CHAPTER 4

LAND DEGRADATION – MINING AND QUARRYING

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 CONTENTS
Introduction

Mineral scenario of Karnataka

Mineral Policy and Legislation

Industries dependent on minerals

Environmental impacts

Sand mining

Management/regulations to mitigate pollution

Socio-economic aspects

Iron ore mining in Ballari, Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts

The way forward

TABLES
Table-1: Mineral Production in Karnataka, 2011-12 to 2014-15

Table-2: Policy, Acts, Rules and Regulations relating to mining and quarrying

Table-3: Mineral based industries in Karnataka

Table-4: State-wise land degradation area affected by Mining/Industrial waste in India

Table-5: District wise land area under mining, quarrying and land degradation in Karnataka state

FIGURES
Fig. 1: Open cast Iron ore mining

Fig.2: Mineral location map of Karnataka

Fig. 3: Mining and quarrying map of Karnataka

Fig. 4: Map of Land degradation due to anthropogenic activity in Karnataka

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 LAND DEGRADATION – MINING AND QUARRYING
Introduction
4.1. Minerals and mineral products constitute the backbone of many industries. Some form of
mining or quarrying is carried out in every country in the world. Mining has important economic,
environmental and social impacts in and around the regions where it is carried out. For many
developing countries, mining accounts for a significant proportion of GDP and a large share of
foreign exchange earnings. The environmental impact of mining can be significant and long-
lasting. There are many examples of good and bad practices in the management and
rehabilitation of mined areas.

4.2. Mining or quarrying includes the extraction of minerals occurring naturally as solids
(coal and ores), liquids (petroleum) or gases (natural gas). Extraction can be achieved by
different methods such as underground mining, surface mining, seabed mining, well operation,
etc. It also includes activities such as processing the crude material for marketing, for example,
by crushing, grinding, cleaning, drying, sorting, concentrating ores, liquefaction of natural gas,
agglomeration of solid fuels, etc.

4.3. A wide range of useful materials from the ground such as coal, metals and stone is
extracted through mining and quarrying. These substances are used extensively in building and
manufacturing industry, while precious stones have long been used for adornment and
decoration. Mining or quarrying involves investigating potential sites of extraction, then getting
the required material out of the ground, and finally processing with heat or chemicals to extract
the metal or other substance of interest. All these operations may require large quantities of
water.

4.4. Mining and quarrying can be very destructive to the environment. They have a direct
impact on the countryside by leaving pits and heaps of waste material. The extraction processes
can also contaminate air and water with sulfur dioxide and other pollutants, putting wildlife and
local populations at risk. More careful use of natural resources, including recycling, and also
restoration efforts after mining and quarrying can help limit these environmental impacts.

4.5. Minerals are valuable natural resources. They constitute the vital raw material for many
basic industries and are a major resource for development. The history of mineral extraction in
India dates back to the days of the Harappan civilization. Mining sector is an important segment
of the Indian economy. Widespread and abundant availability of minerals has facilitated the
growth and development of the mining sector. The country is endowed with huge resources of
many metallic and non-metallic minerals. Since Independence, there has been a pronounced
growth in mineral production in the country both in terms of quantity and value. India produces
as many as ninety-five (95) minerals, which include four fuel, ten metallic, twenty-three non-
metallic, three atomic and fifty-five minor minerals (including building and other materials).

4.6. Mining in general affects the existing land, water and air systems. Mining results in the
deposition of dust particle of ore and waste on all surfaces in and around the mining areas. The
presence of crushers and grinders within the mining areas aggravates the situation. Noise is
another serious concern, especially when mines are located near human and wildlife habitats.
Besides leaving large excavations and waste dumps, mining also requires land for various

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purposes such as processing of ore, stockyards, roads, housing projects, townships,
administration, etc. However, unlike other industries, mining operations are largely reversible;
even the mineral extraction zone can be restored, albeit at very heavy cost.

Mineral scenario of Karnataka

4.7. The state of Karnataka is abundant in mineral resources. It is one of the most mineral-rich
states of India. The state’s mineral belt covers an area of 1.92 lakh square kilometers
encompassing all the thirty districts. Karnataka is also endowed with the green stone belt with
valuable mineral resources such as gold, silver, copper, iron-ore, manganese, limestone,
dolomite, asbestos, bauxite, chromite, kaolin and granite rock. The main minerals found in
Karnataka are listed below:

Fig. 1: Open cast Iron ore mining

 Gold: The Kolar Gold Fields in Kolar district used to be one of the major producers of
gold in India, before it was shut down. At present, the gold mines of Hutti and Raichur
produce almost 84% of the country’s gold. Other major centers of gold mining in
Karnataka are Dharwad and Chitradurga. During 2007-08, the gold mines produced about
3,000 kilograms of gold, but since then there has been decline in production. The
production during 2015-16 and 2016-17 was 1326 and 1872.51 kilograms respectively.
Raichur district is also famous for silver deposits.

 Iron ore: Karnataka has over 9,000 million tonnes of iron ore, bulk of which is in the
magnetite form. The production during the year 2007-08 crossed 47 million tonnes but
decreased to 27.72 million tones during 2015-16 and 29.35 million tones during 2016-17
(Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Karnataka). Ballari district is the
main producer of iron ore, with some quantities coming from Chitradurga and Tumkur
districts. The iron ore is used in steel plants, sponge iron plants, etc.

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  Limestone: It is another important mineral with an estimated reserve of 51,000 million
tonnes. Karnataka has the largest limestone reserve in India. The districts of Gulbarga,
Bagalkot, Belagavi, Shivamogga and Uttara Kannada are endowed with high grade
limestone. The present level of annual production is approximately 14 million tones
which cater to the cement plants in the state.

 Granite: Karnataka has vast resources of granite deposits. These deposits have brought
the state into the international scenario. Chamarajanagar district is famous for black
granite; Bellary and Raichur districts are famous for its pink version. Other granite
producing districts are Ramanagar, Bangalore Urban, Koppal, Hassan, Tumkur and
Vijayapura.

 Felsite: Karnataka is the only Indian state where felsite is produced. Large occurrences of
felsite rocks are reported to have been found in Kirangur, Hosahalli and Srirangapatanam
and Mysore. These rocks display either grey or pink color as well a combination of both
theses colors.

 Manganese ore: Karnataka has the largest recoverable reserves of manganese ore in the
country. It is mostly found in the districts of Ballari, Chitradurga, Shimoga, Uttara
Kannada and Mysore.

 Other Minerals in Karnataka: Other minerals found scattered across the state are
Chromite, Dolomite and Bauxite. Chromite is found in altered ultra-basic rocks in the
districts of Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Hassan, Mysore and Shivamogga. Dolomite’s
presence has been recorded at a number of places. There is a possibility of a reserve of
1,112 million tonnes of Dolomite in Belagavi and Vijayapura districts. Bauxite is found
in Chikmagalur district.

4.8. Karnataka formulated a progressive mineral policy as early as the year 2000. Features
such as transparency in granting mineral concessions, adoption of modern techniques in mining
and emphasis on value addition and sustainability are the major hallmarks of this policy.
Distribution and location of different minerals in Karnataka are indicated in Fig. 1.

