Artillery Topography PDF

ERRATA SHE}<~T.
Document 51, a.
TOPOGRAPHY FOR FIELD ARTILLERY.
Page 7, par. 20, 4th line. Change 13° to read 12".

Page 10, lines 5 and 12. Place bracket about 1/1000 so that 800 will not
Page 53, Fig. 33. Line BC should be the chord of angle, a., and not
appeai' as part of the denominator.
perpendicular to A lJ.
Page 86, line 17. Should read figure 71. ~
Page 156, line 20. Should read, 50.1-49=1:11It.
Page 165, par. 358, line 8. Change last word from "of" to "or".
Page 201, Fig. 137. Inverted.
Page 207, Fig. 145. Inverted.
Page 255. Second paragraph On.this page should be 573 instead of 773.
Page 255, par. 573. Beginning with the tenth line the balance of the para-
graph should read, "G' to G until the sight shank falls in the line of
vision when the alidade is laid on the line pg. This wil~ bring the
plotted positon of the gun, g, in accord with the actual position, and the
direction, Ggp, may then be taken as the true plane of sight ..
'age 255, par. 574, line 7. Insert after the word Assume, the following
words, "that the orientation is correct and". .
1 II :e 257, par 576, line 9.
words. "6400111, minus".
Insert after the words "equal to", the following
Page 265, Fig. 194. Prolong the arrow of the angle, M until it intersects
the line, GC prolonged. "'--
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r"'~OPOGRAPHY
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for. Field Artillery
School of Fire
Document No. 51~
MARCH: 1919
This document replaces
Documents 51,40a, and 37b
Published
Under the Direction of
THE CHIEF OF FIELD ARTILLERY
SCHOOL of FIRE for FIELD ARTILLERY

FORT SILL, OKLAHOMA
PREFACE.
This text, which is an outgrowth of the course in Topography and
Orientation at the School of Fire for Field Artillery, has been written at the
instance of Col. W. H. Williams. director of instruction of the School and of
Lt. ~oL Mert Proctor, head of the Department of Reconnaissance, whose'de-
sire it was to do away with the numerous pamphlets and mimeographed
sheets heretofore used in the course, and to place the information on the sub-
ject in such form that any artilleryman might use the text for purposes
of Flelf instruction. .
Since the refinements of topography were largely neglected in the
artillery branch of the service prior to the late war it was natural that the
subject should be treated in a rather sketchy manner during U.e / early
months of the War Course at the School of Fire. .
After the publication of the translation of the Manual for the Artillery
Orientation Officer an attempt was made to use this as a text but it was out
of date in some:>respects, was i'':lund to be incomplete, and also so confusing
to the student officers, that the text was abandoned.
In the early spring of 1918 the arrival of Lt. Jean Viallet and Lt.
George Payen and later of Lt. L. Jaudoin of the French mission proved of
I great benefit in the development of the course in topography under the
) Jirection of Major J. E. Edmonds. Returning officers of the A. E. F. also
I ;ave valuable suggestions.
i
While there are innumerable works on topograph~r extant. there are

( .none, so far as the author is aware, which will satisfy the needs of the
American field artillery officer. The French have a number of publications
f but none are suitable as instruction texts for American artillery schools .
•' The same applies to instruction sheets and pamphlets from training centers.
I
1 and service schools, which, instead of going into the details of topographic
.. steps, characteristically take too much for granted.
In this work'some chapters, to an engineer. will seem unusually brief.
This is because the artillery officer does not need to go to the same detail as
•. the engineer in all of the work. On the other hand there are chapters in
his work in which the subject has been treated at great length. This is
j ~ue, for example, of Chapter II where there is an exhaustive discussion of
j ~le subject of the true mil, the artillery mil, and the tangent, and the rela-
i" :ons between them. It is believed that this has. not been undertaken in
,yother text, yet it .is absolutely ~ecessary that the artillery officer have
thorough understandmg of the subject, and of the limits within which each
lethod may be used.
The same holds true of Chapter XV dealing with dead space. The •
ajority of texts instea~ of going into any explanation of the subject or of
1 discussion and comparIson of methods. dismiss dead space with a few sen-
: tfllCeS, leaving the student mor~ confused that ever. It is true that Chapter
-' .\ Ii contains more matter than IS necessary for purposes of ordinary instruc-
Topography for Field Artillery

-iv-
tion, but it was thought advisable to clear this subject completely while it
was under consideration.
In the preparation of this work cl'edit is due to Majors C. C. Hield, ~t
L. L. Boggs; Captains C. S. Wilson, J. H. Ferris, C. S. Blomshield, L.O. ., I
Shropshire, and J. G. Faes; and to 1st Lt. John Starr Pope, all of the
Topography Section, Department of Reconnaissance to each of whom was
assigned the task of writing certain chapters.
Definitions employed in this text are those authorized by Artillery
Firing, so far as such definitions apply to this subject.
Texts used in the preparation of subject matter and of the cuts re-
quired in this work include; Artillery Firing, The Manual for the Artillery
. Orientation Officer, The Engineer Field Manual, other engineer manuals.
Spaulding's Training Manual in Topography, Map Reading and Reconnais-
sance, and the Lambert Conformal Conic Projection by Dietz. For the most
part, however, as indicated above, the subject matter is representative of the
course as developed at the School of Fire. As such it is believed that thi~
book will be of value to all artillery officers who have to instruct in the
suhject of topography or who may have to preform the topographical opera-
tiU'l'l connected with the occupation of a position.
Fort Sill, Okla., Feb. 1, 1919.
H. C. Jackson,
Major, Field Artillery, U. S. A.

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I • TABLE OF CONTENTS.
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I PREFACE. Page iii-h.

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I
CHAPTER I. Introduction. Par. 1-5

CHAPTER II. Distance And Direction. 6-75
Linear measure -.................................... 8-14
A. Metric system .....•....•........ ,...................... 8-9
B. Conversion between English and metric system 10-14
Angular measure............................................. 15-~3
A. Degree system....................................... 18-20
B. Grade system ~ ~ /'21-22
C. ~fil system............................................ 23-29
D. Conversion in angular measure....................... 30-31
E. Expl;ession of angles by tangents ............•....... 32-45
Table~howing accuracy of tangent calculation of angular
I .' .
values ; . . .. . .. .. . . 42
'I- F. Gradients 46-47
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t .. G. Per cent ..•........•.....•......•.••..•..•.......... 48-51
If H. Conversions in tangents and angular measure 52-53
Measuring instruments 54-75
C A. Scales ...........•..•............................... 54-59
J Metric measuring scale 55
,.i Triangular scale .............• :......................
1'apes and chains ......................•..............
55
57
/ Testing of edges .................•................... 58
B. r'>rotractors 60-62
C. Emergency devices ; -. . . . 63
D. Methods of construction...................... ......... 64-71
I<j. Right angles 72-75~
CHAPTElt III ~hps And Scales 76-130

The elements of a map - :..... 76-86
A. Definition 76
IJ. Classes of maps -_ -........•.... -. . . . . . . . 77
- C. Map making and map reading -.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-80
1. ~fap making......................................... 79
2. l\lap reading......................................... 80
D. Ground relations ,...................... 81-86
1. Distance ....................•.................. -..... 82
2. Direction .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3. Altitude 84
4. l\fap essentials 86
r. Topography for Field Artillerv

r
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Distances and scales 87-95
A. Definitions ..•.......................................... 87
B. Scales ".................................... 88-95
1. Representative fraction 89
2. Words and figures 90
3. Graphical scale •.............. ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-95
Map scale problems ..•..................................... , 96-130
A. Classes of problems ".. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
B. Simple rules of map scale calculations 97-103
1. ~Iap to ground 97-98
a. By R. F. . .•....•.........•............. :........ 97
b. By words and figures scales 98
2. Ground to map 99-103
a. By R. F. 100
b. By words and figures scales 101-103
C. Scale conversions................................... 104-106
D. Types of graphical scales 107-130
1. Construction of reading scales 108-111
2. \Vorking scales 112-130
a. Stride scales ,............................. 112-117
b. Mounted working scales 118-121
c. Interchange of graphical scales 122
d. Working scale graphs .•..................... 123-130
CHAPTER IV. Elevation And Ground Forms. 131-138
Ho\v shown .................•................................. 131
A. Bench marks, hachures, and contours 132-137
1. Definitions •..... ,.............................. 132-135
a. Bench mark .................•..............•.. 132
b. Hachures ........•..•..•........•.............. 133
c. Contours - :. . . . 134
2. Vertical interval ...•............................... 136
3. Critical points :............................... 137
B. Logical contouring .....•.....•.......•...........•..... 138
CHAPTER V Instruments Used In Topographic Operations. 139-170
Description and use :................ 139-170
A. Aiming circles ..................•...................... 139
B. Battery 'commander telescopes •.....•.....•........•.... 140
C. Transit ••••........................................... 141
D. Prismatic compass' .........•....••................. ... 142
E. Peigne' compass 143-147
1. To read bearings .......•.........•.......•........ 144
2. To plot this direction with the compass 145
3. To plot the direction with a protractor 146
4. To measure a slope .......•...•....•.....•.......... 147
F. Plane table •••.•..••........•..•..•. '. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 148-149
1. To level the plane table .••..•....................... 149
G. Alidades ........•.....•..............•... ;........ 150-158
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1. Triangular alidades 150
2. Sighting alidades 151
3. Leveling alidade ......•. :........................... 152
a. To measure a gradient 152
b. Laying off directions 152
4. Telescopic alidade •.......•....•.........•...... 153-158
a. To measure distance with the stadia' . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
b. Horizontal distance 156-158
fl. 'Abney level ~.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159-160
To use Abney level ...............•............. ' 160-161
I. 'Gravity clinometer 162
J. Levels ..........•........................•............ 163
K. Slope board ..•..................................... 164-165 I
L. Sito-goniolneter 166-169
1. To measure site and find the minimum range 167-168
a. Site .........•.............•................... 167
b. Minimum range ..•........... .'f................ 168
2. To measure angles and deflections 169
M. Protractors 170
CHAPTER VI. Orientation 171-180
Definitions 171
Methods of orientation...................................... 172-180
A. By a declinated table .•...•......................... 173-174
1. With declinator unattached 173
2. With declinator attached ..............•............. 174
B. By known line ............•.......•....••.......... 175-180
1. When the plane table is on a station over one of the
known points of a given line ..•....••.••.•.•.••...... 175
2. When the plane table is somewhere on. the line joining
two points of known location ~ ....••••... ~. . . . . • . . . . 176
3. By angle traverse . ........••..•...•.•............ 177
4. When known point on given line cannot be occupied 178-180
5. By resection .................•...•....•..•.•...... 180
CHAPTER VII. Traverses. 181-191-

Definition ; ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
A. Kinds of traverse ...........•........•.....•.....•..... 181
B. Instruments used 182
C. Methods of traverse ........•..•.................... 183-185
1. Fore sight-back sight method •........•.•............ 183
2. Needle traverse ...............•..••.•..•........... 184
3. Angle traverse .................•.................. 185
D. ,Measurements .••.................•.....•..•..• ;... 186-189
1. Pacing •••..•.....•............•.•..•.............. 187
2. Chaining or taping ............••..•.•..... ;......... 188
3. Stadia readings •..•............•..•...........•.. '. . 189 .
E. Special case ••••.•..•.....•......•..•.•.•....•......... 190
F. Errors in traversing ...•...............•.••••......•.... 191
Topography for Field Al'tillery
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CHAPTER
Definition
VIII. Intersection 192-195
. 192
1
A. Purpose •.••.....•...............................•... '. 193
B. Accuracy ..•..•...•••......................•.......... 194
C. The operation •••..•...........•....•..••.............. 195
To locate a point by intersection . 195
CHAPTER IX. Resection. 196-214

Definition .......••..•..••...............•.......•............. 196
Conditions which 'must be fulfilled if accurate results are to be
expected ......•..•...................••..•.................... 197
Methods of resection •.•.................................... 198-214
A. Transparent paper methcd 198-200
B. Two point method •••.............................. 201-202
1. Using a known line.......................... . . . .. . . 201
2. Using the declinator ................•............... 202
C. Three point method 203-206
Triangle of error 204-206
1. Operator's position inside triangle 204
2. Operator's station outside triangle 205-206
a. By inverse triangle method :. 205.
b. By arcs of circle8 " 206
D. Back azimuth method 207
E. Italian resection 208-212
1. The process :....... 209-211
2. The proof ;.. 212
F. British resection :.......... 213
,G. l\leasured angles 214
CHAPTER X. Measurement Of Slopes And Elevations 215-229

Discussion 215-21.6
A. Instruments used •.•••............................. ,.. 216
B. Units in which slopes are expressed 217-223
1. Degrees and minutes .. '.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 218
2. l\fils ..•..••....................................... 219
3. Percentages . ~. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4. Gradients 221
5. Tangents'.......................................... 222
Type problem 223
C. Slope scale •....................................... 224-229
1. Construction of slope scale ,225-227
a. For American map 225
b. For metric map 226-227
Degree slope ~cale ;...... 226
l\lil slope scale '. . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2. Use 'of slope scale 228-229
a. In contouring 228
b. In reading slopeR 229
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CHAPTER XI. Sketching 230-245
Position and area sketches ......................•..•.••....... 230-245
A. Characteristics ..•.•..•...•••........•.•••...••••••••.• 230
n. Technique .....•.•...•....•...........•.•.......... 231-239
1. Whole. to part method •....•........•.............. 231
2. Determination of critical' points • ~:.. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3. Information to be included •..••..................... 233.
4. Conventional signs •.•.••.•••.•••......•......•. 234-236
5. Title .••.....•..•...........••.......•............. 237
6. Border .. . . . . . •. . . . . .. . . . 238
7. Lettering :................................... 239
l-~oad sketches •••••..........................••.....•...... 240-245
A. Characteristics '. . .. . .. .•. .•. ..•.... .. . 240-241
n. Technique ••...•.••..••.....•...... :............... 242-245
1. Method of sketching •••••••••.....•............. 242-243
2. Lateral limits to be considered ..... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . • . • 244
3. Information to be included ..• :...................... 245
CHAPTER XII. Road Rep~rt • 246-253
. Information to be included ....................•..•.......... 246-249
l\:lethod of procedure ....••..•.....•..........•••..••. : .... 250-251
Making a road sketch from a road report and vice versa 252-253
CHAPTER XIII. Panoramic Sketches. 254-308
~haracteristics ....................•........•............... 254-257
rypes of sketches :......................................... 258-260
f~Hsentials .••.....•........••..........•....•.............. 261-282
A. Identification .... _..................................... 262
n. Information ........................•..........•.... 263-264
C. Drawing .••••........................••.....•..... 265-282
1. Perspective ••..••.•...............•.•...•...... 268-271
a. Parallel horizontal lines ..•...•..•...•.•........ 269
b. Parallel vertical lines ••••••..•.....•.........•.. 270
c. Parallel lines not horizontal •....... :............ 271 "-------
2. Consecutive crest lines ..•....................... 272-273
3. Broken. lines .....•.....•........•.................• 274
4. Ground slope and form 275-276
5. Shading ........................•..•........... 277-278
6. Conventional signs 279-282
:\1ethod of procedure .....................•.................. 283-307
A. Equipment .. ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . • 284.
B. Identification and orientation ......•................ 285-288
C. Analysis of the sector 289
D. Selection of reference point and horizontal control 290-292
~;. Vertical control !.......... . 293-29-1
I". Drawing in framework. A comparison of methods ... 295-298
1. First method ..........•....•.••.••••.•.......•...• . 296
2. Second method ...................•••.•.....•.•• 297-298
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G. Filling in ............•....••...... ,." •. """"", 299-300

H. Designation of targets and important points ",.",." 301-305
I. Subsketches , •.•...••. , .. " ..•..••.•..... , .. , •... ,. 306-307
l\fap and panoramic sketch .....•...................... , ..•.. ", 308
CHAPTER XIV. Visibility And Defilade. . 309-325
Definitions .",.............. . , ' :309
Visibility " , .. , ',.,... 310-316
A. Similar triangles ;., , , ". 311
B. With elastic band ." , , .. , .. , 312
C. Angle of site •.. : .........••..•....•.....•.••......... , 313
D. Graphic method , ".... 314
E .. Visibility charts " ..•......•.......... '. . . • . . . . . . . . . 315-316
Defilade .........•.•.... . ,............ 317-325
. IA. Angle of site .....• . ...•...•.•..•..... , " 318-319
1. Measured from enemy O. P. . •. , ..........• " .. "., 318
2. Measured from covering crest ,.................. 31t}
B. l>rofiles.. .•.••......•......•..... , , , 320
C. Table of defilade •.....•..•......•....•................ 321
D. Type problems ...............•........•............. 322-325
1. First problem " ,.... 323
2. Second problem ............••..........••. '. . . . . . . . . 324
3. Third problem , .•.............. , ..•.... , , 323
CHAPTER XV. Minimum Elevation, Minimum Range And Dead Space
326-389
G~neral .... ,., .................•......... '•......... , .•. , • . . 326-328
Determination of minimum elevation and range , ,... 329-344
A. Steps of calculation .•................................ ,. 331
B. Effect of ground forms , " 332-336
1. Level terrain ., ..•....•................. , .. , .. , 332-333
2. Irregular terrain ...........•....... ,........... 334-335
3, Effect of slopes ..", , .. ,.,." "."", 336
C. Accuracy .......•••..........•........• ,.......... . 337 -338
D. Type problems ............................•.•..•.. 339-344
Example 1 .....•..•........•.•...............•...... " 339
Example 2 ...........••...•...................•....... , 340
Example 3 ••.•..••....•..•..•••••.•••..••..•.•... ,.... 341
Example 4 ••. " ...•. ,., ...••••• , .......•........ ,."" 342
Example 5 ...•............•..•..••...........•...... ,. 343
Determination of dead space , .• , , , , .•..... , 345-389
A. Limits of dead space , , .....••..• '" .....•. " . , ...•. , 346
B. Dead space charts •..•••.••.•.•.•..••.• , ..•••...... ,... 347
C. Methods of determination ..••.• , ••. , •.. , ....• , ,. 348
,D. Comparison of angles •.•.....•••... , ...•.• "....... 349-355
1. Tangent slope scal~ .......•...... ,............. 352-353
2. Use of tangent scales •.•..•... , , ".. 354-335
E. Allowable limits ..•.•...•........... " """".. 356-3»7
F. Accuracy .•••. , :."." ,'. , , , , , , ., . , , . , , . , . , . . ~r)g
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G. Calculation method . :359-374.
1. Steps to be taken 359
2. _Type cases .....•.....•.................•...... 360-374
Case I. Level ground .:........................ 360-~G2
Example 1. Trees on level ground.......... '361.362
Case II. Ground sloping downward ;36;3-.36G
Example 2. Trees on dovmward slope 364-~65
Example 3 Downward slope beyond ridge 366
Case III. Ground sloping upward ••............ 367-370
Example 4. Trees on upward slope 368-36:)
Example 5. Upward slope beyond ridge........ 3'7(1
Case IV. All around method on regular and irregular
ground '........... ............•••............ 371-374
Example 6. Rolling ground beyond ridge ... 372-374
H. Graphical method ...........................•...... 375-382
Method 376-380
Example 1 ~ .......... a81-~&2 '
I. Graphical method with slope of fall chart 383-385
Example 2. • ................•..................... ,... 3S4
J. Graphical method with special charts 386-389
1. Description of the graph 3R7
2. Use of graph ....•............................. 383-::189
CHAPTER XVI Map Projections. 390-397

, Definition 390
Kinds of projection 391-397
A. Mercator's projection 391
D. Polyhedral projection 392
C. Conic projection ................•...................... 393
D. Polyconic projection :.............. . , 394
E. Donne projection 395
F. Lambert projection ..................•............. 396-397
CHAPTER XVII l\Iaps. 398-417

Preparation of maps 398-404 ~
A. Triangulation system •.....•..•.......•.........•.. 398-399
B. Range triangulation detachment.. .....••............ 400-401
C. Service of information .............•...••........•.. 402-404
Maps of various countries ...........•.......••.•...••...... 405-417
A. French maps .•...•............•..•.....•••••....•• 405-415
1. History of French maps 405-410
2. Battle maps (Plan Directeur) ......•••........... , 411-415
a. 1/20,000 .•••••.•..•••••.•••.•••••••••••......• 412
b. 1/10,000 •••..••••..•••••••••••••••••.•.....•.. 413
c. 1/5,000 ..•..•...•.•.•..•••••••••••••....•.•.•• 414
, B. Maps of Belgium ...•................... :.............. 416
C. Maps of Germany ..•.............•. ,.................. 417
D. British maps (See Appendix II.) •..........•..•.... 630-635
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CHAPTER XVIII. The Lambert Grid. 418-430
Origin ..............•.......................•.......•........ 418
1
Coordinates . . .. . . . . .• . . .. .. . . 419-426
A. Coordinates of origin ,.............................. 420
B. Complete coordinates .•....•...................... '..... 421
C. Reduced hectometric coordinates .......•............ 422-424
1. Error introduced ...........•..............•..•....• 423
D. Plotting points..................................... 425-426
Convergence of meredians ........•...........•.••..•.•..... 427-429
Y-Azimuth ...........•....••.....•.......•••..•......•.... 430
CHAPTER XIX. Use Of Grid In Map l~eading And Map Firing. 431-449
Advantages of the grid ...........•......................... 431-449
A. Method of plotting a point 432-433
1. When ruler graduations are longer than the distance
bet\veen grids .....•....•............••............. 432
2. 'Vhen the ruler graduations are too small 433
B. Methcd of reading the coordinates of a point 434-437
,1. When the rule is correctly scaled 434
2. When the scale is too large ...........•............ 435
3. When the scale is too small ..••.•.....•.....•....... 436
4. 'With the right angled rule 437
C. Plotting directions ......•....•..................... 438-444
1. By Y-azimuth ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,438
2. By coordinates ................•................ 439-444
a. ' By auxiliary points ..............•............. 441
b. By similar triangles ........•...•............... 442
c. By reduced similar triangles .................•... 443
d. By reversing direction •.••....•••.•.......•.... 444
D. Determination of range and Y-azimuth by coordinates.. 445-447
1. Range by square root 445
2. Direction ...•.......•..........•..••..•••..•... 446-447
E. To locate on the ground a point the coordinates of which
are given 448-449
CHAPTER XX. The Compass. 450-469

General ...................................•..................• 450
North .......................•............•................ 451-454
Azimuth ................................................•. 452
l\Iagnetic bearing .....•.....•.....•.......•........... '. • . • 453
Y-azimuth ................................•..•..•......•.. 454
Declination '. . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 455-466
A. Magnetic declination ..•....... .'...................... 455-459
1. :Magnetic variations ...........•........•..•......•.. 457
2. Use. of isogonic chart 458-459
B. Compass declination ........•...... :................ 460-467
1. Sighting on pole star .........•.•..•••...........••• 461
Topograpny for F'jcld Artillery
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2.
Usmg sun to establish meridian ..•.................. 462
3.
Comparison of azimuths and bearings 463
4.
Re2ding bearings of sun or of a star ••••.•.••.... 464-465
5.
Declination constant .....•..•..•.....•...•...... 466-467
Y-Declination •.•.•.•.•......•...........•.•....... 467
Use of compass and map ...•.•..•....•..•••..•..••..... .... . 468-469
A. To find magnetic bearing on a map witp. a protractor ..... 468
B. l\iagnetic resection •.•.••.••.....•.. •..•••••••.•.•..•. ... 469
CHAPTER XXI. Laying Guns 'Vith A Declinated Instrument. 470-482
Using prismatic compass ...•••.•••.•.••.•.••...••.•.••.•... 470-482
A. To determine the compass bearing of a target........ 470-472
Off-set method ..... -..... .. .•• . .•. .•.•••••.•.••.... . 471-472
B. Laying guns with bearing determined. ... .•.•..•• . .. . 473-482
1. Lining in •.••.•.•... : •••...•.•. ~................... 474
2. Using compass as aiming point •..••.•••••.•..•. 475-482
Using aiming circle or prismatic compass and magic number method
of laying (See Chapter XXV). ~
CHAPTER XXII. Typical Battery Sector. 483-523

Terms, definitions and diagrams ...••..•.••........ / . 483-523
CHAPTER XXIII. Maps And Records. Of Artillery Sector. 524-543
Classes of records ..•.•..................•.......•.....•.. 524-543
A. Maps and charts ••.•.•........•••••....•..•..•.... 525-538
1. Battle maps of sector ....•......••.•.......•..•.... 525
2. Charts .•.•.•.......••..•.•...•..•.........•... 526-538
a. The firing chart' •. . • . . • • • . . • . • . . • . • • • • . • . . . . 526-527
b. Range and deflection fan .••....••.••..••.•..•... 528
c. Position chart •..•...••••••.•.•••••••..••••••.. 529
d. Auxiliary position ..•...•.••.••..•.•..••••••..• 530
e. General system of communication .• :............ 531
f. Chart of visible and invisible areas •.•.•...•.... 532
g. Chart of dead space •....•.••..••••.•.••.•.• 533-534
h. Combined charts •.••.•..••...••..•••••...•• 535-538
B. Written records •.•....•...•..•.•••.•...•••••.•• :.. 539-543 ~
a. B. C. data book................................ 539
b. Ammunition record ..•..••....••.•..•..••....•• 540
c. Target sheet •••..••...••••..••.••..••••••••... 541
CHAPTER XXIV. Topographical Operations In Occupation Of A
Battery Sector. 544-558
General ••••....•.............•....•..•....••.•••••.........•.• 544
Gun position •..•..........••.••.•.••.•••••.•••.•••..••.•..•• 545-549
A. When coordinates of gun position can be read directly from
map •.•••••••......••.••.•••••..•.••••..•.••••••• ~• • . • 545
B. When gun position cannot be identified on map .•..... 546-549
1. Using geodetic point ••.••••••••.••••.• -............. . 547
2. By resection .•••.•.•.•••••••...•.••......••••••.... 548
3. By an orienting point ....••...•.•.••••••...........• 549
-xiv-
Base point or target 550-551

, A. When base point may not be determined from map 550
B. Determination of direction to target or base point 551
Aiming point •..•..•....•..............•..•................ 552-558
. A. Determining direction to aiming point ......•............ 552
. "B. The orienting line 553-558
, 1. Two types of orienting line .......•.............. 554-556
2. Typical. case ".. .. ... .. . . . . . . .. . . 557-558
CHAPTER XXV. Laying The Guns On Base Line. 559-597
Steps performed. in occupation of a sector 559-561
Establishment of base piece on base line '..... 562-597
A. Staking out ..........................•................ 563
B. Drill regulation method 564
C. Using topographical methods 565-597
Classes of topographical methods ............•....... 566-597.
First class. Plane of sight through points located by
coordinates 567-574
1. Errors ' 568-571
a. First case, using direction established by
point plotted by coordinates 570
b. Second case; using a direction 571
2. Methods of checking 572-574
a. First method 573
b. Second method 574
Second class. Plane of sight determined by an
established direction 575-597
1. Direct orientation 575-582
a. Using plane table 575
b. U sing aiming circle 576-582
2. Orientation by means of an orienting line. . 583-597
a. Advantages of an orienting line 583
b. Steps to be performed .......•......... 584
I. Determination of base angle........ 585
II. Laying on base line with aiming
circle ......................•...... 586-595
First case......................... 587
Second cas~ 588-595
Method No.1. 589-590
Method No.2 :. 591-595
III. Laying on base line using a plane
table 596
. CHAPTER XXVI. The Observation Post 598-609
General facts 598
Functions and classes of O. P.s 599-602
A. Intelligence O. P.s ..............•....................... " 600
B. Command O. P.'s .......................•............. 601
C.. Firing O. P.'s .•....................................... 602
-xv-
Methods of establishing an O. P. ..............••.•........... 603-607
A. Reconnaissance •....................•................. ". 603 .
B. Preliminary topographical operations ..•..•••........... 604
C. Determination .of origin line ........•.••..••........... 605
D. Construction and consolidation •.••.•.••••••.•.••.. ~.. '.' . 606
. E. Determination of registration marks or targets .... :..... 607
Records kept at O. P. ............•....•..•....••••.•........ 608-609
Plan of observation :\................. 609
CHAPTER XXVII. Locating Targets. 610-617
Terrestrial observation 610
Comparison of methods 611-617
CHAPTER XXVIII. Duties Of Various Officers In Position
'Warfare. 618-625
General 618
A. Brigade commander ..•...............•.................. 619
n. Regimental commander .............•...• ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
C. Battalion commander :................. 621-623
D. Battery commander ................•............... 624-625
APPENDIX.'
Appendix I. Slopes. 626-629
Practicability of' slopes 626
Practicable depths of fords .••.......•...•.••.............. 627
Strength of ice ..•.....•.....•.....•....•......•.•......... 628
Length of pace on slopes .....•..• ~......................... 629
J\ ppendix n. British Maps. 630-635
British coordinates ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630-631
The grid system .................•.........••..•....••.• 632-634
The North point ~ 634
Designation of sheets ...........•..•..•.••••.•............. 635
Appendix III. Table Of Natural Functions. 636
Appendix IV. Circular Measure. 637-638
"Conversion tables ............•.....•.....•.•........... 637-638 '--
A. Mils in terms of degrees and tangents 637
B. Degrees in terms of mils and tangents •.•........... 638
.Appendix V. Reduction Of Stadia Readings. 639-641
Appendix VI. Azimuth Of Polaris. 642
Tovography for Field Artillery

TOPOGRAPHY FOR FIELD ARTILLERY.
CHAPTER I•.~:
INTRODUCTION.
IMPOI{TANCE OF TOPOGRAPHY TO FIELD ARTILLERY OFFICERS.
1. Topography, in general, is "the exact and scientific delineation ano
rlescription in minute detail of any place or region" (Webster's New Inter-
national Dictionary). Military topography delineates and describes all the
physical features of military importance of a place or region. The science
i~ used by every branch of the service in the disposition and maneuvering
of its forces, both combat and non-combatant. Topography is especially
important in the artillery, where it is used not only for maneuvering and
other general purposes, but for the preparation and conduct of fire. For
this purpose a high degree of accuracy is essential, requiring exact methods
not usually necessary in ordinary work.
2. The extensive use of topography in connection with artillery firing'is
a deve]opement of the late European War, which was largely a war of posi-
tion. Batteries frequently remained for long periods of time in fixed posi-
tions, making it possible to study the terrain thoroughly and to locate posi-
tions and objectives on maps accurately and in great detail. By means of
topographical measurements on map and ground, very accurate data for
opening fire could be prepared, and the first shots dropped close to the target.
,'educing the labor of adjustment to a minimum, saving much valuable time
and ammunition, and gaining an immeasurable advantage by surprising the
the enemy with a sudden and effective fire. The advantage of this was es-
pecially apparent in crowded sectors where many batteries were firing at
the same time. Unless a battery could place its first shots close to the tar-
get it was difficult for the observer to distinguish them from those of other
batteriei. Another important use of topographical methods was found in
the designation and identification of targets for observation, both aerial a~
terrestrial.
Thus firing \vith. data obtained from the map came to be used rather
frequently. Even in rapid advances to new positions, much firing was done
on known enemy positions from the map alone. as it was sometimes impos-
sible to seCUl'e observation in the broken and fireswept zones over which
the advance was made. Of course adjustment always was secured when-
ever possible by aerial or terrestrial observation, but with accurate map~
and calibrated guns, fire with considerable effect could be delivered al-
most immediately on the occupation of a new position. without waiting for
obsE'rvation. The value of this procedure in harassing a retreating enemy or
in surprising him at any time is very great.
3. It is by no means to be understood that the new methods of prepara-
tion a~d conduct of fire have supplanted the methods of open warfare.
...
-2-
These methods always will be required in rapid preliminary operatioJ'l'i and
at various stages during the combat. Where no accurate maps are available
terrestrial observation or open warfare methods must be used. However
when operations are continued for any leng-th of time in the s;J:~e tPl'l'itory,
surveys can be made and maps prepared for firing purposes. The artillery
which fails to do this is neglecting an important opportunity. A good artil-
lery commander should understand the application of all methods, and take
the fullest advantage of every opportunity to improve the effectiveness of his
fire. To this end a thorough knowledge of topography is essential.
4. Topographical information is recorded chiefly in graphical form, sup-
plemented by written or printed explanations and reports. Topographica.l
records include maps and position charts, roads and area sketches, panoramic
sketches, road and reconnaissance reports, visibility and dead space charts, and
any other forms of records which may be necessary to furnish the required in-
formation. The essentials of a good topographical record of any kind are:
First, it must contain all possible information of military value for the
purpose which it is designed to serve, considering first the most important,
and omitting irrelevant matters which cause confusion.
Second, it must be accurate to the degree required for its purpose.
Third, it must be clear and legible, presenting its information in such
form that it can be readily understood and used.
In conveying the desired information on maps and sketches, the to-
p~grapher or cartographer very largely makes use of a system of conven-
tional signs, which, in reality, are graphs of the thing represented. These
conventional signs are much the same in all services. See Chapter XI.
5. An officer need not be an expert surveyor, draftsman, or artist in order
to make use of topography. The methods used are comparatively simple,
and much of the work can be, and commonly is, done by trained enlisted men.
Where extensive surveys are required they are made by the engineers. In
training for topography, the practical value of the work should be constantly
emphasized, every step should be illustrated with practical examples, and no
subject should be left until its application is thoroughly understood.
Note: Where the term artillery is used in this text it is understood
that field artillery is meant.
TOpOgraphy for Field Artillery

CHAPTER II •
. DISTANCE AND DIRECTION.
'~.
MEASUREMENT AND SYSTEMS OF MEASURE.

6. The artiller; topographer must be thoroughly familiar with the differ-
ent systems of linear and angular measure used in field artillery, and must
be able to make accurate measurements. Detailed methods will be discussed
later. ,
7. One of the aims of artillery- topography is to save the waste resulting
from inaccurate methods. Hence accuracy should be striven for in all work,
and every effort made to eliminate sources of error. However, it is useless
to carry either measurements or calculations to a greater degree of refinement
than is requh'ed for the use for which the results ~e intended.
. For example, it is possible from an accurate map to' calculate site to
a minute or a fraction of a mil. If an accurate quadrant is to be used for
laying the gun, one graduated to minutes or fractions of mils, such close eal- .
calculation is d~sirable. However, with ordinary materiel graduated only to
even mils, it is useless to calculate closer than the nearest mil. Nor in any
case, is it worth while to calculate closer than the least setting of the range
~cale or quadrant of the the particular gun being used. Exceptions to this
may arise where several small calculations are to be combined, the total of
the fractions if taken together making an appreciable amount, but it is a _
was~e of time to carry a calculation to several decimal places which cannot
be used, especially if there is a possible error in any of the measurements
on which the calculation is based. The result of a calculation is never more
accurate than the least accurate factor which enters into it.
Again, in measuring ranges on a map, a skilled man can measure' with
a good scale to the nearest meter, or even to fractions of a meter on large
scale maps. But if the map itself is inaccurate, due to faulty printing, shrink-
ate, etc., such close measurement would be needless. On the other hand,
in"performing resections or other surveying operations on a plane table with....
an accurate grid, a high degree of accuracy is possible, and every measure-
ment should be made with the greatest care in order to make the total error
of the operations as small as possible. .
Each operation should be studied to determine what degree of accuracy
is required, always bearing in mind, first, the use for which the result of the
operation is intended, and second, the possibilities of the instruments with
Which the operation is performed.
LINEAR MEASURE.
8. The metric system of linear measure is now used by the artillery of
practically all nations, including the United States. However, our old ma-
teriel is graduated in yards, and many of our maps, manuals, tables, and
other documents to which the artilleryman must refer use the .old English
\ -4-
units of measure. Hence it is necesary not only to know the metric system,
but to be able to convert, readily, one system into another. It is assumed
that the old English system already is well known, so it will not be treated
in detail.
A. METRIC SYSTEM.
Latin
prefixes
t* Milli-
*Centi-
=
=
1/1000
1/100
or
or
.001
.01
Abbreviations
mm.
em.
Deci- 1/10 or .1 dm.
*Meter -= 1, Base -Unit. M.(orm.)

.
Greek
f Deka-
Hecto-
=
=
10
100
times
times
Dm.
Hm.
prefixes *Kilo- -- 1000 times Km.
Myria- 10000 times Mm.
*Units in most common use .
. Note that the abbreviations of the units larger than the meter are cap-
italized, while small letters are used for the smaller units. The standard
abbreviation for meter is a small "m", but in artillery work a capital "M"
should be used to distinguish it from the sign "tft" for mil. •
9. Care should be taken to distinguish the Greek prefix "deka", 10 times,
from the Latin "deci",(pronounced "desi"), 1/10. "Deka" is sometimes
spelled "deca" (but pronounced "deka"), especially in France, so the only
certain means of distinction is in the "a" and the "i" and in the pronunciation.
These prefixes are used more frequently in the gmde system of angular
measure than in linear measure. .
B.CONVERSION BETWEEN ENGLISH AND METRIC SYSTEMS.

10. Base Equivalent: 1 meter =
39.37 inches (practically exact).
This is the most important equivalent to remember, as any conversion
can be made through it (reducing English distances to inches and metri~
distances to meters) and any other desired equivalent can be derived from it.
11. The length of the standard international meter has been fixed with
great precision, but the authorities dit1'er slightly as to its equivalent in
English measure. The above value of 39.37 inches is the legal standard equiv-
alent for the United States, by act of Congress, July 28, 1866. The official
British Board of Trade equivalent is 39.370113 inches. Other values have
been determined by different scientists, some larger and some smaller than
89.37, but the variation between them is very slight. 39.37 is so close to the
average that it may be accepted as a practically exact equivalent. It differs
from the English standard by only .000113 inch, or a ratio of about 1 unit
in 350,000, which is negligible except for the most delicate scientific measure-
ments.
Note: The standard meter is 1/10,000,000 of the quadrant of the
earth measured along a meridian.
12. Following are other useful equivalents derived from the base equiv-
alent.
Centimeters to inches; 1 em. =
.3937 in.
-5-
This is practically exact, being simply 1/100 of the base equivalent.
Inches to centimeters: 1 in. = 2.54 em.
Practically exact. Derivation: 1 M. = 100 em. = 39.37 in.
1 in.=100+-39.37=2.540005 em:, or 2.54 within a negligible error .
. Meters to yards: 1 M. = 1.09-1 yds.
Sufficiently accurate. for aU artillery purposes. Error amounts to about
+.00039 yd., or a l"atio of 1 in 2800 :M or 3.6 in 10,000, negligible for artillery
work. If closer results are desired use 1.0936.
Derivation: 1, M. = 39.37 in. 1 yd. = 36 in.
1M. = 39.37 +- 36 = 1.093611 or 1.094 yds.
Yards to meters: 1 yd. = .914 M.
Sufficiently accurate for all artillery purposes. Error amounts to about
-- .0004 M., or a ratio of 1 in 2500 M or 4 in 10,000, negligible for artiller)'
work. If closer results are desired, use .9144.
Derivation: 1 yd. = 36 +- 39.37 = .9144018 or .914 M.
Meters to feet: 1 M. = 3.28 ft.
Sufficiently accurate for all artillery purposes. ~Error amounts to about
- .00083 ft., or a ratio of 1 in 4,000 M or 2.5 in 10,000, negligible for artillerr
work. If closer results are desired, use 3.2808.
Derivation: 1.•ft. = 12 in. 1 M. = 39.37 +- 12 = 3.28083 or 3.28 ft.
l<'eet to meters: 1 ft. = .305 M.
Sufficiently accurate for all artillery purposes. Error amounts to about
+ .0002 M., or a ratio of 1 in 5,000 M or 2 in 10,000, negligible for artiller)'
work. If closer results are desired, use .3048.
Derivation: 1 ft. = 12 +- 39.37 = .304800 or .305 M.
13. The foregoing abbreviated values are the same as those published a~
standards for general use by the U. S. Bureau of Standards.
Mistakes in making conversions can be avoided by checking all results
by inspection, first deciding which factor to use, and then obtaining an ape
proximate result by a quick mental calculation.
For example, in converting yards to meters, the result in meters will
be smaller, because it will take fewer meters to reach the same distance (a
me~eJ;;being longer than a yard). Hence use the smaller equivalent, .914, not
1.094. One of the most common mistakes is in taking the wrong equivalent.
l'rom this equivalent it appears that the result in' meters should be about
9/10 of (or 1/10 less than) the amount in yards. Thus, 1000 yds.X:914
==914 M., which checks with the approximation.
Again, in converting inches to centimeters, the result will be larger,
, because it will take more centimeters to reach the same distance. Hence
use the larger equivalent, 2.54. not .3937. From this equivalent it appears
that the result in centimeters should be about 2 1/2 times the amount in
inches. Thus, 2 in.X2.54=5.08 em., which checks with the approximation.
14. In order to cultivate facility in thinking and estimating distances in
metric units, it is convenient to bear in mind the following approximate
relations.
1 meter = about 40 inches, which is 4 inches, or, about 1/10,
greater than a yard.
Hence distance in meters is about 1/10 less than distance in yards
Topography for Field Artillel')'

I -6-
(since it will take fewer meters to reach the same distance). To get meters
from yards. subtract 1/10.
Conversely, distance in yards is about 1/10 greater than distance in
meters. To get yards from meters, add 1/10.
1 centimeter = about 4/10 inch.
10 centimeters (1 decimeter) =
about 4 inches.'
1 inch = about 2~ centimeters, or 25 millimeters.
1 foot = about 30 centimeters, or 3 decimeters.
1 millimeter =
about 2/3 of a sixteenth of an inch.
1 kilometer =
about 5/8 mile.
The above equivalents are close enough for rough approximations,
such as estimating distances in open warfare, but for all exact topographical
work the standard equivalents should be used.
ANGULAR MEASURE.
15. An angle is measured by the included arc of a circle. the center of
which is at the vertex of the angle. It is immaterial how large the circle
is or how long the sides of the angle are, because angular measure is not
a measure of distance or area, but is an expression of the proportion be-
tween the part of the circle included within the angle and the Whole. circle.
This proportion remains the same for any given angle, whatever the size of
the circle.
16. By dividing the circle into a convenient number of equal parts, a
system of angular measure is obtained. This is sometimes called circular
measure, as it is used to measure the relative size of arcs of circles as well
as angles. The artilleryman is more concerned with angles than with arcs .
.so the term angular measure is preferable.
In all systems, use is made of the
main divisions of the circle and the clas-
sification of angles based thereon. The
circle is divided into four equal parts
or quadrants, each of which is included
within a right angle.
Two right angles make a straight
angle or semicircle. Four right angles
make a round angle or complete circle.
C Any angle less than a right angle is an
acute angle. An angle greater than a
right angle and less than a straight
A- RIGJiT-AI'JGLE,QVADRANT angle is an obtuse. angle. An angle
1 greater than a. straIght angle and less
5- .sTRAI~HT.ANqL[,J[M1CIRCLE:. than a round angle is a reflex angle.
C'ROVf.JD.ANGL[ CIRCLE. All forms will be met frequ~ntly in
Fig. 1. artillery work.
'Topography for Field Artillery

-7- "
--JiL I
I
I
I
AC\lTE:AN~LE: "
~
I
I
I
OBTV,SE.ANC1LE
-;;p- ~ I
REFLEX ANGLES
I
Fig. 2.
17. There are three standard systems of angul~r measure in common use;
the degree system, the grade system, and the artillery mil system. The mil
system is used to a greater or less extent by the artillery of practically all
naticm.. and in time it probably will replace the other systems entirely for
artillery use, on account of its greater convenience. However, it often will
be necessary to make use of surveys, maps, tables, etc., in which the other
units are used, so the artilleryman must be familiar with all systems and
be able to convert readily one form to the other.
A. DEGREE SYSTEM.~'
18. Called sexagesimal because subdivided by 60's.
Base unit: Degree = 1/360 of a circle.
60" (seconds) =1' (minute)
60' =1 (degree) =3600"
0
90° =1 quadrant or right angle

180° =1 semicircle
360° =1 circle=21,600'=1.296,000".
This is the old standard system used by the navigators. astronomers,
and surveyors of all nations. In France and other Latin countries it has
been largely replaced by the grade system, although the old unit still is used
to s'ome extent. The old system is largely used in the British artillery.
19. Modifications of the standard subdivisions are found in the artillery of
different nations. In the French heavy artillery a unit of 1/20 degree (3'),
or 1/7200 of a circle, is used for laying certain types of guns for elevation.
On some German heavy guns 1/16 degree, or 1/5760 of a circle, is used.
The notation of seconds(") is seldom used in artillery, fractions of
mjnutes being indicated by decimals where necessary. ./
Thus: 12° 13.8', instead of 12 13' 48". . 0
"'--
20. In calculating with quantities in the degree system, especially in mak-
ing conversions, it usually is more convenient to convert the entire quantity
into degrees and decimals.
Thus: 13::13' 48" = 12.+ ~~ + 3:~0 = 12 + .217 +'.013 = 12.23°.
Or: 12° 13.8' = 12 + 1: 8 0 = 12.23°.
To re-convert to the regular notation:

12.23°=12° + +
(.23X 60') =12° 13.8'=12° 13' (.8X 60") =12°13' 48".
The advantage of the other systems, using' decimal subdivisions, is
obvious.

