Canadian Psychology © 2010 Canadian Psychological Association

2010, Vol. 51, No. 2, 89 –95 0708-5591/10/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0018134

Community Psychology Training in Canada in the New Millennium

Tim Aubry, John Sylvestre, and John Ecker

University of Ottawa

Ten years ago, Walsh-Bowers (1998) described in Canadian Psychology the marginalized status of
community psychology in Canada. The purpose of this research was to investigate the current status of
community psychology training in Canadian universities. The online calendars for undergraduate and
graduate programs in departments of psychology in Canadian universities were reviewed for course
offerings in community psychology. Subsequently, an e-mail survey of program directors was conducted
to confirm and extend the findings of the online search. Results were compared with those of similar
previous surveys conducted in 1980 –1981 (Nelson & Tefft, 1982) and 1992–1994 (Walsh-Bowers,
1998). Findings show a small amount of growth in community psychology training at the undergraduate
level since the last survey in 1992–1994, with more courses available in more Canadian psychology
departments. There are also marginally more graduate courses in community psychology offered now
than 15 years ago, but these are located in fewer psychology departments. Findings are discussed in the
context of contemporary professional psychology and future directions for growing community psychology.

Keywords: Canadian psychology, community psychology, training

Community psychology occupies a rather unique place in the
field of psychology. It adopts many of the methods, practises, and
concerns of other areas of psychology, such as clinical and social
psychology, and seeks greater institutional recognition and secu-
rity within the psychology family. Nonetheless, community psy-
chology was born of disaffection with mainstream experimental
and clinical psychology, and while developing its own theory and
research base, it has also advanced an explicit critique of main-
stream psychology. Always marginal within the field of psychol-
ogy, there has been ongoing concern for its ability to gain a secure
foothold in the psychological establishment, particularly in terms
of its ability to grow through the education and training of future
generations of scholars and practitioners.
In the two previous decades, national surveys were conducted
describing the status of education and training in Canadian uni-
versities (Nelson & Tefft, 1982; Walsh-Bowers, 1998). This article
updates these surveys by examining the current status of education
and training of community psychology in Canada. We begin by
first defining community psychology and providing a brief over-
view of its history in Canada. Then, we examine community
psychology’s status in the context of Canadian psychology. Fol-
lowing a presentation of findings from our survey, we discuss their
implications for further strengthening training in community psy-
chology in Canada.
The article reflects multiple perspectives that include those of a
midcareer academic (Aubry) trained in clinical and community
psychology, an early career academic (Sylvestre) trained in applied
social and community psychology, and a doctoral student (Ecker)
specialising in community mental health and community psychol-
ogy. All of us share an interest in developing training in commu-
nity psychology in our home department and elsewhere across
Canada.
Definition of Community Psychology
Although numerous definitions of community psychology exist,
most touch on one or more of these three themes: values, research,
and action or intervention (Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2005). Nelson
and Prilleltensky (2005) have included these themes in their def-
inition of community psychology as
the subdiscipline of psychology that is concerned with understanding
people in the context of their communities, the prevention of problems
of living, the celebration of human diversity, and the pursuit of social
justice through social action. (p. 22)

In terms of values, community psychology involves research

Tim Aubry, John Sylvestre, and John Ecker, School of Psychology and
Centre for Research on Educational and Community Services, University
of Ottawa.
The findings in the article were presented at the June 2009 Biennial
Conference of the Society for Community Research and Action. We are
grateful to Lisa Peeke and Sarah Birnie for their research assistance with
the collection of the data. We thank Geoff Nelson and two anonymous
reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier version of the article.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tim
Aubry, Centre for Research on Educational and Community Services,
University of Ottawa, 34 Stewart Street, Ottawa, Ontario, K1C 3A9.
E-mail: taubry@uottawa.ca
and intervention that are focused on improving the living condi-
tions of marginalized people. In this vein, Nelson and Prilleltensky
(2005) have advocated an explicit focus on community psychology
values in the pursuit of liberation by addressing oppression and
promoting well-being. In terms of research, community psychol-
ogy distinguishes itself from other subdisciplines within psychol-
ogy by focusing beyond the level of the individual, namely at the
programmatic, organisational, community, or societal levels.
Community psychology is concerned with an understanding of
the relationships among people, groups, communities, social con-
texts, and social institutions. A primary characteristic of commu-