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Fig.2: Mineral location map of Karnataka
Source: KSRSAC, Bengaluru

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Approximate quantum of assessed natural minerals of all types
4.9. Karnataka has the distinction of being the principal gold producing state in the country.
The state is the sole producer of felsite and one of the leading producers of iron ore, chromite,
dolomite, dunite, kyanite and shale. Karnataka hosts the country's 79% vanadium ore, 73% iron
ore (magnetite), 42% tungsten ore, 37% asbestos, 28% limestone, 21% gold ore (primary), 20%
granite (dimension stone), 20% manganese ore, 17% dunite, 13% kyanite, 10% PGM (metal) and
65% corundum.

Mineral production in Karnataka

4.10. The value of major mineral production in 2014-15 (excluding atomic minerals and value
for February and March in respect of 31 minerals declared as minor mineral vide Gazette
notification dated 10.02.2015) in Karnataka was Rs. 8,483 crore. This was an increase by about
8% as compared to the previous year mainly due to increase in output of iron ore, limestone,
manganese ore and shale during the year. Iron ore, gold, limestone, manganese ore, laterite and
shale are the important minerals produced in the state and accounted for about 76% of the total
value of mineral production in 2014-15. Karnataka is the leading producer of gold.

4.11. Among the important minerals, production of kyanite and chromite doubled during 2014-
15 (Year book 2015, IBM Nagpur) as compared to the previous year. Increase in production was
also seen in case of bauxite (71%), manganese ore (34%), magnesite (18%), limestone (11%)
and iron ore and gold ore (8% each). Marginal decrease in production was noticed in minerals
like gold, silver, etc. (Table- 1).

4.12. The value of production of minor minerals was estimated at Rs. 2,018 crore for the year
2014-15. The number of reporting mines in Karnataka was 183 in 2014-15 as against 192 in the
previous year (2013-14). Out of these, iron ore and limestone comprised about 60 mines each,
followed by dolomite and silica sand.

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 Table-1: Mineral Production in Karnataka, 2011-12 to 2014-15 (Value in Rs. ‘000)
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Mineral Unit No. of Qty Value No. of Qty Value No. of Qty Value No. of Qty Value
mines mines mines mines
All Minerals 185 44674235 219 60873185 192 78827441 183 84828055
Bauxite t 1 83019 20157 2 81200 28420 2 74500 24064 2 127500 31920
Chromite t 2 9827 40336 4 6828 28720 4 1003 4074 4 2474 10049
Gold Ore t - 484438 - - 499061 - - 412877 - - 444439 -
Gold kg 3 2181 5467505 3 1583 5157969 3 1556 4202589 3 1429 3576761
Iron Ore ‘000 t 55 13189 29821352 74 11504 35811462 66 18684 50484086 60 20157 56395912
Manganese Ore t 19 136072 297422 14 39540 221931 11 144528 673035 10 194123 875841
Silver* kg - 200 11374 - 145 9136 - 154 6569 - 139 5117
Corundum kg 1 5000 75 - - - - - -
Dolomite t 17 548694 90517 17 728186 179331 16 642906 205147 13 619367 208550
Dunite t 1 3846 513 1 8750 1173 1 978 173 1 1123 164
Feldspar t 2 - - 1 - - 1 - - - - -
Fireclay t 1 7684 2256 1 16307 10000 1 13966 7813 - 2965 2535
Felsite t 3 1018 1854 5 1266 909 3 551 475 2 324 242
Graphite (r.o.m) t 1 3241 3889 1 2205 2646 2 - -
Kaolin t 1 3214 7697 1 2836 7657 2 2540 7112 1 1984 6271
Kyanite t - - - - - - 1 1416 708 1 4400 3520
Laterite t 1 149600 21111 1 163200 58272 1 118500 46386 1 121200 52154
Limestone ‘000 t 66 20228 2340902 64 21132 3147566 54 21590 2833943 60 24031 3315013
Limeshell t 2 9689 7543 - - - - - - - - -
Magnesite t 3 8331 24120 3 11495 40937 3 7720 29371 3 9129 38955
Ochre t - 1126 5067 - - - - - - - - -
Quartz t 1 - - 6 6931 2225 7 63624 22443 5 88673 30344
Quartzite t 1 10434 2902 1 10000 4900 1 13000 5200 1 8500 4505
Silica Sand t 6 33937 8469 18 1012854 37845 13 133005 56455 13 88773 39998
Shale t - 809926 42234 - 546026 37730 - 670136 33507 - 646286 48559
Vermiculite t 1 100 30 1 - - 1 - -
Minor Minerals - - 6460904 - - 16083008 - - 20181645 - - 20181645
Source: Indian Minerals Yearbook 2015, Government of India, Ministry of Mines IBM Indira Bhavan, Civil Lines, Nagpur. May, 2017

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Mineral Policy and Legislation
4.13. As per Entry No. 54 of List-I of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India, the Central Government can exercise
powers for regulation of mines and mineral development to the extent such regulation and development is declared by Parliament by
law to be expedient in the public interest. The state governments also formulate rules as per the powers conferred on the Central Acts.

Table-2: Policy, Acts, Rules and Regulations relating to mining and quarrying

Year Act/Policy/Rules & Purpose

Regulations
1957 MMDR Act To provide for regulation of mines and development of minerals under control of the Union
1960 Mineral Concession These rules have been formulated in exercise of the Section 13 of the MMDR Act, 1957 in order to
Rules regulate the grant of reconnaissance permits, prospecting licences and mining leases under the Act.
1986 Environment To provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters connected there with
(Protection) Act
1986 Environment These rules have been formulated under Sections 6 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
(Protection) Rules to regulate environmental pollution.
1988 Mineral Conservation These rules have been framed in exercise of the section 18 of the NMDR Act, 1957 providing for the
and Development Rules conservation and systematic development of minerals in India and for the protection of environment
by preventing or controlling any pollution which may be caused by prospecting or mining operations
and for such purposes.
1994 Karnataka Minor These rules have been formulated by the Government of Karnataka in exercise of the Section 15 of
Minerals Concession the MMDR Act, 1957 for regulating the grant of quarry leases, mining leases or other mineral
Rules concessions in respect of minor minerals and for purposes connected therewith.
2002 Offshore Areas Mineral To bring the transparency and nondiscriminatory regime in grant of mineral concessions in offshore
(Development & areas
Regulation) (OAMDR)
Act,
2012 Minor Mineral Rules Ministry of Mines, Government of India prepared draft guidelines for mining of minor minerals
which was circulated among the State Governments.
2014 Mines and Minerals (i) Improved transparency in the allocation of mineral resources;
Development and (ii) To obtain its fair share of the value of such resources to the government
Regulation Amendment (iii) Attracting private investment and the latest technology;
Bill, (iv) Eliminating delay in administration, so as to enable expeditious and optimum Administrations