-8-
E. GRADE' SYSTEM.
21. Called centesimal because subdivided by 100's.
Base unit: Grade =1/100 of a quadrant or 1/400 of a circle. (Some-
times spelled, "grad")
100......(seconds) = 1'" (minute)
100'" = 1 g. (grade) = .10,000......
100g = 1 quadrant
200g = 1 semicircle
400g = 1 circle = 40,000'"=4;000,000"
The signs for centesimal minutes and seconds are inclined backward
to distinguish them from the sexagesimal notations. .
Any expression in this system may be handled as a decimal simply
by putting a decimal point in place of the ~jgn "g". Thus: 3g95'" 80" =3.958g.
It must be remembered. however, that the subdivisions are by hundredths,
not tenths. Hence if the figure for either minutes or seconds is less than
10, a cipher must be put in front of it before pointing off. For this reason
a cipher should always be p~t in front of a single minute or second digit
even in the regular notation. Thus: 3g4' 7" =3.0407g, and should therefore be
written 3g04' 07". •
This is the standard system used by French. navigatol's, astronomers,
and surveyors, although they still make use of the old degree system to
some extent.
22. The following modificatio'1s of the standard system are used in the'
French artillery:
To indicate wind direction:
1 dekagrade (or decagrade) =10 grades (Abbreviation Dg.).
10 dekagrades=1 quadrant.
40 dekagrades=l circle ..
I'~or laying certain types of heavy guns:
1 decigrade=1/10 grade=10' (abbreviation dg.)
1000 decigrades=l quadrant.
4000 decigrades=l circle.
Note carefully the distinction between the spelling and abbreviations
of the two units.
C. MIL SYSTEM.
23. Base unit: MiI=1/6,400 of a circle. Abbreviation "1!1-".
1,6.001jt=1 quadrant.
3,2001jt.=1 semicircle.
6,4001ft=1 circle.
There are no subdivisions of the mil. Fractions or decimals are used
where required.
24. The size of the mil unit was determined by taking the angle which
sub tends an arc 1/1,000 of the radius. The angle whose arc is equal to the
radius is called a radian. A true mil is therefore 1/1,000 of a radian. In
a complete circle there are 2 'II' =6.28318. radians. There are, therefore
6.283.18 true mils in a circle. This is an odd number which cannot be sub-
divided conveniently. The nearest number which can conveniently be sub-
,
-9-
divided is 6,400, and 1/6,400 of a circle was therefore adopted as the artillerr
mil. Its value is so close to that of the true mil that in ordinary calcul~tion
the difference may be disregarded, and it may be assumed that the artillery
mil subtends .001 of the radius or distance. However, if an instrument
graduated in artillery mils is to be used for stadia measurements or other
fine work, the exa.ct value 9f the arc subtended by the artillery mil should
be taken as the basis for computing tables or other calculations. This value
is:
6~~~;8 X.001=.0009817 of the radius.

25. The Rimailho mil s:rstem takes 1/6,000 of a circle as the working
mil, called the R-mil. Its value is not so close to that of the true mil as
1/6,400, and it is little used.
26. The advantage of the -mil system over others for artillery
work is that angles in mils, within certain limits, can be calculated directly
from linear distances. For small angles, up to 330 mils, the arc subtended b~
the angle is practically equal to its tangent, maki,'lg it possible to use the
tan~('nt, a straight line, in connection with. the radius, as a measure of tht,
angle, instead of the arc. The great majority of angles requiring such cal-
culation in artillery work are less than 330 mils. For an explanation of the
reasons for this limit, see par. 37, under Expression of Angles by Tangents.
27. To illustrate the mil graphically, in fig. 3 let OA=l,OOO of any linear
unit, say meters, and arc AB=l meter. Then angle AOB=l mil. Tangent
f'----,:-
I
[' 4.t;'ETER5
--:--r I
2.ME:TERS
_-1_i_
o D
Fig. 3
AB', perpendicular to OA, is practically equal to the are, and may also be
taken as one meter long. If another mil is added, making the angle AOe, 2
mils, then arc Ae or tangent AC' is 2 meters, and so on within the defined
Ii••
lit. If the sides of the angles are extended to 2,000 meters, at D, then ar~
DE or tangent DE' of the 1 mil angle is 2 meters, DF or DF' of the 2 mil
angle is 4 meters,. and so on, the arc or tangent always having a length or
1/1,000 of the radius for every mil of the angle.
28. The mil relation may be expressed in three ways, with which everr
artilleryman must be familiar. In fig. 4, let tjJ be any angle in mils within
W{l60)
L(800)
Fig. 4.
Topography lor Field Artiller)'
-10-
the limit of 330 mils, L any radius or length, and W any tangent or width,
perpendicular to L. Then:
W ( • • 1,000 W)
(1) 1ft = 1/1,000 L sometimes wrItten -L--
For example, let W=160 meters and L 800 meters.
160 160 .
Then 1ft = 1/1,000 X800 =- -:s
= 200 mIls.
. . 1ftX L
(2) W = 1ft X 1/1,000 L (sometimes wrItten 1,000 )
This is the most common form, being used constantly in calculating deflection
offsets, deflection differences, site, etc. The other two forms may be derived
readily from it by transposing the terms. This equation may be used for
find~ng the linear width of a target when the angular width can be
measured or estimated, and for similar purposes. For example, using the
above figures, W=200X1/1,OOOX800=200X.8=160 meters.
. W . . 1,000 W
(3) 1/1,000 L = ---:;;-
1,,, (sometimes WrItten
\ L = --,.-1-)
,,~
Used principally in calculating ranges to targets or other objects of known
linear width whose angular width can be measured, etc.
For example, 1/1,000 L= 160 =.8, and L=800.
200
Some artillerymen prefer the forms given in parentheses, but most
find it simpler to use the form::::first given, always thinking of L in units of
1,000. Thus, 800 meters=.8, as above; 4,600=4.6, etc.
This method of calculating angles and distances may be called the
tangent method, since it is based on the tangent ratio. See par. 32, under
Expression of Angles by Tangents.
29. The same method may be applied, though less conveniently, to the de-
gree, grade, or any other angular unit, by taking, instead of 1,000, the length
Fig. 5.
of radius at which the unit considered subtends a tangent of 1. For the de-
gree this length is 57.3. Applying this in the same way as 1,000 was applied
for the mil, we have the following relations for the degree, fig. 5.

-11-
W 57.3W
(1) Deg. = 1/57.3 L (or -L-)
, Deg.XL
(2) W = Deg. X1/57.3 L (or 57.3 )
W 57.3 \V
(3) 1/57.3 L. = Deg.' (or L = Deg.)
L is thus considered to be divided into irnit lengths of 57.3 instead of
1,000. In calculating with grades, use 63.66, the length of radius at which
1 grade subtends a tangent of 1. To find this length for any angular
umt, take the reciprocal of the tangent of that unit.
1
Thus: Tan l,jz = .001. :ooI = 1000.
1
Tan 1
0
= .0174551. .0174551 = 57.2899or 57.3.
1
Tan Ig = .0157093. .0157093 = 63.6567 or 63.66.
The limits for these forms of calculation are .about 11
degrees or 15! grades.
These limits are somewhat less than the artillery mil limit of 330 mils. For
an explanation of this, see par. 38-39 under Expression of Angles by Tan-
gents. The inconvenience of these forms of calculation as compared with
mil calculations, using even thousands, is obvious. They are useful, however,
for calculating slopes in degrees or grades directly from distances and alti-
tUdes. although it is practically as convenient to calculate the angle in mils
and convert to degrees or grades by means of the equivalents.
D. CONVERSIONS IN ANGULAR MEASURE.

Base Equivalents:
;jOt 1 Circle=3600=400g=64001ft.
1 Quadrant=900=100g=16001/ ••
Any desired equivalent can be derived from the above, if the sub-
divisions are known. Following are the special equivalents which will be
found most useful:
Degrees to mils: 1°=17.781/1.
Close enough for all artillery purposes.
Derivation: JO=6400+360=17.777 •.• 01' 17.781/t. ~
Mils to degrees: 11/.=.05625° exactly.
Derivation: l1/t =360+6400=.05625 0.
Minutes to mils 1'=.296,/1.

Close enough for all artillery purposes.
Derivation: 90°=5400'=16001/1. 1'=1600+5400=.296296 ... 01' .2961/t.
Mils to minutes: 1,/t=3.375' exactly, or roughly 3 1/3'.
Derivation: 1,/1=5400+1600=3.375'.
, Frequently used in calculating site in minutes. For all ordinary work
it is close enough to calculate in mils and multiply by 3 1/3.
Grades to degree or degrees to grades: Ig=.9° exactly.
Derivation: Ig=90+100=.9°. To convert grades to degrees multiply
by .9; degrees to grades, divide by .9.. This is easier and more accurate than
using 1°=1.111 •.• g.
Grades to mils or mils to grades: Ig=16,/. exactly.
TOpOgrllPhy for Field Artillery

-12-
Derivation: 100g=1600, 1g=1600+100=16tjf.
To convert grades to mils, multiply by 16; mils to grades, divide by 16.
This is easier than using 1tjf=.0625g, which, however, is also an exact
equivalent.
The above equivalents will meet practically all the needs of artiller,'
work. Others may be derived in a similar way for special purposes if de-
sired. All angular conversions should be tested by mental approximations.
the same as described for linear conversions, par. 13.
31. The following true mil equivalents are given for purposes of com-
parison and for exact conversions from the tangent form of mil calculation
to other units, the limitations of which are shown in par. 40 and the table
in par. 42. Such conversions will seldom be necessary in general artilIer}'
work. but occasionally may be required for exact computations.
6400 .,
1 true mil = 6283.18 = 1.0186 or 1.02 artillery mIls.
6283.18
1 artillery mil 6400 -.98174 or .98 true mils.
360
1 true mil = 628J.HS .057~96or .0573° = 3.438'.
6283 18
17.4530 or 17.45 true mils.
360
E. EXPRESSION OF ANGLES BY TANGENTS.
To illustrate the tangent graphically, fig. 6, construct a right tri-

angle ABC, of which angle A is the angle of which the tangent is desired.
The sides of the angle, AB and AC, form the base and the hypothenuse of
the triangle. which is completed by dropping the perpendicula':' BC from the
hypothenuse to the base at any point. The size of the triangl~ is immaterial.
since the ratios of the sides will remain the same for any giYen angle. Then
tangent A=~~, or, in general, considering the two sides of the triangle which
form the' right migle, the tangent is the' ratio of the opposit,~ f:' ide over the
adjacent side, or the vertical side over the base. Expressed in linear units.
the tangent gives the length of the vertical for a base of 1.
-13-
33. . The most common application of the tangent is in calculating slopes
from a map, where the vertical distance. BC, can be obtained from the con-
tours, and the horizontal distance, AB, measured with a scale. For example
let BC=160 meters and AB=800 meters. Then the tangent of the slope AC,
or of the angle -1, is ~~~ =.2, see fig. 6.
34. There are thteeforms' of the tangent relation, the same as the mil
relation :,!,
(1) ". BC Vertical

I. an A = AB' or Tangent = Base •
This form is. used in calculating the tangent, as illustrated above.
(2) BC=AB>< Tan A or Vertical = Base X Tangent.
For example. using the. above figures, BC=800X.2=160 meters.
Be . Vertical
(3) AB = Tan A or Base = Tangent.
160 .
For example, AB = :2 = 800 meters.
:CM.
Fig. 7
35. To plot the above angle by its tangent layoff a base AB
of any con-
venient length, say 10 centimeters, fig. 7. At one end, B, erect a vertical, BC,
the length of which is equal to the base multiplied by the tangent, 10X.2=2
centimeters. Draw the hypothenuse A C. The angle A between base and
hrpothenuse is then the desired angle which was expressed by the tangent
2. It must be equal to the original angle from which the tangent was ob-
• 2 '
taIned because the tangent ratio of the sides of the plotted triangle, 10' has
been lnade the same as the ratio of the corresponding sides of the original
.'''' 160 ~
trIangle, 800 • making the triangles similar and the corresponding angles
~q?al. An angle of any size can be expressed by its tangent and plotted in
hIS way without the use of a protractor. .
36. The similarity between the calculation of the tangent and the cal-
CUlation of mils, degrees, or grades. as described in par. 29, is apparent .. The
tangent in the illustration, fig. 6, was ~~~ =.2. The calculated angle in
mils 0. 160. .. 160
IS 1/1,OOOX800=200 mIls (I,OOOXthe tangent), In degrees. 1/57.3X800
::::11.46°(57.3 X the tangent); in grades, 1/63.~~~'800 -12.73g (63.66X the tan-

~ent). The calculation in each case is based on the .tangent ratio, simply
lntroducing the proper factor to convert the tangent ratio into angular units.
37. A Comparison. The reason why the calculation of the angular value
-14-:'
based on the tangent ratio is limited to small angles, while the tangent it-
self may be used for any angle, is that the angular value is to be used in
an entirely different way from the tangent value. The angular value ,ob-
tained from the calculation is to be used like any other angular measure,
with instruments graduated in a circle, _while the tangent value is to be
used, either in calculation or plotting~ as a ratio between straight lines, in
the same way as it was originally calculated. Angular measure is repre-
sented by the arc of a circle. The tangent is represented by a straight line
tangent to the arc. The tangent form of calculations can be used for angular
measure only within the limits where the tangent is practically equal to the
arc. This is true only for small angles. As the angle increases the tangent
becomes longer than the arc and cannot be used to represent angular measure.
38. To illustrate graphically the relation between the tangent value and the
actual angular value of an angle, construct a right triangle ABF', fig 8,
TA~J.
r~330
D!../OO
/O-c Cl-/O
lOGO B
TRVE MILS.
Fig. 8
with base AB=:=l,OOO and vertical BF'=330, divided into smaller triangles as
shown. Then, since the base is 1,000, arc BF and its divisions give the actual
angular measure, and tangent BF' and its divisions the tangent value, in true
mils, of the corresponding angles at A. In angle BAC' the arc BC and tan ..
gent BC' are practically equal, both having a length of 10, so the angular
measure is practically the same as the tangent value, 10 mils. Of course in
reality the tangent is slightly longer than the arc, but the difference for
such a small angle is negligible. In angle BAD' the tangent BD' has gained
perceptibly over the arc BD, but the difference is still slight, only .3 true
mil. But when angle BAE' is reached, with ~ tangent value of 250 mils, the
tangent BE' is 5 mils ahead of the arc BE. This, therefore, must be taken
as the limit for using the tangent calculation of true mils, or the similar
calculation of degrees, grades, etc., as described in par. 29. In 'the angle
BAF' the tangent exceeds the arc by 11.3 mils, entirely too great an error
for artillery work. Thus it is seen that the tangent calculation gives prac-
tically exact values for small angles, but that as the angle increases the
gain of the tangent over the arc causes an error in the tangent calculation
as compared 'with the actual angular value which is positive and which in-
, crea;;es progressively from the start.
39. The relation between tangent and angle with the artillery mil, how-
-15-
ever~' is not the same as with the true mil. The relation shown in the fore-
going illustration is true only where the angular measure is taken in the
same unit as that on which the tangent calculation is based. In fig. 8 the.
tangent calculation was based on a length of 1,000. the exact length at which
a true mil subtends a width of 1, and the arc. representing the ac-,
tual angular value, was me:::tsured in true mils. Similar results would be
obtained if the tan'gent values had been calculated in degrees on a length
of t7.3, or grades on a length of 63.66, and the angular value's measured in
true degrees or grades. However, if the angle or arc be measured in a dif-
ferent unit from that on which the calculation is based, it is evident that the
relation between arc and tangent will be changed. By taking a unit slightly
~maller than the one on which the tangent calculation is based, the error
In that calculation may be offset to a considerable extent for practical purposes.
This is just What is done in using the artillery mil. To illustrate, construct
a triangle BAH'. fig. 9, of exactly the same dimensions as triangle ABF' in
fig. 8. Measure the arcs, however. with artillery mils instead of true mils.
, TAN:';:
~~3JO
ARTILLEI1'Y MILS.
Fig. 9
40. Since the artillery mil is smaller than the true ~il, it will take more
of them to measure a given angle. Hence for the small angles where the
angular value in true mils was practically the same as the tangent, the
artillery mil value will be greater than the tangent value, and the tangent
calcwlation will therefore have a negative error at the start, instead of ~
Positive error as with the true mil. ..For small angles this negative error is .
practically negligible. For angle ABC', with a tangent value of 10 mils the
actual angular value in artillery mils is 10.2, making an error of -.2 mil, in
the tangent calculation. This error increases in the negative direction,
simply because the quantities are increasing and the increase in the tangent
Over the arc has not yet commenced to make itself felt, up to angle DAF',
Which has a tangent value of 145 mils and an actual angular value of 146.8
artillery mils, making an error of -1.8. At this point the tangent begins
to gain, and at 237 mils, angle BA C', it overtakes and exactly neutralizes
th~ negative error, the tangent value and angular value in artillery mils
?eIng exactly equal at this point. From here on the, error is positive and
Increasing, the same as with the true mil, though to a lesser degree. For
angle BAH', with a tangent value of 330, the actual angular value in artil-
lery mils is 324.7, making a positive error of 5.3 mik 330 mils, therefore,
-16-
has been taken as the limit for fairly accurate artillery mil calculations (F.
A. Drill Regulations, Par. 1044).
U. If the angle be measured in a larger unit than that on which the tan-
gent calculation is based, the effect, of course, will be opposite to that pro-
duced with a smaller unit, and there will be an exaggerated positive error
in the tangent calculation at the start, increasing rapidly with the angle.
fhis is the case with the R-mil, making it very inaccurate for calculating'
angles above 100 mils by the tangent method.
-12. The following table shows the relation between the tangent calculation
and the actual angular value for the degree, true mil, artillery mil, and R-mil.
Values for grac1es may be found by converting either degrees or true mils by
the proper equivalents, as the basjl) of angular measure and tangent cal-
culation is the same for all three units.
TABLE
Showing accuracy of tangent calculation of angular values.
II Tan. II Tia~Fo~n:f~:~I:-Il Actual Angular ValueII Error in Tangent Calculation
II II 0' I Mils 1\ 0' \ 1w: I ~~t~I :iis II , I True

Mils I I
Art.
Mils
R.
Mila
11.010 II 34.41 10. II 34.41 10. I 10.21 9.611 0.01 0.0 1- .21+ .411
11.050II 251.91 50. 11251.81 49.97\ 50.91 47.711+ .11+ .031- .91+ 2.311
Wn.0875f1 500.7187.5Tf500.01 87.3 I 88.91 83.3If=F-.-71+ .2 1~1.4-1+ 4.2:\
(2) 11.100II 543.81100. II 542.71-99.7 1101.5195:211+ 1.11+ .3 1-1.51+ 4.811
11-145II 818.41145. II 815.31144.1 1146.81137.611+3.11+ .9 1-1.81+ 7.411
11.200111127.51200.111118.61197.41201.11188.511+ 8.91+ 2.6 1-1.{1+11.511
11.237111334.61237.111320. 1232.7 1237. 1222.211+14.61+ 4.3 I 0.01+14.811
(3) 11.250111419.31250.111402.1f245. 1249.5:233.911+17.2-/+ 5. 1+ .51+16.111
11.300111711.21300.11164~r29m296.81278.311+2~21+ 8.5 1+3.2H-21.711
(4) 11.330 111854.31330. 111815.81318.7--,324.71304.411+38.51+11.3 1+5--:3-1+25.6]
(1)
Limit for practically -exact calculation in true mils, degrees, or
grades.
(2) Limit for fairly accurate calculation in R-mils.
(3) Limit for fairly accurate calculation in true mils, degrees, or
grades.
(4) Limit for fairly accurate calculation in artillery mils.
t3. It may be laid down as a general rule that for all practical artillery
purposes the most convenient method of using the tangent form of calcula-
tion is always to calculate in artillery mils, and then convert to degrees or
grades by the proper angular equivalents if desired. This saves confusion
and is close enough for all ordinary uses. For exact results with angles less
than 50 or 51g (such as slopes, most of which are small angles), it may be
desirable to calculate in true mils, degrees, or grades on the exact basis, con-
verting to artillery mils if necessary. However, it is seldom that either the
accuracy of the measurements or the requirements of the case will justify
such refinements in 'artillery work.
H. If angular values above the limits for tangent calculation are desired,
or if absoluteiy exact values are desired for any angle, the tangent should
TOVORraphy for Field Artillery
-17-
be calculated' and the corresponding angular value found in a tange~t table.
4-5. To Add or Subtract Tangents. In practice, it is frequently necessary
to add, or subtract angles which are being handled by their tangents, as in
applying the angle of site in the proper sense to the angle of fall in order
to obtain the quadrant angle of fall. This can be done by tangents only when
the sum of the two angles does not exceed the limits for the tangent cal..;
culation of angular' values .. Strictly speaking",:the sum (or difference) of
the tangents of two angles is not the same as the tangent of the sum (or
difference) of the actual values, but within the limits prescribed, the results
are close enough for artillery work. To illustrate the error with angles
?eyond the limits, suppose the tangent of the angle of fall has been found
In the range table to be .500, and the tangent of the angle of site has been
calculated from the map to be -.100. Putting the two together to make the
. quadrant angle of fall, a tangent of .600 is obtained. Now, the actual angle
corr~sponding to a tangent of .100 is 101.5 artillery mils and the actual angl~
corresponding to a tangent of .500 is 472.3 artillery mils, making the sum.
or actual quadrant angle' of fall '573.81/~. The tangellt of this angle, obtained
from a tangent table, is .631, showing an error of .. 031 in the result, obtained
by adding the, two tangents. Hence a tangent table must be used if the
quantities exceed the prescribed limits. . -
.(6. Certain modifications of the tangent are used in expressing ground,
slopes. The most common are the gradient and the per cent.
F. GRADIENTS.
. Vertical distance . .
, GradIent =
H'orlzon t a 1 d'IS t ance ' reduced to a fractIon wIth anum.
era tor of 1. It is simply a fractional form of the tangent, in which the de-
nominator always gives the horizontal for a rise of 1. Thus, in fig. 6, the
. BC 160 1
gradIent of Angle A or slope A C is AB = 800 = 5 usually stated, "Ion
or in 5". To obtain the gradient. ~rom the tangent, simply convert the decimal
, '" 2 l' .
lnto a fraction with numerator 1. Thus,. 2 = io =
"6' To obtain the tangent
1
from the gradient, reverse the process, thus, T = .2.
~7. "*. To plot an angle from the gradif'nt, layoff a base equal to the denom-
Inator and a vertical of 1, in any convenient unit. "---
. '. . .
.
======:J
-
;"
. .
c
,C
For example, fig. 10, layoff base AB, 5
centimeters, and vertical BC, 1 cen,ti-
I .meter. Join AC. This gives, of course,
Ar----- . the same angle as plotted by the tan-
5 B
gent, fig. 6.
oFig. 10.
G. PER CENT •
.{8 ' Vertical distance . h ft.
• Pel' cent =, . expressed. In t e form 0 per cen ,
th . • . HorIzon tal dIsta.nce. • .. .
at IS" the vertIcal distance or rIse In a hOrIzontal dIstance of 100. Thus,
• ' .. , BC 160 20
USl~g the.same illustration as with the gradient, AB= 800= .20 = 100or 20%.
To obtain the per cent from the tangent or gradient, multiply by 100 and affix
_ Topography for Field Artillery
-18-
the per cent sign, which thus beco~es simply a substitute for two decimal
places. Thus, .2 or 1/5X100=20%. To obtain the tangent from the per
cent, divide by 100, or point off two decimal places. To obtain the gradient.
20 1
divide by 100 and reduce to a fraction with numerator 1, thus IOU = T.
49. To plot an angle from the per cent, layoff a base of 100 and a vertical
of the :0
A /00 .8
Fig. 11
For example, fig. 11, layoff base AB 100 millimeters and vertical Be .
20 millimeters. Join AC. This gives the same angle as plotted by the
gradient or tangent.
50. A common error in expressing slopes in
per cent is to call a vertical drop (that is, a
right angle, or 90°) a.100% slope, whereas a c
45° or 800,!J slope is really a 100% slope. To
illustrate, fig. 12, layoff a base AB of 100 and
a vertical BC of 100, in any unit. Join AC •.
Then, the per cent of angle A islOO =100%.
100 100
I
It is evident from inspection that this angle j
is half a right angle or 45°. Its tangent, of I
l
course, is ~~~ =1, which is the tabular tan- A IDO' B
gent for 45°. The gradient
1
is -1-. Above this
angle the values increase until at 90° either the tangent,
Fig. 12
gradient, or per
I
cent is infinity.
Fig. 12 gives a good illustration of the fallacy of attempting to cal-
culate angular values from the tangent relation above the limits laid down
in par. 40. Calculating in mils, angle A would be 100
1/1,000 X 100 =l,0001Jt.
C I I. . d 100 .
a cu atmg In egrees, 1/57.3 X 100 =57.3°. Since the actual angular value
is 8001/t or 45°, the tangent calculation has an error 'Of 2001/t or 12.30.
51. It is not customary to use the gradient form of expression above 45",
since this would make a fraction with a denominator less than 1. For ex-
ample, the angle of 76° has a tangent of about 4, or 400%. This would make
" f 1 1
a gra dlent 0 1/4 or .25. For angles above 45° it is customary to use the
straight tangent, giving th~ rise for horizontal of 1. Among engineers this
is commonly stated, "1 to 4," giving the horizontal figure first instead of the
vertical. Thq,s "Ion or in 4" means a gradient, giving the vertical figure
first, while "1 to 4" is merely a form of stating the tangent, giving first the
horizontal figure, which, for the tangent, is always 1.
-19-
H. CONVERSIONS IN TANGENT EXPRESSIONS AND ANGULAR
MEASURE.
52. It is often desirable, such as when a tangent or gradient is given with-
out the angular measure, to convert a tangent expression directly to angular'
measure by means of a factor or equivalent without stopping to plot and
calculate the aIlgle .. This may be done within the limits laid down for cal-
culation of angles by the tangent method. and with the same degree of.
~ccuracy, (par. 40 and table, par. 42), as the result of the conversion
IS exactly the same as the calculation.
Tangent or gradient to mils: multiply by 1,000.
Tangent or gradient to degrees: multiply by 57.3.
Tangent or gradient to. grades: multiply by 63.66.
For example, Tangent .2X1,000=200,!t.
Tangent .2X57.3=11.46°=11 °27.6'.
Tangent .2X63.66=12.73211=121l73" 20....
In each case the factor or equivalent is the distance at which the angu-
lar unit considered subtends a tangent of 1; that is, "'he factor is the recip-
rocal of the tangent, the same as the factor used in calculating angles from
the tangent ratio, par. 39.
Per cent to mils: multiply by 10 (1%=101/t).
Per cent to degrees: multiply by .573 (1%=.573°).
Per cent to grades: multiply by .6366 (1 %=.6366 :>, 1
The factors for per cent are simply 1/100 of those for the tangent
or gradient since per cent is 100 times tangent or gradient.
It is also often desired to find the tangent of a given angle for calcu-
lation or plotting. This may be done without a tangent table by means of
the following factors or equivalents, within the prescribed limits.
Mils to tangent: multiply by .001 (the tangent of 1 mil) or point
off three places. For example, 2.001/tX.00l=.2, tangent. .
Mils to gradient: set up a fraction with the given number of mils in
the numerator and 1,000 irt the denominator. Divide through by the num-
erator to reduce numerator to 1. This is the same as multiplying by .001
and then converting the result into gradient form.
F 200 1 2 2 _ 1.
.
or example, 20011z= -1UUO = 5' gradient. Or 200t!tX.001=. = 10-""6
Degrees to tangent: multiply by .0175 (the tangent of 1°).
~
}1'orexample, 2°X.0175=.035. tangent.
Degrees to gradient: set up a fraction with the given number of
degrees in the numerator and 57.3 in the denominator. Divide through by
the numerator to reduce the numerator to 1. This is the same as multiplying
by .0175 and then converting the result into gradient form.
For example, 2°=572.3=~:.6' gradient. Or 2°X.0175=.035=1.~~O=2;.ti

Grades to tangent: multiply by .0157 (the tangent of .1g).
. Grades to gradient: same as with degrees. except that 63.66 is used
Instead of 57.3.
Mils to per cent: multiply by 1/10, or point off1 place (l1/t=.l%).
Degrees to per cent: multiply by 1.75 (1°=1.75%).
Grades to per cent: multiply by 1.57 (1,=1.57%).
-20-
These factors are simply 100 times those for converting to the tangent,
since the per cent is 100 times the tangent.
53. For angles above the prescribed limits for calculation, a tangent
table must be used for all these operations. If a table is available it should
Ii
be used for all angles, as it is more accurate and more convenient than cal-
./ ,
culating .
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.
A. SCALES.
54. All measuring instruments used for exact topographical work should
be the best available, made by reliable manufacturers. No instrument, even
a government standard issue, should be 'used without being tested.
Scales, rules, or alidades may be of wood. metal, celluloid, or other
durable composition. Paper scales (except graphical scales drawn on maps)
are not satisfactory, as they are subject to expansion and contraction from
moisture.
55. A metric measuring scale for artillery work should be 25 or 30 centi-
meters long. and should have two edges, one graduated to millimeters, the
other to half-millimeters. If the scale has only one edge it should be grad-
uated to half-millimeters. An English scale should be a foot long, graduated
on one edge to tenths. on the other to fiftieths of an inch. If it has only one
edge it should show both tenths and fiftieths. An. ordinary engineer's (not
architect's) scale has these graduations. A triangular scale is a good form,
since it can be used as an alidaG(" but it is harder to straighten when warped
than a flat scale, and it is seldom that more than two edges will be used
for measuring. A flat scale with folding sights makes a better all-round
instrument and is easier to carry.
56. Every measuring scale not known to be standard should be tested
by comparing it with a known standard. Wooden or metal scales made by
reliable manufacturers may usually be accepted as accurate. All other
scales should be tested by comparison with a good wooden or metal scale.
57. Tapes or chains for ground measuring should be either all metal or
fabric with wires woven in lengthwise (usually called metallic tapes). Every
woven tape. and every all-metal tape or chain not known to be standard,.
should be compared with some known I standard. Any errors discovered
should be corrected by marks on the tape or by making allowances in measur-
ing. In long measurements where great. accuracy is required it is necessary
to allow for stretching, sagging, and expansion or contraCtion due to heat.
Artillerymen, however, will seldom be concerned with these corrections, as
extensive surveying usually will be done by engineers. In5ltructions for
making such measurements. if desired, may be found in any good engineer's
or surveyor's manual.
58. Every edge which is to be used for drawing straight lines or for
sighting should be tested by sighting along it or by laying it along an already
tested straight edge or plane surface (as a 'piece of plate glass or mirror
which gives true reflections). An edge may also be tested by drawing a
line along it with a sharp pencil, then reversing the edge along the other side
of the same line. If straight it will coincide with all parts of the line. A
scale may be slightly crooked and still be good for measuring, though it can-
-21-
not be used for drawing straight lines. Wooden scales are likely to be-
come warped and metal or celluloid scales to become bent, so they should be
handled carefully and tested occasionally even after passing the first test.
59. The line of sight of an alidade, whether defined by sights or by a
straight edge, should be tested to see whether it is parallel with the drawing
edge. This may be done as, follows. Lay the alidade on .a piece' of paper
fixed on a plane table..or other flat surface, and sight on some sharp, well- ,
defined point at least 2,000 meters distant. Draw a fine line with_a sharp
pencil along the drawing edge. Examine the line after it is drawn to see
that it follows the edge exactly, and verify the sighting on the distant point.
Reverse the alidade, placing the drawing edge carefully along the other side
of the same line. Then, if the line of sight is parallel with the drawing edge
it will again strike the point first sighted on. The process should be repeat-
ed two or three times to make sure of the test. Comparative err9rs in
angles between lines drawn in any particular operation may be avoided by
~Iacing the alidade so that the line of sight and the drawing edge are always
In t~e same relative positions~ but errors in orientatj':m; that is, the relation
of lInes on the map to corresponding lines on,the ground, cannot be so avoid-
ed. Hence if the alidade is inaccurate and cannot be adjusted it should be
discarded for sighting purposes.
B. PROTRACTORS.
60. An accurate protractor is harder to get than an accurate scale. A
transparent celluloid or composition protractor is the most useful type for
artillery work, though metal protractors are usually more accurate. A pro-
tractor should be as large as can conveniently be used, with a radius of at
least 10 centimeters. A mil protractor should be graduated to a least reading
of 10 mils, or 5 mils with a large protractor, and a degree protractor to
half, third, or quarter degree, (30', 20', or 15'), depending on the size of
the protractor. Closer readings are made by eye, if necessary. Circular
protractors are sometimes used, but the semicircular type with a linear
measuring scale on the straight edge is better 'for general use. The sub-
divisions should be numbered clockwise. In a semicircular protractor there
• should be an outer row of figures, from 0 to 3200* or 180°, for use in the
fire.t semicircle, and an inner row, from 3200~/~ to 64001/1, or 180° to 360°, for
Use in the second semicircle, with the protractor reversed. "-
61.' To test a protractor, draw two lines with a tested straight edge inter-
secting at about their centers at right angles, each line slightly longer than
the diameter of the protractor. The lines should be very carefully drawn
and all the right angles tested with a standard right angle form or with a
. scale or compass, as described in par. 72. Then lay the protractor over the
lines so that the center of the protractor is exactly over the intersection of
the lines and the 0 and 3200'1' or 180° marks are on one of the lines. The
16001/1 or 90° mark should be on the other line (also the 480011~or 270° mark
with a circular protractor). If the marks on the protractor do not fall
~xactly over t4e proper lines, it indicates either that the center hole of the
protractor is not at the true center, which is the most common error, or that
the graduations are inaccurate. A slight inaccuracy in the position of the
center hole may be corrected by enlarging the hole so as to make its center
'B ~~ S5f
• <. -22- .
,coincide with the true center. If the error is greater than the diameter of ~
I
the hole, a new hole should be drilled at the true center, made very small at •
first, then tested, and enlarged as desir€:d. A needle broken off at its largest.
part, ground flat, then pointed, and fitted with a sealing wax or wooden t
handle, makes a good drill. If the new hole runs into the old, the old one 1
,should be filled with a hard waterproof cement, such as china cement. If.
the protractor has lines running to the center, these should be changed, if.
necessary, so as to intersect exactly at the true center. Before a point is i
accepted as the true center, it should be tested by the middle points and ,
quarter points of the quadrants, the same as above described for the main
quadrant points. Having completed the test, using one of the intersecting
lines as the origin, turn the paper by a full quadrant and repeat the test,
using the other line as the origin, so that any possible inaccuracy in the
,drawing of 'the lines may be detected. The results should be the same using
. either line.
62. While testing the center it may be discovered that some of the grad-
uations are irregular. In that case the center should be located so as to
give correct readings for the greatest possible number of points, especially
the quadrant point and the principal subdivisions. Having established th~
center, the accuracy of the graduations should be tested as follows. Center
the protracto~ over the intersection of the two test lines, with 0 on one of
the lines and note whether the other main quadrant points coincide exactly
with the other: lines. Then shift the protractor by one of the main sub-
'divisions, such as 10011£or 10°, keeping it centered carefully, ar.d note
whether the corresponding points in all four quadrants coincide with their
proper lines. Continue until the main subdivisions have been tested in this
way. This is usually a sufficient test, as it is unlikely that corresponding
points in two different. quadrants will both have an error in the same direc-
tion. If a closer, test is desired the right angles may be. subdivided as de-
, scribed in par. 64. Another check is to measure the main subdivisions along
the edge with a good scale to see whether they are uniform. This, however,
is not an absolute test; because the edge of a protractor may be irregular and
still measure angles accurately, and such a test could not be used with a
rectangular protractor.
,C. EMERGENCY DEVICES.
63. Other Devices. .Every artilleryman should know the length of his
shoe. his exact height, and the exact distance between some well-
. defined lines or marks ..on his hands, for use in improvising measuring devices
in case he should be without a scale. Marks usually can be found on the palm
or inside the fingers which will give an even number of centimeters or inches.
The measurement should be made with the hand held perfectly flat without.
straining. \Vhen needed, for use the measurement may be taken from the
hand by marks on the edge of a stick or piece of paper. Such measurements,
of course, are not exact; but a fair degree of accuracy can be attained. It is
convenient also to know the span of the fingers, but this is a very rough
method of measul'ing on account of the difficulty in stretching the fingers
uniformly at different times. The hand and fingers should, of course, be
. calibrated for measuring: angles in mils, as described in Artillery Drill
Regulations.
- Topography for, Fie.ld Artillery
-23-
D. METlio1.1S OF CONSTRUCTION.
64. To Construct a Protractor. A ""'ory accurate protractor may be im-
provised with a good scale and a pair of COlnp~sses. To make a mil pro-
tractor take a piece of medium weight cardboard or stiff paper with a good
Fig. 13
surface, about 15 by 25 em., fig. 13. Draw a straight line the full length
of the paper parallel with and about 1 em. from one side. All lines shoul.}
be drawn carefully with a very sharp, medium hard pencil, and all measure-
ments made carefully and mal'ked with a very sharp pencil or needle point.
With the compasses, using point 0 at the middle of the line as a center,
and a radius of 102 mm., describe a semicircle ACB,. extending to the edge
of the paper. The reason for this length of radius is that 1 artillery mil
subtends an arc or chord of 1 in a length of 1,018.6. Hence by making the
radius 101.86 mm. (or 102 mm., which is close enough), 10 mils will subtend
exactly 1 mm. on the circumference, and the millimeter scale may be used
f()~ making the graduations. This makes a very convenient size of protracto~
WIth A and B as centers, and radii about 3/4 of AB, describe arcs inter-
secting at P. Draw PO, extending the line to the edge of the paper. This
should be exactly perpendicular to AB and should bisect the semicircle at C.
To test this, measure the chords AC and BC straight across with the scale.
The distances should be exactly equal, each 144.2 mm. (The chord of 90 or 0
\ ----
1600,ft is 1.414 times the radius. 1.414X 102=144.2, also, '\l102 +102 =144.2).
2 2
~ith A. C, and B as centers, and radii a little over half of AC. draw arcs
Intersecting at Q and R. Join QO and RO, bisecting the quadrants at D
and E, forming angles of 45 or 8001jl. at O. With the scale measure the
0
chords DA, DC, CE, and En. They should be exactly equal, each 78 mm.
~Th~ chord of 45 or 800,!t is .765 times the radius.' .765XI02=78).
0
Sim-
darlv bisect the 8001jt arcs at F, C, Jl and /. making 4001ft arcs. The chords
of these arcs should also be exactly equal, measuring 39.8 mm. Adjust the
Topo~raI>hy for Field Artillery
-24-
marks if necessary to make all the divisi~J1.aabsolutely equal. These 4001'/1
arcs may now be subdivided with the E:cale. Take arc CH! Mark point K ~)D
the arc 20 mm. straight acrOSE:II'om C. This should also be 20 mm. from H,
bisecting the arc and making 2001/t divisions. With the scale mark each
millimeter along arcs CK and KH, each representing 101ft. 511t subdivisions
may be put in if desired, but this. is usually unnecessary, as readings may
be made within a mil by eye from the 101ft graduations. Graduate the re-
mainder of the semicircle in the same way .. Make all marks lightly at, first, -
inspect them to see that the graduations are uniform, and correct them if
necessary. Then go over the marks and make them permanent with a very'
sharp hard pencil or a very fine pen, pivoting the ruler at O. Pen. marks
cannot be made so fine as pencil marks, but they are darker and easier to
reati. Make the 50'1t and 1001/~ marks longer than the 101ft marks. Inner
arcs may be drawn lightly as guides for this purpose. Number the gradua-
tions every hundred or every two hundred mils, as desired, with the numbers
froIr. 0 to 3200 next the edge and from 3200 to 6400 inside. Make lines AB
and CO permanent with hard pencil or fine pen, producing OC to the edge of
the paper. Cut the protractor out along the semicircle, leaving the margin 01
about 1 em. between line AB and the straight edge. Punch a hole about U
mm .. in diameter at the center O. A small nail with the end filed squarely
off makes a good punch. Or a ~quare hole may be cut out, with the corners
exactly on the lines. Two or three coats of transparent shellac or varnish
will make the protractor waterproof and durable.
65. The method of subdivision above described, working from the whole
to the part, is the only satisfactory way to secure uniformly accurate grad-
uations throughout the protractor. It is practically impossible to make the
graduations come out even by measuring from one end of the semicircle
clear around to the other with a scale, though a small protractor, up to per-
haps 4001/1, could be made in this way.
66. If compasses are not avaiiable, take a strip of cardboard or stiff paper,
prick two pinholes in it the length of the desired radius apart, and put the
sharp point of a pencil through one hole for drawing and a pin through the
other for a pivot. The arcs can be bisected with the scale. If compasses
but no scale are available, bisect the arcs with the compasses until a 501/1
arc is obtained. Divide this carefully into 5 parts by eye. Take these marks
off on the edge of a piece of paper and use to graduate the other arcs.
67. A scale graduated in other units than millimeters such as sixteenths
or tenths of an inch, may be used in the. same way, each division represent-
ing 101/t, by taking a radius 101.86 times the unit of the scale. With tenths
of an inch this makes a rather large protractor, so the scale may be halved
if desired. .
68. To make a degree protractor, take a radius 57.3 times the length 01
the scale unit. Each unit will then represent lOon the circumference. This
makes a convenient. size with sixteenths or tenths of an inch. With milli-
meters the radius is too small, and the scale should be doubled. With
eighths of an inch the scale should be halved. With a degree protractor the
'even bisection,S can be carried only to 45 arcs. Divide each 45 arc into 9
0 0
equal parts each 50, with the scale, verify them to see that they are uniform,
and then graduate each part with the scale to degrees and half, third, or
quarter degrees, as desired. .
Topography for Field Artillery'
. --25":-
69. To make a grade' protractor, take a radius 63.66 times the length of
the scale unit. Divide the arcs by bisection until a 25g arc is reached. Then
complete the graduations with the scale. .
70. If no instruments are available a rough protractor may be quickly
improvi~ed with nothing but. a piece of paper and a pencil, fig. 14. Medium
AV!"
o
-
.
I
I
IB
I
I
I
C ------ -_JD
(a) (b) (c)
o . " . ,A .. ',
~ r~.G""
"0' C' ~
c' B p 0 E: C
i (e) (f)
I
! Fig. 14
~e~ght "paper that will fold easily is best. Tear or cut the paper so that
It IS roughly square. 20 by 20 em. is about the right size. In folding the
paper, rub all folds to a sharp crease with the thumb nail. Whenever the
paper is unfolded, rub the creases out flat with the thumb nail so that the
paper will lie flat without distortion, leaving only the marks of the' creases.
(a) First fold diagonally along BC. The crease should be perfectly straight.
(b) Fold across the first fold, bringing C to B, taking care that the two
parts of the first folded edge BC come exactly. together along OB. ADB is
then the right angle. (As thus folded the paper may be used as a right tri-
angle or right-angled ruler). (c) Fold A over to B, taking care that all
three folded edges come exactly together along DB. Angle EOB is then 45°
or ROO,/t• (d) Unfold the sheet and carefully cut or tear it in two along th~
firs~ diagonal BC, creasing it again both ways if necessary to make it te~r
easlly. Rub out the folds with the thumb nail. One half, ABC, is to be used
for the protractor; the other, B'DC', for making subdivisions. (e) Take B'DC'
and fold so that crease O'F lies exactly along crease O'D. Crease and unfold.
0'/ bisects the 8001ft angle FO'D, forming two 4001ft angles. Fold 0'/ to O'D,
forming 200,!t angles with crease O'K. Unfold and fold O'K to O'D, forming
lOO1/t angles with crease O'L. Unfold and lay O'F along O'D. Mark M on O'D
So that O'M=O'F, Unfold and rub out all creases. 'With a pencil and piece
o~ paper or string as a compass, or simply by hand describe arc FM, cutting
o L at N. Arc MN then represents lOOt/to Bisect this carefully. and dividE7
each ~alf into five parts by eye, making 101ft divisions. Cut or te~r the
Paper carefully along arc FM so that the marks will come to the edge.
(f) Take the other half" of the sheet and describe semicircle PECE with
radius equal to O'F. Subdivide the semicircle by applying arc FM, trans-
-26-
ferring the marks with a pencil, taking care that the corresponding creases
exactly coincide. .Unless the protractor is intended for constant use, it will
be sufficient to subdivide only the last segment, COCo The protractor may
be shifted if necessary in making measurements. However, a fairly accurate
complete protractor for general use may be made in this way if the subdivi-
sions are carefully equalized. Having completed the graduations desired,
,either produce them to the edge of the sheet with the edge of a piece of paper
or other straight edge pivoted at the center 0, or,' preferably, cut or tear
the paper carefully along the semicircle.
This method is much more satisfactory than the method of repeated
. refolding described in some texts, as it is impossible. to equalize" several
folds together on account of the thickness of the paper.
71. To make a degree protractor by this method, fold the 45° segment
FO'D into three folds, carefully equalizing them. Each of these will then
represent 15°. Draw arc FM. Divide one of the 15° segments into 3 parts
by eye, and subdivide one of these parts into 5, making 1 ° graduations, which
may be further subdivided if desired.
E. RIGHT ANGLES. " C
72. Construction. It is often
necessary in artillery topogra-
phy to draw lines at exact right
angles, such as' in establishing
the first lines of a grid on a
firing board. The best methcd
is to use intersecting arcs as
described in par. 64, with in-
tersections below as well as
above the base line, making
all dimensions as large as pos-
sible.
Where the base line can-
not be extended on both sides
of the perpendicular, as in 3.
corner, proceed as follows, fig.
15. Draw a straight line, say
25 em. long, as the base of the
right angle. Mark point A,
where the foot for the perpen-
dicular is desired. Take as a
center 0, so that OD is about
equal to AD, say 10 cm. Make
all distances as long as the paper Fig. 15
will allow. With radius, OA, say 15 em., describe an arc somewhat larger
than a semicircle, cutting the base at A and B. Draw a straight line through
80 cutting the arc at C. Join AC. Angle BAC is then a right angle.
Unless the work is very carefully done this method is more subject to errors
than the other. It may be made more certain by taking another point, 0',
as a center, with radius 0'A, and still another point, 0", below the base line if
possible, with radius 0"A, fig. 15.
-27-
The method first described may be made more certain by draw-
ing ~everal pairs of intersecting arcs below "as well as above the base line
with the same centers, A and B, but with different radii, fig. 16.
f
Fig. 16 Fig. 17 ~ Fig. 18
With either method, if the perpendicular passes through all the inter-
sections, a perfect right angle should be obtained.
73. A right angle may be drawn with a scale without a compass as fol-
lows. fig. 17: Draw straight lines AB and AC, making an angle of about
60° or 1,00011t, AB slightly longer than AC. Mark point C exactly with a
sharp pencil or needle at some convenient even distance on the scale. as long
as Possible. Then pivot the scale on C, moving it along AB until the edge
of the scale intersects AB at a point D such that CD=AC exactly. Mark D
carefully, and bisect AD at E with the scale. Join EC. Angle AEC is then
a right angle.
The test AE=ED and AC=CD is a good test of a right angle, but can
be used only where the base line can be produced on both sides of the per-
pendicular. The test may be verified by taking other points on the perpendi-
cular above and below the line, as F, when AF should equal FD.
74. To draw a right angle with a scale where the base cannot be ,produced
on both sides of the perpendicular, as in a corner, proceed as follows, fig. 18.
Draw AB and AC, making an angle of about 45. Mark
point C exactly at some convenient even distance on the?
~cale, as long as possible. Pivot the scale on C, moving'
It along AB until the edge of the scale intersects AB at
point D, such that CD=AC exactly. Produce'DC to £, o
marking E carefully so that CE=DC or AC exactly. Join Q
AE. Angle DAE is then a right angle. It may be veri-
fied by taking other points, as C' and C", above or below
the base line, repeating the same process, or by testing
100 o
as described in par. 75 below. Fig. 19
75. Where the test described in par. 73 cannot be used, .as in a corner,
a. right angle may be tested as ,follows, fig. 19: Measure carefully equal
dIstances OA and DB, as long as possible, from the vertex along the sides
of the angle, and mark A and B with a sharp pencil or needle. Measure AB
, I
straight across. If the right angle is true, AB= \,OA2+ OB'l, or AB=
-28--
1.414XOA (or 1.414XOB, since OA=OB). This is based on the fact that
the chord of an angle of 90° <>r1600* is 1.414 times the radius. If possible,
always take OA and OB as an even 100 of the unit of the scale (as milli-
metf'rs). when AB will equal 141.4 units. This is similar to the method fOl'
testing the quadrant described in par. 64.
A draftsman's triangle or right-angled ruler may be used for drawing
or testing small right angles, but a ruler large enough for drawing an ordin-
ary firing board grid is seldom available. It is not satifactory to draw a
small right angle with a right-angled ruler and thE!n produce the sides:'
Greater accuracy will be obtained with one of the methods described above.
using. lines as .long as possible. Every right-angled ruler should be tested.
This may be done with a scale, as above described, or as follows:
. Lay the ruler -along a good straight edge on a piece of paper and draw
a li~e carefully along the perpendicular edge. Then turn the ruler over and
bring the perpendicular edge carefully up to the other side of the line, still
keeping one edge along the straight-edge. If the right angle is true the per-
pendicular edge in its new position will coincide with the line drawn. Care
must be taken not to move the straight-edge .
.'Topography for Field Artillery

CHAPTER III.
MAPS AND SCALES.