89
90 AUBRY, SYLVESTRE, AND ECKER
nity psychology is the adoption of an ecological analysis of dis-
ability, dysfunction, and disadvantage in terms of person–
environment fit, rather than focusing narrowly on individual-level
deficits. Traditionally, community psychologists have been prin-
cipally concerned with understanding how these relationships lead
to challenges in living and the design and evaluation of interven-
tions to alleviate these problems. Walsh-Bowers (1998) identifies
active collaboration with citizens in the context of participatory
research as a distinguishing feature of community psychology.
Brief History of Community Psychology in Canada
The formal roots of community psychology are traced to the
Swampscott Conference held May 4 – 8, 1965, in Boston (Rickel,
1987). It has been noted, however, that the roots of community
psychology can be traced further back in Canada (Nelson, Lavoie,
& Mitchell, 2007; Walsh-Bowers, 1998). Nelson and his col-
leagues (2007) pointed to a nascent community psychology dating
back to the focus on human development and mental health in the
Psychology Department at the University of Toronto, under the
direction of Chair Edward A. Bott. This focus persisted until after
World War II, when the focus began to shift toward cognitive
psychology (see also Walsh-Bowers, 1998).
Following from Swampscott, community psychology began to
more clearly and widely emerge in Canada. The 1970s saw the
launch of a master’s program in community psychology at Wilfrid
Laurier University, doctoral-level training in clinical– community
psychology at the University of British Columbia, and the first
PhD program in community psychology in Canada at the Univer-
sité de Québéc à Montréal (UQAM; Nelson et al., 2007). The
1980s witnessed increased growth in the presence of community
psychology in Canada with the launching of the interdisciplinary
journal the Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, the
formation of a community psychology section of the Canadian
Psychological Association (CPA), and the increased presence of
community psychology in undergraduate and graduate programs in
a number of Canadian universities (Nelson et al., 2007; Nelson &
Tefft, 1982; Walsh-Bowers, 1998).
In a historical analysis of the evolution of community psychol-
ogy in Canada based on interviews with prominent Canadian and
American community psychologists, Walsh-Bowers (1988) noted
a lack of cooperation between francophone and anglophone com-
munity psychologists and the dominating effect of U.S. commu-
nity psychology on the Canadian subdiscipline. Despite these
challenges, Walsh-Bowers noted in his analysis a number of pos-
itive developments for community psychology, including the com-
munity section of CPA being one of the largest and the demand for
and growth of graduate training in community psychology.
The past two decades have seen some entrenchment of graduate
education, with freestanding PhD programs in community psy-
chology now established at Wilfrid Laurier University, Université
Laval, and UQAM. However, the presence of community psychol-
ogy in other Canadian universities appears to be tenuous, often
linked to the interests of one or two faculty members (Nelson et al.,
2007; Walsh-Bowers, 1998). Nelson et al. (2007) estimated that
the graduate programs in community psychology in Canadian
universities have graduated more than 300 master’s-level students
and more than 70 doctoral-level students.
Current Context of Canadian Psychology
In his 2004 Presidential Address to the Society for Community
Research and Action, the Division of Community Psychology of
the American Psychological Association, Paul Toro (2005) de-
clared that community psychology was in its middle age, noting
that it is in middle age when individuals begin to think about their
long-term legacy. Certainly, a number of commentators have noted
some challenges for academic community psychology. Alcalde
and Walsh-Bowers (1996) have suggested that academic training
in community psychology may not always be in line with its
prevailing values. Walsh-Bowers (1998) pointed to the need to
further develop Canadian networks of support to preserve and
promote a Canadian community psychology identity. Prilleltensky
and Nelson (2009) have raised concerns that community psychol-
ogy has lost its “progressive edge” and has become a part of the
“conservative mainstream” (p. 127) because of an increasing focus
on individualist interventions rather than systems-level change
(see also O’Neill, 2005).
Academic community psychology is witnessing the entry of a
third generation of faculty members. The pioneering community
psychologists are retiring or nearing retirement, as their successors
enter the later years of their careers. At issue is whether this new
third generation of community psychologists, trained by these
older generations, will be able to find institutional opportunities to
conduct research, teach, and train future generations. There are
reasons for hope for community psychology in Canada. It responds
to the concerns of many universities for relevance in local com-
munities as well as to provincial and national policy issues. Com-
munity psychology research is also well in line with continued
emphasis in universities and academic funders for interdisciplinar-
ity, although this trend remains hampered somewhat by prevailing
academic cultures and reward structures (Maton, Perkins, &
Saegert, 2006; Yoshikawa, 2006).
Within psychology, however, community psychology remains
marginal, rarely mentioned in introductory textbooks (Nairn,
Ellard, Scialfa, & Miller, 2003) and excluded from many historical
overviews of the field (Walsh-Bowers, 1998). Community psy-
chology also appears out of step with the continued dominance of
social– cognitive perspectives in social psychology, individual
clinical practise, and the increased interest in neurosciences. There
is still great emphasis on objective science and experimental
research in mainstream psychology in contrast to the emphasis
placed on value-driven research and a diversity of methods in
community psychology (Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2009). Finally,
within mainstream psychology, nonacademic modes of knowledge
dissemination and research funding continue to be discounted.
Objectives of the Current Study
To determine the current status of community psychology train-
ing in Canada, we replicated the methodology of the national
survey conducted by Walsh-Bowers (1996) in 1992–1994. This
study was a follow-up to another national survey of university-
based psychologists offering community psychology training and
review of graduate catalogues of psychology departments located
in Canadian universities conducted in 1980 –1981 (Nelson & Tefft,
1982).