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2014 Revision of Rates of The rates of royalty and dead rent for major minerals (other than coal, lignite and sand for stowing)
Royalty have been revised with effect from 1st September, 2014 which has been published in the Gazette of
India vide Notification No.630(E) and 631(E) dated 1st September, 2014.
2015 The National Mineral With the objective to expedite mineral exploration in the country
Exploration Trust
(NMET)
2015 District Mineral To address the long - standing demand of local people in mining areas affected by mining operations.
Foundation (DMF)
2015 MMDR Amendment The MMDR Amendment Ordinance, 2015 was promulgated on 12th January, 2015 and later on passed
Act, 2015 by the Parliament with the aim to bring reforms in the Mineral Sector.
2015 Pradhan Mantri Khanij To offer fillip to its strategy on exploration and to bring forth a comprehensive National Mineral
Kshetra Kalyan Yojana Exploration Policy
(PMKKKY)
2016 National Mineral To ensure comprehensive exploration of country’s mineral resources (non-fuel and non-coal)’.
Exploration Policy
(NMEP)
2016 Prevention of Illegal IBM has signed an MOU with National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO on 21.1.2016 to
Mining Use of the undertake a pilot project on 'Monitoring of Mining Activities using Satellite Imagery and Capacity
Space Technology Building' in IBM and training for its officers for three years.
2016 Atomic Mineral These rules shall apply only to mineral concessions relating to Atomic Minerals occurring as such or
Concession Rules, in association with one or more other minerals, provided the grade of such atomic mineral is equal to
or more than threshold value.
2017 Resolving Issues The mining lease applications saved under Section 10A (2)(c) (prior approval granted in cases for
Concerning Pending mineral listed in 1st Schedule of the MMDR Act or LOI issued in cases for other major minerals)
Mining Lease need to be granted subject to fulfillment of the conditions of the previous approval or of the Letter of
Intent within a period of two years from the date of commencement of the said Act, which is up to
11.01.2017.

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 Industries dependent on minerals
4.14. Details of important mineral-based industries in the organized sector in the state are given
below:

Table-3: Mineral based industries in Karnataka

Industry / Plant Capacity ('000 tpy)

Abrasives
Grindwell Norton Ltd, Bengaluru. NA
Sri Sadguru Abrasives Pvt. Ltd, Mache,Distt. Belagavi. 24 (t)
Alumina
Hindalco Industries Ltd, .Belagavi 350 (alumina)
Cement
ACC Ltd, Wadi (Wadi&Wadi New), Distt.Gulbarga 6090
ACC Ltd, Kudithini, Ballari (G) 1100
ACC Ltd, Thondebhavi, Distt.(G) 1600
Bagalkot Cement Industries, Ltd. Distt. Bagalkot 600
CCI Ltd. Kurkunta, Distt. Kalaburagi. 198
Chettinad Cement, Kallur, Distt. Kalaburgi 2500
Dalmia Cement, Yadwad, Distt. Belagavi 2600 (Trial Run)
Heidelberg Cement India Ltd. (Formerly Mysore Cements Ltd) Ammasandra, Distt.
570
Tumakuru
J.K. Cement Ltd, Muddapur, Distt. Bagalkot 3000
JSW Cement, Vijaynagar, Distt. Ballari 600
Kesoram Industries, Vasvadatta Cement, Sedam, Distt. Kalaburgi 5750
KalaburagiCementPvt Ltd (formerly vicatsagar) Chatrasala, Distt. Kalaburgi 2290
Ramco Cement Ltd, Mathodu, Distt. Chitradurga 290
Ultratech Cement, Raj Shree Cement, Malkhed 3200
Ultratech Cement, Ginigera, Distt. Koppal (G) 1300
Ceramic
Ceramic Products Ltd. Khanapur, Distt. Belagavi 5
H & R Johnson (India) Ltd. Hubballi 47.72
Murudeshwar Ceramics Ltd. Dharwad 115
The Mysore Spongeware Pipes Potteries Ltd. Solandavanahalli, Bengaluru 6
Chemical
59.4 (caustic soda)
Solaris Chem Tech Industries Ltd. Bhinga, Distt. Uttar Pradesh 52.3(Cl), 133.7 (HCI)
24.0 (H2PO4)
Fertilizer
K.P.R. Fertilizers Ltd. Halvarthi, Koppal 60 (SSP)
379.5 (Urea)
Mangalore Chemical & Fertilizers Ltd.Panambur, Mangalore 260(DAP)
40 (Complex)
Tungabhadra Fertilizers & Chemicals Ltd. Munirabad, Koppal 45 (SSP)
Iron & Steel
9200 (pellets)
JSW Steel Ltd. Vijaynagar, Distt. Ballari 720 (pig iron)
10000 (crude/liquid steel)

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 12950 (sinter)
205 (pig iron)
Visvesvaraya Iron & steel Ltd Bhadravati, Distt. Shivamogga 118 (crude/liquid steel)
4.8 (refractory bricks)
60 (sponge iron)
Sunvik Steels Pvt. Ltd. Jodidevarahally, Distt. Tumakuru 60 (TMT bar)
Pellets
3500 (pellets)
KIOCL, Mangaluru 6700 (Conc.)
720 (pig iron)
BMM Ispat, Danapur, Distt. Ballari 2400 (pellets)
Xindia Steel, Koppal 800 (pellets)
Pig Iron
Uni-Metal Ispat Ltd. Ballari 75
Kalyani Ferrous Ind. Ltd. Koppal 120
Kirloskar Ferrous Industries Ltd. Bevinahalli, Distt. Koppal 240
Sponge Iron
Agrawal Sponge & Energy (P) Ltd.KuduthiniDistt. Ballari 72
Balakundi Premium Steels Pvt. Ltd. Halakundi, Distt. Ballari. 34
Bellary Ispat (P) Ltd. HalakundiDistt. Ballari 33
Ballary Steel & Alloys ltd. Ballari 60
Benaka Sponge Iron Pvt. Ltd. BelagalDistt. Ballari 60
DhruvdeshMetasteel Pvt. Ltd. Hirebaganal. Distt. Koppal 60
DivyaJyoti Steel Ltd. Taranagar, Distt. Ballari 30
Embitee Iron & Steel Pvt. Ltd. Ballari 60
Gayatri Metals Pvt Ltd, Belagal, Distt. Ballari. 60
Janki Corp. Ltd, Sidiginamola, Distt. Ballari. 180
Haryana Steel and Power, Shanthigrama, Distt. Hassan. 35
Hare Krishna MetallicsPvt Ltd, Hire Baganal, Distt. Koppal. 75
HospetIspat Pvt. Ltd, AllanagarBagnal Road, Distt. Koppal. 60
HothurIspat Pvt. Ltd, Veniveerpur, Distt. Ballari. 60
KMMI Steel Pvt. Ltd, Yerabanahally, Distt. Ballari. 120
Mastek Steels Pvt. Ltd, HalakundiDistt. Ballari. 105
Noble Distillaries& Powers Ltd, Sirivar, Distt. Ballari. 72
PGM Ferro Steel Pvt. Ltd, Hariganadani, Distt. Ballari. 60
Popuri Steels Ltd, Halakundi, Distt. Ballari. 30
Rayon Steel Pvt Ltd, Veniverapur, Distt. Ballari. 60
Rengineni Steel Pvt. Ltd, Halakundi, Distt. Ballari. 25
Shree Venkteshwara Sponge & Power Ltd, Halakundi, Distt. Ballari. 30
Yashshvi Steel & Alloys Ltd, Halakundi,Distt. Ballari. 30
Ferro Alloys
Dandeli Steel & Ferro Alloys Ltd, Dandeli. 6
Sandur Manganese & Iron Ore Ltd, VyasankereDistt. Ballari. 24
S.R. Chemicals & Ferro Alloys Ltd, Honaga, Distt. Belagavi. 0.3
Thermit Alloys Pvt. Ltd, Shivamogga. 1.2
Petroleum Refinery
MRPL, Mangaluru. 15000
(Source: Indian Minerals Year Book 2015, Ministry of Mines Govt. of India, IBM Nagpur)
G; Grinding Unit
Note: Data for fertilizer and cement industries is taken from Indian Fertilizer Scenario, 2015/FAI Statistics, 2014-
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15 and Survey of Cement Industry & Directory, 2015 respectively.
4.15. Among the cement industries in the state, the highest cement production of 6,090
thousand tones per year was found in ACC Ltd, Wadi, Gulbarga district followed by Kesoram
Industries, Vasvadatta Cement, Sedam, Kalaburgi district with a production of 5,750 thousand
tonnes per year. Highest production of iron and steel, pig iron and sponge iron in the state was
found in JSW Steel Ltd. Vijaynagar, Ballari district (10,000 thousand tonnes per year
crude/liquid steel), Kirloskar Ferrous Industries Ltd. Bevinahalli, Koppal district (240 thousand
tonnes per year) and Janki Corp. Ltd, Sidiginamola, Ballari district (180 thousand tonnes per
year), respectively as mentioned in the Table 3.
Environmental impacts
4.16. Environmental impacts of mining and quarrying are due to disfigurement of land,
infrastructure development, displacement of persons, top soil removal, drilling and blasting,
overburden dumping, mineral processing, mineral beneficiation, mine water pumping, discharge
of toxic/contaminated waste water and mineral transportation. Mining and quarrying generally
have impacts on land, atmosphere, water regime, ecology and society.