THE ELEMENTS OF A MAP.
A. DEFINITION.
76. A map is a representation (usually on a flat surface), of "the surface
of the earth, or some portion of it, showing the relative size and position,
according to some given scale or projection, of the parts represented (Web.
ster's New International Dictionary). -
B. CLASSES OF ~IAPS. ~
~7:.. The map is the most important record of topographical information ..
•hhtary Maps may be divided into two general classes,' according to their
~es: . first, strategical and tactical maps; including staff maps, road and area
s etches. and all other kinds of maps and sketches prepared in advance 01"
made through reconnaissance for use in the disposition and maneuvering of
troops; second. technical maps, including artillery battle maps, firing charts,
~lane table sketches, etc.. used in the preparation and conduct of artillery
. reo Every military map should represent the features of the region which
~t ~ov.ers wi~h the degree of completeness and accuracy required for its use,
mlttmg ummpol"tant details. .
C. MAP MAKING AND MAP READING.

78. A thorough knowledge of maps is an essential part of the training
of every artillery officer, and, to some extent, of non-commissioned officers
and other especially trained soldiers: Applied knowledge of maps falls into
two parts, map making and map reading.
(1) Map Making. ~
79•. For artillerymen there are two phases of map making: first, map
makmg of an elementary sort, including the making of road, position, and
area sketches. to be used in the conduct of marches and the selection and
oCCupation of camp sites and artillery positions generally; (all officers, non-
COmmissioned officers, scouts, and other soldiers employed in reconnaissance
must be able to make sketches of this kind); second, map making for pur-
pos~~ of exact location and orientation, to be used in the location of gun
POSltIons and targets and in the preparation and .conduct of fire. All officers
c~ncerned with the preparation and conduct of fire must be. skilled in this
kInd of map. making to the extent required by their particular duties, and
every artillery officer should have at least a general understanding of the
methods used. Certain non-commissioned officers and other soldiers employ-
ed in the preparation and observation of fire, such as instrument sergeants
and instrument operators, also should be trained in this work.
-30-
(2) Map Reading.
80. Map reading also may be divided into parts, corresponding to the two
general classes of maps: first, strategical and tactical map reading; second,
technical map reading. Every artilleryman must be able to read intelli-
gently all maps which he may be called on to use~ A knowledge of map
making is a valuable aid to map reading, and at least an elementary training
in map making is desirable for everyone who is required to use maps, even
though he seldom may be called on to make them.
D. GROUND RELATIONS.
81. The foundation of every map is a representation of the ground. Other
features of military importance are then added as required. Every point
on the ground has three relations with reference to every other point: dis-
tance, direction, and altitude. (The term elevation is sometimes used instead
of altitude, but in artillery this should be confined to gun elevation to avoid
confusion. )
(1) Distance.
82. The distance between points as represented on a map is the horizon-
tal distance.
(2) Direction.
83. The direction of one point from another is the horizontal angle be-
tween an established line of known direction and a line joining the two points.
(3). Altitude.
84. The altitude of a point is its distance vertically above an established
known horizontal plane. Altitude may also be expressed as the vertical
angle between a borizontal plane and a line joining the two points. Between
a gun and its target. this is called the site.
85. By means of t~ese three relations the exact position of every point
on the ground and the rdatiop of all points to each other, both horizontall~'
and vertically, can be shown on a map. Ground forms are shovm by the
altitudes of critical points, supplpmented by graphical devices such as con-
tours or hachures, see pars. 133, 134, Ch. IV. Commercial maps usually sho',';
only the horizontal relations, distan::'p. and direction, but for most military
purposes it is necessary to show also altitudes ar.d ground forms.
(4) :\Iap Essentials.
86. The essentials of a military map may be summoned up as follows:
1. It must show distances according to a given scale.
2. It must show directions with reference to some established lin~
of known direction, such as true north, magnetic north, or grid north,
or 'Sometimes, on small local sketches, simply a line between two known
points, so that the direction between points can be determined from the
map, and so that the map can be oriented with l'espect to the ground, see
par. 175, 176, Ch. VI.
3. It must show altitudes and ground forms to the extent required
for its use, giving altitudes above an established horizontal datum plane,
usu3.11ysea level.

-31-
DISTANCES AND SCALES.
A. DEFINITIONS.
87. Distances are represented on maps by scales, usually conforming to
a r ~gular system in which th~ scale is' varied to suit the purpose of the
map ..
The scale of a map is the relation between distances on the map and
the corresponding horizontal distances on the ground. Any distance on the
map is called the map distance, abbreviated M. D. The corresponding hori-
~nt,al distance on the ground is called the horizontal equivalent, abbreviated
. E. On any map drawn to scale, all M. Do's are proportional to the cor-
l'esponding H. Eo's. . . .
Since the surface of the ground is not always horizontal, the horizon-
tal equivalent is seldom the same as the actual ground distance.
Horizontal equivalent may therefore be considered both as the horizon-
~~l distance corresponding to a certain map distance, and as the horizontal
t~stance corresponding to a certain distance measu!cd along the surface of
d' e ground. Methods of obtaining the horizo'ntal equivalent from the ground
Istance are given in Ch. X. (Most topographers limit the terms M. D.
and H. E. to distances between contours, but this limitation is likely to be
~~nf~sing. In this work these tprms will be applied to any desired distance.
dIstance between contours is meant, it will be so stated).
B. SCALES.
:8. ~ny map scale may be expressed in three ways, anyone
e derIved from the others: .
of which may
.
89 . (1) As A Representative Fraction, Abbreviated R. F.
• . ThIS is the simple ratio between a given map distance and its hori-
Zontal equivalent, expressed in the form of a fraction, whose numerator
~ one: For example, R. F., 20,1000 • means that M.. D. : H. E.:: 1 : 20,000.
hat IS, one unit on the map represents a H. E. of 20,000 of the same units.
~~ .th? ground, and thus every M. D. is 1/20,000 of the corresponding H. E.
t IS IS not a unit of measure, but is an absolute ratio, which can be applied
o .any unit, provided both members of the ratio be expressed in the same
~nlh. Thus, if the M. D. between two points measured 1 em., the H. E. be~
t~een them on the ground would be .20,000 em. If it measul'ed 2 inches,
't e H. E. would be 40,000 inches. Or if the H. E. measured 20,000 feet,
. 1. Would take an M, D. of 1 foot to represent it on the map.
(2) In 'Vords And Figures.
90. This' is a simple statement of the map distance corresponding to some
convenient unit of horizontal equivalent, giving the 1\1:. D. in small units
Used for measuring on the map, and the H. E. in large units used on the
ground. For example, 3 inches equals 1 mile. This means that 3 inches
~: ~he map represents a horizontal equivl:!lent of 1 mile on the ground. To
rIVe a words and figures scale from the representative fraction, express
the R. F. in some definite unit of measure, and then,' convert to other units
as desired. Thus, if the R. F.is 20 ~oo' 1 em.• 1\1:. D. equals 20,000 em.
Or 200 meters H. E., and 5 em. equals '1,000 meters or 1 kilometer. To con-
-3~
"vert an expression in words and figures into a representative fraction,- set
up a fraction with the given M. D. in the numerator and the corresponding
H. E. in the denominator, converted into the same units as the M. D. Divide
both members by the numerator to reduce the fraction to a numerator of
1. The result is the R. F. Taking the first example above. 1 mile=63,360'
. 3 _ 1 -
inches, hence the R. F. IS 63,360 - 21,120 "
(3) By' A Graphical Scale.
91. This is simply a rule or a line drawn on the map itself with divisions
marked showing the horizontal equivalents corresponding to the map dis-
tances between the divisions of the scale. The length of any desired graphi-
cal scal~ maybe determined either from the R. F. or the words and figures
scale, as will be shown. The main divisions of the scale should be large,
for measuring the even portion of long distances, with an extra division to
the left of the 0 subdivided for measuring the odd portion of any distance
down to the last reading of the scale, fig. 20.
MILE:"
YL -0
I I I
ME:Tf:R"
~oo 0 500 1000 1500 ZOOO ZSOO
I ""!,, .. I I I I I
~ +B
Fig. 20
92. In measuring between two points, the scale is placed so that the left
hand point is opposite the center of the subdivided portion to the left of the
O. and is then shifted, if necessary, to bring the nearest even mark on the
main scale to the right-hand point. To illustrate, using the meter scale in
fig. 20, place the scale fir'sf with the middle or 250 meter point of the sub-"
divided part opposite A, then shift to bring the even 1,000 meter point to B,
making the distance 1,150 meters.
93. - A graphical scale may be made on a separate straight-edge or on the
map itself. Every map should have a graphical scale. The advantage of this
is that if the map expands or contracts according to the moisture in the air,
or if it is enlarged or reduced photographically, the scale goes with it. To
use the scale, take it off on the edge of a piece of paper or a ruler and apply
to the map, or mark the map distance on the edge of the. paper and place it
against the scale. The latter' is a convenient method in measuring crooked
distances, as roads.
'94. Where a map bears a graphical scale, but the R. F. is .~nknown. the
R. F. may be determined as follows: Measure the M. D. length of the graphi-
cal c::cale,or any convenient even portion of it. Set up a fraction with the
mea~ured M. D. in the numerator and the corresponding H. E. from the scale
. in the denominator, converted into .the same units as the. M. D. Divide both
members by the numerator to reduce to a numerator of 1. The result is the
R~ . .
For example, suppose that a photographic reduction of a map has a
graphical scale for 5,000 meters which was reduced with the map, with a
, -33":--
!~~~nd'showing that the R.'
F. of the original map was 20 ~OO. The
scale:~~'as~~e~ 12.5"cm.:long.'" 5,000 meters~500,000 Then the new R. em.'
. 12.5 1, ,,' ,'. '. .
~. IS 500,000 - 4Q,000' showing that'the map wa~\ r~du~ed o~e-half
In linear dimensions.. \ ":,l f,,~\~ ;' r~,::.I!:: ; .
95. When & map,1,>~w.rsIiQ ',~c~le,"9f!"~n~''kind:':'4t~ ~c~le may be determined

by. a comparision of, Ille~sprements'))~iween knowh' poin,ts on map and ground.
Wlt~ ;a~r."c?~v'enient scah';'measure the ',M;. ,D~ between '.,tw9 points on the
map. Measure the distance between' the corresponding points on thegroun~,
reducing it to the H. E. if it is not so actually (see par. 90). This gives'at
~~ce a "words and figures" scale.,wh~c4/an be) c~mv~rted into any u'nits de-
Ired. ,The R. F. can now be founcJfr'om this described under, "words and as.
figures scales", in ,par. 90. 'the 'poihtssei~~ted: ~hotild, be such that the hori-
IZio~tal,d,istance betwee~' them c~n 1;>erpeas\I,red,' and sholfld, be as far apart
!l~ ,CP.TIvenientlycan be l'eached.' \'The process should be' repeated with other
Points hl different directions, if possible, in' order to v~r1:fy the scale. "!",
1 For example, supp'ose the dist81ice pet.we~np'ointsA and, B measur~s
,7 ~m., on the map" and ,the hor~zontal distance between the corresponding
Points on the ground' measures' 340 meters~Then,. the ,words and figures
Scale of the map is '17 ~m.=340"m~ters, orl mm.=20 'meters. 20 meters=
, 1' ,1', ' ,
20,000 mm so the R F 'I'S'
. • •, 20 000
'.0'' - '
• ~"#', (.' .
}.
i
,.
'". ,..
...., ~ I a •
• ~.' .: I
", MAP SCALE' PROBLEMS •
! 'I
A. CLASSES OF PROBLEMS. '

~6. Map scaJe:problems fall into' twu:,c1:a.sses:' map to ground (M. D. to
.• E.), and ground to map (H~ E./toM. D.)'~' An example of the first class
IS in deterniinihgtheH: E. for a'l\:1.'D.;me'aSured on the map with an ordinary
Scale. An example of the second class is in detetniining'the M. D. to lay
off on a map or sketch for a~certain' H. E. measured on the ground, or in
de~ermining . the length "of a graphical scale to' read a, certain' number of I
UnIts of H. E. In either case the' calculation is a simple 'one of converting

;tiis!~nces. by means, 'Of, the R. F.' or the words (artd figures' scale. " , ..
1..,:" ..... 'i' ..' ..
~.1' ,.t'-. t.', '; 'I. I .,', .~
B. SIMPLE"RULES FOR MAP'SCAiE'CALCULATIONS.

(' " f-~. ~ :. f! r' I \ t' . ': ,. _ • ,'~..,.,': '
':7:,: ',t'a) , n~ ihe IL Ii.' ' (~~):~~:i~i;~~:b:~i~

m~p m~asure U~i~bY' th~
Ceno~Inator of the R. F. The product is the H. E. in the same umts. (2)
onvert ,this H.: E. into anydesire,<I: grounameasute, units. ' ,i "f
, Example: OnastandardAmerican map,;the;scaleof'which is 3 ,inches
__ . .1 r' . n, .. ~._:-~
...' ~, :-
J'
-1 nllle, R. F. = 2il2O ' the' M~D.'!rom, .point', 4,

_ _ •
point B measures
# • : / • _ ',. ,., {, ~~ ••
to,
,~ ; : " ", te., : _.. -.,
5.08
~entimet~rs. What is, the' H .. E.' from "A. B yards 1. to In' I I • • I '
;:i ~.;: :Solution: ;'(1) ~'5..,08X~I.120t~10?.!2~9.~6'cni~'.~.;~.(1,~;"(,' . 'I "
dJ, :-': :: ',;,; :,(,(2>,; .~9'7,289:,6c~'.:T;'2.~4~12,~~ m ...ii;,,;,";: ;' ." I

, 1
42,240-+36=1,173.3 yards, ans. .'.;' ~:"~J ,; ',I
or: 107,289.6 cm.=1072.896 meters.
1072.896Xl.0936=1,173.3 yards, ans.
-34-
98. . (b) By the words and figures scale. (1) Find number of, ground
measure (H. E.) units represented by 1 map measure unit. (2) Multiply this
by the M. D•.
Example: Same as under par. 97.
Solution: (1) . 3 inches=l mile=1760 yards. '
.3 inches=3X2.54=7.62 em.
Therefore 1 cm.=1760+7.62=230.97 yards.
(2) 5.08 cm.=5.08X230.97=1173.3 yards. ans.
Or the H.. E. represented by 1 map measure unit may be found from .
the R. F.: '
1 em. on map=21,120 em. on ground.
21,120 cm.=211.2 meters.
211.2Xl.0936=230.97 yards.
Therefore 1 em. M. D.=230.97 yards H. E..
This method of finding the H. E. value of 1 map measure 'unit is
simply to express the R. F. in the given map measure units, and convert the
denominator into the desired ground measure units.
Complete the solution as above.. ,
"!
The above example might be worked through in inches instead of cen-

timeters by converting the M. D. into inches at the start:
(1) 5.08 cm.+2.54=2 inches. M. D.
3 inches=l mile=1760 yards.
Therefore 1 inch=1760+3=586.67 yards.
(2) 2 inches=2X586.67=1173.3 yards, ans.
Or, obtaining the value in H. E. of 1 map measure unit from the R.
F.:
1 inch on map=21;120 inches on ground.
. 21,120+36=586.67 yards.
Therefore 1 inch M. D.=586.67 yards H. E.
Complete the solution as above.
(2) Ground To Map.
99. Ground to map, or H. E. to M. D. problems, are simply the reverse
of. map to ground, or M. D. to H. E. problems.
100. (8) By the R. F. (1) Convert the given H. E. into map. measure
imits•._ (2) - Divide by the denominator of the R. F. The result is the desired
M.D. .
'.. _ .Example: The H. E. from point A to point B on the ground is 1.000
_meters. How-many inches M. D. must be laid off.to represent this distance
on a standard American map, the scale of which is 6 inches= 1 mile, R. F. '
~O ~60? Or, as a graphical scale problem, what will be the length in
in~hes of a graphical scale. of 1,000 meters for this map?
Solution: (1) 1,000metersX39.37=39,370 inches.
(2) 39,370+10,560=3.7 inches, ans. .
101. . (b) By the words and fig,UJresscale. (1) Find number Qfground
measure (H. E.) units represented. by 1 map measure unit, the same as in
map to ground problems. (2) Dividethis into the H. E. in the same ground
measure units.

-35-
Example: Same 'as under par. 100.-
Solution: (1) .6 inches=l .mile=1760 yards.
1 inch=1760+6=293.3 yards.
293.3 yardsX.9144=268.2 meters.
Or from the R. F.: 1 inch on map=10,560 inches on
ground. '!:
10,560 inches+39.37=268.2 meters.

Therefore 1 inch M. D.=268.2 meters H. E.
1 (2) 1,000+268.2=3.7 inches, ans.
02 From the above illustrations, it. is evident that any map scale problem
~an be solved either by means of the R. F. or the "words and figures" scale.
or most purposes the R. F. is simpler, as it uses the absolute ratio between
map and H. E., and can be applied directly to any units of measure. How-
~"er, in reading maps with an ordinary measuring scale, the words and
gures scale is useful to get the H. E. value of the measured M. Do's. The
measuring scale becomes a sort of graphical scale rhen the H. E. value of
one of its units has been determined, though this may not be in a convenient
e~en amount. Thus, with American maps, as in the above examples, an inch
a ways equals an odd number of yards H. E. The metric system •.with the
corresponding maps having representative fractions in even thousands, has
a great advantage over the English system in this respect. For example,
~ a map the R. F. of which is 20,~00' 1 em. M. D.=20,OOO'em. H. E.

-200 meters H. E. The centimeter scale then becomes practically a graphi-
~al scale, on which each centimeter represents 200 meters, each millimeter
o meters. and each half-millimeter 10 meters. With such maps any metric
scale may be used as a reading scale, and most problems can be solved men-
tally.
103. A convenient rule to remember when using the metric system on any
map is that 1 millimeter of M. D. equals a H. E. in meters 1/1,000 of the
denominator of the R. F. (because 1 millimeter equals 1/1,000 of a meter).
.11
Thus, on a 20,000 map, 1 millimeter=20 meters; on a 21,120' map,'"1
m'W
1 meter=21.12 meters; on. a 1
80000 map, 1 millimeter=80 meters; on
ai' \. '--
40,000 map, 1 millimeter=40 meters; etc.
C. SCALE CONVERSIONS.
r 104. The M. D. length of a graphical scale reading in certain units, as

ards, being given, it is sometimes desirable to be able to determine the
.. ength for a similar scale reading in other units. as meters, directly from the
first scale, without calculating through the R. F. or the words and figures
~cale. This is the case when the map has a graphical scale but the R. F.
IS unknown, as when a map is enlarged or reduced photographically. Pro-
ceed as follows:
105. On the given graphical scale measure with any convenient measuring
scale, the M. D. length of a convenient number, say 1.000, of the ground
measure units in which the scale reads.. Multiply this M. D. by the ratio
between the length of one of the ground measure units of the desired scale
~3()"';-.,
, ' and the length of one of the ground measure tmitsof the giv~n scale. The
I
result is the M.' D. length of the' deSired scale~ reading' the, same number
I
of new units, that is, 1,000, a,:;'was taken! \()f the old. The new scale may
then be laid off on ,the' map ()tmad~up asa 5eparate scale.
~ ::.,,For example, a map. is found with a' '1,000 yard graphical scale which
measures 3.4 inches. How many inches should~be laid off for a 1,000 meter
.scale for the same map'! Any M.' D~ is. proportional to the H. E. which it
represents:: Hence' thel\L, D. for ,a 1,000 meter. scale is to the M. D. for a
1,000' yard scale as 1,000 meters i's to '1;000. yards, or as 1 meter is to 1 yard,
or :as 1.0936.is to 1.(par; 112).' •. Therefore the M.' D. for th~ 1,000 meter
Be'ale, will. be 'L0936X3.4 inches=3.7 inches.' (This is the same ,as was ob-
tained. by the complete calculation' in the example under 'par. 101.
l06.~~ The: distinction' between the 'conversion ot map scales and .the conver-
sion of. ordina.ry linear distances from one unit to another should be noted.
In '/':'onvertingmap scales,' the M;D.' representing a: given number of one
groundurtit is multiplied by the inverse ratio between the' units to find the
M. 'D. corresponding to the same number of the second ground unit.. In
ordinary cdnversions of linear distances the given distance in One unit is mul-
tiplied by the' direct ratio between the' units to find how many of the second
unit it;,wil1:take to cover the same distance. Thus,.distance in yards is to
distance-in meters as 1 yard is to 1 meter, or as .9144 is to I, and 1,000 yards
X.9H4=914.4. ,meters, using the direct ratio .•. In the first case the distance
corresponding to a fixed number of units is sought, and the inverse ratio 'of
yards'to meters or 1.0936 is used; in the 'second' case' the number of units
in' a fixed distance. In either case mistakes 'in uSIng the 'wrong ratio 'or
equivalent '.may be' avoided by. thinking whether" the results should be larger
or ' smaller .than the given figure, and gross' errors in calcu:Iation may' be
avoided by making a quick mental approximation of the result. ' 1: I
f
':.'~'; 'i , .:'",: :n. T~~Es',OF ~RAPHICAL SC~LE~'" "1' """ I
107:" Graphical scales 'may be' diviaed Into two classes', working scales for
mapmaking iand reading scales for map reading. Some scales may be used
iorboth. 'Stride scales or mounted tim,ingscales are workirtg scales. They
cannot be used conveniently as reading scales because they are not graduated
. in any standard unit of ground' measure. To read a distance with them it
would be necessary to convert every measurement into standard units by;the
proper equivalent. A mile scale is purely a reading scale. It cannot be
used conveniently as a working' scale I:>~cause''it' is impracticable to measure
distances ~m.the ground in miles~ A yard or meter. scale is both a reading'
and a
w~rking scale, because it, reads i,n stand,ard .units' with which measQ.re-
m~n~s.'cfnbe made on the ground. .... :,::. '.. q', 'i"';;"
," ," (1) Construction Of Reading Scales .... ,'i f t,' .):.;,:
108.'~ If 'no graphical scale isavaiIable" hatizontal equivalehts may be. 'cal-
culatedfrom'map distances; and convers'ely,.from the R>F~ or words and
figures scale. However, if any considerable amount of measuring'istb ..be
done, oro ; the' map,. a graphiCal: scale should ,:ber,corlstructed;. dete'tmining .its
length/.from the'R. F. or words and figureS'iseale, as descriBed in 'pallll09,~and
subdividing' it' as ' desirE:!d~.Every
~ topographer; should, 'b'e' able" to'imake any
t
K"md:6f;.a, graphical scale.' ~:., ',,! r,:; ':'.... !l;, I. !~I";iI

'"l ';;~J',
TOPo!tt'apny ;for' Field 'ArtiJIeJ't

-37-
109. For example, to construct a scale to read yards on a 6-inch American
map, the R. F. of which is 1~,1560' Assuming that the ~cale' at hand for
measuring is in inches, first find the M. D. In inches which must be laid off
~<j) represent some convenient.even length, as 1,000 yards. Applying the rules
l,n. par. '100: .
(1) 1,000 yards=36,000 inches.
(2) 36,000+10,560=3.4 inches M. D. for 1,000 yards. .
.: .. ' The next problem is to divide this distance into 10 equal parts, each
?f which will represent 100 yards. Each 100 yard division wiII. then be .34
Inch. If a scale graduated to 50ths of an inch is available, it may b,e used
to ~ake the desired subdivision, since .34= ~ inch. This is th~:most con-
~enlent method, and is also' the most accurate if the scale is used carefully,.
ui- if such a scale is not availai:>le, the subdivisions may be made. a~ follows;
see fig. 21.
Draw line AB the length determined for 1,000 yards, 3.4 'inches. At
a convenient angle with AB, preferably not Over 45°, layoff AC, the neares:
length to AB which can be divided into 10 equal parts by some ev.en gradua-
tion of a scale, say 3 inches; The length of AC should be so chosen 'and the-
',anglt'. BAC so. adjusted to make BC .about perpendicular to AC if possible'
though this is not absolutely necessary. Join BC. Divide AC into 10 equal'
:Parts with the scale by marking every .3 inch. From each of thesemark~
draw a line' parall~l toBC intersecting AB, which is thus divided into 10'
e~ual parts by the intersections.. The parallel lines may be drawn with a
tI?'ht triangle and straight-edge, .as shown by the' dotted . lines. .Lay the
trIangle with one perpendicular edge along BC •. Then lay the straight-edge
against the other perpendicular edge, holding it firmly as the triangle il'
moved along in 'drawing the lines. If no right triangle is available, draw the
Parallel lines as follows. Layoff BD exactly equal and parallel to BC. (by
the ordinary compass method or' by measuring two equal distances. straight
across), and divide it into ten equal parts, the same as AC. Join the corre-
SPonding points on A C and BD. The lines so drawn will be parallel.
110.. The greatest care must. be used in making the measurements and
draWing the lines in order to secure accurate. results. One of the divisions
should be marked off on the edge of a piece of paper and placed against the
~th(>rs in turn .. Anyjrregularities should then be adjusted .. The .dividing'
.Topography for !,'ield Artillery'
-38-
line~ may then be erased and the scale completed. as shown, or the whole
scale may be taken off on a straight-edge or map. To transfer the scale
to a map, prick through the graduations with a needle. or fold the paper
along the scale. place it against the desired line on the map, and take off
- the graduations with a sharp pencil. A scale of any desired length may be
made simply by shifting the divided line along and taking off the marks.
111. In making a graphical scale, it is, of course, immaterial what units
the measuring scale is graduated in. A topographer should be able to make
use of whatever kind of a scale he may happen to have. For example. to
make the above scale with a centimeter scale:
.1,000 yards=914.4 meters=91,440 em..
91,440+10,560=8.6 em.
Or the M. D. could have been worked out in inches, as was done above,
and converted to centimeters for measuring:
3.4 inchesX2.54=8.6 em.
The line would then be laid off with the centimeter scale and divided
as above directed. The completed scale would, of course. be exactly the same
length as the one made with the inch scale.
(2) Working Scales.
112. (a) Stride Scales. The most common form of working scale is the
stride scale. Every artilleryman who is likely to be engaged in reconnais-
sance or topographical work should have a stride scale made for the R. It'.
most frequently used. He should also know the length of his stride so that
if he is without a scale, he c",n improvise one if necessary. Using the
American map system, the most useful R. F. for a scale is 1/21,120 or 3
inches to the mile, which is the scale used for road sketches. Using the
French map system, the most useful R. F. for a scale is 1/20,000, or 5
centimeters to the kilometer, which is used for road sketches and artillery
firing charts.
113. To make a stride scale, proceed as follows:
First: Determine the length of the normal stride. To. do this, pace
over a measured course of from 400 to 800 yards or meters on level ground,
preferably compact turf or dirt road, not a hard road or pavement. The
course should make a circuit or double back on itself so as to offset the effect
of any wind which may be blowing. Conditions should be as nearly normal
as possible. It is not well to attempt to determine the' normal stride when
very tired or in a high wind or when the ground is sticky or slippery. Take
a natural stride. It is inadvisable to try to change the natural stride to step
even meters or yards. This can be done for short distances, but not for long
distances. The topographer should not keep step with or pay attention to
anyone else who may be going over the course. Cover the course two or
three times on different days, if possible, and take the average. Convert
the length of the course into whatever units of measure are to be used for
laying off the scale (inches or centimeters), and divide this by the average
number of strides taken to cover the course. The result is the length of one [
average stride. It is close enough to determine the stride to the nearest inch
or the nearest even centimeter, as this will be well within the probable errors \
of striding and measuring with the scale. ,
114. Having determined the normal stride on level grou!1d and made up ,
.Topography for Field Artillery
-39-
the scale accordingly, allowances can. be made in using the scale for slope9.
for rough, sandy, or muddy ground, for wind, for the physical condition or
the person, etc. Ability to make these allowances comes with experience.
The table in Ch. VII gives the average allowances to be made for slopes.
However, anyone with much sketching to do should take advantage of every
opportunity to determine his own allowances,:under different conditions,
pacing measured courses both up and down hill. with and against the wind,
pacing the regular. course when' tired. etc., marking on his scale the al-
lOwances.thus determined. Mter the length of the stride has once been
det~rmined. it should be tested occasionally to see whether it has changed,
especially on moving to a different climate, terrain, or altitude.
lI5. Second: Multiply the length of one normal stride by the total number
of strides desired for the scale, as 500 or 1000. This gives the length of the
Scaleon the ground in the units in which the stride was determined, (inches
or centimeters). Multiply this by the desired R. F. The result is the length
of the scale, which may be laid off and subdivided.~s directed in par. 109.
Mark on the scale the name of the maker, the length of stride, and the R. F.
lIG. For example, to make a stride scale of 1,000 strides with an R. F. of
1/20.000: .
Suppose a 500 meter course has been covered three times, in 255, 259,
and 262 strides, respectively, making an average of 258.7 or 259 strides. As-
sume that the scale is to be laid off with a centimeter rule. Then the length
of the stride will be determined in centimeters. Length of whole course is
500XI00=50,000 em. Length of one stride is 50,000+259=193 em. Take the
nearest even number, 194 em. The scale is to cover 1000 strides. 1000X
1?4::::194,000 em., length of 1,000 strides on the ground. 1/20.000X194,000=.
9.7 em.• length of scale. Layoff the scale and mark it: Lt. John Smith.
Stride 194 em. R. F. 1/20,000.
117•. It is immaterial what units of measure are used in determining the
length of the scale. whether yards or meters, inches or centimeters, because
the absolute length of the stride is the same, no matter what units it is
measured in, and the length of the .scale is determined from the length of
the stride by the R. F. In the above problem, if an inch scale is to be used
~Or)aying off the stride scale. convert the length of the course, 500 meters,
Into inches instead of centimeters and find the length of 1 stride in inches'>---
The length of the scale will then be determined in inches. Or work the
~roblem through in' centimeters and convert the final result, 9.7. em., into
Inches. A course measured in yards might be used instead of a meter course.
In any case the .absolute length of the stride and of the stride scale would
be the same. It should be impressed on men learning the subject that the
scale when completed is a working scale of strides only, having no relation
to the system of measure by which it was determined. It cannot be used
as a general reading scale except by converting the strides into some stand-
ard units of measure, nor can it be used as a working scale by any. one
haVing a different length of stride.
lIS. (b) Mounted Working Scales. For mounted sketching, a 'timing
scale. is most convenient. A stride scale can be made for a horse the same
as for a person, a.nd is somewhat more accurate than a timing scale. How",:

-40:'-
ev~r;a timing scale is easier. to use, and gives as close results as are' usuallr
required for' mounted sketching:, , .., • ,i
119.' To make a mounted timing seaJeproceed as follows: ",' ~ "
First: Find the average distance covered in 1 minute by the horse' at
the desired gait under normal conditions. To obtain good results, ,the horse
must have a uniform gait. ,.An ordinary trot is the best gait for general
work. Take' the horse over,' a' measured, course, say 2,000 meters or 2,000
yards,' noting the time carefully.' Cover' the' course two or three times o~
different days if possible, and take the, average time. Divide this into. the
length' of the 'course, giving the average distance per minute~ ,~
, The course should be the' same, kind of ground as' will~ ordinarily be
covered in actual work. usually a dirt road. The horse should be, warmed up
but not tired, and other conditions should be as nearly normal as possible.
Tests under other conditions should be made later and allowances determined.
the c;:ameas described for stride scales (par. '114). It is especially important
to 'determine the difference between traveling light and with packed saddle.
ThE"scale should be 'made on the time taken with the load usually carried.
and allowances 'made when, carrying other loads. Separate scales maybe'
made for the different gaits,' or the ratios between the gaits may be de-
termined, and the trotting scale used for' all gaits, multiplying by the proper
ratio.. For example, the walk is usually about half as fast as the trot, so
when walking" take half as much distance on the' scale as when trotting •
• 120. Second: ' Convert the average distance per minute into the units of
measure (inches or. centhneters) which are to be used. to layoff the scale.
Multiply this by the desired R. F. The result is the length of the scale fOJ"
1 minute. Lay' off enough of these to make a scale of 'convenient length.
say 5 or 10 minutes, with an, extra division at the left subdivided to halves,
quarters, and twelfths (5 second intervals). Mark on the scale the name or
number of the horse. the name of the rider. the load carried, the gait, 'thE'
rate of speed per minute, and the R. F. ,.
For example, to make a trotting scale, carrying packed saddle, R•. F.
1/20,000. Say the' horse covers 2,000 meters trotting in an average time,
taken from three trials, of 10 min. 15 sec., 01"10.25 min. The average dis:..
tancf> per minute is 2,000+10.25=195 meters. ' Suppose the scale is to b~
measured in centimeters. 195 1\:1.=19,500 em. 1/20,000X19.500::;::.975 em..
length of scale for 1 minute. Take 10 minutes, or 9.75' em. for', the full
length of the scale. Lay this off, divide it, into 10 equal parts, and. layoff
an extra division at the left subdivided into twelfths as above directed. Mark
the scale: Horse, Bob, No. 278. Lt. John Smith, rider. : Packed saddle. Trot.
195 M. per min. R. F. 1~20,OOO.
121.' Using standard American map scales,' an ordinary inch scale divided
into eighths of an inch can be used as a trotting time scale for the average
horse .. The average horse trots a mile in 8 minutes. Then if' the' scale: of
the map is 1 inch to the mile, 1/8 inch will represent 1 minute. For other
map scales take as many eighths of an inch per minute as there are inches ['
per mile in the scale. Thus, for 'a sketch on a scale of 3 inches to the mile.
take 3/8 inch per minute. For a walking scale, take sixteenths of an 'inch,
.as the average horse walks a mile in 16 minutes.:. ~. .
122. (c) Interchange of Graphical Scales. Any graphical scale, reading
,)'opography for Field Artillery
-41;-..
or working, mad~ with. a given R. F.,can,be' used with any. other R:~F.
by correcting: the readings by. the ratio. between the original R. F.- of the
scale' and th~ desired R.F. ',Thisean be' done very ~conveniently where the
R.,'F./s. run. in i ~ven. proportions, as in the American 'and French. standard
systems. '.
For example, to use a 1/20,000 stride scale for a 1/2,000 sketch, as
will frequently be required: The ratio of the original R. F. to the desired
R. F. is 1 :10. Hence consider all the figures on the scale as if multiplied
by 1/10. Thus, if a distance is covered in 80 strides, it will take 800 stride
diVisions on the scale to represent the 80 strides on the sketch. .
The procedure is similar with reading scales. ~ For example, to use
1 I " ' , .
a 10560 reading scale on a 1/21,120 map. The ratio. of the original
R. F. ~f the scale to the R. F. of the map is 2:1. Hence consider all ;figures
On the scale as if doubled. Thus, if the scale shows 100 yards betwe~n two
Points, the distance on the map will be 200 yards. ~.
123. (d) Working Scale Graphs. Where a number of men are make t6
Working scales of the same kind, the labor of calculating the length of each
scale .separately can be saved by preparing a graph. This can be done for
any kind of scale, mounted or dismounted. .
124. ' For exa~ple, to make a graph for a set of stride scales of 1,000 strides,
with an R. F. of 1/20,000, plate I.
First: Determine the length of the longest scale and the: shortest
scale which will'probably be required.
. ' Say the longest stride is 200 em. Then the length; of the longes;;
scale' will be: 200XI000Xl/20,000=10 em. . ;,
ISay the shortest stride is 140 em. Then the length of the shortest
sca1e' will be: 140XIOOOX1/20,OOO=7 em. , ' ;
125. Second: Calculate the number of different scales, according .to the
.units; of measure used, between the longest and the shortest. If the strides
'are measured in centimeters, take the scales every other centimeter; that is,
on the even numbers. If measured in inches, take the scales every inch.
Th13,w~ll be close enough, well within the probable errors of measurement~
etc. In this example, the difference between the longest and the shortest
scales is 200-140=60cm., making 30 double-centimeter or even numbered
diVisions, see plate I.
126. Third: Layoff AB, 10 cm. long, representing the longest scale. Draw
AC, perpendicular to AB, 30 units long, using any convenient graduation of the
~ler. The length of these units is imma~erial as long as the line is divided
Into the required number of equal parts;' being the number of scales between
the longest and the shortest, as .above determined. ,It is ::well"however, ,to
lllake these divisions as long as the paper used will.allow,So as, not to<:r~wd
the lines. (In plate I the divisions were made2.5~lnm'.,.using.~every fifth
lllark on the. half-millimeter scale). Mark the divisions carefully (>nAC., :::,.
l27. ',' Fourth: Draw. CD, 7 cm. long" representing the shortest sca.le, exactly
Parallel toAR. . Thisis done by laying offMNequal to AC, perpendicular to
An, making AM a little less than CD, and then drawing CD so' that it passes
throughN. Divide MN into equal parts, the. same as AC • .'~... ' ....' :,::,,'.:j'
Topography for. Field' .Artillel'j'
-42-
•
representing 10 strides. Draw lines across from En to FD, joining EF and
BD, and the corresponding dividing points between.
129. Sixth: Through the corresponding division points which were marked
on AC and MN, draw lines parallel to En and FD and running from line EF
to line BD. These lines then represent the lengths of the different scale8
between En and "FD. Thus FD being the scale for a 140 em. stride, the next
line above is the scale for a 142 em. stride, and so on. Number these scale
lines at the left with the corresponding lengths of stride in centimeters.
-43-
130. The portion of each scale line intercepted between AC and BD repre-
s;nts 1000 strides, divided into 10 equal parts of 100 strides each. The por-
tIon of each scale line intercepted between A C and EF represents 100 strides
d!vided into 10 equal parts of 10 strides each. These extra subdivided por-
tIons at the left are .for making close measurements, as described in par. 91.
To make a stride scale from the graph. apply the edge of the paper or rule
to the line on the graph corresponding to the previously determined length
of stride, and take off the marks with a sharppencil~ , If desired the entire
~calemay be graduated down to 10 strides by shifting each 100 stride section
tn turn opposite the subdivided portion of the graph at the left, taking off the
marks. However, it is. very difficult to get all the divisions uniform over a
long scale, especially for men unaccustomed to drawing. It is better to
Illake the scale in the form. shown, subdividing one section very carefully,
and then using the scale in measuring as described in par. 92.
Topo"raphr for Field Artillery
I ,;
, ,
. CHAPTER IY~
, ELEVATIONS AND GROUND 'FORMS.
'HOW SHOWN.
'131. '. A map is' a picture of a portion of the' earth's surface, usually'drawn
o'na flat piece of paper, and gives a view of the earth similar to thatpre-1
,sented to an observer in the car 'of a balloon. 'As a balloon rises an observer
gradually loses sight of some of the details. He will, however; seethe sur-
face of the earth in relief, and will be able to distinguish all the undulations
of the ground. As he rises higher the country will look. flat and he will
find difficulty in distinguishing valleys from hills. In such a circumstance,
the view from a balloon exactly resembles the picture which the map maker
endf'avors to reproduce.
It is necessary, however that elevations and ground forms be shown
on the map. This is accomplished by several methods. Those most gen-
erally used are the Bench Mark, Hachures and Contours.
A. BENCH l\IARKS, HACHURES AND CONTOURS.
(l) Definitions.
132. (a) A Bench Mark is a permanent object or marker, the. exact loca-
tion and elevation of which, with respect to sea level, are known. Usually,
only the elevation is marked upon it, thus, 1167.7 would, on an American
map, mean that the bench mark in question is 1167.7 feet above sea level.
133. (b) Hachures. The appreciation of the form of an object results
from the difference of light and shadow on its various sides, so an illusion
of solidity may be procured by a suitable arrangement of shading. The
means of doing this in topography is
called Hachuring. In the absence of
Contours, which are discussed in the
. succeeding paragraph, relief or eleva-
tions on the earth's surface may be in-
dicated by hachures, which are short
parallel, or slightly divergent lines, run-
ning in the direction of the steepest
slope. Hachures should be used only to
indicate areas which present slopes steep
enough to offer cover or become obstac-
les. The use of hachures is illustrated
in fig. 22.
134. (c) Contours. A Contour line
is an imaginary line Jommg points Fig. 22.
of equal elevation on a given ground form. Contour lines on the map are
TOpOgraphy for Field ArtiIlery