In the first study conducted in the early 1980s, Nelson and Tefft
(1982) identified 20 universities that were offering graduate
 SPECIAL SECTION: COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY TRAINING
courses in community psychology. The courses were offered in the
context of graduate programs in community psychology, clinical
psychology, experimental psychology, and applied social psychol-
ogy. Programs varied from offering one or two courses taught by
one or two faculty to a sequence of courses offered by several
faculty. Almost three quarters (73%) of the universities with
courses in community psychology provided students with field
placement opportunities. Nelson and Tefft concluded that graduate
training in community psychology had grown substantially over a
period of 10 years while noting that it rested on the shoulders in
many universities on one or two faculty members.
In the second study conducted 10 years later in the early 1990s,
Walsh-Bowers (1998) found 19 universities offering graduate
courses in community psychology that included foci on primary
prevention, community mental health, and program evaluation.
Walsh-Bowers noted that seven universities had discontinued of-
fering graduate training in community psychology, whereas six
other universities had added the training since the 1982 survey. He
also reported that 19 universities offered undergraduate courses in
community psychology.
In discussing his findings, Walsh-Bowers (1998) reached a
similar conclusion as Nelson and Tefft (1982), notably that with
the exception of Université Laval, UQAM, and Wilfrid Laurier
University, which had freestanding graduate programs in commu-
nity psychology, training in community psychology relied heavily
on the efforts of single professors in psychology departments. In
this context, he expressed concern about the long-term survival of
community psychology and called for a rapprochement between
community psychology and professional psychology that would be
mutually beneficial in becoming influential in the public mental
health system.
Our survey replicates this previous line of research 15 years
after the most recent survey (Walsh-Bowers, 1998). Similar to
Walsh-Bowers (1998), the survey investigated Canadian universi-
ties offering undergraduate and graduate courses in community
psychology. In addition, like Nelson and Tefft (1982), we also
identified the universities that offered supervised fieldwork in
community psychology.
Method
A two-step process was used for identifying the course offerings
in community psychology in Canadian universities. In the first
step, we reviewed the 2008 –2009 undergraduate and graduate
catalogues of courses in departments of psychology in 62 Cana-
dian universities. Each catalogue was retrieved online at each
university’s Web site and examined to identify offerings in com-
munity psychology courses. The titles and descriptions of courses
were examined for this purpose. We considered a course as a
community psychology course if its title and description fell in the
areas of “community psychology,” “community mental health,”
“community development,” “program evaluation,” “prevention,”
or “community interventions.” In line with the previous surveys,
supervised field placements or community practicums were not
counted as academic courses but were identified and noted.
The second step of the methodology involved sending an elec-
tronic mail survey to the directors of undergraduate and graduate
programs to confirm the information culled from their universities’
Web site. The survey asked directors to confirm that the courses in
91
community psychology that we had identified in their online
course catalogues were offered to students. As well, they were
asked to add any additional community psychology courses that
were available to students but were not listed in their online course
catalogue. Two weeks after the initial contact, follow-up e-mails
were sent to those directors who had not responded. Of the 62
universities contacted, 42 completed the e-mail survey, represent-
ing a response rate of 72%.
Results
Undergraduate Courses
As shown in Table 1, compared with the 1992–1994 survey, our
results indicate growth in the availability of undergraduate com-
munity psychology courses in Canadian universities. In particular,
there are more undergraduate courses being offered, with these
available in more universities. In 1992–1994, there were 33
courses offered in 19 universities, representing 34% of the univer-
sities surveyed. In contrast, we found 38 courses offered in 25
universities, representing 40% of the universities surveyed. Six
universities that offered undergraduate courses in community psy-
chology in 1992–1994 no longer offered them in 2009. However,
12 universities that did not offer undergraduate courses in com-
munity psychology in 1992–1994 now do so in 2009. As presented
in Table 2, more than two thirds (69%) of the undergraduate
courses offered involve an introductory course to community
psychology.
Graduate Courses
A comparison of our 2009 survey results with those of 1992–
1994 showed a mixed picture in terms of the availability of
graduate courses in community psychology in Canadian psychol-
ogy departments. In particular, there were marginally more courses
in community psychology available in 2009 relative to 1992–1994,
but these were located at fewer universities. In particular, 49
graduate courses were offered at 17 universities in 2009 compared
with 45 courses available at 19 universities in 1992–1994. The
number of graduate courses offered in 2009 was lower than the
total of 63 courses reported in the 1980 –1981 survey. The number
of different universities with graduate courses in community psy-
chology was also at its highest in 1980 –1981, with 20 universities
having these courses. Nine universities that offered graduate
courses in community psychology in 1992–1994 no longer offer
these courses in 2009. These losses are offset by seven universities
that did not offer graduate courses in 1992–1994 now offering
them in 2009. Most of the graduate training in community psy-
chology is being offered in universities located in Ontario and
Quebec.
As shown in Table 2, more than one third (36%) of the graduate
courses offered were general courses in community psychology, a
similar proportion (38%) were program evaluation courses, and the
remaining proportion (26%) of courses were specialised courses
(e.g., prevention). Table 3 identifies the universities according to
the combination of community psychology courses and supervised
fieldwork that are offered. The majority of psychology depart-
ments with graduate courses in community psychology (81%)
provided training opportunities in supervised fieldwork, with vir-
92 AUBRY, SYLVESTRE, AND ECKER