Impact on Landscape
4.17. Land degradation is inevitable during mining particularly in open cast mining. Mining
impacts landscape by bringing about changes in topography and land scenario, land-use pattern,
drainage pattern, topsoil composition, run-off from overburden dumps, removal of vegetation,
etc. Mining is a temporary land use of the area. Land is required not only for excavation of the
mine pit and for laying approach/haul roads, but also for beneficiation plant, ore handling and
dispatch units, waste dumps, tailing ponds, etc. Land is also required for ancillary facilities and
statutory buildings (workshops, stores, offices, canteen, and crèche). In addition, residential
colony and related welfare amenities like school, hospital, shopping center, recreation center, etc.
require land. During mining and post-mining phases, drastic changes in landscape take place,
major impacts being soil erosion, loss of top soil, creation of waste dumps and voids, disposal of
wastes, etc. The impacts of iron ore mining on land are as outlined hereunder:

1. Topography and land scenario change due to excavation of open pits and dumping of
overburden rock mass in the form of land heaps.

2. The land-use pattern undergoes a change due to the use of land for mining, dumping and
other activities associated with mining.

3. The land-use in the surrounding areas may get affected due to the impacts of mining on
water regime and dust deposition.

4. Leached materials from overburden dumps and other rock masses affect the
characteristics of the topsoil affecting the land-use in the nearby areas.

5. In the mines having mineral concentration/processing plants, it is required to make

tailings pond to store the tailings generated from the processing plants. These tailing
ponds require massive area and may cause pollution of ground and surface water bodies,
if proper care is not taken.

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 6. The drainage pattern of the area undergoes a change due to the alterations in the surface
topography due to mining dump locations and associated activities.

4.18. It is evident from the above that the mining and associated activities can significantly
change the land use and drainage pattern of the region. These changes can be minimized by
carefully planning the surface layout of the mining areas and by integrating the environmental
aspects of each and every operation of mining activity.

4.19. Among all the states and union territories listed in Table-4 below, land degradation due to
mining/industrial waste was found to be the highest in Karnataka, the extent of affected area
being 51,000 ha accounting for 22.76% of the total degraded area in the country. Andhra Pradesh
comes next, the extent of degraded area being 39,000 ha (14.55% of the total degraded area).

Table-4: State-wise land degradation area

affected by Mining/Industrial waste in India
Source: NAAS (2010).

Name of State Land degradation due to

Mining/Industrial waste
(area in 1000 ha)
Karnataka 51
Andhra Pradesh 39
Tamil Nadu 34
Madhya Pradesh 24
Jharkhand 21
Maharashtra 16
Goa 12
Gujarat 12
Haryana 12
Odisha 8
Chattisgarh 7
West Bengal 7
Punjab 6
Uttar Pradesh 3
Bihar 2
Himachal Pradesh 1
Jammu & Kashmir 1
Kerala 1
Uttarakhand 1
Total (000 ha) 258
Total (m ha) 0.27

Land degradation
4.20. Most of the active mines in Karnataka are in Ballari, Tumkur, Chitradurga,
Chikkamagaluru, Koppal, Kalaburagi and Dakshina Kannada districts. The abandoned mines are
mainly in the districts of Chikkamagaluru, Bagalakot, Chitradurga, Kolar, Kalaburagi, Ballari,

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Uttara Kannada, Shivamogga, Mandya and Dakshina Kannada. Extensive quarrying takes place
in Chikkaballapura, Kolar, Kalaburagi, Ballari and Tumakuru districts.

4.21. The Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Center (KSRSAC), Bengaluru has
carried out district-wise land use-land degradation classification due to mining activities for the
entire state of Karnataka. Mining abandoned area, Mining active area and Quarry area were
classified under land use classes. Mining surface/opencast mines area (including quarrying),
Brick kiln areas and Industrial effluent affected areas were classified under land degradation
classes. These are shown in Table-5, Fig. 2 and 3.

4.22. As seen from Table-5, total area of the state (land-use) under active mining, abandoned
mines and quarrying is 58,854.65 hectares. The break-up of the individual land-use is: active
mining (6,171.30 ha), abandoned mines (737 ha) and quarrying (51,946.36 ha). Total extent of
land degraded due to mining, quarrying and associated activities is 64,104.49 hectares. This
comprises of 61,405.92 hectares degraded due to surface/open cast mines/quarries, 381.37
hectares under brick-kilns and 2,317.20 hectares affected by industrial effluent. Major
degradation of land is noticed in Chikkaballapura, Kolar, Ballari and Kalaburagi districts.
Evidently, maximum land degradation (95.79%) is due to surface/open cast mines/quarries.

4.23. It is also revealed from Table-5 that the highest land area under mining and quarrying is
in Ballari district (8,896.89 ha - 15.12%) followed by Chikkaballapura district (8,028.33 ha -
13.64%). Highest land degradation is noticed in Chikkaballapura district (8,392.75 ha - 13.10%)
followed by Kolar district (7,637.80 ha - 11.91%). Lowest land area under mining and quarrying
is in Kodagu district (62.54 ha - 0.11%) followed by Bidar district (146.28 ha - 0.25%); land
degradation is the lowest also in Kodagu district (40.95 ha - 0.06%) followed again by Bidar
district (181.43 ha - 0.28%).