-4~-r- -
lines joining. pQints of equal elevation above' a known datu~ plane, usually
~a level;isee figi 23. i
. .. , r : ~, .' ;~I" .111
I. • .:, MovNTAtf\Jq,ndCONTOVR.5:: ',,:: .._~'
t''. . '1, . ~: r .1, 'i . .. . . . t • t I
.. ' :!.
.. ,",
I.~'
',-',:~ .L ~ I I.,'
..... ', ... . "
:2-;,y:, . Prisznt .5~Q uwa.,- "

1 •••• :. -Fig. 23.' . ,"
. Imagine a: submerged mountain with the ocean' receding, thus bring-
Ing the mountain peak up out of the water. The water around the mountain
leaves a series of water marks as it recedes. These" water marks may be
l~kened to the contour lines which are drawn oil the map representing eleva-
. bons above sea' level. . A contour line,. then is a line, each point of which
has the same elevation.' Contour lines never cross except in the case uf
over-hanging. cliffs, see fig .. 24•. ': . : " : ... ::., .. '
, PROfILE: MAP..
~~:. "::>:
j .. ,!.
\ .... -
c-- ", .
b
Q. ' ,.
Fig; 24.
Valley contours go in pairs; .that is, there is always one contour "f
the same elevation on each side of the valley.. They form a V which opens
~ut i.n the' ?irection of w~ter flow, the point of the being upstream. Con- Y
--.; , .',
'''''0 .' ..
...... 1. I ..•
1 .
1000 ~
" '.
Fig. 25.
t?ur lines take the form' of a U for spurs with the curve of the. U at the
rIdge crossing, see fig. 25..
135. (d) A contour has no end. If it enters a map it must leave it, the
ttopognp~y ,for. Field 4rt;ill~ry
-4~
two ends joining soinewhere off. the sheet. A contour is' a- line without a
break, a closed circuit. A contour which closes within the limits of the map
indicates either a summit or a depression. Contours always are at right
angles to the lines of the steepest slope, see fig. 23. The spacing ot the con-
tours indicates the steepness of the slope; the closer the spacing the steeper
being the slope.
(2) Vertical Interval.
136. Vertical Interval is the difference in elevation between adjacent con-
tours. In American maps and the new French maps the Vertical Interval
(abbreviated V.I.) changes with the scale of the map in a regular progres- ~
sion. A simple rule for American maps is that 60 divided by the scale of the .
map, (inches to th~ mile) will give the V.I. in feet.
Thus: Scale Vertical Interval
1" equals 1 mile """,', ,..... 60 feet.
3" " 1 mile 20 "
6" " 1 mile 10 "
. 12" " 1 mile 5 "
• On the new French maps the rule is to divide.the denominator of the
Representative Fraction by 4,000 to find the'V. I. in meters, thus:
Rep. Fraction Vertical Interval
1/40,000 •....................... 10 meters
1/20,000 ... :.................... 5 meters
1/10,000 ..............•......... 2~meters
However, many French maps show both a 5 and 2~ meter V.I., due to
the fact that the ground represented in one portion of the map is hilly or
mountainous and in another portion of the same map, quite flat. The two
V. I.s are therefore used to k~ep from crowding the contours on the hilly
portions.
(3) Critical Points.
137. Critical Points. No map can show every change of form of the gr.ound.
It is necessary only to know the critical points of the master lines of the
ground. Such points are the heads of valleys, the changes.in direction. and
the changes in slope of the drainage lines; the tops, the changes in direction,
and the changes in slope of the ridge lines; and the points at which a stream
enters and leaves the area being mapped. These critical points must be
located and their elevations determined.
B. LOGICAL CONTOURING.
138. Logical Contouring. When the critical points and the drainage net
have been established as above described, the sketcher can interpolate be-
tween these master critical points and draw in all contours by taking inu.
account the logical relation of ground forms, see figs. '26, 27, 28, 29.
. ~
'Topography for Field Arti11e1'7

-47-
x 850)(' 79Q
861 \
\
)(673
\
x \',
x 87Z. 630 \
'870
670x \ \\
\
\ )
I
I I
I
)(860 ; I)
I \\ J 850 /1
I
I
I
I
I x
870
\
\ ,
I
#
/
/
/
I
I /
I
:J\870 ,I
I
x880
/
/
/
I
I \
\
,, )(892
k 680 /
//
x
~845 80S
Fig. 26.
Traverse made and Critical Points plotted.
, '~)(
190 .
867 ) ))
-..
-\
:><8J3 ::
x
\
~
J)
-
830\
J)
\
~
\
- ~ ~\
""" .IV-
"'
'I
I
~
\
\ I
h
~ f ,I-
870 ~
.1
" I t, '''''8eo ..
f
I -
885x ~70
;:.
/
~ /
"" / "
-..v
~92. 880 ~.,;
r',
x-845 86S
x
Fi~27.
Interpolation between Critieal Poiz:ats.
Top<>srrapb7 for. Field, Artillery
--48l.....~
\ x
867 .'(' : 850* .)
r
,f """ '""" """
~""
.
.....
87~) ) ,
'\"=
872 x '*'.870 '\ ))
)
870Y t '\
/ \' "'-"""
./ \
)~
-v.
"" /
"\
'J,
( -X
870
,f
"'\
"\
~i'. '.~
B8'jx "'87.0
I \ -
" \
.>}
X
S65
Fig.: 28;
Same Area Partly Co~touted by. 'Interpolating betwe.en ,Critical Points.
" x
t385
Ci:-t
.Flg<'£:2 . .
,::S;'arit'J .Ar~:ai~ltl1:'an'Contours' 'Drawri.T
Tdp6!n'ipltt",; for?ti~di 'Nrtittiih
CHAPTER V.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN TOPOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS:
DESCRIPTION AND USE.
139. A. AIMING CIRCLE-See Hand Book.
140. B. BATTERY COMMANDER TELESCOPES-See Hand Book.
141. C. TRANSIT-See.'Engineer Manual.
142. D. 'PRISMATIC COMPASS-See Hand Book.
143. E:' PEIGNE' COMPAss. ~.
, .. . . T.lie Piegne" compass 'is used for topographicai reconnaissance. It al-
~o\Vs,the' topographer' to measure bearings and slopes. The distances are
llleasured "by 'stri"de or steel tape.
. The Peigne' compass comprises a box in the bottom of which 'a grad •
.u~t~d dial' is set. 'The m'agnetic needle swings on a pivot standing in the
C~nteroi the box.' It 'may be clamped by means of a lever and a milled
k,n')b. The line of sight is defined by a slit sight and two wires extended in
the slot of the lid. Inside of the lid a mirror is inlaid.
( :. , One' side of the box is beveled and engraved with a millimeter scale.
~ plummet rotating on the pivot of the needle gives the slopes in mils.
(1) To Read Bearings.
144. The lid is kept open by means of the slit sight." The sketcher holds
the compass in his left hand, using his right index finger to release or clamp
the needle as needed. The point is sighted 'and ~heJmage of b~th needle and
graduated dial are observed in the mirror. By means of the lever,
the sketcher may check the vibrations of the needle. ,He then
screws the milled knob with his right thumb. The bearing may then be read.
It is'lbetter to repeat the operations two or three times and take the mean ""-
of the readings. , ',
(2) To Plot This Direction \Vith The Compass.
145. On a sheet of drawing pape~-'attached to a board draw a few parallel
lines in the direction of magnetic north (these lines makIng an angle with
~rue north equal to the declination of the compass) near the point represent-
Ing the place at which the hearmg was read.: Lay the box, entirely opened.
on the 'table and pivot the bevel about the station' point until the axis of the
neerHe is parallel to these lines. Draw a ray along the bevel. This ray
represents the direction as obtained with the compass.
(3) To Plot The Direction \Vith A Protractor. '
146. Use a protractor the graduations of \vhich are the same as those on
the dial. Layoff a line through the station point in the direction of magnetic
north. Rotate the protractor about the station point until its zero line coin- •
cideq with the line on the paper 'representing magnetic north. Mark off a
Point on the paper that will coincide with the angle as read from the compass.
Connect this point and station point. This gives the line of known direction.
Topogl'aphy for Field Artillery
-50-
(4) 'fo Measure A Slope.
147. Hold the box vertically, and sight the point in question. Keep the
box vertical and note the image of the graduation which is seen in the mir-
ror in conjunction with the plummet. This gives the value of the slope.
F. THE PLANE TABLE.
148. The plane table consists of a drawing board fastened to a tripod of
. three adjustable legs, by me.aIlS
of a large hand screw. The
drawing board mayor may not
o o
contain a compass inlaid near
one edge of the board. The
plane table revolves on the
head of the tripod and can be
held in a fixed position by
tightening the head screw. The
plane table should be 1eve I
when in use, fig. 80.
(1) To Level The Plane Table.
149. This is accomplished bS
placing two of the legs firmly
on the ground and by adjust-
ing the third .by bringing the
surface of the plane table on
a plane of sight in accord with
. PLANE: TABLE:' a distant horizon. When one
Fig. 80.
<::>
edge is parallel with the hori-
zon, level the edges perpendi-
cular to the first edge, in a
similar manner, by using one
of the other legs as the adjust-
ing leg. Repeat to make sure PERJPECTIV(,
the other side has not been
thrown out by the last adjust-
ment. The board may be level-
ed more. accurately in the same . OECLINATOR'
manner by means of a level-
ing alidade or spirit level.
The declinatormay or o o 0
may not be attached to
board, fig. 81.
The plane table is used
in connection with topographi-
the
[t
o
t
Jlilllllli!1lilllllll
o
llil""':B
0
cal work for running traverses,
measuring angles, and other
like operations.
. PLAN.
Fig. 81.
-51-
G. ALIDADES.
(1) Triangular Alidade.
150. The triangular ~lidade is' a box wood rule wllich has a triangular cross-
section. All three edges of the alidade must be parallel to one another. In
Using this alidade one lower edge is placed along the line drawn, or to be
drawn, while the sighting is done along the top edge. •
(2) The Sighting Alidade.
151. The sighting alidade orF. A. plotting scale is a flat ruler about 25
Centimeters long with two beveled edges. One edge is calibrated in milli-
tneters and the other graduated to a '1/20,000 scale. On the face are placed
two folding up-rights, one at each end, so that the line of sight passing through
the 8lits in each one is parallel to the edges of the scale. This alidade can
.be used only for laying off directions and plotting poin~s. In laying off direc-
tions either edge is placed along the line drawn, or to be drawn, and the
sighting is done by lining in the object with the line of sight passing through
the up-rights. The slit with the crosshair should be placed farther from
the eye.
(3) The Leveling Alidade.
, 152. The leveling alidade. sometimes called a French aIidade, may be used
in laying off directions, plotting points, and measuring gradients, fig. 32. It
----_. ---- - -------_. -----' ----
All DADE:.
Fig. 32.
consists of a ruler 20 to 25 centimeters in length on which al'e supported a
level and 2 hinged standards. It also contains two eccentrics for leveling the
alidade. The rear standard contains three eye holes. The front standard
forms an open frame including a horse hair sight. One side of the frame
bears a graduation numbered upwards, the other side bears a graduation
numbered downwards. Each graduation consists of 40 divisions, each divi-
sion being equal to 1/100 part of the distance between the two standards,
or 10 mils.
-52-
By construction, when the standards are fully raised and the level
shows the bubble between its marks: .
1. The lines of sight are horizontal. These lines are defined by:
The bottom eye hole and the bottom zero division. •
The intermediate eyehole and the division 20 of the 2 graduations.
The top eye hole and the top zero division.
2. • The horse hair stretched across the front standard is vertic~l~
The edges of the alidade bear a graduation in millimeters and a scale
of cotangents.
(a) To measure a gradient: To measure the angle of elevation or
depression to a point, the alidade must be absolutely level. This is accom-
plished by bringing the bubble between the respective marks by means of
the eccentrics which raise or lower one end of the alidade, as desired. In
measuring elevations. to points higher than the point at which the plane table
is Sf't up, use the bottom eye hole and the risin'g gradient, and for point,~'
lower, use the top eye-hole and descending graduation.
- (b) In laying' off directions or finding direction use the alidade the
samp as the sighting alidade.
(4) Telescopic Alidade.

153. This alidade consists of a flat metallic straight edge on \vhich is mount-
ed a telescope (similar to an ordinary surveyors transit) with a level. It
mayor may not contain a declinator. In the latter case one generally is
carried in the same box. This telescopic alidade may be used for determin- .
ing directions, slopes and stadia readings. For measuring slopes and. deter-
mining directions it is used similarly to the other alidades. To use in
measuring slopes the telescope must first be placed in a level position.
154. To measure distances with the telescopic alidade, a stadia rod is used.
On the stadia rod are graduations subtending different known dis-
tances as read by the telescope. By means of cross hairs in the telescope,
called stadia hairs, a certain length subtended on the rod may be read.
fhe length read on the rod, required to produce an image of fixed size
in the telescope, is directly proportional to the distance of the rod from the
point over which the telescope is set, see figure 33.
The length of the rod as read, therefore, may, by means of tables,
be reduced at once to distance on the ground. The distance measured is
along the gradient and this in turn may be reduced to the horizontal, if
desired, by means of tables, diagrams or stadia slide rule.
Elevation is read by taking a level sight on the rod with the telescope
and measuring on the' rod the vertical distance from the ground to the
point where the line of sight cuts the red. The elevation 'of the telescope
-above the ground must be taken into consideration in determining the dif-
- ference in elevati.on between stations.
. The' degree of precision of the stadia method may be enhanced by
using it for traverses under 800 feet. using a telescope the magnifying power
of which is 15 to 25, with cross hairs that are as fine as possible, and by
taking readings during the cooler portions of the day, since excessive tem-
perature causes refraction.
-53-
155.' (a) To'me"asure distance with the stadia. ' The distance to an'y point
is ,read by observing either the angle subtended by a known length, or how
tnany divisions of the stadia road are inte'rcepted by a known, angle.
1st Process, The stadia rod, Be, is 'provided with' two sighting
tnarks the distance of which, h, is constant and generally equal to 2 meters.
If the stadia rod is standing perpendicular to the line of sight, see fig. 33,
h
D = Tan a.'
. C
. h
AI~I
Fig. 33.
The micrometer of the instrument used may consist of a scale giving

distance, D, instead of angles a.. When the micrometer is' graduated in mils,
..' 2037
and the stadIa rod IS 2 meters long, D meters = a. mils'
The numerator of this equation takes into account the relations of
.' 6400
artIllery mil to the true mil; that is, 2X 6283 (see par. 24 and 31).
2nd Process. The stadia rod is graduated in centimeters. The angu-
lar distance between the upper and the lower horizontal wires of the tele-
scope is known and is generally' equal to 1/100~10 mils or 1/200=5 mils.
In the first case (1/100) the number of divisions intercepted on the
stadia rod gives the distance in meters. In the other case (1/200) the read-
ing on the stadia rod must be doubled. .
156. (b)' Horizontal distance. Distances on the map are' the representa-
tion ()f horizontal distances. Therefol'e the readings taken on sloping ground
, are to be corrected before they are plotted. . "--.
Fig. 34.
157. If the stadia rod stands perpendicularly to the line of sight, readings
on it give actual distance on' the slope, fig. 3'4. -
Topography for Field ,Artillery
-54-
The slope measured is angle CAB=i. Then the horizontal distance
AB = A C X Cos i Th. . b. D D D . 2 i)
= DXcos i IS equatIOn. may e WrItten ' = - (2 sm 2".
It also is applicable to the distances measured along the slope with chain or
read on a stadia rod vertically.
158. When the stadia rod is not provided with a peep-hole, the rod-man
cannot easily stand it perpendicularly to the line of sight. Then he stands
it vertically and it is read with the line of sight inclined up or down, fig. 35.
The intercept is CG instead of CF,=CG cos i. If D" is the distance read
then AC=D=D" cos i and D'=AB=AC cos i = D" Cos2 i. .
The equation may be written D'=D" cos2 i = D" (I-sin2 i)
= D"-D" sin2 i
Tables. in appendices give the correction D" sin2 i to be subtracted from
distance read on stadia rod standing vertical. Q
Fig. 35.
c
8
f-o---------D..-' 1
H. THE ABNEY LEVEL.

159. This level or clinometer is an instrument adapted for measuring grad-
Fig. 36.
ients, .fig. 36. It has the horizontal plane indicated by a spirit level. The
-55-
abo\'e level consists of a tube, with a graduated vertical arc fastened to it and
a level tube with attached index arm revolving about a horizontal axis through
the center of the vertical arm. The base of the sight tube is a plane
par~l1el to the line, of sight. Under the center of the level tube is an
Opening in the sight tube inside of which is a,~:mirror occupying one half
the width of 'the sight tube and facing the eye end at an angle of 45° with
the line of sight. A horizontal wire extends across the middle of the sight
tub~ in front of the mirror. When the bubble is brought to the center,
its reflected image seen from the eye-end appears to be bisected by the wire.
The central position of the bubble indicates that the level (ube is
horizontal, and the reading of the index arm upon the arc is the angle
between the axis of the level tube and the line of sight. This reading
should be 0° when these lines are parallel. The vertical arc is graduated
eaclt way from 0° at its middle point. The index arm has a double vernier
whose smallest reading is 10' cf an arc. GradientR> of more than 45° are
difficult to measure on account of the foreshortening of the level tube as
reflerted in the mirror.
When the vernier is set at 0°. the instrument may be used as a hand
level to locate points at the same elevation as the eye. The graduations on
the inner edge of the vertical limb correspond to the ordinary fractional
method of indicating s'lopes as 1 on 2, 1 on 10, etc. This scale should be
read on the forward edge of the index arm, or in some forms on special
index marks on a shorter part of the arm.
160. To use the Abney level, steady it by resting it against some object
as a tree or fence post, sight through the eye-piece bringing the cross hair
upon the object to be measured, level the bubble with the left hand (its re-
flection being seen in the small mirror). When level read the angle of
slope.
161. The level ~ube is made parallel to the. sight tube by the adjusting
scrp.ws. To test and correct the 8.djustment, place the instrument on a smooth
sUrface, the more nearly horizontal the better, and mark carefully the posi-
tion,of one side and one end of the sight tube. Center the bubble by moving
the index arm, and read. the vernier. Reverse the instrument, bringing th~
other side and end of the sight tube to the marks. Center the bubble by
moving the index arm and read again. Note and record for each reading
its direction from 0°, whether toward or away from the eye end of the
sight tube. Note and record also the location of the eye end in each posi-
tion with respect to some fixed object, so that the instrument can be replaced
in the first positon or second position at will. .
If tbe first and second readings are the same, the adjustment is cor-
rect. If they differ, take the mean of the two and set the vernier at that
reading on the side corresponding to the first reading. Place the instrument
in the first position and bring the bubble to the center by means of the
graduating screws. For a check, set the same readings on the side corres-
Ponding to the second reading and place the instrument in the second position.
The bubble should come to the middle.

-56~
I. THE GRAVITY CLINOMETER.
162. The gravity clinometer consists of a circular case in which is a grad-
uated circle controlled by a pendulum, fig. 37. The line of sight is through ~
Fig. 37.
peep and a glass covered opening. The ~ero line is engraved on the glass.
A m:rror near the center reflects the scale back to the peep. Looking through'
the instrument the object is seen on the zero line, and at one end of the latter
a graduation of the scale is visible. The graduations are from zero at the
horiYontal, each way to 45°, the graduations and numbers for elevation being
'in red and those for depression in black. .'
A sliding bar on the outside of the case unlocks the spring controlled
stop. which, when pressed, frees the pendulum and graduated circle, and
when released stops them again.
To use, move the locking bar to free the stop; hold the instrument in
the !eft hand with the forefinger on the stop; depress stop; bring line of
sight on object and read.
J. LEVELS.'
163. The engineer's level is an instrument that does not give the angles
of slope, but is' used in conn~ction with a graduated rod and by successive
steps (with back and fore sighting) the actual elevation or depression of an
object is measured. The proce<;s is slow but accurate and seldom used in
military sketching. Its use for locating drainage lines in trenche's, emplace-
ments, etc., is common. '
In the use of the level gl'eat care must be exercised to see that it is
properly leveled at each set-up.
A type of hand level designed for slope readings is now' generally
preferred to the ~linometer. This level, has horizontal lines on the object
glass, either' reading degrees or percent. 'With the percent graduations it is
poss ble to obtain differences of tlevation without the necessity of using tables
of degrees for differences of elevation, see Abney level, par. 159.
I
-:-57:-.
K. SLOPE BOARD.
Fig. 38.
held in a vertical plane, will make the same angle with the plumb line that
the klghting edge makes with the horizontal; or in other words, will indicate "-----
the colope;fig. 38.
. , The scale may be constructed by drawing an arc with the center at the
Intersection of the perpendicular and the sighting- €dge. From the per-
pendicular layoff each way on the arc, chords equal in length to 1/57.3
of the radius. It is convenient to take a radius of 5.73 inches or 5i inches
Scant, when the chords will be 1/10 of an inch. or to use a radius of 7 3/16
inches. when the chords will be 1/8 of an inch.
Short radial lines drawn at the ends of the chords form a graduation
hi de-grees." The scale may be drawn on the lower edge of the board by pro-
lonifing the radial lines. The plumb line is' suspended so that when the
sighting edge is horizontal it coincides with the zero line on, the board.
165. In use, the boardis held RO that the plumb line swings freely but very
close to the board. The sighting edge is directed to the object and when
the line is steady the board, is quickly tilted so that the line draws across
the edge. The board is then turned in a horizontal. position or nearly so,
and the reading taken; or, when the line is steady, it' may be press~d against
,:Topogr:aphy' for;: Field ,Artillery
-58-
the board with the finger and held in place until the reading is taken. It
is better to take two or three readings and use the mean.
L. SITO-GONIOMETER.
166. The 'sito-goniometer, intended primarily for the light artillery, is a
pocket instrument for rapid approximate 'measurements during a reconnais-
sane-e, or at any time when more accurate instruments are not available.
The instrument is contained in an aluminum case. On one face there
is a table of parallaxes. A handle is provided, which also serves as a point
of attachment for a chord.
It is used for:
(a) Measuring the sight and determining the minimum range which
will clear the mask.
(b) Measuring angles in mils and transferring them into terms of
platf'au and tambour.
(1.) To Measure The Site And Find The Minimum Range.
161. (a) Site. Hold the instrument, edge to the front, at the height of
the eye, in such a manner as to see the site bubble, and also external ob.
jects on the right side. Incline the instrument to the front or rear so as
to center the bubble. Read the graduation seen on the height of the objective,
fig. 39. '
Site Minimum Range

168. (b) Minimum Uange" At the gun position, again hold the instrument
as if to measure a site. Select a point A on the mask of the same site as
the objective. l\love the instrument so this point is seen to the left. Bring
the zero of the scale to the height of the point selected, and then read the
mimmum range at the summit of the mask. This can only be used for
distances from the mask not greater than 306 meters and with the normal
charge, (French 75), fig. 39.
TOpOgraphy for Field Artil1ery
-59-
(2.) To Measure Angles And Deflections.
169. Hold the instrument horizontally, edge to the front, close to the right
eYe so as to see the deflection scales and at' the same time see distant oh-
ject!l' over or under the instrument.
Bring one or the other of the indices at. PI. 0 on the objective, the
lower one if the aiming point is on the right of the objective. and the upper
One if the aiming point is on the left of the objective. The deflection is
then read at the aiming point in terms of plate and drum, fig. 40.
If an angle is to be measured: look over the upper edge and use the en- ~
cirC'lf>dfigures with the 0 on the left.
M. PROTRACTORS.
170 A protractor is an angular scale of equal' parts used for plotting and
reading angles. Protractors may be semi-circular, rectangular, or circular
in !';hape; made either of metal or transparent organic substances; gradua-
ted in mils. degrees, or grades; in a clockwise or counter clockwise manner
_ or both, while the size will depend upon the purpose for which the protractor
is to be used. For methods of construction see Chapter 11.

CHAPTER VI.
ORIENTATION.
DEFINITIONS.
171. A plane table or map is said to be oriented. when all the directions
on the map corresp.ond to the respective directions on the ground; i. e.• when
true north on the map points to true north, etc. It is evident, therefore, that
a plane table is oriented when all the lines on the board are parallel to the
respective lines on the ground and points on each line are in the same
relative positions, as on the ground. I,"•. ',
A plane table is said to be declinated when the declination of the com- .

pass needle is known and recorded: so that when the compass needle is
brought opposite its index, the table becomes oriented. I'
An instrument is said to be oriented when the zero is on true north or ~
the Y-north depending on which is used as an origin. ~
An instrument is said to be declinated when the declination of. the
compass needle is known and recorded, so that when the declination constant
is set off and the needle is. brought opposite its index, the instrument will
be oriented.
METHODS OF ORIENTATION.
172. There are two general methods of orientation; viz. •
First. By means of a declinated instrument, or plane' table. and,
'Second. By means of a line of known direction, which mayor may
not be established in advance.
A. BY A DECLINATED TABLE.
(1.) \Vith Declinator Unattached.
173. Draw a line on the board making an angle with true north in the'
proner direction equal to the declination ,of the compass. Place the declinator
on this line and rotate the board so that the compass needle coincides or is
parallel to this line. Lock the board and verify by repeating the same opera-
tion. .
. :(2.) .With Declinator Attached.' ,
174 Place the map or griddedsheet upon the plane table so that the true '
north line makes an angle with the zero line of the declinator which is equal
to the compass declination. Rotate the board until the compass needle is
opposite its index. Lock the board. Verify by repeating.
Note: For a discussion of the process of orienting with adeclinated
. instrument, see Chapter XXV.
B. BY A KNOWN LINE.
(1.) When The Plane Table Is On A Station Over One Of The Known
Points Of a Given Line.
175. Let the capital letters designate the points on the ground that are
represented respectively by the same small letters on the map or plane table.
Topogrll~~~for:. Field. Artillery
.~
-61-
Assume A to be the point on the ground at which the plane table is to
be set up and B a point of known location which can be seen from A, fig. 4i.
- •.. s" moM •. Set up the boald over A and bring t;>
Stac..!:l B a level position. Place the alidade on .
__/--& the line ab with the point a nearer ar.d
I
-- ~ b farther away.
~ If the point B is so far from A
that. the two points cannot be plotted
on the same sheet, it will be neces-
sary, only to have a line from a in the
Fig. 41. . direction of b.
Rotate the board until the point B falls directly in the line of sight
When sighting over the alidade. Lock the board and verify by again sight-
over the alidade. The board is then said to be oriented because ab of the
plane table corresponds in direction with AB on the ground.
The orientation may be verified by sighting one or more other points
in a similar manner. If the alidade is placed on ac the point C should fall
exactly in the line of sight and if on ad the point D should fall exactly in the
line of sight. If this does not occur then the en-or lies either in the point
:>1' points being improperly plotted, poor sighting, or else the plane table may
not be in station over A. Make the necessary corrections and repeat.
(2.) When The Plane Table Is Somewhere On 'rhe Line Joining Two
Points Of Known Location.
176. The plane table may be on th~
line ab extended, in which case the
. point farther 'away, will be sighted
on, fig. 42.
t9Q~
';l.'::/:.6. ~
~~
La
.
", '
Fig. 42. Fig. 43.
Set the p'lane table up on an imaginary line joining the two points, A
and' B., Placing the alidade on the line ab and with the plotted point a the
,.far~hest away, rotate the board until the point A falls exactly in the line
o,t'sight 'when sighting over the alidade. Lock the board. Verify. Leaving
the board locked, walk around to the opposite side of the table and sight over
the alidade on point B. B should fall exactly in the line of sight without
mOving either the plane table or alidade. If this does not occur either the
sight,ing was poorly done or else the board is not on the line An. The latter
generally' is the case. Make the necessary corrections and repeat the opera-
tion. .
Note: The process is SImplified when the direction is materialized
On the ground as in the case of a road, see fig. 43.
-62-
(3.) By Angle Traverse (See Chapter YII).
177. Orienting by an angle traverse involves the principal discussed above .
. The last leg of the traverse is the line of known direction.
(4.) When Known Point On A Given Line Cannot Be. Occupied.
178. The case sometimes occurs when the station A cannot be occupied.
Under these circumstances the plane table is set up near point A and a
line of known direction from this new position is established on the board.
>fA
\
\ ~B
- -
.... ....
Fig. 44.
(a) Let x be the point at which the plane is set up and x' its as-
sumed location, fig. 44.
After the plane table is set up, orient it approximately and, pivoting
the alidade around a, sight on A. Draw the ray from a. Measure the dis-
tance from A to x and lay off ax' which gives the approximate location of the .
plane table. Pivoting the alidade at x' sight on B, draw x'B. D~op a per- .
pendicular from b to the line x'B. Let this be bb'. Draw line a,Y"~qual to
x'b'. At.Y' erect a line .Y,Y' perpendicular to the line a,Y' and equal to
bb'. Drawa,Y. At x', erect a perpendicular. The intersection of this perpen-
dicular with the line a'y determines the point x which the plane table oc-
cupies. Orient the board by using x as one point of the known line.
179. (b) A much simpler but less accurate method than the one above
may be used for quick work. Place the table near A and orient approxi-
mately. Place the alidade on a and draw a ray towards A. Set off the sta-
tion point x' at the measured distance from A, reduced to scale. While x is
the true plotting of the position which the plane table occupies, orient using'
x' as the station point.
(5.) By Resection. .
180. If more than two points are available orient approximately and re-
sect. Solve the triangle of error and proceed as above when occupying a
point on a line of established direction.

" CHAPTER VII.
TRAVERSES.
DEFINITIONS.
181. A Traverse is the process of determining a route for representation
on a map or sketch by actually proceeding over it, making the necessary
measurements on the ground.
#
A. KINDS OF TRAVERSE.
Traverses are of two kinds, open and closed. A closed traverse is one
which returns on the starting point or ends by passing through a known
Point. An open or unclosed traverse fulfills neither of these requirements.
For the sake of an accurate check, a closed traverse should always. be made
. in any topographical work involving traverses, see fig. 45.
UNCLOSE:D TRAVERSE: CLO~E:D TRAVER.s(~.

b
.A
~d
M
t\nown POln t.
Fig. 45.
B. INSTRUMENTS USED.
182. Instruments used in Traversing are either a declinated instrument
or plane table. The declinated instrument may be used either in a needle
or angle traverse described below, or in an ordinary survey. The plane
table is the usual method of recording traverses on a map or sketch. in
which event a working scale is used to layoff on the table the distances
measured on the ground.
C. METHODS OF TRAVERSE.
(1.) The Foresight-Backsight Method.
183. Methods of Traversing include the fo~esight-backsight method, needle
traverse and angle traverse. The foresight-backsight .method is described
as follows: Set up plane table at A, the starting point. Clamp the board
and plot point A on the sheet. Call the plotted point Q. Pivot the alidade
at Q until the second station, B, is sighted. Draw a light ray the full length
--64--
of the alidade, fig. 46. Pick up the plane table and pace the distance be-
,
~
tw\.!en A and D in the direction of the ray already drawn. Arrived at 8

layoff, on the ray already drawn. the distance ab corresponding to the .~
distance AD. Orient the board by laying the alidade on the rayab and turn-
r
ing the board until A is sighted over the alidade, fig. 47. Clamp the board.
[l,' '.. ~ 11 11
~
/ I TABLE:'ON.B
/TABLE:'OVER-A b
_:1
£
':Or:~~;~ht
on B ---><Cl
Q
.i
I
I
f-A
Fig. 46. Fig. 47.
Pivot the alidade about b until the 3rd station C is sighted over thealidade.
Draw a light ray be, etc., proceeding by this method until the entire traverse
is completed, see figure 48. .
(2) Needle Traverse. m
18... A Needle Traverse may be made in TABLE:, OVER C
order to save time over the fore sight-back 8 x.... _
sight method. Alternate stations may b~
occupied and sights taken with a declinated
instrument, to 8tations not occupied. A
rodman may be used at the unoccupie.J
stations in case these stations have no
sharply defined point to which sights may
be taken. First read the bearing from the
first occupied station to .the unoccupie(1
station: measure .the distance: thence pro- \
\ ..
ceed to the second occupied station, mea-
suring that distance.. Plot the position of
the unoccupied station from the direction to'
and distance first measured. Set up at the second station and read the
'bearing to the unoccupied station. Draw a ray through the unoccupied sta-
tion with the bearing last read, plus or minus 32001/1 (back azimuth), and
on this ray plot the second occupied station at the measured distance .
. (3.) Angle Traverse.
183. Angle Traverses sometimes are ~f value When it is desired merely
to orient at another point and the matter of distance is not important. In
such a case the orientation of the first known point is merely carried for-
ward to the other known point.
To do this. set up the table or instrument at the fir8t point, A. 8l1rl
Topol(rallhy for Field Artillery
-65-
°trient. Take a shot at a second point, B, and draw the direction ab, on th<"
able , as In '
. the case of any other traverse, fig. 46.
't Pr?ceed to the second station, B. and set up the board. Do not pause
S~measure the distance. At B orient by a back sigh.~ on the line just drawn.
,Ight on a third station C and draw a line in this direction across the line
00 P , ,
• roceed to C and repeat the operation.
Continue until the desired point is reached. The point will be reach-
{\(t with an oriented board which is what is desired.
). . In this operation, as in other traverses, the number of legs must be
united, otherwise the cumulative error will be so great that the orientation
.
cannot be accepted.
D. MEASUREMENTS.
.
186. Tra verse. Distances passed over may be determined by the stride of
rn~n or horse, by the time taken by a rated horse. by the revolutions of a
; eel, by chain or tape, and by stadia. Distances not passed over may be
e!,ermined by estimation, by stadia, or by intersection.
(1.) Pacing.
~87. Accurate measurement by pacing depends on the skill of the operator
In maintaining a uniform length of pace, or of stride (a stride equals two
Paces), on the care taken in determining the length of his pace, and the
accuracy with which the working scale is made and used.
t Good pacing should not be in error by more than 3% on distances up
to 600 yards. On long traverses it is better to use another method in order
o avoid a large error. It will be noticed that strides always are shorter
;n .sl~ping ground both going up and down grade than on horizontal ground.
h~CIIS due to the fact that the effort of moving upward shortens the stride
WhIle in moving downward the operator checks himself. thus shortening the
strine. The length of the stride. moreover, is not the same when moving
up a given slope as when moving downward' on the same slope .
.The following table applies for an operator taking 100 paces up or
down slopes of 5 degrees and greater. The table indicates the number of
race~ to layoff with the working scale for any given slope. On slopes
eas than 5 degrees, and for distances on such slopes not greater than 200
Yards, no calculation is necessary and ground distances may be taken as
the base. In most instances errors resulting from this procedure are com-
pen<:;ating. ..
-
-
~~ES
UP r
6°
OWN-
10°
UP IDOWN
~O.4 95.6 78. 7 ~

UP
69.3
r
15°
OWN
87.4 68.8
UP r
20°
OWN
80.8 49.1
UP
25°
IDOWN UP
68'.2 ;-;
30°
I DOWN
61.4
TABLE OF PACES.
The above takes into consideration both the slope of the ground and
the difference in the length of pace due to the slope. See Appendix I. When
pacing count the number of paces between stations, apply the working scale,
and layoff the proper length of the traverse on the map.
Topography (or Field Artil\rry
-66-
(2.) Chaining Or Taping.
188. Having set up at a given station and having oriented the board ,or
plane table, take a sight to the next station and draw a ray along tbe alidade
whUe thus sighted. Send out chain or tape men who will measure the dis-
tance between stations. Keep these men lined in by sighting over the
alidade. Apply the Representative Fraction of the map in question and
layoff the proper length of the leg of the traverse on the map. For very
accurate work the expansion or contraction of the steel chain or tape, due
to temperature, and its sag, are calculated and the measurement thus cor-
rected.
(3.) Stadia Readings.
189. This is a rapid method of obtaining measurement of distances es-
pecially over rough terrain where the pace, chain, or tape methods are likely
to cause large errors. The apparatus consists of a transit or telescopic
alidade and a stadia rod operated by an assistant. see Ch. V.
E. SPECIAL CASE.
190. When First Station Cannot Be Occupied. (See fig. 49).
A
/
1',
,
I
/ "",
II
/ """
'[BJrqo c
LtJ
II
r m
Q1 0
. B
Fig 49.
m
c
n
Set up and level the plane table at B. a point not necessarily known,
but from which the point C is visible. Orient with a compass and plot the
point a, the point (represented on the ground by A) which cannot be occupied.
Sight on A. Through a draw ray am. Pivot the alidade on a and sight
the point C. Draw this ray ao. Pace or otherwise measure the distance B-C.
This distance, laid off to scale on the ray ao, gives point o. Move to C, set
up, level and orient the table with compass as before. Through a draw an
toward C. From o. draw a line parallel to am. This intersects an at the de-
sired point c. the station 'last occupied, thereby giving the map distance ac
wh:rh was what was desired
TOP<>lrraphy for Field Artillery

-67-
F. ERRORS IN TRAVERSING.
:91. The Permissible error in traversing is 5% of the entire length of the
fav('fse. This limit applies only to the ordinary traverse. No such amount
~'l~rror is permitted in surveys. In making a closed"traverse there proba?ly
1• be an error of closure. Figure 50 indicates the method of correctmg
• t Th
J>th error for a closed traverse which returns on the startmg [lom.
IS •
,P
rocedure is the f;ame for a traverse closing on any kno\'lll point.
()
I
I
;f 2-
.A j-
/ /-
l- /
I 3 /
e(----
,
/
/ ....
/ 7r--
/ /
/ /
/ 6~--
/
/
/---- '\
'\
~= --
/ I.... ....
/ CORRECTING [RROR or CLOSVRE
/ _____ ORIGINAL' TRAvERSE.
!' ..... CORR(CTf:O' TRAVERSE.
/
/1..... .....
,5/
<. ..... .
.....
Fig. 50.
POint A' should be at A, but due to errors in traversing does not so plot.
On a straight line O-A layoff from 0 in succession, the lengths of the
courses A-1, 1-2. 2-5, etc. From the end of this line layoff, perpendicular
,to A-O, the line A-D equal to the error in closure, A-A'. Connect D and O.
Now from each succeeding station on the line O-A, draw a line parallel to
the line A -13.
Heferring to the traverse~ draw through each plotted station, a line
fl.al'hllel to the final closure line A'.A. On each such line layoff its respec-
tIve offset length, as determined above, giving new positions for each station.
Corn~<.'ctthese new stations and the traverse is adjusted. Erase the original
t,'avPl'se from the sheet.
TO!lflll'rRphy for Fie"t Artiller)'

CHAPTER VIII.
INTERSECTION.
DEFINITION.
192. Intersection is that topographical operation by which a point on the
ground is located on the map by the intersection of rays, from two or more
known points. drawn in the direction of the unknown point.
A. PURPOSE.
193. Intersection is used to determine a point without occupying it, and
often is the only method which can thus be employed. It may be used to
locate a point behind the enemy's lines, a tree on the opposite side, of 11
stream, a mountain peak in the distance, etc.
The method may also be used to check up the accuracy in angles
and distances of a traverse. in the following manner: Before starting,
select an object on the ground that can be seen from at least three places
along the route to be followed, preferably at the "set-up" stations. While
making the traverse, after orienting the board, draw rays toward the select.
ed point from known positions. The three or more rays should intersect
at one point, if the work is correct.
B. ACCURACY.
19 J. Accuracy may be expected when the angles between at least two
of the rays is not less than 500 mils, nor more than 2700 mils, as the bad
x~
//
/
/
""
\'
",
/ \
//
/
/ \
,- / \
/ \
/ \
/ \
/
Fig. 51.
etTcrt of erratic sighting becomes smaller and smaller as the angles at the
intersection of the rays approach right angles.
-69-
C. THE OPERATION.
To ~ocate A Point By Intersection:
19~. A and n are two known points, accurately located on the map (01'
~rld). It is desired to locate a third point, C, a church steeple, which can
a~ ;een. f~om both A and B. Process: Occupy A, and orient board accur-
e y. Wlth a on the map (or grid) as a pivot, sight on C on the ground,
:n.d through a draw a rayon the map toward C on the ground. Occupy B,
.' bo ar,d an<I.Wlth b' on the map as a pivot, per f orm t h e same opera t'IOn.
rlent
l'h
(> mtersection c of the two rays will be the location of the point C on th~
~ap. If there is a third point of knovln location on the map, the location
th c can be checked by repeating the operation at D on the ground. The
b ree rays should meet at one point. If they form a triangle, an error has
een made in sighting, orienting the board, or in plotting the location of
A , n,'or D. ..
TOIlOltr8phy fnr Fit'lt.I Artillery

CHAPTER IX.
RESECTION.
DEI"INITION.
196. Resection is that topographical process (the' reverse of intersection)
by which a point on the map, corresponding to the sketcher's position on the
ground, is located by the intersection of rays drawn from points on the
ground through corresponding points on the map, after the map. has been
oriented.
CONDITIONS WHICH MUST BE FULFILLED Iii' ACCUI{ATE RESULTS

ARE TO BE EXPECTED •.
197. 1. Known points must be plotted accurately.
2. Points chosen must be so located that the angles of intersection of
any of the rays drawn from them must be more than 5001/t and less than
2700,/,: also so that the points selected and the point sought should not
lie on the circumference of the ~ame circle.
3. The plane table must be level.
4. All rays should be drawn on the same side of the alidade.
5. Lines should be fine and drawn with a hard pencil.
6. Sighting should be accurate. After a ray is drawn it should lJe
checked by resighting.
7. Allowable error. The error in the location of the point sought
must not exceed one millimeter of the true position no matter what scale
of map is used. Thus, on a 1 to 20,000 map this error would not be greater
than 20 meters, on a 1 to 10,000. this error would not be greater' than 10
meters, and on a 1 to 5,000 map, this error would not be greater than 5
meters.
METHODS OF UESECTION.
A. TRANSPARENT PAPER METHOD.
198. The operator' is' at point P which he wishes to determine on the map
or grid. Points 0, b. and c, exactly located on the map or grid, are visible
from this position. The plane table is SE't up and leveled. A piece of trans-
parent paper is fastened to the board which is locked fast without being
oriented. A needle is struck in the center of the sheet. This represents p.
With the needle as a pivot, A, n, and C on the ground are sighted in
turn, rays being drawn toward each. The .rays are labeled. The transpar-
ent sheet is then taken from the board and placed over the map or the grid.
It i'i next moved about until the ray drawn toward A passes through 0 on
the map, while that to n passes through b. and that to C passes through c.
The llole in the paper made by the needle, now is over the point p which is
the map representation of the point P on the gt'ound. By pricking through
this hole, the point is recenled on the map.
-71-
::9. The proof of the above.is found in the fact that the rays. drawn on
e paper from the pin toward the various points form angles whIch corres-
~ond exactly to those actually on the ground, and that these rays can inter-
'pe~t only in one point, which is the location sought., (unless, of course, all
2~~nts are on the circumference of the same circle).
an •. ,In using the transparent paper method, it is well to remember that
u Y errors made do not show in the final result. Thus, because no error
PPears, the operator must not conclude that there is none. If accurate re-
Rults
f . should be use d as a check
are sought with this method, a fourth point
a tel' the point p has been determined on the map.
D. THE TWO POINT METHOD.
201 'rh' IS method reqUIres
, careful orienting. Thus, a very senSI't'Ive d ecI'm-
ator or a line of known direction is necessary. #
(t.) Using A Known Liite.

The operator is somewhere on a line of known direction which ig
1'C'llI'escnted on his map, such as a railroad track. He wishes to find his
exact location.
First, he sets up his board on the track and, placing his alioade on the
Ina? representation of the track, sights along this line, turning his board
unt 1 the map direction corresponds with that of the track itself, fig. 52.
Prom his position he notes a point on the terrain which he can identify
On the map. Through a, on the map, he sights on this point A, on the ground,
~d (h:aws the ray. The intersection of this ray \vith th~ line representing
e raIlroad track is the exact location of p, which is the map representation
of the point P.
Note: The railroad is used
not only to orient the map but also
a..'
k i one. of the rays drawn in a A,
nown direction through the point \
\
SOught.'. \
\
\
Fig. 52, Fig. 53.
(2.) Using The Dec1inator.