Table 1
Number of Undergraduate Community Psychology Courses in 1992–1994 and 2008 –2009 and Graduate Community Psychology
Courses in 1980 –1981, 1992–1994, and 2008 –2009 at Canadian Universities

Undergraduate Graduate

University 1992–1994 2008–2009 1980–1981 1992–1994 2008–2009

University Acadia 1 0 1 2 0
Alberta (Augustana Campus) 0 1 n/a n/a 0
Bishops 0 1 n/a n/a n/a
Brandon 2 0 n/a n/a n/a
British Columbia 0 0 3 0 0
Brock 1 0 0 1 0
Carleton 2 1 0 2 0
Concordia 2 0 0 0 0
Dalhousie 0 0 2 1 0
Guelph 1 1 6 2 2
Kwantlena n/a 2 n/a n/a n/a
Lakehead 0 1 0 0 2
Laval 4 3 5 7 6
Lethbridge 1 0 n/a n/a n/a
Manitoba 2 2 3 0 2
Moncton 0 0 5 2 0
Montréal 1 1 3 2 3
Mt. St. Vincent 1 1 n/a n/a 2
New Brunswick 0 2 2 0 0
Northern British Columbiaa n/a 1 n/a n/a 0
Ottawa 0 1 1 3 3
Prince Edward Island 1 0 n/a n/a n/a
Québec à Abitibi-Temiscamingue 0 1 n/a n/a 2
Québec à Chicoutimi 0 0 n/a n/a 1
Québec à Montréal 5 3 6 3 5
Québec à Outaouais 0 1 n/a n/a 2
Québec à Trois-Rivières 0 0 1 4 3
Regina 1 0 0 1 0
Ryerson 0 1 n/a n/a 0
St. Mary’s (Nova Scotia) 1 2 1 1 0
St. Thomas 0 1 n/a n/a n/a
Saskatchewan 1 2 4 3 1
Sherbrooke 2 1 4 0 0
Simon Fraser 0 0 1 1 0
Vancouver Islanda n/a 2 n/a n/a n/a
Victoria 0 0 0 1 1
Waterloo 0 0 0 1 0
Western 0 0 3 0 0
Wilfrid Laurier 3 3 5 7 10
Windsor 1 2 5 1 3
York 0 1 2 0 1
Total community psychology courses 33 38 63 45 49
Universities with community psychology courses, n 19 25 20 19 17
Universities surveyed, n 56 62 41 42
Universities with community psychology courses, % 34 40 49 41