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 Table-5: District wise land area under mining, quarrying and land degradation in Karnataka state (Source: KSRSAC, Bengaluru)

Land Use Classes Land Degradation Classes

Sl Industrial-
District Name Mining Mining Grand Total Mining - Surface/ Brick kiln Grand Total
No Quarry effluent
Abandoned Active (Area in ha) opencast mines areas (Area in ha)
affected areas
1 Bagalakote 52.01 1512.30 1564.31 1165.91 1165.91
2 Ballari 29.95 5571.51 3295.43 8896.89 6234.64 6234.64
3 Belagavi 1111.17 1111.17 1062.93 1062.93
4 Bengaluru 2886.45 2886.45 2997.80 1714.69 4712.49
5 Bengaluru Rural 2124.19 2124.19 2302.35 388.30 2690.65
6 Bidar 146.28 146.28 181.43 181.43
7 Chamarajanagar 698.86 698.86 893.45 893.45
8 Chikkaballapura 8028.33 8028.33 8392.75 8392.75
9 Chikkamagaluru 479.30 110.19 489.30 1078.79 1516.78 1516.78
10 Chitradurga 50.72 175.10 1680.12 1905.94 1513.80 40.35 1554.15
11 Dakshina Kannada 6.91 1.28 202.82 211.01 172.77 202.65 375.42
12 Davanagere 1446.44 1446.44 862.42 6.30 63.57 932.30
13 Dharwad 275.80 275.80 445.46 86.72 532.18
14 Gadag 231.00 231.00 414.84 414.84
15 Hassan 1546.28 1546.28 1090.05 1090.05
16 Haveri 729.28 729.28 464.52 464.52
17 Kalaburagi 30.14 4.01 3831.36 3865.51 5625.89 13.53 5639.42
18 Kodagu 62.54 62.54 40.95 40.95
19 Kolar 45.13 5276.42 5321.56 7637.80 7637.80
20 Koppal 34.53 1898.23 1932.77 1039.10 9.50 1048.60
21 Mandya 8.91 2110.40 2119.31 3694.88 3694.88
22 Mysuru 999.79 999.79 337.54 337.54
23 Raichur 948.96 948.96 722.25 722.25
24 Ramanagara 2917.14 2917.14 4010.08 8.11 4018.19
25 Shivamogga 9.01 1045.12 1054.13 567.89 18.29 586.18
26 Tumakuru 274.67 3276.36 3551.03 5404.98 12.53 5417.51
27 Udupi 347.83 347.83 210.51 19.67 230.18
28 Uttara Kannada 24.93 894.73 919.66 142.34 47.74 33.27 223.35
29 Vijayapura 1075.93 1075.93 1389.40 1389.40
30 Yadgir 857.50 857.50 870.42 33.34 903.76
Grand Total (Area in Hectare) 737.00 6171.30 51946.36 58854.65 61405.92 381.37 2317.20 64104.49

17
Fig. 3: Mining and quarrying map of Karnataka
Source: KSRSAC, Bengaluru

18
Fig. 4: Map of Land degradation due to anthropogenic activity in Karnataka
Source: KSRSAC, Bengaluru

19
Impact on Ecology
4.24. Major impacts of mining on the local ecology are manifold. Mining necessitates removal
of vegetation (flora) from the area required for mining and other purposes thereby displacing
local fauna and affecting bio-diversity. Mining results in pollution of the water bodies in the
surrounding areas due to leaching from over burden (OB) dumps during the monsoon season.
Agricultural crops in the adjacent village lands and surrounding vegetation are adversely affected
by continuous deposition of dust and mine particles. Continuous exposure to dust and mine
particles is also a health hazard. Noise and vibration due to blasting and movement of heavy
machineries and transport vehicles have direct impact on human beings as well as wild animals.

Impact on Air Quality

4.25. Open-cast mining activities on top of the hills and in semi-arid conditions usually
contribute to high air pollution. Fine solid particles generated during drilling, blasting and
mining are carried away by the wind to nearby areas including habitations, agricultural lands,
forests, etc. Processing of minerals, especially dry crushing, grinding and screening increases air
pollution. Transportation of ore by road is another important factor responsible for air pollution
affecting all the areas through which the ore-laden trucks ply. Dust pollution poses serious
problem in most of the quarrying units. Dust generated by crushing units also affects nearby
habitations and agricultural lands. During the dry months, when there is constant breeze, the
villages suffer the most. The pre-monsoon southwesterly winds are strong in picking up the fine
dry dust and deposit them towards the east and northeastern sides of the quarry. Dust settles on
all areas including agricultural fields, households, public places, etc. Smaller dust particles
remain suspended in the air for longer time and cause more harm to human health.

4.26. The level air pollution in quarry operation is relatively less, as the method adopted is
manual and many quarries are small in size. Therefore, the SPM count in the air will normall not
increase. NO2, SO2 and CO values are expected to be within the permissible limits due to manual
quarrying.

Impact on Noise and Vibration

4.27. Mining related noise pollution is mainly because of excavation, drilling, blasting,
handling and transportation of ore and overburden and various operations of processing. Most of
these operations involve use of heavy machineries which emanate a lot of noise. Vehicular
movement also contributes to noise pollution. Disturbance from sound is the severest during
blasting of rocks while quarrying. Stone-crushers also generate considerable noise. Unlike dust,
the effect of sound is felt in all directions irrespective of wind direction. Inhabitants living nearer
to the mine or quarry, suffer more from sound pollution.

Impact on Water Quality

4.28. Dumping of waste material on steep slopes in higher altitudes without providing for
adequate safeguards against sliding, coupled with unscientific dumping on natural water courses
result in impairment/deterioration of water quality. The major causes of water pollution are
erosion of waste and sub-grade dumps, oil and grease, contamination of water bodies due to
discharge of mine water/effluent and sedimentation of the local seasonal streams flowing through
mine area. The direct and visible impact of water pollution due to mining is increase in siltation
and turbidity in water bodies. There are also possibilities of severe water contamination due to

20
draining of toxic metals and acid originating from mines into water bodies. Oxidation of primary
minerals in the ore results in the formation of acids.

Impact on Soil Fertility

4.29. In opencast mining, several changes occur in physical, chemical and microbiological
properties of the soil as a result of excavation and dumping. Inability to preserve the topsoil is
one of the basic hindrances to restoration of mined land. Soil degradation and the decline in the
productive capacity of land resources is an immediate environmental concern. Open cast mining
renders the land unsuitable for any productive use in the future. It is almost impossible to restore
the area to its original status. It requires considerable time and resources to even reverse the
process of degradation.

4.30. Another serious impact of mining and quarrying is on the soil fertility of the adjoining
agricultural lands. Decrease in soil fertility in these areas takes place in two ways. Tons of wind-
blown dust and mine particles get accumulated on the agricultural and horticultural lands thereby
reducing the proportion of fertile soil. Secondly, during the monsoon season, large volumes of
water mixed with soil and mine waste drain out of the mines and inundate the nearby agricultural
and horticultural lands which are generally located in the valleys of the natural water courses.
The waste material gets deposited on the lands, reducing the soil fertility. Entry of toxic minerals
and acids along with water can further damage the agricultural and horticultural lands.

Impact on Aquatic Life

4.31. Mining greatly impacts the aquatic life present in water bodies located in and around the
mining area. Increase in siltation results in drying of the water bodies which directly affects the
aquatic life cycle. Increase in water turbidity reduces penetration of light into water thereby
affecting aquatic plant life which in turn affects aquatic fauna. Chemical contamination of water
due to minerals and acids can wipe out the entire aquatic life.