~02. The declinator is used to orient the board, after which two points,
I(lentified on the map and visible from the point in qu<:stion, are selected,
fig. 53. With a, and b on the map as pivots, draw rays towards A and B on
the ground. The intersection at p will be the location on the map of the point
I).
TOl>OICfAIlhy fOf Fie)d Artilll'I'y

--72-
C. THREE: POINT METHOD.
203. Let A, n, and C be three known points on the ground which are located
on the map or plotting board, fig. 54. Orient the board as "Well as possible.
With a, b, and c on the map as pivots draw rays towards A, B, and C on the
.ground. If the orientation of the board is exactly correct the three rays will
intersect at one point. p, on the map which is the location of the plane table.
Triangle Of Error.
If the orientation is not correct a "triangle of error" 'will occur, fig.
55. This triangle may be solved in several ways.
I /
I /
I I
I
/
C Fig. 54. Ie: Fig. 55.
20... If The Operator's Position Is Inside The Triangle On The Ground.
(I.)
The Vertices Of Which Are A, B. And C.
(a) Solution by using perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle
of error, fig. 56.
,
to ~
\
\0 A c
I
\ /
" ~./
~\¥~~~z~
/" \
lj'
\.
/
Fig. 56. Fig. 57.
Draw perpendicular bisectors of the triangle of error. These meet at
a point. p, which is the location of the operator. Check by resighting.
(b) Solution by intersecting arcs. (See par. 206.)
TopolCrallhy lor Field Artillery

-73-
205. ( 2.) If The Operator's Station Is Outside The Triangl..)n ( 'rh ~
Ground, The Vertices Of Which Are A, B, And C.

. (a) By the inverse triangle method.
Label the intersection of the rays to A and B as %, to Band C as 'y,
and to A and C as z. Next t\\Tist the board slightly and draw new rays to
~ fl, and C as b:fore. If the intersection is at o~e point, t~en, that point is
e correct locatIOn of the operator, and the tWIst has orIented the board.
(~ote: Usually the point sought will be found opposite the long side of the
~langle of error, and the twist should be in that direction.) ]f the board
. as been twisted far enough it will have moved past the true point and an
Inverse triangle of error will have been formed. Label the intersection of
the new rays to A and B as x', to Band C as y', and to A and C as %', fig.57.
. Next connect :Je and x', y and y', and % and %'. The three lines will
Intersect in a point P, which is the location of the operator on the map.
(Note: The two opposite triangles of error must be quite small to get good
results. This is because the points of intersection of the corresponding rays
~o not move in straight lines during the shift from one side of P to the other,
ut rather swing along arcs.)
20~, (b) By arcs of circles. Having resected and gotten a triangle of error,
the triangle may be solved as follows: (1) describe the circle which has
on its circumference a and b, and the intersection, :Je, of the rays therefrom;
(2) describe the circle which has on its circumference the points band c,
and the intersection,. y, of the lines therefrom; (3) describe the circle which
~as on its circumfeI'ence the points a and c, and the intersection, %, of the
hnes therefrom. (4) The three circles should intersect at a point p, which
to A I to B
~ ,,"
_---.f..I .....
,
/ I"
"
Fig. 58.
is tht> true location of the point P on the map or grid. (5) Ueorient the
hoard by sighting A along the line pat (6) Check by sighting 13and C alon~
pI> and pc, fig. 58.
TOJlOlCrllphy for Field Artillery

-74-
The proof of the above is based on the theorem in plane geometry to
the effect that all angles subtended by a given arc of a circle, the vertices
of s1.id angles being on the circumference of the circle, are equal. The angles
constructed at x, .Y, and z, by the intersecting rays, are equal to those actuallY
'Cxisting on the terrain. All other angles with vertices on the circumferences
of 1he respective circles and subtended by the respective arcs will be equal
to those measured on the terrain and constructed on the plane table. Th~
only point which will satisfy all conditions simultaneously is where the three
circlps intersect, or at p.
D. BACK AZIMUTH METHOD.

207. In using the Back Azimuth Method, it is essential that the compass
declination b-e known, par. 460, Ch. XX.
Pick three points A, B, and C which can be seen from the operator'R
position, p. and which are located accurately on the map or grid. Through
each of these points on the map, draw a true north-south line, fig. 59. ,
tOA
~
.................
\ to C
Fig. 59.
With the declinated instrument take the bearing to A, n, and C and

reduce each to azimuth. Add 3200'll to the results, which will give the "back
azimuth" readings. \Vith a protractor layoff these respective readings,
usir.~ as an origin the true north lines drawn through the respective points.
The three rays will intersect at one 'point, p, which is the location of
the point, P. If a triangle of error results; some part of the work is in-
ac'curate and should be repeated.
(Note: The point may be located in the same manner if the lines through
A, H, and C are drawn in the direction of magnetic north, grid north, or the
north of the particular compass used. See par. 469, Ch. XX.)
The value of this method lies in the fact that it may be performed in
the field without a map. It is necessary only to read and record bearings,
after which the actual work of resection may be performed in the plotting
rOO'll, or the dug-out.
E. ITALIAN RESECTION. (llessel's Theorem)

208. The fil'5t part of Italian resection is, in reality, merely a method of
orienting the board, hence the name "Italian orientation" might well be ap-
plied. The last steps are those of the ordinary two or three point I'e~cction.
Thp orienting, however, is so exact that no triangle of el'1'Ol' )'(,l'iultl'i, .
TOllOlCral,hy for Field Artillery

-75~
(1.) The Process.
209" . .... . : • .
T .. Three points A, B, and C are selected as in the three point method.
b:e cor~esponding points on the map are a, b, and c.'!:The point C (c) should
the point farthest away, fig. 60. .
e.
B
f,
x I
A
" c
)('
,,I
xb
')(0.
Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
. No attempt is made to orient the board. The sighting alidade is laid

~lth its edge on ab. Assuming that the operator is at a, he sights from a to
• "Vel' b, and locks the board, fig. 61.
With a as a pivot C is sighted at, and the corresponding ray is drawn, ,
calling it C\. The board is then unlocked,
Next, the alidade is laid along ba, and, assuming that he is at b th*:
~per~tor. sights from b to A over a, and locks the board. With b as a pivot
e 1'1ghb~on C and draws the ray C2, fig. 62.
A
'\ ,~.
\
\
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63..
The two rays, C\ and C intersect at a2, point, d.

: . From d the operator draws a ray to c. The point sought is somewhere
along this line' (see proof).
.. Unlocking the board the operator lays the alidade on the liIie de and
SIghts from J to C ovcr c. This orients the board which then is locked in
T1ol'it ion. fig. 6:1.
TOI)()J!'\'RI.hy for Fidtl Artilll'I'y
-76-
To find the location of the point p, on the line deC extended, it is neces-
sary only to pivot the alidade about a and b in turn, sighting on the cor-
responding points on the ground and drawing the rays across dee. The inter-
section of the three lines is the point, p. ,
210. The location of p may be checked by sighting on a fourth point. In
fact, it is always advisable, if possible, to check any resection in this man-
ner. In Italian resection, if the points are plotted falsely, a perfect resection,
I
I
I
'I :
.F'I\'T.Po.s/T/ON' 0.- - - - - - - - - - - -0- ~ B
I I
I 'DR.Aw.DJI\~CTlON' I
c:- - - - - - - - - - - - '- - - - - - - -1- _ C-Q(",
I J
, I
.Sf.COND.P05lTJot~.?- - - - - _..:. - - - - ?_ -A
I • , A I
b- - -- - _'D~ ~'EJ~.sT25~ -'--C ..b
I I
•TttlRJ).Po.slTIoN- : I
~lfNTArott> '~JTl1tltd_ - - - - _'~O.!..N IO - I
!
'OP'f- -- - - - -.--~I~'!9'_
I
_
- -:c -~c
: J
,
Q- - - - - ..PFtAWJ>~EC:TJO~.
,
- - "'- _: A
Fig. 64.
t!>-..
I
- - - - ~ptw.E!P~.!!(~' - - - - - _ -:--B
I
may result, no triangle of error being evident, and yet the point will be
quit~ false. A fourth sight will check this error.
211. The steps in Italian resection are illustrated graphically above.
-77-
(2.) The Proof.
212. Let p (p) be the operator's position which is to be determined, fig. 65.
C~
Fig. 65.
Let A, 13, and C be known points on the ground, represented by a, b,
and c on the map.
Let d be the point where the straight line joining p and c, cuts the circle
Pa."Isedthrough pab. .
Angle ,,'=x (by construction).
Angle 31'=31 (by construction).
To prove that aCt and bCI intersect in a point d on the line pc.
Draw a circle through p, a, and b.
pc intersects this circle somewhere. at point d.
aCt intersects this circle at some point, d.,
'and bCa intersects the same circle at some point dz•
Angle x is measured by one half arc b~d (by geometry); "'--
and angle x' is measured by one half arc b~J ..
But angle x=x'.
Therefore arc bkJ.=bkJ •. '
S,ince one end of the arcs, b, coincide and since the arcs are equal
,and measured in the same direction on the same circle, then the other ends
must coincide, or J and dl. are the same point.
To prove that Ja also coincides with J.
Angle 31+ angle abJ enclose the complete circle. Therefore the two
a.ngles are equal to one half of the enclosed circumference (by geometry),
Or they =180 0
•
By construction 'y'+abJa=a straight angle=180° ..

Therefore 'y'+abJa='y+abJ.
But 31'=31 by construction.
Therefore abJ=abJa•
Since one side of these two angles coincide, since 'the vertices are the
Mam<,. and since both are inclosecl within the same circle: therefore, the second
TO!lOlI'raphy lor Field Artillery
-78-
legs of the angles must coincide, and abd2 must intersect the c;ircumfcren:ce
of the circle at the same point as that of angle abd. In other words J must
coincide with J2•
And since J (by construction) was the point of intersection of the
straight line joining p and c, with the circumference of the circle, then d. and
J2 also lie on this same line and the board may be oriented by using J and c
as l'ighting points for the line pc.
F. BRITISH RESECTION.
213 Three visible points of known location A, D, and C, on the ground, rep-
resented bi a, b, and c on the map, are chosen. Let P be the point occupied
on the ground and p the corresponding point on the map.
Construct a circle passing through a, band fJ as follows, fig. 66,
*
I
Fig. 66
At P with a plane tabl~ or an angle measuring instl'umcnt measure
the angle APB.
Points a and b are joined with a straight line.
With the line ob as a base and point 0, as a vertex, construct the angle
boy equal to APB.
The perpendicular bisector of ab is drawn.
A perpendicular is drawn to JlO at o.
The two perpendiculars intersect at r.
A circle next is constructed using r as a center and a radius ro or rb.
Points a, band p will be on this circle, and (by geometry) all angles
with vertices on the" circumference of this circle and subtended by the same
arc ab, will be equal to the measured angle APD.
Construct a circle passing through b, c and p. (as above).
The two circles intersect at two and only two points, b, being one of
the two.
TOllOlnaJlhy (01' .. i•.ld Artillery
-79-
If p coincides with b then P coincides with B on the ground and in
sUch
for a case th;re is no angle b~tween B and A o~ ?etw~en B ~nd C,. ~here-
I '
e, the only mtersection which satisfies all condItIons IS p, sInce thIS IS the
only pomt . from which the angles ' will correspond ~o the ang Ies measure d
On the terrain. ,. . ': ,;
. The location of the point p' may be checked by constructing a third
Clrel .
e m the same manner using ' the,
angle between A and C.
C. BY MEASURED ANGLES .•
214. Another method, which, like the British, makes use of the measured
~ngles in the construction of circles which intersect at the required point. p,
18 giv~n below.
At P measure the angles APB and APC. The exact location of P 18
not known, hence an assumed location is chosen.
A lin~ ap' is passed through this selected position, ~ng. 67.
Fig. 67..
, On the line ap', layoff an angle ap'b with the vertex on the line
ap and the sides passing through 0 and b; this angle being equal to the angle
tne~sured on the ground, APB.
Pass a circle through the points 0, p' and b. All angles on this circle
Subtended by the arc a1> will be equal to the measured angle APB.
Next on the line ap' layoff an angle equal to the m~asured angle APC,
~o that the legs pass through 0 and c and so that the vertex is on the line ap'.
et the angle so constructed be ap" c.
Pass a circle through op" c.
TOJlOllraphy for Field Artillery
-80-.
All angles of this circle subtended by the arc ac will be equal to the
measured angle APe.
. The only points on the circles which ~ill satisfy conditions as to both
angles will be their intersections, and of thesoe intersections, p, is the only
point which accords with the actual conditions found on the terrain. .
Therefore p, is the point on the map, the location of which is sought.
The point, p, may be checked by usin~ a third circle through band c.
TOl)OlrI'aphy for (O'leld Artillery

CHAPTER X.
MI<~ASUREMENT OF SLOPES AND 'I~LEVATIONS.
DISCUSSION.
;15. Nearly all operations by artillery involve a consideration of grounrl
borms, slopes and elevations. hence, it is important that the artillery officer
c. familiar with all methods and devices or instruments used in the deter-
nltnation of slopes and elevations. either from the map or from the terrain.
A. INSTRUMENTS USED. .f!
Z~6.:' Slop'~s or gradients may be determined by means of the transit, th,'

~lm'ng circle, the battery commander's telescope, the prismatic compass,
evels, clinometers, alidades, the sito-goniometer, and the slope board.' .
. In most instances the aiming circle or battery commander's telescope
wllibe available; To measure a slope with the aiming circle 'or B. C. tele-
lICOpe,level the instrument, look through eye piece and sight upon the. point,
the elevation of which is desired; level the bubble of the reading device
(commonly called angle of site device) and read the angle.
This is the angle of slope, in mils, from which the arigle in degrees.
gradients, etc., and the actual elevation may be computed. .
. In measuring slopes with any instrument that is not on an actual level
~lth the ground, a sight should be taken on .an object the height of which
~8 'l!?proximately that of the instrument being used. On long slopes the error
~s negligible but on short slopes a marked error will occur if the above rule
IR not followed.
For description and discussion of operation of the other instruments
ellu~erated above, see Chapter V.
n. UNITS IN WHICH SLOPES ARE EXPRESSED.
Z11., The amount of ~ given slope may be expressed in several different
Ways, each of which is definitely related to the other. See Chapter II.
. (1.) Degrees And Minutes.
218. The ma~imum slope of any hill can be only perpendicular or 90"
(plus or minus); therefore any measurement made of a slope will read from
0" te 90°.
Fractions of a degree may be expressed decimally as, 6.33". 3.6°, or,
each degree being divided into 60 minutes, fractions of a degree may be
expressed in minutes, as follows; 6°,20', 3° 30'.
(2.) Mils.
219.. Slopes may be given in mils, from 0 to 1600, a perpendicular line
making an angle of 1600 mils with the horizon.
(3.) Percentages.
220. Slopes may be expressed by the percent of' rise in a given distance
TopolCraph, for Field ArtillerJ
-82--
on the ground, i. e. the number of feet rise for each 100 ft. of horizontal
distance.
To find the percent of slope; divide the rise by the horizontal distance.
For example, assume a rise of 5 feet in a horizontal distancE' of 100 feet.
Dividing 5 by 100, the quotient is .05 or a 5% slope.
(4.) Gradients.
221. A slope may be indicated by the relation between the rise and tht>
horizontal distance such as a rise of 5 feet in 100 feet. This expressed a~'
5 on 100 or 5/100, or 1 on 20, the numerator usually being taken as unity.
Such an expression is spoken of as the gradient of the slope.
(5.) Tangents.
222. The relation between the side opposite to the side adjac'ent to an angle
of .1 right angled triangle. is the tangent relation of that angle.
Given the horizontal distance and the degree of slope, look in the
table of tangents for the tangent of that slope and multiply it by the hori-
zontal distance. The result will be the height of the perpendicular of the
right triangle.
For Complete Conn'raion Tables see Appendix IV.
223. T)'pical Problrm: Assume that with a slope board, or other slope mea-
suring devicto', the slope of a given hill has been determined to be 4°. It i:-
desired to change this into mils, percent, gradient, or tangent values. Refer-
ing to Appendix IV the following values are found; (For a discussion of
values see Chapter II).
1°=17.78 mils or 1.75% and 1%= a gradient of 1/100 hence the equa-
tions:
4XI7.78=71.12 or 4°=71.12 mils.
4X 1.75= 7.00 or 4°=7%.
1%=gradient 1/100 then 7%=7X1/100 or a gradient of 7/100=1
on 14.28 or 4°=gradient of 1 on 14.28. From the tables, 4°=a tangent of
.06993.
Assume now that the point to which the slope had been read was the
top of a cliff, to the base of which. it is possible to measure or pace off the
horizontal distance. The height of the cliff is desired.
Assumed horizontal distance=400 (60 inch) strides, 60 in.=5 feet.
Then 400 strides=400X5 or 2,000 feet.
From Appendix IV the tangent of 4°=.06993. (The horizontal dis-
tancE' times the tangent gives the altitude of a right triangle). Therefore
2000XO.06993=139.86 or the height of the cliff in feet.
C. SLOPE SCALES.
224. A slope flcale is a scale by which the slope between contours may be
read or which can be used in map making for locating the relative position~
or distances between. contours.
For American or other maps Where the V. I is directly proportional to
the scale of the map, a slope scale may be constructed that is applicable to
all such maps irrespective of the scale; i. e. if .65 in. is the 1\1. D. between
0
contours for a 1 slope on a map, the scale of which is 3 inches to the mile,
with a V I of 20 feet; it follows naturally that .65 in. is the M. D. for a
'fOJlOgraIlhy lor Field Artillery
. -83-
1° slope on a map, the scale of which is 6 inches to the mile, with a V. I of 10
f eet, etc.
(1.) Construction Of Slope Scale.
225. (a.) For American maps. To ascertain the ..M. D. between contourj;
wh('n the degree of slope is known, the following formula npplies:
M. D. between contours- R. F.XV. 1. (in feet) X,688 ,

6 Number of degrees of slope
88
~
being the number of inches horizontal distance necessary to give a rise .
1 foot on a 1 degree slope •
0
Proof:
IO slope=l ft. rise in 57.3 feet (or 688 inches) horizontal distance.
For 6 in, map 1 slope=10 ft. rise (the vertical distance between con-
0
tours) in 573, ft. horizontal distance. But 6 in.=1 mile. Then 6 in.=5280 0
ft., and 573 ft.=573/5280 of 6 in,=.65 inch=l\L D. bet~veen contours for 1

Rlop~. 0
, Similarly it may be shown that the M. D. for a 1 slope with the 1 in"
3 m. and the 12 in, maps is ,65 in,
For small angles it is approximately true that the amount of rise com-
parpd to the horizontal distance keeps pace with the degree of the angle,
Thus if a horizontal distance of 573 feet is required to give a rise of 10
feet on a 10 slope, a similar rise would be secured in half that distance on a
2° f;lope.
Or if .65 in. is the map distance between contours on the American
maps of 1 slope, then the map distance between contours will be half
0
,65 in, or .325 in" for a 2° slope.

Solutions for various degrees of slope for American maps give the
fOllowing: 0
.
.65 inch M. D, (between contours) for 1 slope,
.325 inch M. D, for 2° slope,
.22 inch 1\1. D, for 3° slope,
t'l-.16 inch 1\1.D, for 4° slope •
•13 inch 1\1. D, for 5° slope. "---
Draw a line suldivided into the above units (use a ruler divided into
decimal parts of an inch, if possible, for accuracy). This scale pasted on n
triangular ruler or alidade can be used in contollring and will prove of value,
especially in road sketches.
226. (b.) l"or metric malps. To construct a degree slope scale for the
1/20,000 map with a 5 meter contour interval proceed as follows:
. For a 1 slope a rise of 1 meter is equivalent to a horizontal distanc~
0
of 57.3 meters, A rise of 5 meters (the distance between contours) will be

equivalent to a horizontal distance of 5X57.31\1=286.51\1=2~650cm, On a
1/20,000 scale, 28650 cm. on the ground corresponds to 1.4325 cm. on the
map
227. To construct a slope (101jl slope) for the 1/20,000 map with a :;
meter contour interval proceed as follows:
For a 101jt slope a rise of 51\1corresponds to a horizontal distance of
5001\1. On the 1/20,000 map, Imm,=20l\L Therefore a distance of 500M
on the ground corresponds to 500+20=25mm. on the map.
-84-
A 20tj, slope would have a M. D. between contours of half the above,
or 12.5 mm., and a 100'1' slope would require a M. D. of 1/10 or 2.5mm.
. (2.) Use Of Slope Scale.
228. (a) In Contouring: Only when a slope is absolutely unif~rm can a
slope scale be used for plotting contours accurately. However it can be used
with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes of the military sketcher.
Assume that in making a road sketch a slope of 3° is measured from
the base of a hill to its crest. but by observation it is seen that the slope at .
the base is gradual, and the slope towards the crest is steeper. Then. by
. measuring the number of times the interval for a 3° slope will go into the
distpnce as laid off on the map representing the hill, the number of contours
crofl~ing the road for the distance will be known. If, in this manner, it is
found that 8 centours will cross the road, the total distance is divided into
8 'parts,. intervals near the base of the hill being wider than those near the
top. after which the contours are drawn through the points of division.
If the slope is uniform the contours will be equally spaced.
229. (b.) In reading slopes: . Place the slope scale on the map near the
slope which it is desired to me~ure. Move the scale around until one of
the divisions or. the scale corresponds to the M. D. between 2 adjacent con-
tours and so on with the next contours until the' slope has been measured
(or. the distance desired. This gives the slope between adjacent contours
only.. . .
To get the slope between several contours the total of the slopes meas-
ured may be averaged, thus getting the average slope of. any given ground;
or the slope between the top arid bottom of the hill may be read and averag-
ed. This should be done only where the difference in slopes between con..
tours does not exceed 1 or 2 degrees.. .
Averagefl should be taken only for plus or minus slopes, never for
both combined.
'rUllOl:raph,. for .'eld Artillery

CHAPTER XI.
SI{ETCHING.
POSITION AND AREA SKETCHES.
A. CHARACTERISTICS.
230. Position and area sketches are of the same nature, including a traverlW
uPon which. as a framework, the sketcher makes' a map showing all the de-
tailR of military value contained therein. . ..'
Such sketches must be drawn to scale; distances4J"on the ground must
b? rep~esented in proper relationship on the map, directions must be in-
dIcated in reference to the True or Magnetic North, and where ground form~
are of value, the vertical relations must be properly represented.
A map must be capable of orientation. Thus, unless directions are
properly indicated, the sketch has little value.
. Accuracy and reasonable speed are required in making such sketches.
(The time usually is limited). .
However accuracy must not I09S X985 lOll
be sacrificed for speed. The /
x/O/4
sk etcher should be careful at
first to. be accurate. Speed
will come with practice and
experience.
n. TECHNIQUE.
(1.) Whole To Part Method.
231. The simplest and best
method of making an area
sketch is known as the
"whole to the part" method,
and consists in making a tra-
verse around the whole area,
after which the details of the
interior are located and put
on the map.
In traversing locate;
(a) every drainage line cross-
ed or running generally par-
allel to the line traversed and
note the direction of drain-
age; (b) every building and
easily identified feature near
the route; (c) the high points
or ridge lines crossed by the
Fig. 68.
traverse. Determine the ele-
-86-
vations of all these points,
without putting in any con. 1095
tours, .see fig. 68.
This is the first step, X 1014 /'X9IlS lOll:.
or sketching the "whole."

The next step is the locating
of all the critical points, with.
in the area. from which the
completed sketch can be 985
1027
><
}/~ 990
made, see fig. 69. The final 998

step is the drawing in of 993
these details, completing the
drainage lines, and filling in
the contours, fig. 70. (See 985
Ch. IV.)
For complete
~E'efiguge 71.
sketch m
IOCJ6
lOll
Fig. 69.
\~a9"
\ North,
990
99"
985
1006
9
97,5
\ Mag
Fig. 70. \North.
TOllOlCraphy fur .'\eld Artillery
-87-
+
~
~
~N~9'
\orth
..•. AREA JH£TCH ~~
of " Scal(/,
NORTH Pllff and INf)/t/N'CR€~11
- VICIIVlTY- 6 in.: Imil~.
,
MELBA - OXLA. R.F. • 7055lJ
O~C. /2,19/8. , VI, : 10 ft., y0.5,
-by- I I ,
Lt. Jotzn Smtth. 100 0 '00 too.w<J «.10 ~()(
St.-
Fig. 71.
(2.) Determination Of Critical Points.

232. The following are critical points from which ground forms can be
fillp.d in; (a) junctions of stream lines, (b) sources of .3treams. (c) entrance
and egress points of streams(d) points of high elevation such as crests or
rid~es, (e) road crossing's or rOlld illnctions, (f) points where there is :1
marked differen('t' in the degree of slope.
Topo({raphy for Field Artillery
-88-
The location of these different points may be determined by traverf'-
ing through the area in one or more directions, or by intersection. If tht>
area be small. one traverse usually will suffice, the critical points being de-
termined by intersection as the traverse proceeds across or into the area;
but if the are:\ be large or one with such natural features that the view
is materially obstructed, then it will be necessary to traverse in several di!-
ferE-nt directions. These traverses may be branches from a main traverflt'
through the area, or they may enter the area from different points.
In making the traverse of the "whole," as many of the interior critical
points should be located by intersection as is possible. With the criticnJ
poi'1ts established the contouring of the area can be done readily. Set'
Chapter IV.
. (3.) Information To Be Included.

233. In the above description of the making of an area sketch, only tht'
determination of the natural features has been considered. In an area
sketch as intended for military purposes, all features that have militar~.
value must be shown. The exact purpose to which the sketch is put will
determine what features may be omitted and what must be included.
The artillery is concerned with an area sketch as it applies to ar-
tilleT)', and therefore all details must be included that will permit the ar-
tillery to use feasible roads or routes, lines of communication, and in fact
every thing that will enable the artillery commander to properly dispose of
his different elements.
(4.) Conventional Signs.
234. The conventional signs used by the American service in milital)'
,..kt~t('hjn~ are iIJustrated in this chapter. See Plates II to XI.
.. ,'
-89~
Canal or Ditch ~."===========
~:==:==============
Aqueduct or Waterpipe •••••••••• ' •• '': ..... J.",
.
(~~------------
Aqueduct Tunnel ..................... , . ==--~
" Canal L~ck (point up 3lream) ............... , ...
Metaled .................. ==:==-==-~~~~
Good ==="'!-;-======-
Wagon Roads ...
Poor or Private •.......... -================
On small-scale maps -----------
'frail or Path .............................. , -----------

I I I I I I
Railroad of any kind
(or Single Trac~) "
Double Track .
I I I '''T"
Juxtaposition of I I
Hailroads . ~•'.'.~I• ~I~III. '.11.11 ! ".'.''+,

Electric ................
~ 4 I I I I I I II I I II I I 11111 11F
~.
.sta.am
In Wagon Road or Street ., ::r=::J:::::s::::;;t=C
:-.r
'runnel ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• "" "'-'I~I "'I'""","~~'=~~=:;(I "",
I I I ,- I I I I I I •
~~ailroad Station of any kind I
',' ~ • .' " ,1 • ~
Symbol (modified below)' ; .. ". T T T T T T T T
Along road ~'r=::;:=::::;::=i=:;:::;:. :;::1

;;;::;;r=-T,
;:"
Telegraph
Line . Along road •..•........... _-...-...--,..-.,.-..,...-,-,-
(3mall-3cale map3)
. _ _ __
~-r-J--r-r-r'
Along trail ••............. r"1 '
l~Jectric Power Transmission Line ~.. ~. : .:.....:.:..:..•...;._:....-.:.-.---.-
. Plate II.
-90-
General Symbol •.•...•...... -1
Drawbridges (on large scale... . .. ~

charts lea'l1e channel open). ~
. Bridges. •. •. •. •• Truss ( W. Wood; S. Steel) •....••.
Foot ..........................
Suspension .
Arch ..........................
Pontoon •••••••••••••••••••••• 1
Ferries •....... ~ : : . . . . .. 1
General Symbol .
I
(or Wagon and Artillery)
Fords. • . . . . . . . . . Infantry and Cavalry •..........
Cavalry .
Dam •••.....•.•••••••.•.......•......•........•..
Streams in General ••••••• 1 ••• ' ••••••••••••••••••••
Intermittent Streams .............................. ... -..

.....- ... _-_ ........
Lake or Pond in General •..........................
(Dlith or Dlilhout linl. Dlaterlining. etc.)
'.,
Salt Pond (bro~t'n shore line if interm;lIcnl) •••••••••• 1 •••••
Intermittent
Spring
Lake or Pond ••••••••••••••••••••
•..........................................
II' •••
•
Topography lor .'ield Artillery
BUilding~ in General .............................
-91-
• ...•--
o
RUins
6
•••••••• II II •••••••••••••• : II ••••••• II ••••
+or
Church ••••• 11." •• , •• II' ••.• II II II' ••••••••••••
• HOS
liosPital •••••• II ••••••••••••••••• 1 •••••••••• 1
Sshoolho use . , .
• P.O .
POllt Office •• •••••••••••••• ••• ••••• ••• . I' ••••••.•
'relegraph Office # - •••••••••••••••••••••• 1.

1 1
• ••••.
• ww .
Water Works • , ••••••••••••• 1 ••••••••• 1 ••••••• fI-
Windmill 11 •• 1 •••••••••• 1 ••••••••••••••••••••• 1.
C.lty, Town. or Village ••• 1 ••••••••••••••• , ••••• I'
•
City, Town, or Village (generalized) ................
Capital •......................
City, Town, or
County Seat .
Village .•......
(Irnall-scale maps)
o
Other Towns ' .
~EM~or[f:~
\,,-_.]
Cemetery .1 ••••••••• I ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Mine or Quarry of any k'Ind ( or open cui ) ., .
Prospect ••••• II' •••••••••••••••• 1 ••••••••••••••
I
~haft •••.•••••••••••••••• I' .•.•••••••••...•.••.
Mine Tu' 1 Opening ....•................ ,-..,~A

nne .....
Showing direction .
>- --'
Oil Wcll~ oogco
0000
Plate IV. Topography for Field Artillery

... (J
--92-
Oil Tanks (abbre"ialion. aT) • ". •
••••• fI1lJA
V/I1J. ..
......... """" .. """"""" •• • ~ "
Coke Ovens
..
Fence of any kind ----------------.-
(or board fence)
~,
Stone .
Fences Worm ~
eorb~d oSmootn'
\Vire . 'x-*-x-x-x-* •• -o-o-o-il .
Hedge ~~~~
National, State. or Province Line .

------
County Line .
i
qvil Township, District, Precinct, 01 Barrio ._
!
Reservation Line ....................... - .
i
Land Grant Line

•
'" . _ .. _ .. _ .._ ..- '
City, Village, or Borough .
Cemetery, Small Park, etc . ............... """"""" "
Township-Section, and Quarter Section Lines .' ..

(anyone for lODJmhip line alone, and any
• 11»0 for lOl»mhip and ,eclion line,).
Township and Section Corners Recovered .
Boundary Monument . -..---

Triangulation Station
" .. """"" .... " .. """""""".,,. " .~
Bench ~Iark . aM
x
:Z31
u. S., ~Iineral Monument .

ToiJQlO'aJlhy for Fi..ld Artillery Plate V.
Contours .
(or Q3 beloD1) .
,Glacier s .
Form Lines showing flow .
Inn Shapes : ..
Contour System II •••• , ••••• II 11." •••• II' .,, II ••••
Depression Contours, if otherwise

ambiguous, hachured thus , , .
I~ocky (or U3C contoun) .
Bluffs, •........ ,
Other than rocky (or U3e contoun)
Sand Dunes •••••••••••••• 11.,1•,1 ••••••••••• II .,-.
Levee • • • • • • • • • , , • , • , , , •• , , , • , • , , , •• , , • • • • • • • • • • •• ~"mmnllV""lIIll:r:l\\I:lI\~::!,llll\llll}:::
Plate VI. TOJ)Ol{raphy for Field Artillery
-94-
:\Iarsh in general (or Fresh Marllh)
Salt .
Marsh .
Wooded .
Cypress Swamp ................
Woods of any kind (in green) (or os 3110rvn belorv) .
Woods or any kind (or Brood Leo\leJ Trees) ••. _ ••..•
Pine (or Narrorv Leo\led Trees) ••.•••.••••.•••.••••••
tr!~T IT
Palm ••••• II II ••••••••••• 11.,1 II •• II II ••••••• II
if ~ lllrtt
(~~, ~~I,et"]~'
.L
"~J. ~''''f "!"~
I""" rc'.
C
"'I'"
r
(/1
If
TOpt)ll'raphy for Field Artillery Plate VII.

-95-
Palmetto ...............•.........................
Mangrove .
Barn boo .......••............•..•.•..•.......•....
Cactus ••...........................................
Banana •.................•........................
Orchard '.............•.............••
-'" ,\,,1{ 'flU ...." "W'

-Ill W'! "II' ""Ill ,
."" "", '4/'"
Grassland in general . 'WIII'~ ""11,"''' "'" '41"
,'\lVI "'", "", 'lH' ... ,
\I'" VI" "," ~H(
......~,: ~Il( ~'V,,'lll'
Tan Tropical Grass .
Plate VIII. To~graphj for Field' Artl11el'7

I.'
-96--
Cultivated FieJd14 in Keneral .
":r,,;
Cotton .... ',' '" .
Rice ............... , , .
Sugar Cane
..................................... "'
Corn •••••••••••••••••••• I ••••••••••••••••••••••••
I TiJal 1"lats of Any Kind

j (or a.t ,"oDIn beloDl) ••............
i
I
I
Shores and
I
J'
Hocky LedgeR ..................
Lo w- ,.,,yater I'mes. I
I
i
I
I
I
Sand •••••••••••••••••••••••••• f
Surveyed ... ~
. ,. ~..
Shoreline ~
TOllOlO'aph, for Field ArtiJIt'r, Plate IX.

Unsurveyed
..------- ... -...... _----~
-97-
Gravel and Rocks .. .. "." ..... -

"
Sh ores and '

Low-Wat er L'lOes ~:
, (continued)
Mud " .. " " ,.
Coral Reefs ." ••••• t" •••• "" ••• "" ••••••••••• " •••••••
Kelp '" ,_ •• t"""" •••••••••• " •••••• " •••••••••••••• ""

r~
Eel Grass ."., . ~I
Rock under water , , " .. + {f;
Rock ~wa8h at any stage of the tide . * (~

f;P.O
Rock wh ose pOSI't"IOn IS d ou b t fl'u ....•............. ,'
EB EO.
ROck whose existence is doubtful ~ .
Overfalls and Tide Rips ,.

~//- ...
Limiting Danger Line , .
Whirlpools and Eddies .
Wreck~f any kind (or Submerged Derelict) ...... "." ....

Wreck or Derelict (not ~ubmerged) .••••••..••••.......
Cable ("I1111 I or 11111' I lOut . I eUenng
') ••••••••••••••••••.•••••
. Current, not tidal, velocity 2 knots .
Flood, 16 knots ...........•.....
Ebb, 1 knot ......•.•...........

Tidal
~urrents, .... ' ... Flood, 2d hour ........••.....•. --- or m II.
I~bb, 3d hour .
No bottom at 50 Fathoms ........... ~ ; .

TopoKraphy for Field Artillery
Piate X.
I
~
-98-
Regimental Headquarters 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • ~l
Brigade Headquarters 0000000000000000.00.000.0.0 ••
4C~3C
Division HeadquaI'ters 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 50*,3C
Corps
Infantry
Headquarters
in Line .0. 0
0 0 0
••••••••••••••
0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 ••
••••••••••••
0 ••••••••••
0
~l
C::J
o
Infantry in Column ..............•................. ~ C:l
Cavalry 'in' Line .. ~dII
,..
00 ••••••• 0 ••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••
Cavalry in Column .................................

:\Iounted
Artillery
Infantry .................................
.
CZ'J =
'11111'1'11'
Sentry o
•
0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Vidette •......... 0 • " •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Picket, Cavalr)' and Infantry ,

~m
Support, Cavalry and Infantry J:. r;:;;;::J
\Vagon Train ..z-::; -:J'~ ~ ~
Adjutant General .
~
Quartermaster ................................... @
Commissar)'
~Iedical Corps
0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
.
«
ft1
Orunance _' , (3
Signal Corps 0 •••••••••••• ' •••••••
f!J
Engineer Corps .
U
Gun Datterr .
~
::\Iortar Batterr .
~
Fort •.•...
Hedoubt. . .
'jTrue plan to be shown if known j .
.
.
Camp .
Battle . 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'{'rench ............•....•.....•.... 0 ••••••••••••••
Whcn color is w;;cd, execute the following in red.

Abattis 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Wire Entanglement .
Palisades .
Contact l\lines .
ControJleu 1\ljn('~ .
r)('molitions .
Tfll.ovrsl,hy for Field Artill,.ry Plate XI.
• --99-
rn
235. ' In practical sketching, if it is more difficult. 01' requires more time to
a~e the conventional sign th~n it does to write what is meant, the ex-
per1(~nc
t ed sketcher will write the description. A sketc h IS' ma de prlmarl
' 'IY
,,~ convey information.' If what is meant to be conveyed is not clear thl'
ketch, is of no use. Again, if it takes a commander too long to read a
~ etch he will blame the sketcher, and as his time probably will be limited
t~ may not be able to take time to read it. It is well to remember that
e sketch is being made to be read' that the convenience of the reader jg
sk g ht , not that of the sketcher; and
ROU . ,that it is useless to put a mark on th('
etch unless that mark has a meaning which the reader will understand.
). It is desirable that the conventional signs shall picture what they
1iI~~,'eHe~t as nearly as possible, so as' to be easily interpreted; that they b<:>
t k pIe m construction, so that they may be made rapidly; that they do not
,a p too much space on the sketch; and that they be so clear as to be readily
un{l",rsto
236 . o(I an d' not be mIstaken one fOl' anothel'. .~
rna' ..The adap,tation ,of the conventi,onal signs'to the size and scale of th('
, P IS accomplIshed, m part by varymg the boldness of the pen stroke, ani
~n part by wider spacing of them. The strokes never must be 50 small a:-\
o render the signs illegible and never larger than can be made easily with
: medium pen. The object is to produce a result, which. while distinct a:-\
t~ eonventional meaning, shall not be so heavy in general tone as to catch
d' ~ ~ye. 01', what is more important in military maps, to obscure any ad-
,~~Ions which may be made. Topographical signs should be perfectly clear
en looked for, but not obtrusive.
Practice in rapid work has developed many short cuts in making ('on-
\'('ntional signs. These convey the same information as the standard signs.
but WI 'th fewer pencil marks, and probably greater clearness.
I' It should be noted that the cross marks on a railroad, the signs in-
(Icating the different kinds of fences, the marks along a road indicatin~
\ telegraph line, and the T representing a telegraph line across countr~',
IiIlould not be put close together. This is done principally for the sake of
c earneRs, although a great deal of time is saved by it. It is. however, an
~'xcellent rule never to put a mark on a sketch, no matter how small, that
I!'Inot necessary. ~
A 'culvert or bridgl', less than 10 feet long, (road length) should !.>t~
represented by two V's at right angles to the road with the point of the V':,
~P?osite each other. Dimensions need not then be given as in a largt'1'
fIdge, but the material and the condition, if poor, should be noted: ~!_Hrick.
Poor," or "Wood. bad".
Roads are conventional signs, but where possible should be drawn to
'-cale. The road lines should stand out clearly and distinctly with no line<;
~r other conventional signs crossing the roads. Fence and telegraph s~'Ill-
>018 are placed on the road lines. A hedge fence may be represented by
! draWing H's across one of the road lines at the same intervals as the fence,
I' Sbigns. Fence or hedge signs are'the only marks which eyer should app('ul'
(.tween the road lines.
Stone and wood fences, may be indicated qlliekl~' in sketching by
., '. writing in "Stone" or "Wood" alon~ a line drawn to 1'<,pl't'sent the fence; .
TOPO\CI'Bphy (or Fil'ld Artillt'I')'

-100-
or if along a road. on the road line, with marks indicating the limits of the
stone or wood fence. A marginal note is simplest and easiest.
Signs for single trees are drawn oblong or roughly circular in shape.
They should be spaced sufficiently so as to blue print readily. It is not
necessary to show individual trees. The sign indicates trees in that locality.
Often it is better to draw a ragged border about the timbered area and
write, "Wooded" therein. .
Houses ~re represented by blocks which are made square and large
enough to be set in the roads at the scale being used. Black blocks indicate
stone. brick, or concrete houses; and hollow blocks represent frame houses.
A row of houses occupying a certain distance along a road need not be in-
dicated individually, but house signs covering the scale distance occupied by
them should be shown.
. In order to proportion the signs to the scale used, it is convenient to
make the lines that go on or along a road, of the same length as the width
of the road. This refers to such signs as those for telegraph lines, barbed
wire, cuts, fills, bridges and culverts.
A dry watercourse should be indicated by a broken line, which should
be wavy so as not to be mistaken for the trail sign; the latter being a broken
straight line. If there is a small town along the road, it is not advisable
in a road sketch to show the individual streets, alleys, and houses. A town
sign covering the area of the town. and its name, is sufficient.
Where a conventional sign or written words can not be put in at the
place desired without excessive crowding, write a (1) at that place and in-
sert the description in a marginal note opposite a (1) on the margin. Carry
these marginal notes by serial :lumbers. On a road sketch start them at the
bottom of the margin and run up. On other sketches start at the top of tM
paper and number them down.
Break contour lines on each side of a road, or of a conventional sign,
or of an abbreviation (as a description of a bridge).
It should be remembered that a sketch, when finished, should be ready
for blue printing without tracing; therefore all signs should be dil'tinct
enough for this purpose. All lines should be firm and clear cut.
(5.) Title.
237. Every finished sketch should have a descriptive title setting forth;
(a) the character of the sketch, (b) its locality, (c) the sketcher's name and
rank, (d) its date, (e) its lin('ar scale, its contour interval and its datum
plane. fig. 72.
Titles should be adapted in size and boldness to the size and importance
of the sheet. They should be divided into lines following mainly the sub-
divisions given above. The middle letter of each line should fall on a line
drawn vertically through the middle of the space allotted to the title. Lines
should be alternately long and short.
Sometimes the magnetic north direction is indicated in the title section
but usually it is found in the body of the map.
(6.) Border.
238. The sketch or drawing should be encl08ed in a rectangle, preferably
with its sides Nand S, and E and W. The border consists of two parallel
'Topograph, lor Field Artil1ery'
-101-
lin~s
' th e mner
.' one medium fine the outer one medIUm .' heavy, WIth a space
bewt een them equal to the heavy' line, see fig. 71.
POSITION SffETCH
NearEaston
By Capt. wm SmithlzndF:A.
DeLc.l5, 19/tJ.
scal(Z,~
11
6 = I mi'~. ,
100 ,
o, 100
, 200
, 300
, 400
, . '00
, 600, 700
' ~ds
L • I
V1=IO'
Datum Planf1,= CrosJ roadJ at Easton
Fig. 72,
2 (7.) Lettering.
t~9. All lettering on position sketches should be written so as to read from
b e south edge. In place sketches the lettering should be so located as to
~ read from the sketcher's position with the sketch oriented. In outpost
:h:l<hes ~he lettering is read faeing toward the enemy. In road s~etehe"
lettermg should be made so that it may be read by anyone followmg th ..~
route of the sketcher, with the sketch oriented. - .
As a rule names and figures relating to points on the map are madl'"
raral1el to one side. Names and figures relating to extended features, or
arge_ areas, are disposed along the feature, or across the' area, in straight
or curved lines.
t. Ornamental lettering should be avoided. A good effeet may he oh- '----
tamed by the exclusive use of capitals of various sizes. A good general rule
o follow is to use inclined letters for all names and words on the map which
lX'elateto water, and up-right letters for those which do not. See Plates
lJ.XIV. . .
I'
!'
I
j
I
I
---102-
' .."CIVIL DIVISIONS' "
States, CountilZs, Townships; Capitals and,
Principal eltie" (att capitallatteis)
I
ABCDEFCHIJ
KL lVINOPQRSIf
UVWXYZ.
Towns and Villagej (With Cap /:1itials)
, dbc d efgh ij klmnopqrjtuvwxyz
}-IYI) 110GR;\P I-IY ,

Lakes ~ RiverJ and Bay3 (all cap/l.f letter:;)
AB CDEFGI-IIJ
KLMjVOPQI~S~T
Ul/WXYZ
CreeAJ} Brook.,s) SprIngs} smaiL Lakes) Ponds
MarJluz,5 and ,6/acierj (with Cap Il7itia/~
a bed rzf 917 tj'lt !m 17 0PC;rJluvw xyz
Plate XII.
-103-
HYPSOGRAPHY
• I' Mo un tains J
Plat~au.~, L irt ~" of C tifr"
I
and Canyons (altcapitat '~ttrzrJ) I
ABC D E F G H IJ K L M N 0 P Q R S T U V
WXYZ}
smaLL Vallrt ys, Canyon.5. Istands and PointJ
. .(with Cap InittatJj~ .:
ab c de f Q h ij k' m n 0 p q ,- ~t u v wxyz
vVORl{S
I
I.
I Railroads, TunnczL.s, 8ridqasJ r~rrle,.s, Wa9on-roads,
Tralts J
Ford.J . and DamJ (capitr,!,J onLy)
A8CD£FGHIJI1LMNOPQR5TUVW x YZ
CONrroUR NU 1"1B E IlS

/2J4567890
lVIARGINAL LETTERING
ABC DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
VWXYZ
I'
(with Cap Initi.at,)"
I'
a be de fQ hi j k , m n 0 par" t u v w x y z
I' '234567890
I PlatE' XIII. TO(lOlCrRl'hy (0\' Fi..ld AI1.ilh.ry
\
-104--
LETTERING
Name3 of natural land feature3, t1ertical lettering.