Note. n/a ⫽ not applicable either because the university did not exist at the time of the survey or it did not have a graduate program in psychology.
a
New universities since 1994.

tually all of these combining it with a general course in community
psychology and a course in program evaluation.
Discussion
Given our survey findings, community psychology appears to
remain a niche specialty in Canadian psychology that has a small
presence in a minority of undergraduate and graduate programs
with the exception of three universities that have graduate pro-
grams, notably Université Laval, UQAM, and Wilfrid Laurier
University. Overall, there has been a small amount of growth in
community psychology training at the undergraduate level since
the last survey in 1992–1994, with more courses available in more
Canadian psychology departments. There are slightly more grad-
uate courses in community psychology offered now than 15 years
ago, but these are located in fewer psychology departments. It is
noteworthy that community psychology training is not available at
Dalhousie University, McGill University, University of Toronto,
and University of British Columbia, the largest and most well-
known Canadian universities.
 SPECIAL SECTION: COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY TRAINING 93

Table 2 community psychology no longer being offered (Nelson et al.,

Number and Percentage of Different Types of Undergraduate 2007).
and Graduate Community Psychology Courses The need for succession planning to occur in psychology de-
partments with clinical and applied social psychology programs is
Type of course Undergraduate n (%) Graduate n (%) critical for community psychology to survive in Canada. This is
Community psychology 27 (71) 18 (37) particularly important as the first generation of community psy-
Program evaluation 5 (13) 19 (39) chologists in Canada retire or are on the verge of retiring. Not-
Other coursesa 6 (16) 12 (25) withstanding that there are many job opportunities for PhD-level
Total 38 49 community psychologists in government, nongovernmental or-
a ganisations, and the private sector, it will be important that some
Other courses include research methods in community psychology, pre-
vention, and social intervention courses. of the graduates from the doctoral programs at Wilfrid Laurier
University, UQAM, and Université Laval take up academic posi-
tions in Canadian psychology departments. However, given the
The increased presence of community psychology courses at the traditional experimental psychology practised in Canadian univer-
undergraduate level is an important development as it exposes sity departments, there has been a dearth of academic job oppor-
students to the area at an early stage of their academic career and tunities for graduates of community psychology programs; more-
can be expected to orient some of them toward pursuing graduate over, clinical psychology programs recruit graduates who can
studies in community psychology. Despite this growth, only 40% qualify for registration with provincial regulatory bodies, which
of Canadian psychology departments offer courses in the area. typically require a doctorate or substantial training in clinical
Moreover, “community psychology” is not a core concept covered psychology.
in introductory psychology courses (Nairn et al., 2003). Our ex- The development of more doctoral-level programs in commu-
perience as instructors of upper undergraduate and graduate nity psychology would help grow this area of psychology so that
courses is that a large number of students have no prior familiarity undergraduate and graduate courses are offered in more than 40%
with community psychology. Ultimately, an increased presence in of Canadian universities. The support of provincial governments in
undergraduate programs in psychology in Canadian universities is expanding graduate studies at Canadian universities such as was
still needed for it to be visible and considered part of core subject done recently in Ontario provides an opportunity for the develop-
matter in psychology. ment of new specialities within existing graduate programs (Coun-
Given that studies in psychology at the undergraduate level can cil of Ontario Universities, 2008).
lead to careers in health and social services, the addition of an An immediate threat to a small area such as community psy-
undergraduate course in community psychology focusing on psy- chology is the current fiscal situation of Canadian universities as
chological theories and practise that address social problems they navigate the economic recession. Projected consequences
makes sense. Moreover, “community service learning” has be- include hiring freezes and increased reliance on part-time and
come increasingly available in undergraduate programs in Cana- sessional staff (Usher & Dunn, 2009). This situation will mean that
dian universities over the past several years (Canadian Alliance for retiring professors who contributed community psychology train-