Loss of flora and fauna

4.32. In open cast mining, land is completely cleared of vegetation. In addition to clearing of
forest for the mining pits, substantial forest area is also required to be cleared for dumping the
overburden. Quite often, sliding dump results in submergence of forest growth. Forest is also
cleared or damaged due to formation of roads, formation of stock yards, construction of
buildings, etc. Forest areas adjoining to a mine get damaged because of mining related activities.
Besides, the forest on either side of the road along which the ore is transported by trucks gets
severely affected due to continuous pollution by dust and mine particles. Loss of vegetation
affects the resident wildlife population which either gets killed or is driven out due to
deforestation. Wildlife is very vulnerable in forest areas having cluster of mines, as it severely
restricts the free movement of animals.

Impact on roads
4.33. In Karnataka, a significant portion of mined ore and all quarried material (granite, stones,
and sand) are transported by road. This causes a lot of damage to the roads. Such damage was
very severe in Ballari district during the peak mining season (2002-2009) when thousands of ore-
laden trucks used to move along the forest roads, village roads, district roads and national

21
highways. Similar damage took place in the roads leading to sea-ports because of heavy traffic of
vehicles carrying iron ore.

Sand mining
4.34. In the recent years, there has been increasing instances of mining of sand from riverbeds
and riverbanks for supplying to the construction industry. Mining of sand at a rate much higher
than the rate at which it is replenished in a river is harmful to the river ecosystem as it brings
about morphological change in the river bed. Excessive riverbed mining causes several
alterations to the physical characteristics of the river and the riverbed severely impacting the
ecological equilibrium of the river and damage plants, animals and riparian habitats. Sand
extraction has a significant impact on ground water levels. Water levels in bore wells, open wells
and filter point wells in the vicinity of sand mining have been found to decline considerably.
Excessive pumping out of ground water during sand mining, especially in abandoned channels,
generally results in depletion of groundwater resources causing severe scarcity and affecting
irrigation and potable water availability.

4.35. The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India on 27-02-2012 had ruled that approval under the
2006 Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) notification is needed for all sand mining and
gravel collection activities. The Ministry of Environment and Forests issued on 18-05-2012 an
order mandating compliance with the Hon’ble Supreme Court’s judgment and directing that
permissions be sought for all mining activities. These permissions must come from the respective
State Environment Impact Assessment Authorities (SEIAA) constituted under the 2006 EIA
notification. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has also issued restraint order against all sand
mining activity being carried out across the country without environmental clearance. The
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, has been from time
to time issuing notifications/guidelines regarding sand mining in the country. In 2013, the
Government of Karnataka formulated a natural sand policy to meet the sand demand in the state
by undertaking systematic and scientific mining and protection of environment and by
maintaining eco-balance in the surrounding areas by following the Government of India
guidelines. The GOI guidelines had fixed responsibility on related departments such as Mines
and Geology, Pollution Control Board, etc. The state government formed district and taluk level
sand monitoring committees to monitor sand mining in the state. In 2016, GOI issued new
notifications regarding constitution of District Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority
and District Level Environment Appraisal Committee in order to ensure environmentally
sustainable of sand under the supervision of the district authorities. The GOI have issued
comprehensive guidelines, namely, ‘Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines 2016’
incorporating various issues regarding management of sand mining. The state government has
been regulating sand mining in the state as per the GOI guidelines.

Management/regulations to mitigate pollution

Management of air pollution

4.36. Dust is the major air pollutant even when mining is not in operation. Whenever mining is
in operation, the impact of mining on air quality can be reduced by the following measures:

 Introduction of wet drilling;

22
  Internal transportation through covered conveyor;
 Internal transportation through pipe conveyors to shift fines;
 The state-of-the-art dust suppression system;
 Fixing permanent pipe sprinklers along the haul road in the mining lease (ML)
area;
 Fixing wind screens around dust emitting sources;
 Application of water to dust emitting surfaces;
 Covering the ore with tarpaulin during transportation in trucks;
 Enforcing speed limits on trucks plying on unpaved or untreated roads.
 Establishment of railway routes, conveyor belt, rope-way, etc. to minimize road
transport;
 Establishment of green-belt in and around mining lease areas and planting of rows
of trees along road-sides to arrest the spread of dust over larger areas.
 The dust generated during vehicular movement should be controlled by spraying
water on village roads for which water tankers fitted with sprayers should be used.
 Over loading of trucks and consequent spillage on the roads should be avoided.
 Speed of the vehicles in the village area should be restricted to 25
kilometers/hour. This restriction will also reduce noise pollution.

Management of noise pollution

4.37. To reduce the impact of noise pollution, it is necessary for the mine management to
ensure proper maintenance of machineries and vehicles, development of green belt around the
lease area, personal protective gears for operators, etc. The following measures may be taken:

 Quarries or crushers should be allowed to function only when they are located in
areas as stipulated or prescribed by law or Court directions.
 Potential hazardous areas must be identified by undertaking sound level surveys
and after analyzing the results, the risks to the population should be identified.
 Personal protective devices such as earplugs and muffs play a major role in
protecting the individual and their use must be made compulsory in the noisy
working environment.
 Controlling noise levels at source or in the working area is ideal.
 Workers working very close to crushing and screening plants should be provided
with filter masks, ear protection devices (ear plugs, ear muffs and helmets etc)
and wearing them should be made mandatory.
 Plants can act as barriers for noise transmission. Development of green belt can
reduce noise by its screening effect. The effectiveness increases with thickness,
height and density of plantation. Hence plantations should be made mandatory.
 Walls or barriers should be erected around the source of noise.
 Worker should be shifted from his work environment, if he progressively
develops noise induced hearing loss by allowing rotation of job.
 Health education should be imparted to the workers. This can be done by social
welfare organizations, educational institutions, NGOs and quarry owners.

23
  Taking adequate protection against noise pollution is for short term relief, but the
key to real protection is education and communication both of which are easier to
achieve.
 Any loss either to the workers/households should be compensated by the quarry
owners.
 Noise induced deafness is preventable but not totally curable. Therefore, this
serious health problem must be tackled on priority.
 Well-maintained vehicles should be utilized for transportation of minerals, stones,
sand, etc. in order to reduce noise levels in habitations located near to roads.

Management of water pollution

4.38. Mining related water pollution is caused mainly by disfigurement of the land surface
which in turn damages the natural drainage system. The following measures are recommended to
minimize water pollution:

 Disposal of overburden in steep slopes should be prohibited;

 Erection of appropriate soil and water conservation devices in the mining lease
area to arrest run-off and increase infiltration;
 Stabilization of overburden dumps and abandoned mines through physical and
biological methods such as retaining wall, garland drain, geo-textile matting, seed
sowing, planting of grass-slips, shrubs, trees, etc.;
 Reduction in water consumption in processing units;
 Treatment and re-use of waste water.

Control on loss of soil fertility

4.39. Since most of the people depend upon agriculture as the main source of income, all out
efforts are necessary to ensure that the risk of contamination of fertile soil in agricultural and
horticultural lands is reduced to the minimum. As already mentioned, the problem of loss of soil
fertility of the agricultural and horticultural lands can be addressed by planning and executing
appropriate drainage system in and around the mining or quarrying area in such a way that the
suspended sediments in the runoff water are arrested by devices such as gully plugs, check dams,
silt settling tanks, etc. Adequate measures to cover the waste dumps with vegetation should be
taken to reduce the chances of erosion and leaching. All possible measures should be taken
within the mine areas to restrict dust pollution so that its spread to the nearby agricultural and
horticultural lands is minimized.

