most ecologically diverse environments are the tropical forests, where
there is a much greater abundance of plant and animal species than in any
other single biome.

Loss of Biodiversity has several consequences

• Ecosystems are undermined.
• The possibility of using as yet untried species for food, fuel, fiber, or
medicine disappears.
• Human appreciation and understanding of nature also are diminished.

Ecological Interaction
• The stability of ecosystems, in terms of their ability to maintain populations
of organism, is often enhanced by the diversity of organisms they contain.
• Diversity does not always lead to stability.

Potential Resources
• Nature contains many things that we might use at some time in the future.
• Food and medicine are the most often-cited potential uses of wild plants and
animals.
The Inherent Value of Species
• Perhaps the most compelling reason for concerned about loss of biodiversity
is the belief that we, as humans, have an obligation to respect the rights of
other species to exist.
• Some neo-Darwinian view of extinctions cause by humans is no different
from mass extinctions of the past such as the disappearance of the
dinosaurs. This view maintains that species should be allowed to die
because they have been unable to compete successfully with humans and
other species.
• In the US, we make a distinction between endangered species and
threatened species.
• Endangered species are defined as those in danger of becoming extinct
throughout all or a significant part of their natural ranges.
• Threatened species are those species likely to become endangered in the
near future.
• Even though a species may not be extinct, zoologists worry about the
consequences of inbreeding among the relatively few members of a small
population.

Harvesting old-growth timber, such as this in the Hoh forest of

Washington, threatens species such as the spotted owl and the
marbled murrelet. Intense controversy continues in both the US and
Canada over the ecological impacts of logging old-growth forests in
the Pacific Northwest.
Causes of Biodiversity Loss
• Major Causes
• Habitat Modification
• Species Introductions
• Hunting
• Local or Regional Causes
• Pollution
• Diseases and parasites
• Consumption and trade
• Global warming

Conservation of Biodiversity
• Species Preservation
• Habitat Conservation
• The Endangered Species Act
• The Convention on Biological Diversity

Species Protection
The most significant program aimed at restricting hunting and trade in
endangered species is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Habitat Conservation
• The amount of land under some form of protection has grown dramatically
in recent years and today accounts for about 6% of the world’s land area.
• A key part of this protection is the Biosphere Reserve Program of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO).
• To qualify as a biosphere reserve, and area must have outstanding,
unusual, and complete ecosystems, with accompanying harmonious
traditional human land uses.
• A reserve consists of a largely undisturbed core area surrounded by one or
more buffer zones of human occupancy.

The Endangered Species Act

• The most comprehensive piece of legislation regulating protection of all
species of flora and fauna is the Endangered Species Act (ESA), passed in
1973.
• The controversy started immediately after passage of the act, when a small
fish was identified to be threatened by completion of the Tellico Dam in
Tennessee.
LECTURE # 17

Environmental Behaviors, awareness and Responses

Solid Waste Management

State Public Health Council in 1962 enacted a three page regulation which
states that refuse disposal operations be conducted as sanitary landfills and
municipal incinerators be operated so as to meet air pollution standards.

Waste to Energy Double Lined Landfill

Progress of Recycling in New York State 1989 - 1999

20
17.2

15
12.5 12.6
11.1 10.7
10 8.5
7.2
5.7
4.8
5 4.3
3

0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
12% 17 % 19% 23% 28% 32% 39% 3 8% 42% 42% 47%
% of the Solid Waste Stream Re covered

Recycling of Solid Waste

Management of Bio-solids; Waste tires & Medical Waste

Insulation of Slurry Wall
Tank Removal
What is WASA?
• Independent Authority formed in 1996
• Formerly Water and Sewer Utility Administration (WASUA) under Dept.
of Public Utilities
• Services Provided
• Water Distribution
• Wastewater Collection and Treatment
• Storm Water Collection and Conveyance
• Serves
• District
• Parts of Maryland & Virginia

Types of Sewer Systems are in D.C

Combined Sewer System Separate Sewer System

1 pipe in the street 2 pipes in street

Handles both runoff from 1 pipe handles runoff from storms,

storms and wastewater other handles wastewater

Mostly in older sections In newer sections

Stopped building

Stopped building combined Modern practice

sewer early 1900’s

Typical of older cities Typical of newer cities

(Boston, NY, Chicago, etc.) (Phoenix, Las Vegas, etc.)

What are Solids and Floatable (Trash)?

• Trash or debris that can be washed into receiving waters during storms
• Litter (cans, candy wrappers, napkins, etc)
• Items in wastewater (sanitary products, etc other)
How does Trash Reach Rivers in Separate Sewer System?