Name3 of natural tvater feature3, 3lanting lettering.
Thic~ne33 of letter .!. of height.
1
Slope of letter 3 parl3 of ba3e to 8 of height.
A UTHOIUZED ABBREVIATIONS
A. Arroyo L. S. S. Life Saving Station
abut. Abutment L.H. Lighthouse
A. Arch Long. Longitude
b. Brick Mt. Mountain
n. S. Blacksmith Shop Mts. Mountains
bot. Bottom N. North
Br. Branch n. f. Not fordablp
br. Bridge p. Pier
C. Cape pk. Plank
cern. Cemeter~' P. O. Post Oflice
con. Concrete Pt. Point
cov. Covered q. p. Queen-po:-it
Cr. Creek R. River
cuI. Culvert It H. Roundholl:-;('
D. S. Drug Stofe KIt Railroad
E. East S. South
Est. Estuary s. Steel
f. Fordable S. H. School HOll:-iI'
Ft. Fort S. M. Saw mill
G. S. General StOft.' Sta. Station
giro Girder st. Stone
G. M. Gri~t Mill str. Stream
i. Iron T. G. Toll Gate
I. Island Tres. Trestle
Jc. Junction tr. Truss
k.p. King-post W. T. Water Tank
L. Lake W. W. Waterworks
Lat. Latitude W. West
Ldg. LandinJ{ W. Wood
Platt> XIV. -
-105-
ROAD SKETCHES.
A. CHARACTERISTICS.
240 : '. . .
and ~?ad sketches dIffer from area sketches In that they show the natural
Th mlht~ry features on and in the immediate vicinity of the road onl)'.
ey consIst of simple traverses that follow the direction taken by the road.
rn In drawing road sketches speed must be acquired as they should be
24;de at a rate of 2! miles an hour if dismounted, or 3 to 5 miles if mounted.
Th' Road sketches commonly are made on a scale of 3 inches to the mile.
r e sketcher should familiarize himself with a few of the common and
'requently used units of measure so that he will not have to apply his scale
)gra
n loc ~t'mg every detail on the map. . He should, with practice, learn the
t phIcal representations of 100 and 200 yds., and the :M. D. (between con-
O~u1'ls),for 10, 30, and 50 slopes. He should practice estimating the degree:;;
" s .ope of varied terrain, checking against the reading~f an accurate instru-
t' ent . I n thOIS way the sketcher can locate accurately
rn .' and ~peedlly t h e pOSI-
.
tIon ,of buildings, streams. railroads, etc. on the map. He also will be able
o gIVe a better idea of slopes of the adjoining terrain.
B. TECHNIQUE.
2 . (1.) Method Of Sketching.
a~.2. The sketcher must provide himself with the following: sketching board,
1
p~~a~e (or triangular ruler), slope measuring instrument (or slopeboard),
I- cds and erasers, compass, working and slope scales. These latter two
I
scales should be pasted on the alidade for" convenience. The board may be
~ounted upon a tripod (becoming a plane-table) if desired.
.. .
~' Proceed to the place of beginning, and set up the plane table, or. if
~Stng a board, set it on a fence post, stone, or on the ground. Place the
;a1'd so the general direction to be taken will correspond with the long side
o the board. Place the compass on the board and draw a line, in one comer
of the paper, parallel to the needle. Mark this line to indicate the magnetic
north. This mark or arrow can then be used for orientation.
. Having indicated the magnetic north. place a dot on the paper to "--
~'e'p1'esent the point of beginning. Insert a needle in this dot. Place the
altdade again~t the needle and in the direction of traverse. Sight along th'.!
ed~e of the alidade toward the point at which the next set-up will be made, #
U~tng the needle as a pivot, and swing the alidade until it is in direct lin<>
WIth the direction to be taken (without disturbing the original position of
~he board). Steady the alidade and draw a light ray in the new direction.
)[1;. 73. Measure the slope to the new point. Note all features in the vicinit~.,
I lace them on the sketch and then proceed to the new point just sighted.
, Again set up the plane table. Measure off, on the ray ju~t drawn, thl'
'~Istance. just traversed, orient .the board by backsighting 01' with compas~.
I lace the needle in the new point, swing the alidade in the new direction tl
he taken, and proceed as from the beginning.
Continue until the entire road distance has been covered, using tlw
Hume methods. Check the orientation frequently with the compass.
At each new set-up, after the first, all the data observed, noted 01'
meal,mr('d, will be indicated on the sketch; and contours will be drawn in
-106-
where they cross the road, as well as in the vicinity of the road. I'~speei81
attention must be given to noting' all details that have military value.
Maq,\
l~orth t
Fig. 73.
Time must not be wasted in actually pacing distances to buildings 011'

the road or in measuring the distance between them. Nor must time bc
~pcnt in measuring the exact size of cultivated fields, nor the distance that
streams, telephone or telegraph line!'! are from the road. Estimate th<:':-!C
distances and locate their positions approximately.
Points of importance. such as hills, villages, etc. will be located by in-
tersection as the traverse proceeds. If their location is beyond the limits
or the sketch their direction will be indicated.
A more rapid method of making a road l'ketch is to run the tI'aVel'S(~'
entirely with the compass needle. In all lo\ketches the needle should IH\ tlsl"l
as a check to prevent gross errors of orientation.
T .... OlCrRl'hy for Jo'ield Artillery
"':-101-
(2.) Lateral Limits To Be Considered.
2H. The lateral limits of a road sketch are, perforce, limited to what call
h
e seen readily from the road. The limits usually considered are 400 yard~
On each side.
Ill' . The lateIaI limits extend beyond this only ~hen the additional infor-
th:tJ.on has a military value, and then only the salient points are drawn in,
Intervening details being omitted in whole or in part. ,
')t (3.) Information To Be Included .
.. 5: A road sketch should be so complete that the military commander can
it' at. a' g 1ance all features of value. He must be able to tell the kmd
liCe . 0 f roa d ;
b ,s ,slop.e and practicability for his troops; if the road is fenced; if flanked
/ cUltlVated fields and if they are fenced. also the type of fence; if there
J r? WOOdsnear the road, or other cover and concealment; if hills or high
:;lnt~ of observation are visible; if there is cover so tltat infantry can fire
ti ectlVely on troops on the road (effective range 600 yds.); if artillery posi;'
lions are within view (this may include up to several miles); if there are
l~es of communication, villages, buildings, water for men and animals along
t ,e route; if the ground is level on both sides of the road; the location and
o~pe of buildings. In short all information of military value must be shown
n a road sketch. Minor and unimportant details should be omitted to avoid
l.'onfusion and to save time.
Topol{raphy for Field Al1.iI1ery

CHAPTER XII.
ROAD REPORT.
s INFORMATION TO BE INCLUDED.
246. A road report is a series of notes taken successively and compiled into
one report covering the route traveled. It contains only the essential in-
formation gathered en route, information that will enable the person into
whose hands it is placed to determine the feasibility of that route.
247. A road report will indicate: the direction traveled; the distance be-
tween successive points on the road or between important features on eithe:
side of the road; the slopes of the road, together with the condition and tM
practicability of these slopes; oridges, giving character. condition and capa-
city; fords, their depth and condition; the terrain on both sides of the road
in so far as of military value, such as battery positions, observation posts.
hills. streams, wood, cover, detUade; all roads crossing or branching trOIlJ
the route traveled, including the direction of these other roads and the towni'i
or points to which they lead; watering places; telephone or telegraph linE'li;
railroads, crossing or paralleling the road.
248. For accuracy, directions should be expressed in magnetic bearingI"
However if the time is limited, or if there are long stretches of road, the
general direction may be given, as N (north) or SE (south east), etc.
249. Distance is expressed in yards. meters, strides (exceptionally), or
(preferably) by the time in minutes elapsed when traveling between adjacent
points on the road. The revolutions of a wagon wheel. 01' the readings of
a speedometer of a bicycle or motor car may be used to measure the distance.
If the time scale is used note must be made as to whether the time is to!'.
a man mounted or dismounted, and if mounted the record must show it the
travel was at a walk or at a trot.
METHOD OF PROCEDUUE.
250. A wrist pad or small note book is a convenient thing in which to make
the notes for a road report. The large form may be used although it will
prove rather cumbersome if th~ scout is mounted. If the small note book
is used all the data may be transferred to the regular form for road report:'!
at the end of the route. This latter method will prove of advantage as datu
carried in the memory also may be entered. The use of a pocket compass i:-1
essential.
251. A road I'eport reads from the bottom upward. Therefore it is made in
the same manner.
At the point of beginning note the important features on each side of
the road. measure the slope of the road in the direction to be taken and record.
Proceed forward, noting the time elapsed between different points, or the
distance traveled. Note each important feature as passed, placing it on it:o!
respective side of the road, giving the direction and approximate distanc(~
-109-
from
r the road. At each change in the slope of the route, read the slope anrl
t ecord. Also as each change in direction is made note the distance just
ara~eled and the new direction to be taken. Minor changes in direction in
WInding roa d are not recorded the general dIrectIOn
. . onlb' .
y, emg gIVen, see
fi g. 74. •
~~i~~
~~_I9IIAOt'N.1/F'.I)
...._-
. ~2-Obuf.~ _~'.L~ e.//I-
~U~-a:# ;Jr$.T£mJr:.FJ?~£). .._.---
1l~AE. REPORT, from: hH_bv~~dpri:LJf!UJ!U#L/d4I1Ln;r 'p~Af) ..
.__ to~~ad ;'drJ'-~ir.r-.h--AJI/AO/)J!.-ELE2 .... ,. -- - .---
l?~;I:p~i~al d •• "'r,tlon of road.. railroad.. GraphIcal ~tion or roada. raIlroad ..
::..~~~~.~orto~:"~~i1~~:,~a~':;i~~~: ::~~~~ to~-~~h=!'~~
.. remark.. ..--roado. ..mar\<.
LEFT HIGHT
Fig. 74.
Topolfraphy for Field Artillery
-110-
Sp('ed il' el'~ential; hence the scout, 01' the ~tuuent, should avo'id filljn~
up his' report with non-essential information and minol' tJetaik nrevity anI
darity always are to be sough4:, . J
When the entire route is completed the total distance tl'aveled is notel
Road 5,fl!"«h
.5az/~~"'-lml/.
Fig. 75.
-111-
~h the top of the report.
at If more than one sheet be used, the total of each
. (let is noted, and the grand total is indicated on the last sheet. •
Figure 74 gives a sample report.
~IAKI NG A ROAD SI{ETCH FROM A HOAD REPORT OR VICE VERSA.
252.
'}'
A'"road sketch can be made readily from a road report; t h.e d'Irec t'lOm~
dI n( lcat e(I on the report being laid " off with a protractor, dIstances
. b emg
•
fawn to scale, and all details being filled in by means of conventional sign::..
Contours drawn in on the sketch and representing the road slope will
aofgl'ce WIth . those of the report .. However as slopes to one side or the othe\'
t t~e road are indicated only roughly and by estimation, or by ro?gh con.
mOUting
t on th e road report, the transferred ground forms wI1 . I on Iy approxl-.
25~ e t~ose of the actual terrain on either side of the road.
fl" rhe same method, reversed will enable the making of a road report
f om a road sketch. In preparing the report, distances will be measured
o;om the .sketch with a reading scale, and transferred (0 the report in terms
m ~~rd8 or meters. Directions will be measured and noted as bearings. In
t ; mg a road report from a road sketch it is well to avoid unnecessar~' de.
al s, just as necessary, in fact, as if actually traveling over the road.
p Figure 75 gives a road sketch made from the road report given in the
J'(l('('ding figure.
/
I'
j ropogravhy for .1 ..IJ Artillery
1
CHAPTER XIII.
PANORAl\IIC SI{ETCHES.
CIIARACTEIUSTICS.
254. A panoramic sketch is not a land-scape sketch. It has been called
a vertical map, but it is more than a map. In addition it is a military record
containing information of value to the higher commander and also data for
use by the officer conducting fire.
255. Every artillery officer is familiar with the term "Reconnaissance and
Occupation of a Position". Customarily, however, the officer thinks of the
,reconnaissance and occupation of a position chiefly with respect to his own
position. whereas it is just as important that he reconnoiter and familiarize
himself with the enemy position, (in the sense that he secure the same
information that the enemy has). This last is absolutely necessary if the .
./ officer is to make an intelligent estimate of the situation. In fact it is n
fundamental of military operations that he, who would outguess the enemy,
must place himself in the enemy's fosition and reason from the same prem.
ises adopted by the enemy.' Hence the need of the reconnaissance of the
enemy's position, so far as is possible from a distance. This absentee occupa.
tion of the enemy position may be accomplished by systematic observation
of the hostile terrain and of the enemy's movements, and by the careful
I'ecol'ding of the data thus obtained! Here it is that the panoramic sketch
pla~rs its part, the sketch being part of the attempt to occupy the enemy'l'l
position.
256. The meaning of the above may be illustrated better by citing a simple
instance at certain field maneuvers. In the middle distance. as seen from
the friendly O.P., was a ridge. Beyond the first ridge was a second one con.
tainir.g a notch appearing about on a level with the top of the first ridge,
see fig. 76. At a certain hour the officer in charge of the O. P. noted the
~ I..~ . ~
9.
~. .# ~rt$i'.~~~ ~~
~ ~ ~ ~~.;y.f ~
->:,' ~ ~ ~.~ ~~, A..~~-r
t-. "'0
c,.; !::>...Q/
J...'Vr ~~"'d.tA..'V:~.n
.....-'t',..y/ ~!:~ ~ ~ .t] ~/
iSOl.,.~ ~ClI")7 cf~~Oi~~~o..~
J J I ."
o
1 1 1'1 r
90
~I~
TOP<>lCravh,. for .1eld Artillery
-113-
~~vem~nt of an enemy battery in the notch of the second ridge, but ~he
th mp~e was so brief and the visibility so poor that he could not determme
""e dIrection of the movement. A study of the map indicated that there
. ere suitable battery positions for the enemy both in front and behind the
second 1'1'd ge, He noted the appearance of the fleeting target on th e s k et ch
but
th Was unable to record any definite data for the target. Shortly afterwal i
th e heads and shoulders of two men were noted on the hill to the left of
1 e notch and the officer concluded that the enemy observation post was. to
,:e ~ocated on that height, As ~ret he had nothing to indicate the battery
t'osltion, .
p Sometin;e later in the m~rning the observer saw a dismounted man
• t~~ceed up the hill to the right of the notch. He drew the line of trave~ on,
\V sketch from the point of first appearance to the point where the ridge
inas. crossed, and noted the time. Immediately afterward a horseman came
ThSIght more to the right and rode in a diagonal direclion up the same hill.
l< e facts were again noted on the sketch. Then, taking his map. the ob-
'acr;er plotted the lines of travel of the horseman and the dismounted soldier
,n, prolonged them until they intersected in the valley in front of the
second 1'1'd get The observer reasoned that the intersection of t h ese t wo
I'
,~es was the battery position of the enemy. Accordingly he prepared a
\ etch showing the enemy position, and O. P., which, with the panoramic
lo; .etch, was furnished his commanding officer. The observer was credited
\~Ith a solution of the problem. for the enemy battery was located as he had
leaso
th • n cd . and zone fire in the area indicated would, undoubtedly, have SIlence
' d
.~".e enemy guns. ' -
...)7. As just indicated the function of the panoramic sketch is to supple-
lllent the topographical map, to aid in the' identification of objects on the
~ap, to furnish information of the situation within the enem)' Jines, and j
~ so to provide data for the artillery. So detailed and exact should this in- ,J
fiormation be that the battery commander may rely on the sketch and open
re without using any other data.
')_ ... TYPES OF SKETCHES. ~
..,)8. The panoramic sketch may be made in a few minutes by one of thp.
" ~couts in warfare of movement; or it may be made by a scout or other ob- "--
• ~erver from a permanent observation post, in warfare of position, in whic~l
~aRe an abundance of time will be available. Whoever makes the sketch must
h:ar in mind that the sketch is to be used by another person, either by the.'
. 19her commander in his study of the sector or by the battery commander
In his conduct of fire; hence certain fundamentals as to identification, infor-
~ation and technique must be observed. .'
..,)9. The type of sketch ,that is to be made will depend upon the timp./
f'lement. In so called "open warfare", time is likely to be the all im-
I Portant element, since the sketch must be available by the time the batter)'
I COmmander is ready to open fire; hence rapid methods of calibration of the
Paper with regard to the landscape will be employed. In warfare of position
I . t he f1ketcher will use instruments in making measurements of all deflections
and of all angles of site and will, accurately, place the points 1'0 mea.~ured
, ' on the paper. according to some adopted horizontal and vertical Fcale. Such
a ~k('tch will h<>almo~t photographic in it~ exactness.
I TOJlO!Crlll)hy (01' FI«>ld AI1 illf"').
I
L
-114-
260. The French make a distinction between the sketch made deliberatel~'
with exact instruments and covering all of the terrain visible from a give.n
O. P., and the sketch made by the scout during the reconnaissance of a pmw
tion. The former is called the panorama. The latter is known as the pcr-
~pective sketch. The American service makes no such distinction in nomen-
dature. for there really is no distinction, one sketch grading into the other
according to the time employed on it. The blank sheets 'furnished th;
l'ketcher by the field artillery, fig. 77, may be used for either type 0
,.,ketch. The:"e sheets contain a series of parallel vertical lines and a sedel-
of parallel horizontal lines. By adopting a certain scale for the space be-
tween the vertical lines; e. g., 100 mils, it will be possible to make aserit'l'
of sketches all to one scale, which, when pasted together end to end, will
~ive the sketcher a complete panorama. On the other hand the lines on the.
paper lend themselves to the more hurried methods of calibration as will be
f'xplained later.
ESSENTIALS.
J 261. Wbat are the esst.>ntialli of a good panoramic skt.>h'h? There are tw.o
which stand out with particular prominence; first, clearness of identification;
.:econd, information furnished. Accuracy is another essential. Dl'awin14
I'anks last in the list.
A. IDE~TIFICATION.
262. As to the matter of identification. the sketcher must remember that,
if the person using his sketch cannot identify the terrain represented, then
"'is work is valueless. Hence the sk~tcher must neglect nothing that will
add to the ('ase of identification. Of course the horizon line is likely to bl'
t he greatest aid to identification of the sector and hence should not be omitted
although the objects thereon may he far out of artiller~' rangc. Objects ill
the mid-distance and fore-ground also should be included when they will ai.1
in this step although they may have no particular milital'y value. Lustlr
the data to be ('ntered at the bottom of the page. showing the place when'.
t he sketch was made and indicating the orientation, are el'sential to the ide'!l-
tification of the Sf'ctor.
B. INFOR.MATION.
,\
J ::6:1. Of' course the object of the sketch is to ('onvey information. 11('1)('1',
although the sketch may be a work of art; and although the one whopi('h~
it up may have no difficulty in identifying the sector; if that sketch (Ioes not
('ontain military information, and, in particulal', information of use to thL'
artillery officer, t.he skE'tch is valuelesl' and the sk('tch('I' mi~~ht lI('tt(,), not
han' wasted his time on it.
:W.J. That the information fllrni~h('d fiholiid ht, ac('urnl(' is sdf lo\'i,lt'nt,
oth('rwi:--e the l'ketch loses much of its value.
C. DI:A WING.
26:). While drawing is not 80 important as some other thing'S in sketching,
the oflic('r mu:-t rE'mE'mher certain fundamentals. First. the sketch must he
dear to the point of baren('l's. That is, the important features mUi't be elll-
pha~ized at the ('xI)('nsc of the unimportant. In oth('r words th(' sk('tch he'
T....o~rRI.h). for Fi•.ld A t1 ill ....y
.--:.... -115-
~
'-.---- ~\ ~:
g
:z:
1--
..
CII
~ ....
lU
.
! m
.I:
~
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-116-
''/comes a caricatur~ of the landscape. Hence it is just as important to know
what to leave out as it is what to put in. Whatever is done the sketcher
must not attempt to show the sector by a mass of shading such as would
be employed by the ordinary sketcher. Such a procedure will hide essential
details rather than emphasize them. The fewer lines that can be used to
convey the desired idea, the better it is.
266. However, the subject of drawing need not prove troublesome. AnY
man who can handle a pencil well enough to make a map or area sketch can
make a satisfactory panoramic sketch. regardless of whether or not he has
any of the instincts of an artist. More often than. not he will make a more
valuable sketch than the trained artist because he will not be tempted to
make a pretty picture and so hide military information.
267. Since the sketch must enable the user to identify the l'ieetol' quickly,
it should convey to the eye a rough picture of the terrain as it actually j:;
:-;een. To secure this picture a few technical devices should be employed.
/ (1.) Perspective. System Of Parallel Lines.
268. First of these technical devices is the principle of perspective. Thi~
jg a means of making use of the fact that distance to the eye is indicated
by the angle which an object of given height subtends at the eye. The
g-reater the distance the smaller the angle and hence the smaller the object
appears to the eye. Thus a row of objects of a given height extending into
the distance apparently will grow smaller as the distance becomes greater
lilltil they finall~' vani~h into a point on the horizon. In order to get tM
"
same effect of distance or depth in a sketch, the following principles of
perspective should be applied.
J 269. (a) Any system of parallel horizontal lines in a plane not parallel
to the plane of the observer, tend~ to come togeth('r or vanish at a point on
1 he horizon, called the vanishing point. Such a system of lines is shown in
f.g. 78. The lines of the house which are parallel and which fulfill the con'
(~itions enumerated, if prolonged, will meet in vanishing points, VI'" and VP.,
on the horizon. I
Perhaps the commonest example of vanishing of parallel lines is to be

found in the track of a railroad, a line of telegraph poles or the sides of a
I'oad. as indicated in fig. 79.
J 270. (b) Any s)'stem of vertical parallel Hnes no matter in what 1)lane.
will remain parallel. In fig. 78 all vertical pamllel lines remain parallel.
J
271. (c) Any system of parallt'1 lines not horizontal, in a plane not parallel
to the plane of the observer. vanish in a point above or below the horizon.
I
J n fig. 80 the lines joining the top and bottom of the picket fence form the
l'Iystem of parallel lines fulfilling the above conditions. The section of the
fence AD, is inclined downward and hence would vanish at VP~, below the
,
horizon. The section ne, being inclined upward, vanishes at VI'. ahove the
,
horizon.
(2.) Consecutiv(' Cr('st Lines.
,I
J 272. The effect of distance can be given in a mechanical way by varying (
t he weight of line. Since objects seen close at hand are large anlt cleal'
and decrease in size and clearness as they t'ecede from the otll'ierveJ', this .1
principle must be applied to sketching. The near('l"lt f('atul'e~ must he tht'
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~rgcst and the heaviest of line, while they should become smaller and
;:hter of line until the sky line is reached, which must be the faintest of all.
th 3. Figure 81 illustrates this principle. The successive crests recede from
e Observer in the order A, B,' C, D.
d The crest A tberefore, should be the heaviest line, and the lines should
t;crease in intensity to the horizon D, which should be the faintest line. in
d e sketch. The road. following this principle and the principle of perspccbve,
ecreases in weight and tends to vanish in a point during its successive
.meanders. No lines should be so faint as to be indistinguishable.
27 . (3.) Broken Lines. .

fi f. Dy refraining from actually joining intersecting crest lines, as v A:,
\ t g. 81, a further technical means is employed of giving the effect of deptn
. ~ the sketch. This gives the effect of haze found on distant slopes.
2 (4.) Ground Slopes And Form1

. n75. One of the fundamental requirements of a good sketch being clear-
I;:s, it is essential that all useless details be omitted. On the ?t.her h~n,1
general slopes and configurations of the ground are of mIlitary Im-
Portance and the question arises as to how to show this ground form with
~~t detracting from the elearness of the sketch. This is effected by using.l
t c natural and artificial features that exist on the ground, drawn to conform
.,~ the principles of perspective. .
~h:' In figure 82 the ,position and shape of the road indicates a rise ovel'
crest in the foreground, a gentle downward slope to the turn. and finally
a gradual rise to the crest, where it disappears. The telegraph line brings
out the same facts as does the line of single trees.' The features represented
:;e of military importance and therefore must be shown, but, by means of
. cse features the configuration of the ground also. is indicated without
. ;ntroducing useless lines or detracting from the.clearness of the drawing .
.n the same way the form of the hills is brought out by a few lines flowing
In the direction of slope. In the case of the wooded hill the lines are short
~nd' irregular, representing the tops of trees, while in the bare hill the
In:s are smoother. The necessity for showing the form of these hills arises
prImarily for easy identification and from the fact that targets, reference'-----
hOi~ts,. ctc., may be located in a particular position on the hills which can
e mdlcated only from their relation to the ground conformation. If the
dlraw~ng of a wooded hill is difficult, smooth lines may be used and the hill
aheled, "Wooded".
(5.) Shading. J
~?7. The tendency of the average sketcher, upon completion of his sketch.
Is to attempt to add to the general artistic effect by introducing shading of
various descriptions. This course cannot be too strongly criticised. for the
only result accomplished is to. detract seriously from the cleameRs of the
Work. It should be borne in mind that the panoramic sketch iR not a land-
ficape drawing, but is a skeleton chart, devoid of ever~-thing of no military
value, in which clearness is one of the prime essentials sought. Therefore,
unless the sketcher is thoroughly familiar with shading 'and its ul'le. it shoulti
be eliminated.
ToPOlrTallhy for Field Artll\el"J
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-123.-
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Shadmg is, however essential for one purpose; namely, contrast. J
YV
ilU en • 1't IS.' necessary to distinguish between features that are adjacent
. or
perImposed. simple shading is permissible and should be used.
and' In fig. 83 the consecutive groups of trees are partiallY superimposed:
'hn ;n order to distinguish them quickly, alternate groups are shaded bj'
it aPte parallel lines. Thus groups, A, D, C are quickly distinguished ami
indo arget should be located in or between these grOUPS this faet could be
fiel~cate? clearly. When it is necessary to distinguish adjacent cultiva.ted
Ob' s, sImple horizontal shading should be used in checker-board fashIOn.
Jects of military importance c~m thus be clearly located in field E or F.
279 . (6.) Conventional Signs.

Foi' Smce simplicity and clearness is the key-note of a good sketch, the
b;Plest possible symbols to represent natural and artificial features should
('as~sed. ' Fo: this reason conventional symbols or si~s are used tha~ are
tif I Y and qUIckly made, and which, by slight variations. represent and. Iden.
F Y features found in any given locality. One consideration should govern.
toOl'the purpose of rapid identification of features depicted, it is necessary
make the conventional signs look as much like the features they represent
n Possible.
(s
Fig. 84.
280.
, .' example, fig. 84 (a), IS
. lor . a group of pure conventIOnal
. .
sIgns repre.
"en~l~g from left to right, a tree, a house. a church and tree in their relative
rfoSIt.1on. They tell nothing of the actual appearance of those objects, and
b t?IS group were closeloy related to other groups of similar objects it would
r~ Impossible to identify it. By making these conventional sigus more nearly
I e the particular objects they represent, still keeping them equally simple, "'---
1\ result such as in fig. 84 (b), is obtained. The group now emerges from the
reneral to the particular; identification is assured. and yet the sketch has
20Sst nothing in simplicity or clearness.
. 1. Possibly the features most commonly met in a landscape are tree
groups. They should be represented by an irregular line for the tops and
~ lnore or less straight line for the near edge, shaded or not, as required, a:;
In fig. 85. Care should be taken to make the irregular line very irregular
Fig.' 85.
lo prevent its confusion with the lines of the sketch such as hills, crest lines,
etc. "
-124-
282. l....igure 86 illustrates in a conventional way so~e of the most commotl ,
. features. No attempt should be made to draw accurately villages or clost
groups of houses. It is sufficient to indicate a general outline showing very
simply the trend of the roofs. Different kinds of trees f;hould be shown
where necessary to aid identification.
METHOD OF PUOCEDURE.
283. The inexperienced sketcher examining a landscape .is confused by tht>.
mass of details that meet his eye. Important and unimportant features' art
so numerous and mixed together that it seems a hopeless task to pick o~t
j and recognize the simple frame-work on which the whole is built. It IS
necessary, therefore, that the eye be trained to separate a landscape into it.'!
main mass groups, disregarding details, and bounding these masses by singlt>
Jines so that the relative position and size of the masses, both verticaJl)'
and horizontally, shall form the frame work of the whole. The lines bound-
ing hills, mountains. crests, and tree groups, and their intersections with
each other, form such mass groups; and once having recognized these maW
boundary Jines, and having plotted them in their relative horizontal anti
vertical I'elation, the sketcher has a frame work that is complete, after which
important details may be inserted quickly in their correct positions. A simpJ~
method of recognizing these mass groups is to half close the eyes and ex-
amine the countQ', when these groups will become immediately apparent,
A. EQUIPMENT.
281. It is nf>cessary
that the sk(-tcher })p f'quipped with tlw following
articl('s:
1. Compass.
2. Field Glasses,
3. B. C. Ruler.
4. Penknife.
5,
1 medium hard (2h) and 1 medium soft ~b) pencil. Colored pen-
cils may be used.
6. Eraser. .
7. A map of the terrain to be sketched, from which the names of
villages, destination of roads. and railway lines, names of rivers, stream.;
'PruJ mOl,mtains may be obtained, and ranges to prominent features measured
by scalirfg, .
8. Sketching pad of smooth paper. This paper preferably should b<> •
ruled in faint lines in some convenient manner as a guide' and aid to the
",ketcher.
J The first step necessary is to determine, by actual inspet'tion, the limit~
(If the sector. If the sector has been plotted on a map previously it is neces-
sary for the sketcher to orient himself and determine the sector limits ac-
curatel~' from the map, Having located the Jimits of the sector, the sketcher
j m('asures it with a B. C. ruler, or some other instrument for measurin~
horizontal angles. Since the panoramic 8ketch is drawn to a definite hori-
zontal s('&le it is n('('('f;sary to determine this scale before proceeding. TIll'
artillerr sketching pad is divided into eight vertical zones be(ween the two
limiting nrtical lines. Hence, if the Sf'ctor measures 800 mils, the distanct.
TOJl<lttral,hy (or "'i,.J,I An ill,'ry
-125'-:'"
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TOPolCrAllhy fOl' Field Artilll'I'Y

-126-
between any two adjacent vertical lines, will represent 100 mils; if the sect~
is 400 mils, the distance between adjacent vertical lines will represent (
mils, etc. For a pad ruled in an~r similar convenient manner the scale 0
the sketch ma~' be determined.
B. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKETCHER'S POSITION AND THIo:

ORIENTATION OF THE SKETCH.
285. It is essential that this be done immediately, for the important reasol1 ,
that unless this information is shown, the sketch is of slight value to anyoll"
else attempting to use it. I
J Casualties among sketchers and observers are fre(IUent and it shoult
be mandatory on all sketchers to complete these data, as soon as the sector
to be sketched has been determined. The sketch thus becomes valuable at
once to others as soon as any military information appears on it, and !"'
creases in value in proportion to the completeness and accuracy of this )11'
formation.
286. Just as a map must, in order to make it of any value, have indicated
upon it the points of the compass, so must a panoramic sketch have so)111'
indication of direction. In the latter case this indication is only an appro~'
imation and serves more for identification of the count1'y than a corret"t
designation of direction.
287. An examination of fig. 77 will show that, at the bottom of the sketch,
and opposite the word,:'Place", there is a cross mark on the center vertical
ruled line. It is through this mark that the arrow indicating the magn~t!('
north is drawn. Its direction is determined in the following manner.
As shown in fig. 87 turn the sketching pad into a horizontal positioll.
Sight along any vertical line at or near the center until this line, if pro'
longed, will pass through the exact point on the landscape th,'ough which
it passes in the sketch. The sketch is now oriented.
Holding the pad in this position place a compass on it and allow the
needle to come to rest.
Through the cross-mark on the center vertical line dt'aw an al'1'O\\
parall~1 to the compass needle. Note, in the spaces indicated, the place front
which the sketch is made. the name of the !"ketcher, date, w('ather, us ft"
~ards visibility, and the hour of the day. C
288. This last is important as the visibility changes from day to day an(1
from hour to hour, hence, unless indicated, an officer who was using a sketch
of a particular sector might imagine that he was in the wrong area unlel".~
he knew that the conditions of visibility had changed. If time permits a
sketcher may choose the hour of the day when the visibility is best for thl' .
area before him. Thus the early morning is best for a sector to the eu:-t
while f,hadows of late afternoon will servc to hring out SUc('cs:-;ive ridgel'l in
an arca to the west.
C. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTOR

289. Before proceeding further. ('xamin(' the 8('dor with and without gla:-'
se1'1. The ground should be stuuied in an efTort to get a clear mental picture
of its formation and to separate it into its fundamental maSH groups; thl'
foreground mass or dcfilading scr('en, l'uccessive Cl'('sts, the background or
T"""lCra"hy (nt" Fi•.,,, AI1ilJ•.,"y
-127-
-128-
horizon. Glasses often will disclose crests, hollows, etc., capable of hiding'
targets which otherwise might be overlooked. A little study will separate ,
the important fn)m the unimportant details and the sketcher then is read)"
to proceed, along definitely thought-out lines, to conform to the object of the
l"ketch.
D. SELECTION OF REFERENCE POINT AND HORIZONTAL

CONTROL.
290. In order to make the horizontal scale of practical \Yalue, an origin of'
horizontal measurement must be selected from the terrain and mUlSt be plot~
ted and indicated on the sketch. A sketch without a clearly indicated re-
ference point is more useless than a map without means of indicating direc' .
tion. The reference point mayor may not be in the sector included by the
sketch. It should preferably, if possible, be in the sector, but owing to the
fact that the reference point must -be a distinct, easily identified point, it is
possible that a given sector may be devoid of any point that could fulfin .
these conditions. In this case such a point should be selected as close to
either limit of the sector as possible and an arrow should be drawn im~
mediately above the sketch pointing in the direction of this reference point.
and should be so labelled. The point selected should further be described
briefly as, " Reference point, lone pine tree on skY-line", etc. Under normal
('onditions a suitable point can be chosen in the sector and indicated directly
on the sketch. Since it is the origin of horizontal measurements, its angular
(:esignation will be 'zero, a fact which further identifies it .
. 291. In . the selection of a reference "'Point, the following consideration~
. should govern: (a) it should be easily seen and identified even under un'
favorable conditions of visibility, hence, not too far away (as a distan'
mountain-peak on the horizon); (b) it should be of such a character that it
('annot be entirely destroyed by artillery fire.
Owing to the prevalence of conditions of poor visibility, especially
(:uring the winter months, in western Europe, the most suitable reference
points during the late war were found in the middle distance, and preferably,
\ features of the terrain, such as; a small hill of distinctive shape, a welI-M'
fined cross-roads or road fork,' the point where a road crossed a crest, or
the intersection of a stream with a road or railroad, etc. These were found
to satisfy all conditions better than houses, towers, chimneys, trees or di~'
tant mountains.
292. By means of the plotted reference point and the vertical guide linelf, ,
a basis of horizontal control is established. By actually measuring with the
mil ruler the horizontal deflection of important points from the reference
point, these points may be plotted horizontally on the sketch in their trup
relation.
In fig. 88 the farm is 200 mils from the reference point; the inter-
section of crests, A, is 110 mils, the peak, C, is 300 mils, etc.
E. VEUTICAL CONTUOL.
293. Vertical control, while not so important as the horizontal must be
considered by the sketcher if he would avoid distortion'. Thus, unless Borne
line of vertical control is adopted a sketcher often will enlarge the vertic~1
TOJJOgral,hy (or l"ield Artillery
-129-
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l'ollO\Cral.hy for Field Art i11('1")"

-130-
scale of one side of his sketch, due to the amount of detail which appeaJ1'
there. while the other side, being without military features, may be co~'
pressed. Usually it is customary for the sketcher who is not using In-
struments to choose a vertical control line to which he will refer all other
<>levations, the reference being wholly by eye. Since the sketcher is concern-
ed chiefly with military features at mid-artillery range. it is customary to
choose a line at about the level of the eye and at mid-distance, such as tM
top of a prominent ridge, the top or bottom of a line of trees, as line AD.
figures 89, 90, 91. _
~94. In choosing the vertical control line for the sheet it is well to remem-
ber that the targets at artillery ranges are the ones with which the artiller).'
man is concerned and hence this line should be placed so as to leave the
greater part of the area of the sheet for the showing of these mid distance!'-
To properly portray the various horizontal lines of the ordinary terrain and
the mass of detail, a certain amount of exaggeration of the vertical relationfl
is desirable. otherwise successive crest and tree lines will be so crowded all
to make the picture obscure. Ordinarily the sketcher who has adopted fl
vertical control line need not concern himself with the need of exaggeration.
since he will, unconsciously, exaggerate in the course of his drawing.
If, however, the sketch is to be a true panorama in which the site of
each target is desired. the vertical relations of the several points to be
noted may be obtained and the p.>ints plotted on the sheet in their proper
relation according to a determined vertical scale. Some schools advocate
a vertical exaggeration of two to one. This amount is excessive and tbe
sketcher should be cautioned against too great an exaggeration, lest b~
. make his sketch grotesque and add to the difficulty of identification.
F. DRAWING IN FRAMEWORK. A COMPARISON OF METHODS.

295. With the horizontal and vertical control established, there are tW(I
methods of drawing in the framework of the sketch.
Assume that fig. 90 shows the terrain in which the sector occurs and
that the points represented under the arrow-heads indicate the limits of
the sector.
By measurement it is found that the sector is 800 mils in widt'h
and consequently the distance between vertical lines on the pad will repre-
sent 100 mils. The reference point indicated in the figure is selected be-
cause it is a sharply and clearly defined point. Horizontal control is now
established.
For vertical control, the horizontal line established by the crest
and tree line All, gives a well marked base line. and since this line runs ap-
proximately through the center of the sector, the center horizontal line of
the pad will represent it.
Figure 91 shows only that part of the ruled sketching pnd within
which the sketch must be drawn both vertically and horizontally.
(1.) First Method.
296. This method consists simply of plotting a few impol'tant or critical
points by means of the horizontal and verticnl control. With these point:'
established, the framework can then be drawn in through them by referencf'
to the terrain.
TOpOgraphy tor Field Artillel7
-131-
-132-
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Be t Since the reference point is slightly to the left of the center of the
it:
'u c hor I.
't IS
. plotted sHghtly to the left of the center of the sketch, and at
.helght ahove the Hne Ail as the eye estimates it to be above the /
8U agmary line AD in: the sector. This point must be plotted first. By mea-
th rement the chimney of the house is found to he 100 mils to the right of
Ue. reference point. It is also sHghtly below the imaginary Hne Ail, fig. 90.
ri s~g the pre-determined scale of the sketch, measure off 100 mils to the
thg t of the plotted reference point, and, moving vertically downward below
Ii e hne A il. plot in the location of the chimney such a distance below thi,
pn~ as to be relatively correct, fig. 91. In a similar manner, enough critical
.t~Ints are plotted to the right and left of the reference point to estabHsh
bye framework of the sketch. A few such points are indicated jn fig. 91
h crosses. Typical critical points are crests of hills. intersections of crests,
pIOUses
t ' l'Iml't'mg pomts
. of roads, Hmits of tree groupS, etc. Through these
o ted points draw the outline of the terrain.
8t Th'IS method is the most accurate but'is slow ' on account of the con-
thant necessity of identifying the plotted points with the points in the terrain
ey actually represent.
(2.) Second Method.
~97. lly holding the sketching pad vertically in front of the eye and looking
t;er the top of the pad at the landscape, and at the same time moving
I' e. ~ad to or from the eye, a point will be reached at which the two
,nYlIb.ngvertical Hnes of the pad will intersect. if prolonged, the correspond-
',.
0.'"
t g hmits of the sector. Figure 92 shows the pad in this position for the
andscape and sector shown in fig. 90. Holding the pad here the sketcher
sk
d raw s. m
. l'19htly, in the one inch space at the extreme top of the sheet, the
Y • hne and as many other important points as possible, comparing the
;~~Ime directly with the country as he glances over the top of the pall.
IS procedure automaticallY locates the framework horizontally. Wh<>n
;ompleted. the pad is lowered into a comfortable horizontal position and the
r~mework so drawn is carried down into its proper position on the sheet,
especial attention being given to locating the framework correctiy by means
of the vertical control. . "---
This method is much more rapid than the other and after a little
rractice equally accurate results can be obtained with it. It has the advan-
,age of eliminating constant identification of plotted points with correspond-
~~g grounds points, and the consequent loss of time.' . '
98. The frame work drawn by either method should be done lightly WIth
0. hard pencil. If time permits it can be gone over later and corrected where
necessary. More attention can then be paid t~ characteristic shapes and for-
mations, and to relative vertical relations. The principles of perspective
also should be applied. v
Note 1: Dy using a sheet of transparent .celluloid, the same sizc
as the sketching pad blank, ruled in the same manner as the blank and
a~tached at right angles to the pad, the sketcher may calibrate his sketch,
fHmply by looking through the celluloid, and noting on which line or in
which space each feature falls. It is a simple matter, then, to sketch these
features in the same areas on the paper. •
TopoltraJlhy for Fil'ld Artllll'ry
-134-
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all N~te 2: Another mechanical device, the most rapid and accurate of ,/
wid ConsIsts of two mirrors arranged in a small hood. two or three inches
p :' and two or three inches long, very similar to the hoed of a trench
o:r~sc~pe. Instead of being placed parallel the mirrors are set at an angle
On t 2~ to each other so that the image seen thr(>ugh the peep hole appears
th he sketching pad placed below and in front of the device. In order that
In e sketcher may see the pad and his pcncil, and so trace the image of the
I' ndscape, the lower mirror is made semi-transparent by a series of fine
era
dInes ' cut th rough the mercury back. The degree of vertJca' I exagg t'Ion
a~t;red to secure by inclining the sketching pad away from the plane par-
Ill'~ to the lower mirror. Calibration of the sketch may be secured by a
I scale on one of the mirrors.
G. FILLING IN.
~:9fi :Vit~ the framework established it is a compar¥tively simple operation
p 11 In With those details, the importance of which is governed by the pur-
t~=e of the sket~h. Tim~ being a factor. and the object being to l~cate, targe~s,
th framework IS suffiCient and no time should be spent on filhng m, whIle
the fr~mework itself should be only a rough appl'oximation. Hence time and
knc obJcct sought govern the amount of detail shown, and it is here that the
o ~wledge of what to omit makes itself manifest. Tbis last can be gained
3~OY by actual experience.
p " ' Speed and simplicity are gained in locating details by plotting limiting
" po~nts on the frame work and then drawing in the details bet,\'een these
Pomts. Points where roads. telegraph lines, fences, etc. appear and disap-
t ear over crests, horizontal limits of tree groups and settlements, are fea-
r?res that can be located this way. Simple points may be located by refer-
Jng them to points on the sky-line under which they are vertically situated.
With the soft pencil the sketcher should go over the drawing and
vary the weight of the lines in it, bearing in' m1nd that the weight of line
Ii SIze
and ' O,fobjec~s decrease uniformly as they recede from th? observer. the
ghtest lmes bemg the objects seen farthest away. No tIme should be
7asted on the foreground. A simple heavy line showing its general con-
ormation is sufficient. "---
H, DESIGNATION OF TARGETS AND IMPORTANT POINTS.
30~. In order that the sketch may be of value to others beside the sketcher
po~nt8 of identification must be indicated and data provided as to these
POInts. First in importance of the targets is the ridge line which will afford
~elte: ~or the enemy, and on which the artillery officer I.s likely to fire.
ext In Importance will come roads where they cross such fldges, rords and
~~u.tes of travet, battery and battalion areas, tree lines, streams, and In- //
IVldual targets. As fast a~ such a target is plotted on the sketch the data .
~oncerning deflection ard range, as well as the target designation, should .
e entered in an appropriate place on the sheet. This must be done so that,
should the sketcher be interrupted, his sketch will be valuable so far as he
has gone.
302. In identifying targets they are referred to the reference point as to
deflection, and to the sketcher's position for range. Figure 93 shows th"
-136--
l"II)(»)(raphy for Field Artillery

-137-
~.thOd of accomplishing this. Vertical lines are drawn from the top of the'
th ~et ~nd terminate in an arrow head in the exact point on the sketch where .
li e pomt in question is located on the ground. Directly at the top of the
cne the description of the point. so located is written diagonally, so that it.
f an be l'ead with the sketch held in a normal position. Conventional sign~
~\~rgets should not be used. Tbey serve only to add unneces~ary detail
tar • ~k.tch and destroy clearness. Since, in the artil1cry, t~e rJ~ht of the
, ?et lS, the point on which firing data are computed, the vertical lme should
IillndlC a t e the location of the right of the target, and if further I'den t'r
I Ica t'Ion
th necessary, its width in mils may be indicated. This would mean then, that'
toe arrow-head locates the right of the target, and that the target extends
303the l:ft of this point so many mils'. .' '. j
d~fi' , .SImplicity in designation of tal'gets can be accomplished by usmg
'rt:~ltely understood abbreviations; e.g. "I" for infantry deployed, "A" for
II I lery in position, etc. The reference point always should be indicated a~
fiUCh.and may further be given its correct name' if kno;n. For quick identi-
t cabon the line to this point may he made heavy or doubled. Accordin~
't~ the judgment of the sketcher and the purpose of the sketch. any inform a-
ron may be shown, such as names of hills, mountains, farms, villages, des-
o T~.tion of roads and railroads, location of bridges, trestles, culverts. etc.
h. e sketcher is governed only bv consideration of the relative military im-
!'ort • . '
304 ance of the points shown or omitted.'
p .' On the artillery sketch, directly under the description of the indicated
oOInt or ob,iect. should be shown its l'ange. The range is either estimate,J
r measured. If the latter, it is underlined. By reference to fig. 77 it i::
~:n that at the top of the sheet are five horizontal zones marked at the
t~ t, DF, DD. 51, KR, and RN. These zones are solely for firing data and
ese data are filled in before and corrected after firing. The firing data.
refer'
d . ring t'0 any partIcular target, should be written. across the 'Vert'Ica I rm~
~sIgnatjnff the target. and be in the correct zone. ,-
It is evident, therefore, that a third range occurs. This range, after
actual firing and correction. is the gun range to that particular point. Hence I
On tIle complete sketch there will be shown estimated ranges, measured

~a~g?S determined hy instruments, or from the map, and gun ranges de-,'--
<'Imined by actual firing.
~o;). Immediatel~' below the five horizontal zones for recording firing data,
g. 77, is a one-inch space before reaching the upper horizontal limit of the /
~k.tCh proper. This space is used solely for recording angular deneetions. v
he deflection in mils of the particular point indicated, right or left of th,,'
:eference point. is placed directly on the vertical reference line, as indicatetl '
In fig. 93. The deflection of the reference point is, of course, zero. which
further identifies this point. With a reference point within the sketch, de-
fI?ctionR will increase to the right and left of it. With the reference point
WIthout the sketch. deflections will increase throughout the sketch to the
l~ft or right, depending on where the reference point is, ta the right or left
of the sector. Deflections are habitually indicated to the nearest multiple'
of five, as no closer measurement is possible with a mil ruler.
TOJlORT8phy for Field Artl1\(Ory

-138-
Topography for Fil'ld Artillery

-139-
I~
~
01)
~
"~
%
.0
0 ~
~ Cl)
"
~
\I
~
~"b
""~1.. ..J
...J
tlO
~
~ ~ ~~
~~ ~
~ I'~
Pb fi)
":. ~ ~ 0-1
~ >-
olJ
'~~ ~
"l
~
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ell
~
~ "'ol"
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IU
O"~ I/)
, I-)
<}o
~f.
... 0-
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~ I
~ /b(,
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-140-
I. SUnSKETCHES.
306. In certain cases the sketcher may wish to show the terrain surroundiP;
any particular point in more detail than is possible on the main sketc .
This may be done by means of a subs ketch, see A, fig. 93. .
307. In conclusion the sketcher must remember that he is busied in makJ~~
. a map, a military record which is to be used by others. Therefore he shou.
\ ask himself constantly the question, "What value has this sketch at thJ~
moment to another person"? With this question before him the sket.che1
should be able to resist the temptation to draw unessentia]s, and so put doWn
only data of value, recording such items in turn according to their. im"
portance. '
MAP AND PANORAMIC SKETCH.