Management of aquatic life, flora and fauna

4.40. As already mentioned, adoption of appropriate drainage system is absolutely necessary to
reduce contamination of the water leaving the mining lease area. This by and large will keep the
down stream water bodies in natural condition and free from siltation and turbidity, thereby
perpetuating healthy aquatic life in the water bodies.

4.41. All attempts should be made to make up for the loss of vegetation by planting as many
trees as possible within the lease area. Inactive dumps, safety zone, road-sides and other areas
not required for any other purpose must be brought under tree cover. In the initial years, the
planted seedlings should be watered during the summer season for better growth. Sprinkler

24
irrigation is recommended on the inactive dumps. The mining lease holder should take adequate
precaution to protect the plantations from fire. He should also protect the forest areas
surrounding the mining lease.

Control of degradation of roads

4.42. The only way to reduce damage to the road net work due to very frequent movement of
ore laden trucks is to make increasing use of alternative ways of transport such as railway routes,
rope ways, conveyor belts, etc. This will require opening of new railway lines in addition to
extending the existing lines to cover more mining leases.

Socio-economic aspects
Impact on society
4.43. The impacts of mining on society are many. Some of these impacts are:

 Loss of livelihood: People living in villages normally depend on nearby forest or other
government lands for firewood, small timber, non-timber forest produce (NTFP), etc.
These lands are also grazing grounds for their cattle. Diversion of such areas for mining
or quarrying deprives them of these benefits. This to some extent affects their livelihoods.

 Water scarcity: Mining, whether opencast or underground, damages the water regime. It
causes reduction in the overall availability of water in and around the mining areas.
Surface soil and water conservation structures have to be erected in and around the
mining areas to conserve the rain water received in order to minimize damage due to
mining.

 Health impacts: Health and well-being of the people living in and around the mining
complexes get affected due to air, water and noise pollutions and vibrations. People
working in mines or living in nearby areas are prone to health hazards such as skin
problems, lung diseases, loss of hearing, etc. All precautions should be taken to protect
the workers as well as the local people from such health hazards.

 Employment opportunities: Mining and associated activities offer opportunities of

employment to the eligible people from the local population. As most of the mining
activities are now carried out with heavy machineries, the possibility of providing them
direct employment in mining is less. However, people get employment in the mineral
based and other related developmental activities in and around the mining complexes.
Transportation of minerals is an important activity which provides employment
opportunities to the local population.

 Economic disparity and frustration: Industrial and economic activities in mining

complexes bring about economic disparity between the skilled population living in the
complexes and the people living in the nearby villages. The people employed in the
organized activities usually earn more than the others living outside. This economic
disparity leads to frustration among the poorer people. The actual impacts vary from one
mining project to another mining project and depend upon a variety of factors such as the
pre-existing situation (baseline condition), the process of community engagement and

25
 capacity building initiated by the mine management, the design of the development
process and mining, etc.

Iron ore mining in Ballari, Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts
4.44. Ballari district is rich in iron ore deposits. There are a few manganese mines also. The
principal mineral bearing areas are in Sandur taluk and parts of Hosapete and Ballari taluks.
Majority of the mines are in forest land. Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts also have a number
of mines. Most of the mining leases are of smaller extents. However, there are major players in
M/s National Mineral Development Corporation Limited (NMDC), a Government of India
enterprise, the State owned M/s Mysore Minerals Limited (MML), and M/s Sandur Manganese
and Iron Ore Limited (SMIORE) in the private sector.
4.45. Mining of major minerals like iron ore and manganese has led to forest and land
degradations. Though the need for development of mining industry is an accepted factor in the
evolution of the region’s economy, its impact on environment can not be ignored. Mining affects
the environment in diverse ways. The surface mining technology used for mining selective
minerals like iron and manganese by adopting conventional practices like drilling, blasting and
preliminary crushing invariably causes pollution. The significant impact of mining is mainly on
land, forest, terrestrial and aquatic ecology, water resources and ambient air. Some of the impacts
on the landscape and human environment can effectively be permanent. Health problems of
miners and nearby community arising out of pollution due to dust, noise, gases, mine waste
discharge, etc. are significant. The key problems are land degradation, degradation of forest and
decrease in bio-diversity, air pollution, water pollution and noise pollution.
4.46. From 2004 onwards, large quantities of iron ore were extracted from the mines of
Ballari, Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts as a result of a sharp increase in the
international demand. Very high market prices fuelled by very high demand resulted in rampant
and unscientific mining leading to environmental degradation in the district. The Hon’ble
Supreme Court of India while hearing Special Leave to Appeal petition Nos. 7366-7367/2010
with regard to such severe environmental degradation on account of over-exploitation had, after
obtaining a comprehensive report from the Central Empowered Committee (CEC),
ordered on 29-07-2011 to suspend mining operations in Ballari district. The Hon’ble Court in an
order dated 05-08-2011 ordered the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
(ICFRE) to carry out a macro level EIA study of Ballari district in collaboration with the Forest
Survey of India (FSI) and Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and incorporating other domain
specialists as needed in consultation with the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF&CC).
The Hon’ble Court by another order dated 26-08-2011 suspended mining operations in
Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts and extended the macro level EIA study to be carried out by
the ICFRE in respect of these two districts also.
4.47. The report submitted by the ICFRE in respect of mining in Ballari district has revealed
that both large and small mines affect the environment in different ways. If scientific
mining is carried out and due safeguards are in place then large mines cause comparatively less
pollution and damage to the environment as compared w i t h smaller mines. The report has
pointed out that severe and significant damage has been caused to the environment by small
lease holders, and the damage has been compounded by blatant illegal/unscientific mining
operations. A large number of mines have not only violated the approval conditions of
26
Environmental Conservation (EC), Forest Conservation (FC) and Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM),
but also encroached upon the adjacent lands illegally and in the process damaged the
environment. Environmental safeguards and stipulated conditions have been flouted in the greed
to mine greater areas and earn more profits. The report of the ICFRE has summarized that
rampant, unauthorized and unregulated mining has had a negative impact on the floral and
faunal biodiversity, agriculture and ambient air, along with adverse impacts on human health and
well-being. It has therefore recommended for planning, implementation and
institutionalization of a range of mechanisms and processes which will enable the country
to meet the industrial and economic imperatives on the one hand but also safeguard the
environment, biodiversity and human well-being considerations on the other. These twin
goals have to be addressed concurrently if inter-generational equity considerations as
highlighted by the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India are to be effectively addressed. The ICFRE
has reported similar violations in respect of the mining operations of Chitradurga and Tumakuru
districts also.
4.48. Keeping in view the requirement of iron ore by the steel industry, the Hon’ble Supreme
Court had ordered on 02-09-2011 for e-auction of the already extracted iron ore lying in various
mine-heads and stockyards (about 25 million metric tonnes) through a three-member Monitoring
Committee constituted for this purpose. Subsequently, the Hon’ble Court had also ordered for
reopening of A-category mines under specific conditions. The Hon’ble Court vide another order
dated 18-04-2013 permitted resumption of mining by B-category mines subject to fulfillment of
certain conditions. All the C-category mining leases were ordered for cancellation in the order
dated 18-04-2013. The A-category mines are those where there have been few or no illegalities
committed during mining, while the C-category mines are the ones where legal processes were
flouted the most. The B-Category mines are the ones where the illegalities were within certain
limits. The orders of the Hon’ble Court permitting resumption of mining in respect of the A and B
category mines were subject to their complying with stringent Reclamation and Rehabilitation
(R&R) norms laid down by the Hon’ble Court. The permitted mining leases were to be allowed to
start mining operations subject to their obtaining of all statutory approvals and satisfactory
implementation/completion of the R&R Plan. The Monitoring Committee was entrusted with the
responsibility to monitor implementation of R&R works and to accord permission for resumption
of mines subject to satisfactory implementation of R&R works and other conditions imposed by
the Hon’ble Court. The Monitoring Committee was also directed to conduct e-auction of fresh ore
extracted from the permitted mines. The Hon’ble Supreme Court had also put a cap on production
of iron ore in Karnataka at 30 MMT per year out of which 25 MMT was to be extracted from
Ballari district and the balance 5 MMT was to be extracted from Chitradurga and Tumakuru
districts. The Hon’ble Court had further ordered that only end-users such as steel-plants, sponge-
iron plants, etc. are eligible to participate in e-auction and that the ore can not be exported.
4.49. With regard to the C-category mines, the Hon’ble Supreme Court on 30-07-2015 directed
the state government to commence the process of auction of fifteen (15) mines out of a total of
forty-nine (49) mines. Only end-users (including PSUs) engaged in production of sponge iron, pig
iron, steel and pellets would be eligible to participate in such auction.
4.50. As regards preparation of the Reclamation and Rehabilitation Plan, the state government
had entrusted the task of preparation of the Plans to the Indian Council of Forestry Research and
Education (ICFRE), Dehradun. These are site-specific plans and are required to be prepared for