Community Service Learning, 2009). Community service learning ing in their departments may not be replaced. As well, courses in
is an educational approach that integrates volunteer service activ- community psychology face the prospect of being expendable for
ities and experiences with community organisations into university
and college courses. With the focus of community psychology on
theories, research, and interventions related to strengthening commu- Table 3
nities and assisting vulnerable populations (Nelson & Prilletensky, Combination of Graduate Community Psychology Courses
2005), undergraduate courses in the area provide a natural fit for Offered by Canadian Universities
community service learning.
As expected, the freestanding graduate programs in community Combination of courses University n (%)
psychology at Université Laval, UQAM, and Wilfrid Laurier Uni-
versity offer the largest number of graduate courses. In addition Program evaluation Chicoutimi 1 (6)
Community psychology and program Lakehead 2 (13)
Université Laval and Wilfrid Laurier University, both of which evaluation Montréal
launched a doctorate program in 2003, have added professors Program evaluation and supervised York 1 (6)
specialising in community psychology (Nelson et al., 2007). In fieldwork
contrast to these universities with freestanding programs, other Community psychology, program Guelph 12 (75)
evaluation, and supervised Laval
psychology departments in Canadian universities offer only a fieldwork Manitoba
small number of graduate courses in community psychology. Mt-Saint Vincent
These are available as courses in clinical psychology programs (i.e., Ottawa
Lakehead, Manitoba, Montréal, Ottawa, Victoria, York) and in ap- Saskatchewan
plied social psychology programs (i.e., Guelph, Saskatchewan, Québec à Montréal
Québec à Abitibi-
Windsor). In these departments, these courses are taught often by Temiscamingue
one faculty member who has a background in the area. The courses Québec à Outaouais
are at risk of being discontinued if these professors leave the Victoria
university or retire. Unfortunately, this situation has occurred at Wilfrid Laurier
Windsor
Acadia, Brock, and Sherbrooke, resulting in graduate courses in
94 AUBRY, SYLVESTRE, AND ECKER
economic reasons, particularly if they are not core requirements of
undergraduate or graduate programs in psychology.
A limitation of our data is that we were unable to identify the
characteristics of professors who teach community psychology in
Canadian universities. In describing their sample, Nelson and Tefft
(1982) noted that only two of 27 respondents who taught commu-
nity psychology were women. It is unclear to what extent this
situation has changed since this first survey as we did not ask about
the demographic characteristics of who was teaching the commu-
nity psychology courses. Given the importance that community
psychology places on diversity, the extent that teachers in the area
represent women, First Nations, and visible minorities is an im-
portant issue for future research to examine.
Another issue worth examining in future research on community
psychology training in Canadian universities is the extent that
interdisciplinary training is being fostered in community psychol-
ogy programs. Although the adoption of an interdisciplinary per-
spective by community psychology has been advocated throughout
its history (Levine, Perkins, & Perkins, 2004), it is unclear the
extent to which interdisciplinarity is being encouraged in graduate
training programs in community psychology. In a special issue of
the American Journal of Community Psychology on interdiscipli-
nary research in community psychology, Maton et al. (2006)
assessed the progress made in integrating indisciplinarity in com-
munity psychology as being modest at best and less than some
other areas of psychology (e.g., biological, cognitive, and health).
They noted the importance of graduate training programs provid-
ing opportunities for students to be exposed to other disciplines
through courses and research and action projects.
Our survey found that more than three quarters (81%) of the
psychology departments that offered graduate courses in commu-
nity psychology also made available to students supervised field-
work with community groups and organisations, schools, and the
government. This proportion of psychology departments with
graduate courses offering supervised fieldwork exceeds the pro-
portion of departments found in the 1980 –1981 survey (73%;
Nelson & Tefft, 1982). They reflect a strength of community
psychology training available in Canadian universities. The roles
assumed by community psychologists are varied and can include
those of program developer, program manager, program evaluator,
health promoter, community developer, policy developer, social
advocate, and researcher (Feis, Mavis, Weth, & Davidson, 1990;
Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2005; Sandler & Keller, 1984; Théroux &