308. Plate XV is a section of the military reservation of Fort sm, Okla.
On it is marked a sector to be sketched from a given point, A. Fig. 94 is th~
panoramic sketch made of this sector from the desired point. A study 0
the map and an examination of the sketch will show the comparison between
the two and also will indicate the immense value of a sketch for showipg'
how the country actua)]y looks from the customary point of view. No matter
how great the topographer's knowledge or ability to read a m~p, it is jlll"
possible for him to get an accurate mental picture of the country simplY'
from a study of the map. The sketch bridges the chasm between imagina"
tion and reality; and with both at hand, intelligent and exact action maY
be planned even though the country is entirely new and strange.
TOVOtl'raph,., for Flel:l. Artillery.

\
..~
'!:
CHAPTEH XIV.
VISIBILITY AND DEFILADE.
DEFINITIONS.
:~~ ,In the discussion of this subject no' attempt will be made to explain
ibilit ~;t~ods other than those pertaining to Topography. The term, "vif!-
Rerv~" IS used ordinarily with reference to our own or the friendly ob-
r . Ion posts. "Invisibile Area", then, is the area invisible from the
,rlcndly O. P.
('ne The term, "defilade", I"elates primarily to whathnay be seen, from the
the rn~ Observation posts or lines. with a view 'to obtaining concealment from
l\h('ltvlew of the enemy. Howev"er the term also is used in connection with
, er from the enemy fire.
at' Defilade is given, usually in yards or meters in order to determine
lllo once What kind of defilade is obtainable, i. e., materiel, dismounted.
unted, fla~h, dust, smoke, etc.
310. ' " VISIBILITY.
the' 1here are several methods by which visibility may be determined.
more common of :which will be considered below.
311 ' A. SIMILAR TRIANGLES.
bel. 1he first method to be considered is that of similar triangles given
ow.
Co • Find from the map the elevations of the observation post, of the point
o/l'ns~dered in the enemy's lines, and of the inte'rvening crest suspected of
1'herIn?, defilade to the enemy, together with the ranges between these points.
t triangles to be solved will be formed as shown in fig. 95.
I I
fIT,.~=:=--=-30()()YD.s~OO(LV~- -- - - --j
~~-----------r~-----tr
1~ -1; lito I..!
IL
:1
I~(~~ {;~.
. v~@i)1 ~'ll/llt. ,tQ ••~~ I,
. I I
~J' . II 0
• 91': ''fARGt'T'.,~.~
F Jg. D. ~Il '
1'h ' The line of sight from the observation post falls 30 feet in 5000 yards.
S C Intervening crest is 3000 ranis away. By proportion, 5000: 3000::30:x.
~ O~ving, it is found that the line of sight at the crest will pass through a
')OInt 18 feet below the level of th~ O. P. In other' words, the line of sight
~~ the crest will have an elevation of 1112 feet. Since the crest has an eleva-
)I,onof 1120 feet the line of sight, between O. P. and the enemy's line will
lUSH 8 feet below the top of the crest. Hence the enemy position cannot be
seen.
TO\lolCraphy for Field Artll\(lry
-142-
B. WITH AN ELASTIC BAND.
312. An adaptation of the similiar triangle methcd, based on the fact tbld
a piece of rubber, in most cases, will stretch uniformly, is given beloW. aI
Take a strip of rubber band and mark it in 5 or 10 units of e<Jl1
length. Ten units is preferable, because this will permit of the use of tbe
decimal system, in the computations which follow, fig. 96.
Figure 96 shows the map of the terrain considered in the operatioJ}!
outlined above; the O. P., the crest, and the target all being indicated.
> fff'}'+'}1Tffp
Fig. 96.
Read from the map the elevations of the O. P., of the crest, and of the
target. Next apply the rubber, stretching it between the O. P. and the tar-
get. All subdivisions will stretch uniformly. .
At the crest read the subdivisions, or fraction thereof, indicating what
decimal part of the whole the distance from the O. P. to the crest may be.
In the above figure the subdivision, 6, touches the crest. Therefore the
line of sight at the crest should show an elevation below the O. P. which i~
.6 of the total difference in elevation between the O. P. and the target.
The target is at an elevation of 1100 feet. The O. P. is situated at
contour 1130. The difference between the two is 30 feet. .
30X.6=18 feet, which is the amount the line of sight between the O.
P. and the target has dropped in the distance to the crest.
1130-18=1112 which is the elevation of the line of sight at the crest.
The elevation of the actual crest, however, is 1120 feet. Therefore the crest
hides the target.
C. ANGLE OF SITE.
313.. A comparison of angles of site affords a third satisfactory method of
determining visibility. In this method the angle of site to the intervening
crest is compared with the site to the point considered in the enemy's linc!.
Find from the map the elevations and ranges as in the similar triangle
method. Reduce the difference in elevation to yards or meters and the dis'
tance to thousands of yards or to kilometers. In the problem above, fig.
95, the angle of site of the point in the enemy's line is :r +5=-27/1.
30
The
10
angle of site of the intervening crest is a +3=-17/1, approximately, 'I'M
line of sight to the objective considered, therefore, has a steeper downward
j
I
~
I ' --143--
;~~{. than the line of site to the crest. Therefore the objective is invisible.
of thOpposite is true in case both crest and objective are above the elevation
p. ohservation po~t.
314. T D.. GRAPHIC METH~?D.
('on~t,. he question of visibility also may be settled by means of profiles. To
\\'hie~ ~ct a p~ofile apply a piece of cross section paper. or any other paper
alld th as ~onzontal lines equally spaced upon it, to the line joining the O. r.
of th e POInt considered in the enemy's line, see ray 13, fig. 97. On the edge
line. eJaper mark wi~h its elevation each point where a contour crosses. the
of th umber the honzontallines of the paper to correspond to the elevatIOns
the Ie .several contours crossing the. line between O. P. and the target: From
hOti'JOInts on the edge of the paper. ,drop perpendiculars to the corresponding
and zon~al lines. (Note. It may be more convenient to use a straight edge
map at rIght angle triangle and so drop the perpendic~lars directly from the
mat 0 .the proper parallel line. without bothering to spot points on the
I"~
gm of the paper.) •
of th Consider the points spotted on the parallel lines as limiting points
aee e profile desired. Join these points with a smooth curve, taking into
tlUl:un.t the character of the ground forms as shown on the map. The re-
POint.lll be a vertical cross section of the terrain between the O. P. and the
lD question. See Profile B, fig. 97.
to th ?n the profile draw a straight line from the observation post, tangent
In,,' ~ lDtervening crest. If the point considered is below this line is will be
8ig~~1 Ie, and all terrain between the crest and the point where the line of
touches the ground, also will be invisible.
Wh'l In this method the horizontal scale of the map must be preserved.
mol e the vertical scale generally is much exaggerated in order to bring out,
re clearly, the ground features. .
tio It must be remembered that if the observer is placed on an observa-
gr n tower, or in a balloon, the line of sight must be drawn. not from the
to ound elevation of the o. P., but from a point sufficiently above, according
ob the vertical scale of the profile, to maintain the proper relation between
server and objective sought.
E. VISIBILITY CHARTS.
y.5:
31 In preparation' for the occupation of a position, a chart called the'
o~~lbility chart is prepared, showing all areas invisible and visible from all
p, se;vation posts likely to be occupied. The invisible areas of different O.
b B.,I! appearing on the same chart, are marked in different colors. It must
pC remembered, however that no matter hoW carefully this chart is pre-
't~l'ed from the map, it ~ust be verified by a careful study of the terrain
l self a .
316 ' s soon as the observatIOn post can b'e OCCupled • .
>. This chart is prepared on a transparent sheet from profiles as follows:
t' l)lace the sheet of transparent paper on the map. From the observa-
IOn }lost draw a f'eries of radiating lines, A. 13, and C, fig. 97, through the
r r an d across the points most in doubt. These rays will be extended as
t
Hecto
r as required into the enemy's territory. The number of the rays to he
( l'aWn will depend on the grou'nd itself and the accuracy desired.
On (Otl<'hray construct a profile of the ground and mark the points on
TOJlOll'ravh1 for Field Artillery
-144-
the profile, X • .Y. and z, profil~ n, fig. 97, which limit the invisible areas~ . J.p'
ply the paper again to the line on the chart, and by means of perpendiculars,
transfer the points to the chart. After marking all the rays on the map in
this manner an irregular area Ol' areas will be indicated by the dots. See
points x', 'y', .and ;:' of ray A, and x", 'y", and z" of ray C. Connect thcse dot~
and hatch the area enclosed with diagonal parallel lines, using different
colors or cross hatching to distinguish hctwecn'invisibility caused by ground
forms and that due to masks, such as trees, buildings. etc. Objects situated
TOllogravhy (or Field Artillery
.~
...
. --145--
Inin~ISI.. bIe areas. the tops of which are visible, also should be indicated by
elf'
T~~gmg in" with a different color, see the smoke stack indicated in fig. 97.
1>Ollslast .is important as it often happens that a line of trees or telephone
a es proJecting upwmd from. an invisible area will indicate the presence of
road or other objective for the artillery.. ..
1'1 These charts, as constructed above, are prepared for each observation
\Vh
t'ost or a UXI 'II.~ary observation post and transmitted to superIor
. comman d ers
bat~re. they are consolidated and used in assigning missions to the v~rious
se t enes, and in assigning the various observation posts of a partIcular
c or. See Chapter XXIII.
317. DEfILADE.
sirn"l As. m the case of visibility, defilade may be computed by means of
I ar trIangles, by angle of site, and graphically.
A. ANGLE OF SITE. ~
31 (1) Measured From The Enemy O. P.
CI,8. Obtain from the map the elevations of the enemy O. P., the covering
f:st, and the proposed route or position; also the ranges between the dif.
tor~nt elements. With these data compute the angles of site to the crest. anJ
al he ~osition, as measured from the enemy observation post. Subtract
pog~~ralCallY the angle of site cf the crest from the angle cf site of the
k.t 1tlOn, and multiply the result by the distance, in tho~sands cf yards or
b1 orneters, from the enemy O. P. to the position or road. The result will
e the defilade in yards or meters, see fig. 98.
1\(:,0
-tr---t---t-;--l,5~-r;,--- ..
~-tMYO.P.
1I ~ 4 rfr' \ ' .,~ ~~tfl--
~ I I\~O \\ ') ~f!i&"'" I
~I ~<;. S' .~ ~~j~~ I
OEflLAOJ ,5'" ,~1i'.. r;.v 1"00
.;. :,j,\!9, S'~..@ifoi~; "
------------.::1-
.,"
PO)1TI0 ~':.-_-1-
II~ _ ._ ~
__
-=--=SOl)()yo~(JO(~o:>
Fig. 98.
-:: -=~ --4
o 1160-1100=.60 feet=20 yards=the difference in elevation between th"'-

. P. and the position.
th 1160-1130=30 feet=10 yards=the difference in elevation between
e O. P. ar.d the crcst. .-
The angle of site' of the position=20-=-5= --4,/,.
the angle of site of the crest=10-=-4=--2.51/'.
-4-( -2.5) =-1.5'/'.
l.S,/,X5=7.5 yards=defilade of the position.
(2) Measured l'rom Covering Crfst.
319. The amount of defilade. also may be found from the map, by the same
calculation generally used wben it is possible to occupy the position and the
crest with cngle measuring instruments.
d From the map determine elevations and ranges as bolore. With thi,
ata compute the angle cf site of the enemy O. P. measurcd from the crc:it,
and the angle of site cf the crest measurcd from the gun }:csition or the
TOPollrapby for Field Arti1!('ry
. -146-
road. The 'amount of defilade is obtained by subtl'acting the site of the' ob-'
servation post from the site of the crest, and multiplying the remainder by'
the distance. in thousands of yards or in kilometers, from the position to the
'crest, see fig. 99.' I
I
,f
1160-1130=30 feet=lO yards, or the difference in elevation': between

crest and O. P.
1130-1100=30 feet=lO yards. or the difference in elevation between
the crest and the gun. . :,)
, 10-7-4=2.5,!l=the site to the O. P.
10-7-l=10,!l=the site to the crest.
10-2.5=7.5,!l.
7.5Xl=7.5 l'ards= amount of defilade at, the position.
. PROFILES. n. " . ,, ,
:320. Defilade also may be determined by means of profiles, as follows: ,J
From the enemy observation post draw a profile or series of' profile~
of the terrain including the propoRp.d position or roadway. The method of
construction is the same whether visibility or defilade is sought. ,
Draw a straight line, representing the line of sight from the observ~-
tion post, tangent to the covering crest, see fig. 100. At the position measure
the vertical distance from the surface of the ground to the line of sight,
drawn as above. This distance, according to the vertical scale of the profile,
is the amount of defilade of the position.
Fig. 100.
C. TABLE OF DEFILADE.
321. Although usuaJly determined by a personal inspection of' the terrain.
the following kinds of defilade may he determined from the map:. ;. ,;
TOllOlCraphy for Field Artillery
.~. ro, ,
Materiel Ilefilade, where the materiel is just below the plane of de.-
filade.
io ' Dismounted
to •
Defilade, where the level of the ground is 1.8 'meters ~-
~ w the plane of defilade.' . . 0
tIi.' Mounted Defilade, where the level of the ground is 2.5 meters below
plane of defilade. ' .' .
fill Dust Defilade, where the pieeo is far enough helow the I plane ofde-
) a~e. that the dust, caused by firing, will not be visible from the enemy
tT OSitIOn. :This last val'ies with the weather and the terrain and is difficult
o ~~tainexcept in swamps, along watercourses, and by wetting down the
poSItion. .
.an I ' A eonvenient tahle showing amounls of defilade required for smoke
( Hash defilade in light and heavy artillery is given below: .
Defilade 75 mm.' ~\~.:..~~::. _~_'----
Flash, .,4 .meters 8 meters

--
15 meters'
.---~-
Smoke 8 meters
322. I , D. TYPE PROBLEMS. . .. '.

th ?y!'es of problems conceming defilade and methods of solubon, uSing
t
U ~ prmclple of similar triangles. foll"w. Any of these types may be solved
ng either of the other methods explained for computing the amount of
(efilade of a position.
323~ . ..... (1) First Problem. ..' .
th' To compute the amounl of defilade of a pos,t,on. Havmg found from
'the m~p, the elevations and ranges, as shown in fig.' 101, construct and solve
t .e tnangles indicated.
llfall
The line of sight which falls 40 feet in 4000 yards
50 feet in 5000 yards. Since the difference in elevation between
lihe enemy's observation post and the position is 60 feet, it follows that the
Ine of sight will pass 10 feet above the position, or the position will have
10 feet of defilade. .
_____ -::-__ 5000~~400OYD-;:--=--nJ
- T
...
r
,:
---=.-------------:--
~ ./,.- - <~;\~
t~lMV OP.
~
lI..
o
\~
I'"
-r
. _0'
_ . /'
. • . .
,~7wr;
'lil\t-N-~
.,!) H lito .' ' '.' .Ic ::ixir{~'i/
:: ~~'.GR(~ ~~I.$~~",~~,,~\~~. •
: D(f1LAD.4 ~O,.~. :' ~;'IV""H' .
PO.5ITIONPIiOb Fig. 101.
4000: 5000:: 40:x.
x=50 feet.
60-50=10 feet =amount of defilade at the position.
(2) Second Problem.
324. To find the amount by which a mask must be rais('d to ..ecure ('on-
('('alm('nt from the enemy's "jew.
-148-
Find from the map the elevations and ranges as shown in fig. 102-
Construct and solve the triangles indicated. Since the line of sight passcs
48 feet below the level of the enemy's observation post and the top of the
mask is 50 feet below, it follows that the mask must be raised 2 feet, flUS
the amount necessary to secure the kind of defilade required; i. e., the amount
.necessary to give 6 feet for dismounted defilade, 9 feet for mounted defil~d~
etc. S()()() YO ....- ---..J
r--;:
I
.:::
.
..
---~
-t---~---------------
40(lO YO-S - - --JUGO
7
, • ~ ~~,,~.. MYa.p.
t <0 ~~!~\'"
o t _ 'Iv.~ ,
'f 1,~~--- I ~~\I '

, v- I ,"~M .
1100 , t'Col fu ~~~1JJj~
I /1
p(j IT ON'" Fig. 102.
5000: 40CO:: ~O : x.
x=48 feet.
116~1110=50 feet=the amount the ground level at the crest is
below the enemy O. p.
50-48=2 feet=amount the mask must be raised to reach the line of
sight.
6 feet at the position will give dismounted defil::tdc. 6: x:: 5000
4000. x=4 4/5 ft., distance above line of sight at the crest, which will give
dismounted defibde. Therefore 2+4 4/5=6 4/5 ft., the height necessary
to raise the mask.
(3) Third Problem.

325. To find 'he height to which an Observation towl'r or balloon must be
raised to overcome the defilade of an enemy's position. Find from the map
the elevations and ranges as shown in fig. 103. Construct and solve the
ind:cated triangles. The line of sight' from the enemy's position passes over
the crest at a height cf 30 feet above the enemy positicn. Since this is the
rise in 1000 yards, the line of sight will rise 150 feet in 5000 yards, to which
height it will be necessary to raise the observer. Dut since the ground at
the observer's pcsition is 40 feet above the enemy position it will be neces-
sary only to raise the tower or balloon by the difi'erence or by 150-40=110
teet.
1000: 5000:: 30: x.

x=150 feet.
150-40=110 feet=height balloon or tower must be raised above the
ground.
Topography Cor Field Artillcr"7
CHAPTER XV.
MINIl\IUM ELEVATION, l\UNIMilll RANGE.
AND DEAD SPACE.
326. " . GENERAL. .'
th ~hmmum elevahon is the lenst quadrant angle of elevahon at whlcl.
ql e irajectory will clear the covering mass or mask. It is a range scale or
la rant setting on the gun.
tn" Minimum range is the actual range to the point of fall for the
Ii Inlmum
' e Ieva t'lOn. I't IS a mcasurement on map.. or ground 0 r t he s h orl
nut of fire.
b. Dead space is ground which cannot he reached hy fire. It is caused
{j"first, the covering mass or mask immediately in front of the hattery
i': Ich, also fixes the minimum elevation); second, ohstruetions be)'ond the
medIate cover which may protect the enemy from artillery fire.
e The first class of dead space begins at the crest of the immediate
::.~~r, under the ascending branch of the trajectory, and extends to the
InImum range. Its limits are determined in connection with minimum
d
el, evat'Ion and range. The second class of dead space is usually nnder the
3~;cending branch of the trajeclory, and must be determined separatelY.
d" Accurate information as to minimum elevation, minimum range. and
ead space is of the highest importance to the artilleryman. The executive
end gunner must know the minimum elevation at which they may lay thf
!fUns, but need not know the minimum range, except SO far as the tern
range" may be applied to the range scale setting. The battery'commande.
must know both the minimum range and the minimum elevation, because h~
~ust know both the short limits of fire on the ground and the elevations to
ke given the guns for targets at those limits. IIigher commanders mu~t
now the minimum ranges and the boundaries of all other dead areas tor
reference in assigning targets to batteries.
. In open warfare the minimum elevation and range arc determined
Immediately on occupation of .a position by measurements made on the
f{0und (F. A. Drill negulations, Par. ~168-~176; Art., Firi~g, Par. 66-58),
Dead space of the first e1ass is determined In eonneehon WIth the process,
cad space of the second class cannot be determined without a map, unlesf:
~he ranges, elevations, and slores of protected enemy terrain are aceurateb'
nown f~'om previous reconnaissance. '
In position warfare. as soon as the location of the guns has been "
?etermined, and citen before the actual occupation of the position, all this
Information is determined from the map, and tables and charts are prcparerl
shOWing it in detail, for the use of the various commanders.
3~8. Every fixed obstruction of any considerable size which may stop 01'
d!vcrt the passage cf a projectile or cause it to explode is taken into con-
SIderation in determining minimum elevation, minimum range, and dead
TOpOllr8\,hy for l~il'1d Artillcr~
-150-
space. Thus trees and buildings may be obstructions, as well as hills and
ridges. Tables and charts should show the nature of the obstruction by
notation or by some graphical device. It is assumed to be ground unless
otherwise noted.
DETER1\IINATIO~ OF' l\UNIlUUM ELF;VATION AND I~ANGE.

329. In position .warfare a table s~ould be prepared showing thf minimuJl1
devation for each gun for at least' every 200 mils of the sector from the
right limit to the left limit.: If the covering crest is vel:y irregular, closer
intervals must be taken. Minimum range .is determined at the same time.
It may. be. recorded in special columns in the minimum elevation table or io
a separate table, and it will also be, plotted on the dead space chart. Separat~
tables must be made for each different projectile, charge. and fuse wherever
. there is an appreciable difference in the t.rajectol'Y." ,:. ,
330., The object of any calculation of minimum elevation and range is, first,
to) find the minimum elevation to clear the crest, and then to find a point on
the ground be~'ond, $uch that the,quadrant elev,ation required to,. strike it ;5
equal to the minimum elevation. This is the actual point of fall 'for th~
ini!1imum elevation. Methods differ in their details, but, all are based sub.:'
stantially on the, above principles., The following is the usual procedure. '
"A. STE\S: OF CALCULATION.

331. 1. petermine the minimum elevation in angular measure (mils -or
degrees ,and. minutes, etc.) 'to clear the ci'est as follows: - Find from the
range- table the elevation for the range. to the crest, and add,to this the
Bite of the crest, calculated from, the map. This is the quadrant elevation
for the crest. If the' guns are close to the crest (within 300 meters with
the French 75, normal charge), the -drop in the trajectory is negligible. and
the site may be taken as the minimum elevation. The minimum elevation
should be recorded in the table. in angular measure as calculated, and the
corresponding range setting (not map range), in yards or meters should also
be entered if a range scale is used on the guns.
2.. Find from the range table the map range correspond ing to the
minimum elevation. This gives the range to the horizontal point of fall,
where the projectile would strike if the ground were level with the guns.
Call this the first trial range.
3. Find from the map the altitUde .of the ground at the first trial
range.
If, it is the same as the altitude of the guns, the trial 'r~nge is the
actual minimum }'ange. (Example 1. fig. 104).
If it is higher than the guns, the actual minimum range is short of thi~
first trial range. (Example 2, fig. 105).
If it is lower than the guns, the actual minimum range is beyond thl~
first trial range. (Example 3, fig. 106).
4. ,Where the altitude of the ground at the first trial range has been
found to be different from that of the guns, a further calculation is necessary
to determine the actual minimum unge. In such calculations two things
must be taken into consideration: first. the general altitude of the ground
.at the first. trial range; second, the form of the ground, whethel' level, un!:
TOJ'KllCraphy for Field ArtiJIe..,.
-151-
fOrml.'
ei" y slopmg,
.. , or' irregular. ,The methods of calculating under different
r Umst,ances will now be taken up in detail.
;," D. EFFECT OF GROUND FORMS.
33'> '. " ' (1) Level Terrain.'!:
tlt~d":.th the ground at 'ftrst trial range level, or approximately so, (at.
foIl e~l~her higher or lower than guns) find the actual minimum range as
. .ows:' " :
;he : Calcuhite the site of the ground at the first trial range. 'Find from
equ ; auge table the }'ange change corresponding to 'a 'ch:mge in elevation
di'p~ ,to the site. In some tables this is given in special columns showing
acement in point of fall for variations in angle of site or elevation. '
lhe ' If, not so given it can be found from the main' table by subtracting
tli. angle of elevation equal to or just below the minimum elevation from
to t~e,xt Iiigher elevation, thus obtaining the, elevati6n change corresponding
~alu e ra~ge inter~al of the table, usually 100 meters. Add the range change
lhe' euOf,t~e a~gle of site to the first trial range if the ground is lower than
lh g ns. ' Subtract it from the first trial range if the ground is higher than
lll~.gun~. The result is the range to the actual point of fall, the de.ired
a n1mum range. ""
33. Ho wever, 1'f t h e range change is oyer 100 meters, thIS
n ' metho d IS
' not
a '-Curate, 'beeause
ele . the }'ange change value of a mil or other angular unit of
ex vati?n decreases rapidly as the range increascs. In case of a range change
el.. ~e~mg 100 meters. test the new point of fall by calculating its quadrant
ee ~atlon. If this is equal to the minimum elevation the range may be ac-
fi~ edas ~he minimum range. If it is not equal to the minimum elevation,
eh the, d.fference between the two elevations and make a furlher range'
'l'hange'in the proper direction equal to the range value of this difference.
it e second, range change will usually give the, actual minimum range, but
if s hould be tested by its quadrant elevation, and a still further change made
necessary, After a little practice allowances can be made by estimation
,f ~' th'IS change in the range value of an angular unit.
(2) Irregular Terrain. "'----
• 334" W'th
1 .
the ground . first trial range slopmg
at " or Irregu IaI', (ht e gcnt>rl1I
a\erage altitude being either higher or lower than guns) the actual minimuM.
~n'ge cannot be found by a range change conespondmg to the \'Blue of the
sit
e, because the site of the ground at the new range would not be the sam'?
as at the fin;;t trial range where the site was calculated. The quadrant el~-
\'ation of any point depends on two things, range and site. Both are change;l
wfhen the range is changed on inegular or sloping g.'ound. lIenee the effect
~•. holh mu,t be taken into consider:,tion in calcula~io~ o~ such ground.
hl~ can be done very readily on a UnIform slope, but It IS a htUe more (lJffi.
cult on inegular slopcs or broken ground. Proceed as follow.. (Examples
4
3 and 5, figg~ 107 and 108). '
. 3;). 'Calculate the quadrant elevation of the ground at the first trial range,
~nd fi~d 'the difference between this and the minimum elevation. At the
l~'t tn:,1 range this difference is the same as the site of the ground, because
e hOJ'lzontal range corre!'ponds to the minimum elevation. ,This difference
-152-
is to be made up by a combined change in range and site. Make a range
chenge of some convenient even amount, say 50 or 100 meters. in the proper
direction. Call this new range the second trial range. .Calculate the quad-
rant elevation of the ground at this range. If it is equal to the minimum
elevation, accept the range as the actual minimum range. If not, find th~
difference between the quadrant elevations of the ground at the first an
seccnd trial ranges. Divide this difference into the difference in range be' .
tween the two ranges (that is, the range change which was made). The
result is the range change' corresponding to one angular unit of elevatiol'l
(mil or minute, etc.), taking into account the effect of both the range change
and the change in site due to the slope. Multiply this by the difference
between the quadrant elevation at the second trial range and the minimunl
elevation. The result is the new range change (including the change .lIt
site) necessary to make up the difference in elevation still remaining after
the first change. Make this range change in the proper direction from the
second trial range (forward if the quadrant elevation is less than the mini.
mum elevation, back if it is greater). This will usually give the actual
minimum range, but the quadrant elevation should be verified and a furtheJ'
change made in the same way if necessary.
Apply the same methcds cn irregular slopes or broken ground, makin'
allowances by estimation for the changes in slopes. It may be nccessar)'
to make one or two more range changes than on uniform slopes before tllf
actual minimum range is found.
(3) rfTcct Of SlopcE..

336. In making range changes on slopes. it should always be remembere'J
that if the ground at the point of fall slores upward from the guns (9Pposite
to the trajectory), a smaller range change will be required to make up :l ,
given difference in elevation than if the ground is level, because the change
in site affects the .elevation in the same sense as the range change. Thaf
is, an upward slope works with the range change in ch::mging the quadrant
elevation. If the ground slopes downward from the guns at the point of
fall (in the same direction as the trajectory), a greater range change will
be required than if the ground is level, because the change in site afrecb
the elevation in the opposite sense from the range change. That is, a down-
ward slope works against the range change in changing the quadrant
elevation. These statements are true whether the general altitude of th£-
ground is higher or lower than the guns, and whether the range change i~
made forward or backward.
C. ACCURACY.
337. The degree of refinement to which calculations should be carried de-
per.d~ on the acuracy of the range tables', the map. the measurements, and
on the least reading cf the quadrar.t or range scrle cf the gun. It must b<.
determined by Circumstances of each case. No hard and fast rule can be
laid down. A practical rule which will apply in ordinary work is: calculau
mils to the tenth of a mil, degrees and minutes to the minute; nr.d yards or
meters to the nearest yard or meter, finally adopting the next nearest mul-
tiple of 5 above.
TOJlOllraphy for Field Artillery
33 . -153-
tic~bl All results should be recordcd in the tables as closely as it Is prac-
All \ to calculate them, so that they can be cbecked at any time if desired.
batt:: culations should be based on existing conditions, Icaving It to tbe
ance y commander when he computes his firing data to make such allow-
s as may be necessary for margin of clearance, safety of troopS, etc. '
3 D. TYPE PROBLEMS.
1
c39. F 0 11owmg
. are typical examples of minimum elevation and range
a l'Ulations.
Example 1.
Point of Fall on Level 'Vith Guns.
rlNIMVM r:L[VATION
QllADRANT [LI.VATION Of (R~T>.
~~tNv~110N FOR
41.. Of CR,l:ST ..:/ ..- .._TRAJr:CT{)R~1
.._.~~.
~ITt Of. CRE5T•••••• ~ ....'1 "cRi'~LT.42.0M. - ............POINT OF-
.~-: !;,';i; I~/~~", '-.,fAllALT.
__ _VN ,""l~~\N ""I %:::\~/~II 400M.
G /£L,-_-:::::-~'!$.r~ \ ~ .,.,..... \ -
"'-"'~\\\I~' {.\'¥O~M I HORIl.ONTAL--evNttV~I/<'~~~~!~~~~~~-fiI-
'''(''-,IILjf/l .-_~ . :!::17 r"",\' I
1-------- 1~:;OM.MINIt-1VM
RANGE---------i
POINT Of fALL ON GUN LEVEL

Fig. 104.
cre t 75 mm. gun, II. E. Shell, Normal Charge, Short Fuze. Range to.
s, 500 meters. Altitude of guns at muzzle, 400 meters. Altitude of
crest, 420 meters. .
(a) Elevation for range of crest, 500 1\1., 9"1
(from range table) 401/1
. - 20
S Ite of crest, --:r; =
Minimum elevation (quadrant elevation of crest)
(b) Corresponding horizontal range (from range
table by interpolation) 1950 M. "--
. Layoff this range on the map. It is seen that the grour.d at the
pomt of fall has' an altitude of 400 meters, the same as the guns. ThE'
actual minimum range is therefore 1950 meters.
Example 2.
Point of fall on level ground higher than guns.
340. Other data same as examrle 1-
(a) Minimum elevation. same as examrle .1, 49",.
(b) Corresponding horizontal range, 1st trial rangt', 1950 M.
(c) From the map the altitude of the ground at the 1st trial rang«'
is seen to be 410 meters, or 10 meters above the guns.
Si~e at this point: i~~5 =+5.1",.

Range change per mil of elevation at 1950 M.. (by interpolation from
range table), 27.9 1\1. -
-154-
Required'range .
change to make .. . quad-t
up difference of 5.11/t between
rant elevation at 1st trial range and minimum elevation (same as site.~ i
1st trial range).
LEVEL GROVND ABOVE GUN Lr:VEL

Fig 105.
5.1X27.9=142 1\1.
Subtract this from the first trial range, since the ground is higher
than the guns:
1950':'-'142=1808 1\1., second trial range.
The range change being more than 100 meters from the 1st trial .
range,; verify the quadrant elevation:
Angle of elevation for range 1808 M.
44.2//1
. 10
Site (AltItude 410 l\1.)r:s 5.6//1
;.,' , Quadrant elevation. 49.8//t
. .This' is .811t above the minimum elevation, and hence is beyond the
tru~ minimum range. The ground still being level, come back to the range
change value of .811t elevation.
Range change per mil at 1808 1\1.
.8X29.7=24 1\1. 29.71/1
1808-24=1784 or 1785 1\1.
Verify quadrant elevation:
Angle of elevation for 1785 1\1.
43.31/1
10
~;it~, 1.78 = +5.61/1
Quadrant elevation
48.91/t
This differs from the minImum elevation by only
.1//1, hence 1785
meters may be accepted as the actual minimum range.
Example 3.
Point of fall on level ground lower than guns.
3 tl. Other data same as example 1.
. '(a) Minimum elevation. same as example 1. 491/t •
. '(b)' Corresponding horizontal range, 1st trial range. 1950M.
(c) From the map' the altitude of the ground at the bt trial range
is seen to be 390 meters, 10 meters below the gun level.
. 10
. ,Site.: 1.95 = -5.1///.
Range change per mil of elevation at 1950 M., 27.9 .1\1.
TOI>Olfraphy {or Field Artillery
.'.. -:155-
"an; "FeqUired range change to make up difference of 5.111' between quad-
1st t~:lvation at 1st trial. range and minimum elevation (same at
•..... . r.,
"
LEVEl GROVND BELOW GVN'LEVEL

~'
Fig. 106~
~"~S' ~dd this t? the 1st trial range. since the ground is lower than the
~50+ 142=2092 or 2090 M,. secondiria! 'range.

'ange • be. range change being more than 100 meters from the 1st trial
, ve!lfy the quadrant elevation:
Angle of"elevation for range 2090 1\1. 53.7111
Sit'e, ...!.2--
2.09 _ _4.81/t
I ' . ,Quadrant elevation 48.9111

hlet This differs from' th~ minimum eievation b~; only .1'/1. Hence 2090
erg. m ay b e accepted as the minimum range.
'it. The !'eason why a single range change corresponding to the angle ,of
exa.;ave neal'll' the exact minimum range in this example, while in the ~r~t
ele ~le another change was necessary, is that the range valne of a mIl ,n
'l'h~a~lOnran true for a longer distance' above than below the first trial range.
Ilh:"s due simply to the way the range table figures are calculated. and em.
wr
,h' Sl7.es the need for, verifying quadrant elevations where the range
ange is over j 00 meters. . '----
Example 4.
:112. I'oint of ),'all below guns. Ground sloping upward ..
Other data same as example l.
(a) Minimum elevation, same as example 1, 49111
(b) Corresponding horizontal range, 1st trial range, 1950~1.
i, I '(c) Altitude of ground at 1st trial range. 390 meters. )0 mele,'s
/ ow the gun level. Hence the actual point of fall is beyond the first trial
ange. Determine the range changes as follows: .
Angle of elevation, 1st trial range 49. III
S't1 e (altitude 390 1\1.) 10 =

T:% -5.1 'I'
Quadrant elevation, 1st trial range 43.9 'It
" The diffc"cuce 'of -f •. l 'I' between this quadrant ele,'ation and the
))lnimul11 plevation is no\\' t6 be made up by a combined change of range and
-156-
site. In this case, since the slope is upward, the site change works \\'it~
the range change, and the 'required range change will be less than on leve
ground, as in example 3.
POINTl)f fALL
lRAJECTQR.'t._ .._ ..__ .. IF GROVND wrR!.
-- ~,,,,~T-Al 1.420M. .......
.., ABOVE GUN IXva
..-" Y(l'~'~lyt ....~ ~,;,.f.I
~VN :-.--- ~2i~'~..ttQ.l\.~
r
TAJ::"Cll'.!i.hr;y~l,:,,~I..4..QR.~'$~~':
7Ju~ \
_'
Ac~\V' -?/Ii";>
'< .. , ,.
r--
'~\ ....~\~~0
I•
r-19S0M.
-500 M.-~
I .' 1111 \-'1"/.
g, ~. f,'j
tlORllONTAL POINT Of fALl.
,,' .;c-')~J7I<~1~t11~~
RANGl:TO tlORIZONTAl POINT Of fALL---t
,
~I;-~J,~~
~~ ~
~
..J
~,~
1~;3
,---- ---" 2035 M.MINIMVMRANGE.--------I~~
RI~ING GROVND BELOW GVN LEVE.L ~
Fig. 107.
. Now make a range change of 100 ~eters, (increase, because. the aetu91
minimum range is beyond):
1950+100=2050 M., 2nd trial range.
Angle of elevation, 2050 M., 52.5 111
Site (altitude at 2050 M. range, estimated at about 395 1\1.),
5
2.05= -2.4 1/1
Quadrant elevation, 2nd trial range.
50.1 1/t
Difference between this and the quadrant elevation for the 1st trilll.
range:
50.1-43.9=6.21/',
which is the elevation change produced by a range change of 100 meters.
including the change in site due to the slope of the ground .
. Then the range change per mil. is:
100
62 = 16 M.
The difference between the second trial quadrant elevation and tbe
minimum elevation is:
50.1-49=.1.1,//.
The range change required to make up this difference is:
1.1X16=17.6=18 1\1.
Subtract this, because' the seccnd trial elevation was greater tbarl
the minimum elevation, showing that the range was over:
2050-18=2032 1\1. Taking the next multirle of 5 above use 2035 a~
Srd trial range
Verify the quadrant elevation:
Angle of elevation, 2035 1\1.,
52.,/,
6
Site (altitude at 2035, 394 1\1.) 2.03 =
-3.1/'
Quadrant elevation, 3rd trial range,
49.1/1
Hence 2035 is the actual minimum range.
If the general altitude of the ground at the point of fan had been
TOJ>OlO'aphy Cor Field Artillery
higher . -157- .
the Instead of lower than the gun level, the procedure would have been
t ,.except that the range change would have been made back from
the 1sarne
s trIal range instead of beyond it, as shown by dotted lines in fig. 107.
I
Example 5. ~:
Point of fall below guns. Ground sloping downward.
FALLING GROUND BE.LOW GVN LEVlL

Fig.1G8.
343. ' Other data same as example l.
(a) Minimum elevation, same as example 1, 49,/_
(b) Corresponding horizontal range, 1st trial range, 1950 M.
the (c) Altitude of ground at 1st trial range, 390 meters, 10 meters below
Dcte~:' level. Hence the actual point of fall is beyond the first trial range.
me the range changes as follows: .
49 '/1
Angle of elevation, 1st trial range,
... .u~., J.Q...