27
individual mining leases keeping in view the degree of damages and measures required to address
these damages. The R&R plans have to be approved by the Central Empowered Committee
before these are implemented in the lease areas by the mining lease holders.
4.51. For the purpose of preparing the Reclamation and Rehabilitation plan for each individual
mine, the ICFRE started with study of the baseline status of the lease area in terms of various
local and regional parameters such as climate, physiography, topography, geology, land use
pattern, soil, air, water, flora, fauna, social environment, etc. It was followed by study of
environmental impacts of mining on landscape, ecology, air quality, noise and vibration, water
quality, soil quality, aquatic life, society, etc. Various activities prescribed for implementation
have been grouped in the following categories:
1. Reclamation and Rehabilitation of the area under encroachment: Measures
recommended under this category include planting (in mining pit, overburden dumps and
other areas) and stabilization of dump by erection of various structures like retaining wall,
catch water drains, silt trap, check dams, gully plugs, etc. in the encroached portion of the
mining lease area.

2. Stabilization of dump: This refers to various measures prescribed to stabilize the dumps
within the lease area. The works include erection of toe walls, various types of check
dams, garland drains or catch water drains, silt traps or silt settling tanks, planting (in case
of inactive dumps), etc.

3. Surface Water Management: This refers to works prescribed for erosion control by
various means such as diversion drains/catch water drains, silt retaining and grade
stabilization structures such as gabion check dams, earthen check dams, stone masonry
check dams, silt settling tanks, rain water harvesting pit (RWHP), etc.

4. Biological Measures: These include planting and sowing of native species including
grasses and legumes, planting of avenue trees, planting in safety zone or green belt,
afforestation, etc.

5. Biodiversity Conservation Plan: Considering the importance of the forest ecosystem in

terms of its environmental services, certain portion of the mining lease area rich in plant
diversity is recommended for further enrichment by planting and sowing of more
indigenous species.

6. Management of flora and fauna: Here suggestions are given for overall management of
floral and faunal components in and around the lease area. Prescriptions regarding fire
protection, raising public awareness, etc. are also given.

4.52. As the responsibility of taking up reclamation and rehabilitation works within the mining
lease areas has been entrusted to the mining lease holders, they are carrying out various works as
per the prescriptions of the approved R&R plan. The responsibility of the Forest Department and
the Mines and Geology Department is to ensure that the works are carried out as per the plan
prescriptions. The mining lease holders also approach the concerned Departments as and when

28
they are in need of any assistance in carrying out the prescribed works. The R&R works are also
being supervised by the Monitoring Committee.

4.53. The impact of damage caused by mining is not only restricted to the areas leased for
mining. The areas immediately surrounding the mining lease including towns and villages also
bear the brunt of mining works. In the districts of Ballari, Chitradurga and Tumakuru, the extent
of environmental degradation because of continuous and intensive mining for about ten years had
been very severe and extended over large extents. The EIA reports submitted by the ICFRE have
highlighted various aspects of degradation that have taken place in the districts and suggested
comprehensive measures for reclamation and rehabilitation for all the areas affected directly and
indirectly by mining. In addition to taking up of reclamation and rehabilitation of individual
mines, as already mentioned, the Hon’ble Supreme Court has ordered constitution of a Special
Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for the purpose of macro-level ameliorative and mitigative measures as
per the “Comprehensive Environment Plans for the Mining Impact Zone” (CPEMIZ) around
mining leases in Bellary, Chitradurga and Tumakuru districts. The macro-level measures include
improvement and development of infrastructure, transport net-work, conveyor belt, railway
siding, etc.

4.54. Among the forest areas presently leased out for mining in Karnataka, the forests of Sandur
are unique. These represent some of the best dry deciduous forests of the state. These are also
very rich in biodiversity including varieties of medicinal plants. The total extent of the Sandur
forests is about 32,000 hectares out of which about 8,000 hectares have been affected by mining,
although the actual area broken up and cleared for mining is much less (about 2,000 hectares).
With the regulation imposed by the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India on mining and other related
activities, there has been considerable improvement in the overall environment of the mining
areas during the last five-six years. The quality of Reclamation and Rehabilitation (R&R) works
turned out by the mining lease holders is by and large of high standard. The scale and intensity of
mining has come down considerably due to the ceiling on production fixed by the Hon’ble
Supreme Court. Half of the annual production of iron ore is done by two government
undertakings, namely, M/s NMDC Limited and M/s MML. Transportation of ore from the mine-
heads has been streamlined. About 40% of the iron ore is transported through railway wagons.
Once the SPV becomes operational, considerable improvement will take place in the
transportation infrastructure such as conveyor belt, railway network, railway siding, etc. This will
further ease the pressure on the road network.

The way forward

4.55. Mining and quarrying bring negative impacts to human habitats. Those who start new
projects on mining or related activities should be aware of such impacts. There are also certain
general and broad areas of concern which need concerted government action. Much greater
emphasis is required on development of mineral deposits by way of prospecting and zero-waste
mining. The mining legislation gives more emphasis on management of the mines rather than on
exploration and development, which need to be seriously viewed by proper amendments and
policy issues. The impacts of all mining areas are not similar. The project managers are by and
large aware of the likely impact of their activities on the surrounding environment. While
executing the projects, they must take sufficient care and provide for adequate investment in
protective, precautionary and restorative measures to ensure that the impact on the environment is

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the minimum. The approaches as stated in this chapter would help them to identify the impacts of
land degradation in advance. Most of the quarries (less than five acres) cause enormous damage to
the environment and that they do not come under the purview of the Mines and Minerals
Development Regulation Act. The Department of Mines and Geology and the Karnataka State
Pollution Control Board should amend the rules to bring all quarries under the purview of the Act.

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