Tefft, 1982). Given the complexity of these roles, it is vital that
students receive field training as part of their graduate studies.
In discussing future directions for community psychology,
Walsh-Bowers (1998) suggested the need for a rapprochement
between “professional psychology” and community psychology,
two relatively divergent perspectives. His argument was founded
on the changing landscape faced by professional psychology in
Canada, which included greater participation in the private sector and
lesser participation in the public sector, the emergence of program
management models replacing discipline-specific departments in
public institutions, and the shift to short-term clinical services in
public mental health services. In this context, Walsh-Bowers ar-
gued for an integrative model that includes both clinical psychol-
ogy and community psychology.
There is some evidence that clinical psychology is moving in
this direction. The most recent accreditation standards for clinical
psychology programs require training programs to provide training
that produces competencies in the areas of consultation at the
organisational level and program development and evaluation
(CPA, 2002). Despite these standards, only a small number of
clinical psychology programs (Manitoba, Ottawa, Saskatchewan,
Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Victoria,
Windsor) were identified in our survey as offering community
psychology courses and field placements that provide opportuni-
ties for developing these competencies. In the United States, this
type of hybrid training is also available in some programs
(Meissen & Slavich, 1997). The expansion of clinical training to
include the development of competencies to work with programs
and organisations to meet CPA accreditation standards represents
an important growth opportunity for community psychology.
The emergence of professionally recognised master’s-level cli-
nicians by regulatory bodies across North America is another
factor that challenges the traditional narrow role of clinical psy-
chologists as clinicians. In this context, some have argued that the
role of clinical psychologists needs to be expanded beyond indi-
vidual treatment into such areas as program development and
evaluation, organisational consultation, social policy analysis and
research, and population health (Humphreys, 1996; Meissen &
Slavich, 1997). Related to this development is the interest in
clinical psychology to expand the scope of interventions to include
primary prevention (Holden & Black, 1999; Hunsley & Lee, 2006;
Weinstein, 2006). Prevention has been a cornerstone of commu-
nity psychology since its inception 40 years ago (Nelson &
Prilleltensky, 2005).
After more than 40 years since the official birth of community
psychology in North America, it remains a resilient but small force
in Canadian psychology. The fact that is has survived in Canadian
psychology departments with only some small erosion during a
conservative political period that has lasted more than two decades
is a testament to its durability. The social problems faced by
contemporary Canadian society are similar and of the same mag-
nitude and complexity as those that prompted the creation of a
community psychology perspective in the 1960s. These include
poverty, homelessness, the breakdown of families placing children
and youth at risk, the plight of aboriginal populations, and the
social and economic exclusion of new Canadians. All of these
problems call for a response from psychology. The contribution of
community psychology is to assist the discipline to reach higher
and adopt a more systemic perspective in conceptualizing research
and interventions (O’Neill, 2005). For this reason, we believe that
community psychology training will continue to have a presence in
Canadian psychology for the foreseeable future.
Résumé
Il a dix ans, Walsh-Bowers (1998) décrit dans la psychologie
canadienne le statut marginalisé de la psychologie communautaire
au Canada. Le but de cette recherche est d’évaluer l’état actuel de
formation en psychologie communautaire dans les universités ca-
nadiennes. Les annuaires de premier cycle et des programmes
d’études supérieures sur les sites web des départements de psy-
chologie canadiennes ont été examinés pour déterminer les cours
offerts en psychologie communautaire. Par la suite, une enquête
par courrier électronique des directeurs de programmes a été
menée pour confirmer et étendre les conclusions de la recherche en
 SPECIAL SECTION: COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY TRAINING
ligne. Les résultats sont comparés à ceux des enquêtes antérieures
réalisées en 1980-81 (Nelson & Tefft, 1982) et en 1992-94 (Walsh-
Bowers, 1998). Les résultats démontrent un léger accroissement de
la formation au niveau de premier cycle depuis la dernière enquête
en 1992-94 avec plus de cours disponibles dans plus de départe-