Trash on Streets Is washed into sewers

Typically, no treatment is provided for

storm water
If catch basins don’t catch trash, it
reaches waterways

Discharges to River

Catch Basin Cleaning

Anacostia River Floatable Debris Removal Program

Continuing Program
Removes average of 70
tons/month
Works cooperatively with U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers

WASA Skimmer Boat

Sulfur Cycle
Proteins and waste products Microbial
Microbial decomposition
decomposition
Amino acids

Amino acids (–SH) Microbial dissimilation

H2S

H2S Thiobacillus
SO42– (for energy)

–
SO42 Microbial & plant assimilation
Amino acids

Freshwater Donation
Activated Sludge
Sludge Produced by Sewage Treatment Plants
Anaerobic Sludge Digester

CO2 + 4 H2 ® CH4 + 2 H2O

CH3COOH ® CH4 + CO2

Figure 27.23

Longitudinal Profile of a Stream

Drainage Divide
Tributaries

Gradient decreases downstream

Factors that increase downstream:
Velocity
Discharge Distributaries
Trunk Stream Channel size And Delta
Local Change in Base Level Affects River Profiles

Suspended load - confluence Green & Colorado Rivers in

Canyonlands, Utah
Formation of Natural Levees by Flooding

Flood over banks into wider area, lower velocity, sand drops. (Muddy water
over floodplain)

Erosion and Deposition along a Meandering Stream

Meanders get more extreme with time

 Channel moves in direction of cutbank
Pointbar advances as crossbed drapes

Meandering
Stream

OxBow

Floodplain

Point Bar Sequence

Fines of Floodplain

Cross beds of Bar

Gravel of bed

Erosion
 Floodplain Mud cracks indicates drying events.
Geologists can determine if rocks overturned.

Mud Cracks: clay layer shrinks during drying, cracks fill with younger sediment
in next flood
Yellowstone Geyser erupting

Chlorination Mechanics

Chemical feed pump (Diaphragm Pump)

 Gas chlorination

Sodium Hypochlorite Injection System

Sodium Hypochlorite Injection System

Calcium Hypochlorite Tablet Erosion Feed System

 The Drinking Water Cycle

Source Homes or Businesses

(aquifer, lake,
etc.)

Water
System

Distribution
System
Sewer
Septic
Lines
System

Wastewater Plant Infiltration

Discharge

Sources of Contamination

•
•
•
•
History of Drinking Water Regulation

First-known EPA
treatment established
Regulation as Early Federal
local health Early State involvement
issue regulations
1974-
Early1800’s 1996
Mid-1900s
300 BC Early 1970
1900s

Early recognition of Evolving SDWA and

water-disease link Federal amendments
involvement enacted

Drinking Water Concerns: Early Evidence

Hippocrates: boil and Cholera tied to

strain water contamination of a
well

1846 ~1900
~1900
~300 BC 1854

Chlorination to Typhoid tied to

prevent “child bed contaminated water
fever”

Early 1900s: Regulating a Local Health Issue

State and county
programs emerged

Large-scale
chlorination

1906

Early 1908
1900s
Filtration in
Philadelphia

Early Treatment Techniques

• Rapid sand filtration
• Smaller filter beds with more rapid filtration rate, some chemical
coagulation
• Relies on destabilization and attachment for removal
Early Monitoring Techniques
• Water quality monitoring
• Total coliform monitoring
• Jackson Candle turbidity measurement

Early State Regulation Example: Montana

 Statute weakened
Montana public
water supply Statute revised to
statute original form

1907 1911 1915

Early Federal Involvement with Drinking Water

Rivers and Harbors

Act PHS “common cup” PHS standards for
standards interstate carriers

1899 1912 1914

State Multiple Barrier Approach

• Multiple barrier approach
• Source selection and protection
• Treatment
• Distribution
• Plans and specifications for water systems
• Sanitary surveys, training and certification

Expanded Industrial Activity Increases Health Concerns

• Industrialization
• Discharges of metals and chemicals
• Agriculture
• Pesticide and fertilizer use
• Advent of atomic age
• Concerns about radionuclide

Evolving Federal Involvement

 • Public Health Service (1798)
• Ground water protection and chemical pollution
• Studies and funding
• Indian Health Service (1921)
• Water and wastewater facilities
• Federal statutes (no enforcement authority)
• Water Pollution Control Act of 1948
• Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956
• Water Quality Act of 1965

EPA Established
• Drinking water program moved from Public Health Service to EPA
• First inventory of community water systems conducted
• EPA was established in December 2, 1970

Hierarchy of Federal Governance

 STATUTES
Congress and President
SDWA, CWA

EXECUTIVE
ORDERS REGULATIONS
President EPA and Public
LCR, SWTR, CCR

POLICY, GUIDANCE and GUIDELINES

EPA
Op Cert, Capacity Development, DWSRF

Transmissi
on
 Elevated
Water Storage
Treatment Storage

Booster
Station