ments de psychologie canadienne. Il existe également un peu plus
de cours de deuxième cycle en psychologie communautaire offert
aujourd’hui comparativement à 1992-94, mais ceux-ci sont situés
dans moins de départements de psychologie. Les résultats sont
examinés dans le contexte de la psychologie professionnelle con-
temporaine. Des directions ultérieures pour accroı̂tre la psycholo-
gie communautaire sont suggérées.
Mots-clés : psychologie au Canada, psychologie et communauté,
formation
References
Alcalde, J., & Walsh-Bowers, R. (1996). Community psychology values
and the culture of graduate training: A self-study. American Journal of
Community Psychology, 24, 389 – 411.
Canadian Alliance for Community Service Learning. (2009). National com-
munity service learning program. Retrieved December 17, 2009, from
http://www.communityservicelearning.ca/en/programs_mcconnell.htm
Canadian Psychological Association. (2002). Accreditation standards and
procedures for doctoral programmes and internships in professional
psychology, fourth revision. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Council of Ontario Universities. (2008). Strategic partners in provincial
prosperity. Retrieved December 17, 2009, from http://www.cou.on.ca/
content/objects/BriefingNote-Grad%20Expansion-June2008.pdf
Feis, C. L., Mavis, B. E., Weth, J. E., & Davidson, W. S. (1990). Graduate
training and experiences of community psychologists. Professional Psy-
chology: Research and Practice, 21, 94 –98.
Holden, W. E., & Black, M. M. (1999). Theory and concepts of prevention
science as applied to clinical psychology. Clinical Psychology Review,
19, 391– 401.
Humphreys, K. (1996). Clinical psychologists as psychotherapists: History,
future, and alternatives. American Psychologist, 51, 198 –206.
Hunsley, J., & Lee, C. (2006). Introduction to clinical psychology: An
evidence-based approach. Mississauga, ON: Wiley.
Levine, M., Perkins, D., & Perkins, D. (2004). Principles of community
psychology: Perspectives and applications. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Maton, K. I., Perkins, D. D., & Saegert, S. (2006). Community psychology
at the crossroads: Prospects for interdisciplinary research. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 9 –21.
Meissen, G., & Slavich, S. (1997). Doctoral education in clinical–
95
community psychology. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the
Community, 15, 31– 43.
Nairn, S. L., Ellard, J. H., Scialfa, C. T., & Miller, C. D. (2003). At the core
of introductory psychology: A content analysis. Canadian Psychology,
44, 93–99.
Nelson, G., Lavoie, F., & Mitchell, T. (2007). The history and theories of
community psychology in Canada. In S. M. Reich, M. Reimer, I.
Prilletensky, & M. Montero (Eds.), International community psychol-
ogy: History and theories (pp. 13–36). New York: Springer.
Nelson, G., & Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Community psychology: In pursuit of
liberation and well-being. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Nelson, G., & Tefft, B. (1982). A survey of graduate education in com-
munity psychology in Canada. Canadian Journal of Community Mental
Health, 1(2), 6 –13.
O’Neill, P. (2005). The ethics of problem definition. Canadian Psychology,
46, 13–20.
Prilleltensky, I., & Nelson, G. (2009). Community psychology: Advancing
social justice. In D. Fox, I. Prilleltensky, & S. Austin (Eds.), Critical
psychology: An introduction (2nd ed., pp. 126 –143). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Rickel, A. U. (1987). The 1965 Swampscott Conference and future topics
for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychol-
ogy, 15, 511–513.
Sandler, I. N., & Keller, P. A. (1984). Trends observed in community
psychology training descriptions. American Journal of Community Psy-
chology, 12, 157–164.
Théroux, C., & Tefft, B. (1982). Internships in community psychology.
Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 1, 14 –19.
Toro, P. (2005). Community psychology: Where do we go from here?
American Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 9 –16.
Usher, A., & Dunn, R. (2009). On the brink: How the recession of 2009
will affect post-secondary education. Toronto, ON: Educational Policy
Institute.
Walsh-Bowers, R. (1988). Current developments in community psychol-
ogy in Canada. Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 296 –305.
Walsh-Bowers, R. (1998). Community psychology in the Canadian psy-
chological family. Canadian Psychology, 39, 280 –287.
Weinstein, R. S. (2006). Reaching higher in community psychology: Social
problems, social settings, and social change. American Journal of Com-
munity Psychology, 37, 9 –20.
Yoshikawa, H. (2006). Placing community psychology in the context of the
social, health, and educational sciences: Directions for interdisciplinary
research and action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38,
31–34.
Received April 15, 2009
Revision received August 18, 2009
Accepted August 18, 2009 䡲