Site (altitude • '3nOJ O 'IIII') =
1. ~5
Quadrant elevation, 1st trial range
-5.1,/-
43.9'/1 -
(Note that this is the same as in examJ:le 4).
tn" The difference of -5.1,/1 between this quadrant elevation and the
8i~nlrnum elevation is now to be made up by a combined change of range and
Pr e In this case, since the slopc is downward, an incrcase in range will
d
pa~te a dccrcase in sitc, tnd vice versa. The change In site will thus
th Y offset the effect of the range change on the quadrant elevation, and
3.e required range change will be greater than on level ground, as in example
Now make a range change of 100 meters, the same as in example 4:

1!)50+100=2050 M., 2nd trial range.
Angle of elevation, 2050 M., . 52.5,/.
Site (altitude at 2050 M., estimated at about 386 M.).
Quadrant elevation,
14
2.05
2nd trial range.
= --6.8,/.
45.7,/-
Topolrraphy {or Field Artl11ery
'~158-
range:
Difference between this a~d the quadl:ant eievation 'foi, Hie'1st
., .~
.".
i~~~
:
45.7-43,9=1.81/1. i .: ..1 ~ ~ •
which is the elevation change produced by -a range change of 100 meters,
including the change in site due to the slope of the ground. -
Then the range change per mil is:' .
100
1.-8 = 55 M.
The difference between the second trial quadrant elevation and the
minimum elevation is:
49-45.7=3.31/1. ..
The range change 'required to make up this difference is:
3.3X55=180 M. . ....,
Add this, because the second trial elevation was less than' the minim.uJ11
elevation, showing. that the range was short:
. 2050+180=2230 M., 3rd trial range.
Angle of elevation, 2230 1\1., 59.21/1
Site (altitude estimated at 379 1\1.), 2~~3 = -9.41/1

Quadrant ele,'ation, 3rd trial range, 49.81/1
This is .81/1 greater than the minimum elevation, showing that the
range change per mil of 55 meters was a little large. It would have bee~
all right for a range change not exceeding 100 meters, but beyond. that It
was too great, on account of the yariation in range value of a mil as the
range changes.
Compute a ne\v range change value pel' mil:
Difference between 3rd quadrant elevation and 2nd:
49.8-45.7=4.11//,
which was produced by a range change (together with a site change) of
180 1\1.
Then the new range change per mil is:
180
4.1 = 44 M.
This is probably still a little large for the far end of the l:ange, since
it is based on a change of 180 meters, and the range value of a mil decrea.;;e~
rapidly as the range increases. Hence take 40 meters as the range change
per mil, by estimation.
The difference in elevation between the 3rd h'ial elevation and the
quadrant. elevation still l'emaining to be made up is:
49.8-49=.8'11.
The range change required to make up this difference is:
.8X40=32 or 30 1\1.
Subtract this, because the 3rd trial quadrant elevation was greater
than the minimum elevation, showing that the range was over:
2230-30=2200 M., 4th trial range.
Toriol{ral'hy (or Field Artillery
-159-
j',
'Angle of. elevation for 2200 M. . 58.' t/I
Site (altitude shown by contours to be 380'1\1.): i:~== -9.1'/1
. Quadrant elevation, 4th trial range, 48.9111
:i, th This is within ,1,/. of the minimum elevation, so 2200 may be accepted
344.' e actual minimum range. . " ~
logicalThe~e e~ample" illustrate the method of selecting trial. ranges ,bY
a, the est~matJons, usmg the information gained through each calculatlOn
a ln'l baSIS for the next range change, Knowing that the range value 01
'ho~ld (or other angular unit), decreases as the range increases, allowance;
tha be made for this by estimation wherever the range change is greater
onen 100' meters. In example 5 such an allowance could have been made:
tak' step sooner, shortening the range change from 180 to 150 meters' and
rie~ng 2~00 meters as the third trial range, but the calculation .was car-
low out m order to illustrate the point: In this exa.,..TU pIe. the ground bein~
'rheer than the guns, the first 100 meter range change was an increase.
ove; :h~n the range valae per mil, calculated from this change, was applied
the n mcrease greater than 100 meters, it was found to be too, large. If
re'v ground had been higher than the guns the situation would have been
ere'erRed th roughout. The first 100 meters change would .' have been a de-
decase, and if the range value per mil so calculated were applied over a
'rh' rease
.' grea t er th an 100 meters it would have been found to be too sma II.
19 should be l'emembered in making allowances by estimation..' .. ;.
a l't Facility in making calculations and estimations will be acquired after
lIis; tIe ~raetice with map and range tables. A slide rule is of great ns-
ra ance m making calculations. Of course it is possible simply to take trial
e'In~, arbitrarily, testing their quadrant elevations, until one is found
\Vi~a to the minimum elevation, but the calculation methods above desc~ibed
be sav~ much time and labor as soon as a little facility in using them h~s
en gamed. '
III Note: The combined tangent metbod discussed under Cases nand
b i.~e~d Space, pars. 363-370, may be used in figuring minimum range,
t~ It IS more laborious than the methods given above, because it requires
lhe calculation of ground slopes and quadrant angles of fall in addition t~
e elevation and range calculations.
3 DETERMINATION OF DEAD SPACE.
45• Dead space of the second class under the descending branch' of th'e
t ta'Jcetory, IS
of " determmed by comparing ' the quadrant angle or slope of fall
.r
g the projectile with the slope of the ground, Wherever there is 'a ridge,
oup of trees, or other obstruction with a reverse slope, steeper than the
oPe of fall. there will be dead space behind it. See figs. 111 t~ 117.
3 A. LIMITS OF
DEAD SPACE.
t ~6. The dead space begins at the point at or ne'ar the top of the obstruc-
l:~7 ~here the slope first commences to be st..ep~r th,an ,the slope of fall,
R lS called the gazing point, where the prOjectile Will Just graze and J{O
OVer. The dead space extends to the point of fall of the projectile on the
f~ound ~clow, ,Eve,ry peint to which the slope, in a, st~aight air-line from
, e grazmg pomt, lS greater than, the slope of fall IS In dead space. The
-160-
point at which the slope from the grazing point is just equal to the slope ~f
fall is taken as the actual point of fall, or far limit of the dead space. ThIs
makes no allowance for the curve of the trajectory, but that is not necessarY
except for long dead spaces, as explained in par 356.
It is clear that the actual ground slope at the point of fall must ~e
less steep in the same direction, than the slope of fall, or the projectile
could not strike the grour.d. Every dead space includes an upper portio~
next to the gazing point where the ground slope is steeper than the slope 0
fall and a lower portion next to the point of fall, where the ground slo~e
is less steep than (or perhaps opposite to) the slope of fall. Therefore It
is not sufficient simJ:ly to measure the ground slope which is steeper that!
the slope of fall. This shows where the dead space 'begins, but not how far
it extends. The test for the far limit of the dead space is not the groun,l
slope, but the air-line slope from the grazing point. And, as previouslY
explained, the air-line sloJ:e will have to be modified to accord to the tra-
jectory, if the dead space is very long.
n. DEAD SPACE CHARTS.
347. The problem in determining dead space is to find the grazing point
and the point of fall, the near and far limits, a1cng sevelal rays drawn o.n
the map from the gun position, through each obstruction. The first ray 18
drawn through the steeJ:est slope of a ridge or through the highest point of
a vertical obstruction, such as trees or buildings, and the limits of the dead
space are determined and marked on this ray, see fig. 109. Other rays are
1 ,,&.JtC.1 y,t
.,,,AJtC.TO~Y ,
A Dr-AD JPAce
_.,e,
I
t~-=-~-~:_-~-~::_:_~_~~
~~-:-=-=:~~- '\
VtI\TI~AL .5l::CT10N IN THr..PLANr:. OF.HIE.. TI\AJtCTOI\y (je,
)
'(.
Fig. 109.
then drawn successively on either side of the first, and the dead space is
determined for ('ach, until a ray is found on each side where there is nO
dead space. The more irregular the ground, the closer must be the rays.
Some slopes will require rays every ten mils; some only every hundred.
The corresponding points. marked on the different rays are then connected
with a smooth curve, completing the boundary of the dead area, fig. 110.
The area should be hatched lightly with a colored pencil. Dead space caused
by ground may be hatched in red, that caused by trees in green, that
caused by buildings or other constructions in blue. The hatchings for dif-
ferent kinds of obstructions should run in different directions so that theY
can be distinguished in case they overlap. If no colored pencils are available
the direction of the hatching will be sufficient distinction. Where de~
spaces for different charges are shown on the same chart, the area for the
greater charge will always cover and exceed the area for the lesser charge.
The two areas may be distinguished by making all the hatchings for one
charge heavier, by double-line or broken-line hatching, or by cross hatching.
TOpOgraphy lor Field Artlllel'J'
.\ 1 -161-
•hOWi
egend e xp l...
ammg the hatehmgs and any other graph,eal
. dev,ees
. used, and
ng the charges. projectiles, etc., for which the dead spaces were de-
.J)ATTtrrX"
S~
,tk.1V\AL.C.HM~r., czj
. ~tDVCtD ~~4t.
-
t::ZJ
Fig. 110. ~
tr
term. med, always should be put on the chart. The chart is usually made on
If~n:Parent paper laid over the map, but nlay be made on the map itself.
t made on the map reference should be made to the map used.
C. METHODS OF DETERMINATION.
it' e methods of determining the limits of dead space may be divided
:US Th
n 0 two classes, calculation and graphical rlotting.
In the instructions and examples which follow the methods are taken
~~ in detail, with full explcnations and proofs where required. Orientation
J leers and instructors in topography should be familiar with the entire sub-
eet, so that they may understand the application a'nd the limitations of each
~ethed, and may be prepared to answer any questiens which nlay arise,
b owever, it is seldom practicable for line officers 01' enlisted men, who may
. e called on only occasionally to compute dead space, to go into the subject
In such detail. Such men should study the general instructions. the level
TOllOgral1hy 'or Field Artillery
-162-:.
kro'u~d method (Case I) • .'thealt-round method' (Ca'se IV), anci the slope ~;
fall chart method (example 2, under Graphical Methods). The ability to u~
these methods will be sufficient for all ordinary work.
D. COMPARISON OF ANGLES.
349. With any method except the graphical, some calculatiot\ and CO~l'
parison of angles of fall and of ground slopes is necessary. i Where t :
angle of fall is less than 330 mils, all calculations may be made throug I
mils. It makes no difference whether some of the gi'ound slopes are tOO
steep to be calculated in mils. In such case it is seen at once that the,
ground slope is steeper than the angle of fall, and it is not ne~essar)' to
find its exact value in mils. /
When the angle' of fall is over 330 mils, the ordinary mil calculatio~
of slopes is inaccurate, par. 37, and all angles should be handled in tangents,
that is. the absolute ratio of the vertical distance divided by thehorizont~l)
Since a considerable portion of the angles of fall will be greater than 33(
mils, especially with howitzers, .it is just as, well to become accustomed to
using tangents for all angles, ~mall as well as large. Paragraphs 32 to 45
.on the use of tangents should be studied in c'on~ection with dead space c~I'
culation. ~ , " '/! I
350. Tangents of angles of fall' are given in French range tables in the
column headed, "Tangent" or "Slope of Fall". If the angle in mils is not
given, it may be obtained very closely by multiplying the tangent by 1000,
provided the tangent is not over 330, pars. 52-53. The old American rang';!
tables do not give tangents directly. For angles less than 330 mils. take
the value given in mils and point off three places, which gives the tangent
within a very small error. For angles greater than 330 mils use a' tangent
table. The "Slope of Fall" column in American range tables gives the
gradient, or fall of 1 unit in a certain horizontal distance. Thisl is simply a
fractional form of tangent, and may be converted 'into the regular decimal
tangent by dividing the figure given into 1, par. 46~51. However the table
gives only two digits of the gradient for angles above 100 mils, so this con'
version is not accurate above the first decimal place. .
351. In handling tangents is should be remember~d that angle's cannot be
added or subtracted by means of their tangents. pars. 52-53, For examI'J~,
the tangent of the :quadrant' angle of fall cannot be found by taking the
tangent of the angle of fall from the table and adding or subtracting the
tangent of the angle of site. The angle of fall must be taken in .an'gular
measure (degrees or mils), and then the site added if: below the guns 01'
subtracted if above' the guns, thus giving the quadrant' angle of fall. The
tangent of this angle can then be found from a tangent table or by fnter'
polation in the tangent column of the range table. See par. 362, f;'xample 1,
Calculation Method. '
(1) Tang('nt Slope Scalt.'.

352. A tangent slope scale will save much labor in calculating slope tan'
gents, which frequently are required in locating probable dead Rpace, grazing
points, and points of fall. Such a scale can be made casily for any map scale
as follows. Diyide the vertical interval between contours on the 'map by
the H. E. in the same units of measure, corresponding to the least l'eadin;r
TOI)"Kraphy (or Field Artillel'y
of --163--
the scale . Th'IS. gIves
adjacent . ' when' the . M. D.. between
the tangent for the slope
M. D b contours IS equal to the least reading of the scale. Then, when the
ft"'t i etweeu contours is twice the least reading, the tangent is 1/2 the
i. 1/;ngent; when the M. D. is three times the least reading, the tangent
the h ~he first tangent, and so on; because the tangent varies inversely as
lIa'in0rlZontal'distance, as long as the vertical distance remains constant.
Ona g computed the tangents for the desired length of scale. make a table ne
lIIeasu narrow
. s t'l'lp 0f' paper showmg the tangents correspondmg .' to success ' .
a "a;,em~nts from the least reading up, and paste this on the scale. On
. Po.ite e wIth small subdivisions it is impossihle to put the tangents op-
neces each of the smaller graduations on the edge of the scale, so it may be
fOr th.sary t 0 rea d t h e M. D. or H. E. on the scale and then refer to a table
need e corresponding tangent. For dead space work such a tangent scale
culaled notb co vel' over 150 meters, because longer dead spaces must be cal-
353 y the minimum range method. ~ .
. ~or example, it is desired to make a ta~gent scale for a map of which
,J.iJoo
• It F'. IS 20
the . ' wIth
. a V. I. of 5 meters. .
Take an ordmary .
centimeter
ncale.
10 In fladuated ' to half-millimeters, each of which represcnts aa II. E. of'
,
lcast eel's •. The half-millimeters can be bisected readily by eye, making the
, readmg one-fourth millimeter, or an H. E. of 5 meters. Take this as
the b aSlS
. for the tangent table. 5 =
The tangent for this distance will be -6-
I;
"'.5'thea t angent for a half-millimeter. or an H. E. of 10 meters. will
.. be 5
10
, nd so on. Make up a table to paste on the scale as follows:
n.E I_l~ 20 I 25 i 30 I 35 i 40 I 45 I 50
:1~1.~~
i-';;11~
5 10
Mete~s'
-_.- .
.5 .333 .25 !-:;-1~167'1
-2~ !20IrI6~11;51-1271- 112 . ;~; ~
An~le 328
Mils: ' 800 I 475
f The table should be continued in the same way up to 150 meters, or

aurthcr, if desired. It is not necessary to put the M. D. in the table, because
anYone familiar with the scale will read directly in II. E., using the scale
s~ a graphical scale. For maps not made on metric scalcs the tangent table
o ~~1d be made for the ]'egular graphical scale of the map. If made for an
:(t ary
measuring scale the M. D. should appear in the tangent table as
. e 1 as the H. Eo, which will be in odd figures.
(2)
Use Of Tangent Scale.
3:).1
b' T 0 use the tangentscale or table, measure . t h e d'Istance on 'th e mai'
?t ween
two adjacent contours and find the ta!1gent correspon<ling to this
th
d lstanc e 'm
. th e table. Interpolate If
. measuremen ts are ma' 1e cIoser th an
e least reading of the table. Sometimes it will be necessary to measure
OVer several contour intervals, as 'wh<"rea number of contours are so c1os~
TO)lol(ral1hy for f'1t'1l! Artilll'l'y
-164-
together that it is impossible to measure accurately between them, or i~
l
measuring the air-line slore between a grazing point and a point of !~
which are several contours apart. To obtain the tangent for such a measu~;
mente multiply the t~ng(nt corresronding' to the distance in the table d
the number of contour intervals and fractions thereof which were include
in the measurement. .
355. The angular values in mils, degrees, or grades corresponding to t~e
tangents may be taken from a standard tangent table and put on the sca e
as shown, so that the scale may be used to measure angles as well as tand
gents of slopes. Howe\'er, measurements for angular values must be limite
to one cont9ur interval, unless the scale is made specially to cover more tbaF
one. The tangent varies directly as the vertical distance, so that if the V. i
is doubled by measuri~g over two contour intervals, in the same horizontat
distance, the tangent is doubled, and so on; but the angular value does nO
vary in the same proportion. see par.' 52-53, on tangents. If it is desired to
measure angular values over more than one contour interval, make up S
special table showing the tangents for the desired number' of vertical in-
tervals and the corrcspcnding angular values taken from a tangent table.
Then in using such a scale to measure angles, always measure over tM
number of contour intervals for which the table was-' prepared. Such scates
are sometimes m~de covering four contour intervals for general map reading.
An angular slope scale is ccnvenient for general work, but its use in d~-
termining dead space is limited to the comparison of ground slopes with
angles of fall in locating probable <.lead space an<.l grazing points. It can-
not be used conven:ently for locating points of fall on account of its limita-
tion to a fixed number of contour intervals. A tangent scale is best for dear)
space work.
E. ALLOWABLE LIMITS.
:J56. In determining <.lead space it is not necessary to make any allowanc~
Cor the curve of the trajectory, unless either the vertical or the horizonta.
d;stance from the grazing point to the point of fall, is over 150 meters.
The quadrant angle of fall at the grazing point is taken as the basis lor
calculation or plotting, nrd the trajectory is £ssumed to continue at th:lt
angle in a strnight line to the point of fall. This locates the point of laU
slightly beyond the true point, but for short dead spnces the difl'erence is
negligible. In average roll:ng country the majority of dead spnces, under
the descending branch cf the trajectory. will be less than 150 meters.
357. If the distance from grazing point to point oC fnll, either verticallY
or horizontally, is greater than 150 meters, allowance must be made for the
curve of the trajectorr. Locate the grazing point as described in par. 359.
Calculate the minimum elevation for the grazing point, and the minimurTl
range, as described in palS. 331-337, thus locating the point of fall by
means of the minimum range. Theoretically nny. dead space might be cat.
culated by the' minimum range process, but this docs not give accurate re-
sults in practice for short dead spaces. .
In the examples which follow, all tangents of ground slopes are cat.
culated from the contours and <.listances scaled on the map. In actual prac-
tice this should be done with a tangent scale if nvailable, as described abo\'e.
'fopogrBvhy Cor Field Artillery
)...' ,-165-
terpola . u e
slide r I . .IS a great labor faver in calculating. cspeciallY in making in.
bons m the range tables.
3'8 . F. ACCURACY. .
d~p' The degrcc of refinem.ent to which calculations should bc carried
and th on e accuracy of the map,- the aceu,'acy of the mcasuremcnts,
ends th ine
licular e least setting of the guns. It is difficult to dcterm , in any urc
par.
tncnt case, thc amount of thc crrors of the map and the errors of meas '
nea' Angular measure should be takcn to the ncarcst tenth of a amil or the
llrr rest m.mu t c. T angcnts should bc calculatcd to three
. . I PIacc•.
dcclm .
tan::: ?ot exceeding 2 per cent of the tangent may be disregarded. Dis'
tnet m calculations should be taken to the nearest tenth of a yard of
to t~ where they are to be multipl.ied. but the final results should be taken
e nearest unit. .
I. to l:hatever meth~d .of det~rminlng dead space is use~, nsthe fi~st step
eau cate, by a rapId mspectlOn of the map, all J)bstructlO which mal.
se dead space, and mark them for calculation or I;!otting.
G. CALCULATION METHOD. COMBINED TANGENTS.
~ . (1) Steps To Be Taken.
3,",:
»9 (
a) Locate on the map, by estimation, a trial grazing point on the
th:rse s!ope s~leete~ for calculation. If the top of the slope breaks sharply,
POinfr~~mg pomt WIll be at the break. If the top is flat or rounded, the
CuI t 111 be some distance over, where the steeper slope commences. Cal.
(r:
Ve~.e the tangent of the slope just above the trial point; that is, divide thc
Ical drop (obtained from the contours) by the horizontal distance
th easurcd with a scale), carrying the result to three decimal places. In
e same way calculate the sloJ:e just below the trial grazing point.
. (b) Measure the range and calculate the site of the trial grazing
POInt.
p' (c) Find, from the range table, the a;;gle of fall at the trial e grazing.
,;:mt in angular measure (mils or degrees). Thi. gj,'es the nngl of fall
q ensured from the plane of site. It must be reduced to the horizontal or
buadrant angle of fall before it can be compared with the ground slope,
t eeause all grourd slopes are measured from the horizontal. Ilence sul>,_
~act, algcbrsically the angle of site from the sngle of fall; ThuS, if the
s,:c 1. plus (above the gun level). it will be ."btractcd, srithmeticslly; if
~InUS (below the gun level) it will be added, arithmctical1Y. The result
IS th e quadrant. angle of fall.' .
(d) Find the tangent of the quadrant angle of fall, in order to com-'
i~ro it. with. the tangents of ground slopes in locating the grazing point a~d
rn~ pomt ot fall. The tangent, correBponding to the angular measure ,n
11. or degrees, may be found from a tangent table or range table. If the
range'table does not give the exact value, interpolate between the two near-
est values. See par. 362, example 1.
. (e) Find the grazing point (the near limit of the dead space). Com.
r
Pare the quadrant angle of fall with the ground slope. calculated above
below the trial grazing ~oint (both tangents). The ground slope be-
nd the trial grazing point should be greater than the slope of fall of the
ow
TOpojtfaphy 10f Field ArtlllefY
-166-
trajectory. while'it should be less than the slope of fall above the trial point.
If this is not the case at the first trial grazing point, try other points, cal-
culating and comparing the slopes in the same way, until the true grazing
point is found. If no ground slo'pe is found steeper than the slope of fall,
there is no dead space.. ,
, The grazing point need not be located any closer than~ twenty-five or
thirty meters. ' 'Unless the true grazing point is some distance from the first
trial grazing point, the same quadrant angle of fall, calculated for the first
trial point may be used for the true grazing point. The test is whether there
is a., difference in the quadrant angle of fall between the two points, large
enough to make an appreciable difference in the point of fall. Ordinarily
a change in the slope of fall of less than' five mils is negligible. Unless' the
true' grazing point differs from the first trial point by at least 5 mils in
site or. 50 meters in range, or a combination of both sufficient to make a 5
mil change in the slope of fall, it is not. usually, worth while to calculate
a new. slope of fall. ,N 0 hard and fast rule can be laid down for. this. on' ac-
count of the variety of conditions which may be met, but a rough estimation
in each c3:se will tell whether a re-calculation is necessary.
(f) Find' the point of fall, the far limit of 'the dead space. This
may be done with a tangent scale by measuring from the grazing point to
successive trial points beyond, until the nearest point is found where th':?
tangent' of the air-line slope from, the grazing point is equal to the tangent
of the, quadrant angle of fall. If no tangent scale is available the tangents
~nd distances are calculated as in the following examples.
(2) ,Type Cases.

CASE I. LEVEL GROUND.
360. The' simplest case of dead space calculation is whel'e the ground 'i3
level at the point of fall, as is often the case behind trees or buildings, and
sometimes behind steep ridges or cliffs. Proceed as follows:
(a)' Locate the grazing point and find the tangent of the quadrant
angle of' fall for this point as, directed in par 359.
(b) . Calculate. from the contours, the vertical height of the grazing
point above the level of the ground where it is estimated the point of fall
will be.
(c). Divide this vertical height by the tangent of the quadrant angle
of fall. The result will be the horizontal distance from the grazing point
-- to the true point of fall or far limit' of dead space on the level groun~.
If a tangent scale is used, substitute ,for (b) and (c) the following::
Measure from the' grazing' point to successive trial points beyond
until the nearest point is found where the tangent of the air-line slope from
the grazing point is equal to the tangent of the quadrant angle of fall.
Mark this as the point of fall.. .
E~ampIe 1. Trees' On' Level Ground.

, - ., ,
361.' '.75mm.gun, at altitude 550M, H.' E. shell, reduced B. C. charge, short
fuse.": Obstruction: trees 10M high; range to far edge of trees, 4,000M, al-
titude o~ground at foot of ,trees, 500M, fig. 111.
.. '.', '

--:-,167-:-
(a) Grazing point, C, is at the far edge of the 'tree tops. - Altitude
{}f grazing point, 500+ 10=510M, 401\1below battery.
-40 '
Site: -4- = -101//
~1c 30'=382*
Angle of fall' for. 4,000M, 10//1
Plus the site, (being below guns)
Quadrant angle of fall for grazing point' 3921!1
Tangent of this angle. from tangent table~ .405.
For a similar calculation using degrees and minutes throughout, see
€xample 1. Graphical Method .
..........
':to
QUADRANT; ~, ......... "'1/
ANGLE OR! :ANCiLf. """!:!!.~ro
, .sLOPE. : : (If f ALL -.......;;.~
~~~~~L-~~!~.:==-----:---~~
,
.........
HORIZONTAL
~.........
RANGE:
Figure 11l.
(b) Vertical height, CA, of grazing point above level of point of
fall is 10M.
(c) 10+.405=24.7 or 25M, horizontal' distance, AF, 'from grazing
point to point of .fall, .far limit of dead space.
362. Note: If no tangent table is available, the tangent of the quadrant
angle of fall may be obtained from the range table by interpolation as fol-
lo&.v8 : 210
30'=382'11
Angle of fall of 4,000M, '250
=444111 '
Next higher angle; 4,500M,
62111
Tabular difference between angles
392111
Quadrant angle of fall, 10
Proportional difference 62
.394
Tangent for 4:000M, 382111(Slope of Fall column)
.466
Tangent for 4,500M, 444111
.072
Tabular difference between tangents
10/62X.072=.012
.394+.012=.406, tangent of 392*, quadrant angle of - fall.
This is only .001 greater than the exact tangent taken from the tan~ ,
gent table, a negligible error in calculatirig dead space. The error should
not exceed .002 in any case. if the interpolation is correctly made.
The interpolation could be made' siiriilarly in degrees and minutes if
t,he. angles were handled in those units .. ' .'
-'In' applying the, above. method to a ridge, where: the ground beyond
-168-
it is level, find the true grazing point as above. Calculate its vertical height
above the level of the estimated point of fall, as if this level were produced
back under the grazing point. Proceed otherwise as in the above example.
CASE II. GROUND SLCPING DOWNWARD.
363. If the ground at the point of fall is sloping instead of level, the slope
of the ground, as well as the slope of fall, must be taken into consideration
in locating the true point of fall. This can be done very readily if the slope
is fairly uniform. For irregular ground, see Case IV. below.
For ground sloping down (same way as trajectory) at point of fall,
proceed as follows:
(a) Locate the grazing point ,and find the tangent of the quadrant
'angle of fall, as directed in par. 359.
. (b) Locate by estimation a trial point of fall on the uniform slope
beyond the foot of the obstruction. Calculate or measure the tangent of
the ground slope at this point.
(c) Find the vertical height of the grazing point above the plane
of this slope produced back under the grazing point. In the case of trees
or buildings on a uniform slope, simI=ly take the height of the trees or
buildings above the ground. If the' ground slope does not run uniformlr
back under the grazing point (as in the case of a ridge or cliff); multiply
the horizontal distance from grazing point to trial 'point of fall by the tan-
gent of the ground slope at the latter point. Subtract this product from
.. the vertical height of the grazing point above the trial point of fall, if the
ground slopes downward, and add it, if the ground slopes upward. The
. result. is the desired vertical height of the grazing point above the slope
produced back, see examples 3 and 5.
( c) Since the ground is sloping down, subtract the tangent of the
ground slope from the tangent of the. slope of fall. Divide this difference
into the vertical height of the grazing point above the plane of slope, 'found
under (c). The result is the horizontal distance of the true point of fall
from the. grazing point. (For ground sloping up, the tangents are added
instead of subtracted, see case III and examples thereunder).
Example 2. Trees On Downward Slope.
364. Trees 10M high on contour 500. Slope. uniform down to contour 49:>,
........... 11/4
-......:..:.
..J~c.,.
QVADRAN~"~
ANGLE. OR . . ..........
_~Q.Pf. ~
HORIZ.ONTAl
LA.h('; 1
)
l.... .',sLOPE ......................
aROUND I :: Of fALL ............ • .
;~ #"'" ~;'~~fi,~\~, "" ,500, .."-.; ..
. ,~=<;\ i/~ ~';:,b;;\' " ..........
HORIZONTAL "'"" .....Ir,,~i1,~..i:1 )~ Of" ~~ ............ f C•..1~ __
---.----- -1._.1 -------- , ',""',,\"";:)'~,9i1Wi,~~ "
H ;.: - - - -,3 G M, DEAD .sPAC.E. - - - - -"t "" f"'( ",~\;,:~~
. ~- - - - - .. - - 40 M.,- - - - - - -,--.;
Figure 112.
and for some distance beyond. 40 meters horizontal distance between con-
tours. Other conditions same as example 1. See fig. 112.
•. ' "-:'169- .
(a) Grazing point, G, at far edge of tree tops, same as example 1,
Case 1. Tangent of quadrant angle or slope of fall same, .405.
(b) Take point, C, tm contour' 495 as trial point. of fall. Tangent
of ground slope at this point equals vertical interval divided by horizontal
distance to next co~tour, 5+40=.125.
(c) Vertical height, GA, of grazing p6fnt above plane of ground
slope, 10M (height of trees above grour.d). •
(d) Horizontal distance to true point of fall:
Vertical Height, GA
HF = Tan Slope of Fall--Tan Slope of-Ground
10
A05-.125 = ~5.7or36 M.
........... .
Proof:
365. GA=GH-AH ._' ~~
GH=HFXTan Slope of Fall.
AH=HFXTan Slope of Ground.
_ Hence GA=HFXTan Slope of Fall-HFXTan Slope of Ground.
=HFX (Tan Slope of Fall-Tan Slope of Grour.d). '
Transposing, HF = Tan Slope of Fall~:an Slope of Ground

_ Example 3. Downward Slope Beyond Ridge.
366 Top of ridge drops off to steep slope at contour 510M taken as grazing ,
point. Drop from 510M to 4951\1or 15M in 10 horizontal. Gentler uniform
slope commences at 495M. Drop from 495M to 490 M or 5M in 30 horizontal.
Same from 4901\1:to 485M~ Other data same as in example 1, Case I. See
fig. 113.
... ...... r. 510
"~fu$~~F-.:::..---
I . f'~;! ' ••-....
I :i" ..-......\
: t<l .~"-"''''
i.!2 '&';~ :::1/ .•~t:c
,~, 2 AI '~ii ~/ ..--.z:9.~
: 1:~Td:~~952/ ..-.... ~.
I ~"""~ ~.,,1ik.0 ~ GROVND -.. ••
: ~ ~I~ .\~'1 -JF""~z" ,L.'i1';% '(!j ",. -.... ••
1. r, ~ ;;;1<:7 I "), LJ T :> '''i'~!I~~c( ~~ ~,,~ -4~ ",:::: ••
---- --r- ---T--r-:-&1~------ ~"liit«~lfiJ1!f~\\_\v~~)~~I.::~' -... ....
____ t!.:I l-J_.5i.~y...2~z..QN...!~
I •
J~~~~~/I.~,
I ""'<i~:l~'
"''1'
I ~--~OM.e>ETWELN CONTOVR6'"j • '.%'lJj I
l-c-------- 40M.--,.------t i
r------ ------SGM. DEAD5PACE.------;----1
Fig. 113.
(a) The grazing point has been located at G, as directed in par 359,
I
the slope above G being less and below being greater than the quadrant
angle of fall. Tangent of quadrant angle (or slope) of fall, .405, same a!o;
in example 1.
(b) Take point, C, 'on contour 490 as trial point of fall. T;he slope
is uniform above and below this point, a drop of 5M in 30, as measured
'5
from the contours. Hence tangent of slope of ground = 30 =.167.
. -170- ,.
(cL .Find vertical height, CA, of grazing point, C, above the plane of
~his ground slope produced back, CA: ~~
GA=FCB-AB,
J.~'.'. 'CB=;:20M, (from contours),
Hori~ontal distance, BC, from grazing point, C, to trial point, C, scal~s
40M.AB.=:=BCXTan Slope of Gl;ound, CA, (angle BCA) =40X.167=6.7
M. Hence CA=20-6.7=13.3M.
(d) Find horizontal ,distance, HF, from grazing point, C, to point of
fall, F:
HF=
GA
Tan Slope of Fall-Tan Slope of Ground.
13.3
.465~.167 55.9 or 56M, horizontal distance from grazing point to
point of fall.
CASE Ill. GROUND SLOPING UPWARD.
367. The procedure with ground sloping upward, (opposite to the trajec-
tory) is exactly the same as with ground sloping downward, except in find- _
ing the. height of. the grazing' point above the slope, and in combining the
tangents in:.:the' final. step,' :where the quantities are added instead of sub-
tracted.
1:,:"" . Example .4. Trees On Upward Slope.
I'
368. Same data as in example 2, Case II,. except that slope is upward.
Tre~s on. contour 500. Next contour beyond, 505. 40M horizontally from con-
,tour 500: ,.,see fig., 114.
I
I
'j
C-505
~; (~\ I~~f"
(a) Grazing point, C, at far edge of tree tops, same as in example

1 and 2. .Tangent' of quadrant angle of fall same, .405.
(b) Take po~nt, C, on contour 505 as trial point of fall. Slope is
. 5
upward, 51\1 in 40 horizontal. .T~~.gent of slope of ground= 40 =.125.
(c) Vertical height, CA, of grazing point above plane of ground ,
slope is 10M (height of trees: above ground).,
.~ (d) . 'Horizontal distance: from grazing point to true point of. fall,
'Vertical Height, GA 10 .. .
HF = TanSlope 'ol--Falf+TanSlope of Ground " ,= .405+.125 = 18.901'19M..
.• ~.•., -,; ~, ., j I, • ( • ..,
1.- " Proof:

369. CA=CH+AH, I
,I
.CH=JfFXTan Slope of Fall,
Topog~'aphy: ;for, Field ;-\rtillery.
---171-
'AH=HFXTan Slope of Ground.
Hence:' GA=HFXTan Slope of Fall+HF Tan Slope of Gro~md,
, =HF (Tan Slope of Fall+TanSlope of Ground),
And: HF = Tan 'Slope ~rFall:~n Slope Of 'Gr~und:'
Example 5. Upward Slope Beyond Ridge.

370. Same data as example 3, Case II, except that slope beyond steep ridge
is upward. Uniform slope commences at 495M contour. rising uniformly
5 M in 30 horizontal, fig. 115.. .,
--- ..
l;
(a.) Grazing point located .at G, as in example 3.. Tangent of quad-

rant angle of fall, .405, same as in preceding example.
(b.) Take point, C, on contour .500 as trial point ,of fall. The slope
1s uniform above and below this point,. a rise of 5M in, 30, as measured from
the contours. .., .
Tangent of slope of ground= ;0- =.167.''-

(c,), . Find the vertical height, GA, of grazing point, G, above the plane
of this ground slope produced back, CA:
GA=GB+AB, ..
CB~10 M (from contours), , '
Horizontal distance, BC, from, grazing point, G, to trial 'point, C, scales'40 M,~
AB=BCXTanslope of ground, CA (angleBCA),
=4QX.167=6.7 M.
Hence GA=10+6.7=16.7 M.
,(d.) Horizontal distance from grazing point at true point of fall:
HF _ "GA _ !16.7 M
, : ~,Tan Slope \1f F,all+Tan Slope of Ground -;- .405+.167 = 29.2 or 29 ~
Proof: Same as example 4.
, '.
CASE IV. ALL-ROU'ND METHOD FOR REGULAR OR IRREGULAR GROUND •

.371. The, preceding methods are not practicable on irregular ground, either
where: the slope is not, uniform or whel'e the ground is rough and broken.
In such cases the following method must be used. This'method may. be
.applied on level ground or uniform slopes, even more easily than on irregu-
lar ground, and is a good method. for men inexperienced at calculations, to
use for all purposes. (On level ground it is' exactly the same as the method
Topography for. Field Artillery
-':"172-
given in C~se I.) However~ an experienced calculator can save much work
on uniform slopes, especially behind trees and other vertical ob~trnctIons.
by using the methods given in Cases II and III.
Example 6. Rolling Ground Beyond Ridge •

..........
~. G-510
~\ ~:_~I'}; -;---
t I'GtJf!};t- .•
I I 1Jr~~t\\. """'-.;
I I 1"/1\ ..............
.,.~
I I
I. i I ~t*.
I ., :~\~1
-...:..:i..,,!J~C7'.
~ ..o!{y
L 0 I ~~/;ft ~ ••
~ C\.I I /~t~. ~"
I I ~1t ~v:95 aROVND ,~ ~ """'-.. '
I I I ~j~~_';j~/ ""~/ .~ 0c~~'*--'t.tM;.:t;ft/ '.
_L...t\'
0 '"'-"-... "
lI __ ~ .:~~~::::.~~~~\~~~~~-4~Q.:.~~---~O
~_~L_~~I"~~ __ +__~ ~IJ~
,i:' ~-WT
. .i
I. tlORIZONTAL7Jr.1.)'\\[lt:;c.-1Z1\':~\\~ 'fIJll I
I /, .. ,~_.~?4-;~-
t------------- 49 M. :.LL.lil;{'_"-'" I
!-J.----------S5 M.DEAD
.5PACE---------j
Fig. 116.
372. (The procedure is the same with trees or any other obstruction.) . See
fig. 116.. Same data as in Examrle 3, except that the ground is rolling.
(a.) Locate the grazing point at, G, and calculate the tangent of the
quadrant angle of fall, which is, say. .405, the same as in the preceding
examples.. ' ..
(b.) Take the average' altitude of the ground beyond the obstruction
in the region where the point of fall will probably be found. In this case'
the average altitude appears from the contours to be 490 1\1. Calculate the
vertical drop of this altitude from the grazing point: 510-490=20 1\1: (dis-
tance, GA). .
(c.) Assume that the ground is level at this average altitude. Cal-
culate the horizontal dist'ance, AB, from the grazing point, G, to the point of
fall on this level, B. the same as in example 1:
. GA 20
AB = '- Tan Slope o'f Fall = .4u5 = 49 M.
(d.) Layoff this distance from the grazing point on the map, making
point, B, as the first trial point of fall. It would be the actual point of fall
if the altitude at B were exactly 490 1\1. However, it is seen from the con-
tours that the altitude at B is somewhat below 490; hence the actual point
of fall must be beyond B. (If the altitude is above the level for which the
trial point was calculated, the actual point of fall will be short of the
trial point.)
(e) Having located the first trial point of fall,/ the remainder of the
process is to take other trial points in the proper direction from the first,
taking into account the difference in altitude and the srope of the gl'Nmd
determined by estimation, and calculate or measure the tangent of the air-
line slope to each point from the grazing point. until a point is fourt} where
this tangent is equal to the tangent of the slope of fall. The same rule
obtains in calculating dead space by this method as in calculating mirimum
range: if the ground at the trial point of fall is rising, the range change
Topogi'aphy for Field. Artillery
-173-
to the true point of fall will be less than on level ground; if the ground is
falling, the range change will be greater. See par. 336 and example.; ,.1 and
5 under Minimum Elevation and Range.
373. In the above case, assume the dtitude at a, estimated from the con-
tours, to be 486 meters. It is seen that the ground rises to contour 490 a
short djstance beycnd 13; hence the actual point of fall ITust be somewhere
between 13 and this contour, since 13 W2S calculated for 21titude 490. Take
point F, about half way between 13and the contour, as the next trial point of
fall. Measure the horizontal distance, HF, from the grazing point, G, which
is. say, 55 meters. Estimate the 2ltitude at F, which is, say, 488 meters,
making a vertical drop of 22 meters -from G. Then the tangent of the air-
22
line slope, GF, is: 55 =.400. This is only .005 less' than the tangent of the
quadrant angle of fall, .4.05, which is close enough, bei'1g within an error of
2% so F may be accepted as the actual foint cf fall.
374. If a tangent scale is used, this problem may be completed with the scale
either after (a) or (b). After (a), simply measure from the grazing point
to successive trial points beyord until the nearest point is found where the
tangent of the air-line slope from the grazing point is equal to the tangent
of the quadrant angle of fall, as in Case 1. However, it is usually quicker
to carry the calculation through (b), thus locating the approximate point of
fall, then finish the work with the tangent scale as above directed.
H. GRAPHICAL ~lETHOD.
:375. Dead space may be determined by graphical plotting as well as by
calculation. Example 1 which follows gives the graphical method in detail.
but in practice much of the wOlk is saved by the use of prepared charts of
slope of fall, as shown in example 2. The graphical- method is useful in
teaching the subject to beginners, and is also good for practical use by men
inexperienced at calculations. An experienced calculator, however: can .ob-
tain more rapid and more accurate results with the calculation method than
with. the graphical methcd.
Method. ~
:376. The general procedure with the graphical method is as follows:
(a) Plot the profile cf the ground as described for visibility profiles,
par. 314, from the top of the obstruction to the probable point of fall, mak-
ing the profile long enough so that both points will surely be included. The
vertical scale of the profile should be exaggerated from 5 to 10 times. This
is not absolutely necessary when wOlking with very large angles of fall and
steep ground slopes, but it is necessary in order to secure accurate results
with the majority of angles and slopes which will be handled in practice.
The exaggeration may be varied if desired, using a lesser factor for larger
angles. However. it is more convenient to use the same factor throu:;hout
any rarticular problem. Any factor between the above limits will do for
practically all dead space work~
The exact vertical exaggeration of the profile must be known so that
the tangents of the quadrant angles of fall can be exaggerated to the same
degree. If accurately ruled profile paper is available, mer sure its vertical
exaggeration as follows: Assume that the vel,tical interval between two of
. Topography for Field Artillery
-174-
the horizontal lines on the paper is to represent the vertical interval. between
two contours on the map, which is, say, 5 meters, the R. F. being 1/20,000.
One interval on the paper will be too small for an accurate comparison of
measurements, so take 20 intervals, representing 100 meters vertically, and
measure them carefully with a scale. Say this distance measures 50.8 mm.
Now take the distance required to represent 100 meters horizontally, 'which
will be 5 mm., with the above R. F. Then the vertical exaggeration of the
profile paper is the ratio between the vertical and the horizontal measure-
ments: 5~8 =10.16 times. (This is the exaggeration of 1/10 inch .profile
paper with a 1/20,000 map, since 50.8 mm.=2 inches, covering twenty 1/10
inch intervals). If the exaggeration' of the paper as ruled is found to be to?
great, let each interval on the paper represent two or more contour intervals,
ruling extra lines between if desired. If too small, take two or more inter-:
vals on the paper to represent a contour interval. '
377. If no prepared profile paper is available, it may be ruled with any de:
sired exaggeration. A' hard pencil shoud be used, making fine lines. 'Care'
must be taken to make the measurements accurate and the lines exactly par~
allel. For example, suppose it is desired to make profile paper with an ex-
aggeration of 8 times for a 1/20000 map, having a 5 meter contour interval:
The M. D. on the map scale to represent 5 meters horizontally will be ..25
mm. The vertical interval between the horizontal lines on the paper should
then be 8X.25=2 mm. Vertical lines may be drawn as guides in bringing
down points from the map. Paper ruled horizontally without any .vertical
lines. may be used, bringing down the points from the map with. a right-:
angled ruler held firmly against a straight edge which has been laid parallel
to the horizontal lines. It is easy to rule in the vertical guide lines, either
with the right-angled ruler or by constructing one perpendicular line, par. 72,
and drawing others parallel to it at any desired interval, say 2 to 5 mm~
~part. The interval between the vertical lines. should correspond, to some
convenieht unit of the map scale, as 10, 20, or 25 meters, to facilitate, mea-
suring the length of dead spaces. Care must be taken to make the v~rtical
. lines exactly perpendicular to the horizontal lines and parallel with each other.
378. (b) Locate a trial grazing point by' estimation as directed in par;
359, .and mal'k it on the profile. Draw a horizontal line through this point,
taking care to make it exactly parallel with the horizontal lines ofth~ profile
paper.
379.. (c)' Calculate the tangent of the quadrant angle of fall for the trial
grazing point, par. 359. Multiply this by the vertical exaggeration of the
profile.
380. (d) Plot the' slope of fall by means of this exaggerated tangent on
I
the horizontal line at the trial grazing point, par. 35. If this slope of fall
line goes through the ground profile at the trial grazing point, eit shows
that that point is ~ot the true gl'azing point. Draw a new slope of fall line
j
exactly parallel with the first so that it just grazes the ground profile. 'Mark
the 'point where'the new slope of fall line grazes the profile as the tn~e
I
grazing point. Produce the new slope of fall line until it intersects the
ground profile beyond and below the grazing point. Mark the intersectiol'i
as the' point of fall. If the difference between the second grazing point, and
~175-
the' 'first 'trial point exceeds-the limits given"in pal'. 359 (e); so that the
(liffer'ence in quadrant ~levations would cause an appreciable difference in
a
the location of the point' of fall,
C new quadrartt angle of fall' must be
calculated and plotted at the second
grazing point. Usually,' however, it
is close enough to take the -line
drawn parallel to the first slope of
fall line. .
B
510
,I'
505
..
"
'500
~~_. A
495
,.
490
.-1:
485
Fig,' 117.
Example i.
381. To illustrate the graphical method in detail, take the problem given in
~xample 3, Case II, under the Calculation :M~thod.
- (a) Suppose the slope in that example; fig. 113, to be shown by con-
-176-
tours on a 1/2,000 map with 5 meter ,contour intervals. (Most artmer~r
work will be on 1/10,000 or 1/20,000 maps, but the large scale is used here
to make the' illustration clearer.) The M. D. for 5 meters horizontally on
this scale is 2.5 mm. Then for a vertical exaggeration of 5 times. the vertical
intervals on the profile paper should be: 5X2.5=12.5 mm. Rule the profile
paper with horizontal lines 12.5 mm. apart and vertical guide lines, say !j
mm. apart, representing 10 meters horizontally. Only a small section of the
paper will be required for this profile. but enough should be' ruled at a tiine
for all the profiles which may be needed, taking advantage of the full size
of the paper and the full length of the ruler. Mark off a sufficient section
of the paper for this profile, say 10 by 15 cm. Mark the horizontal lines at
the left of the section with the contour numbers which are to be included in
the profile, from the lowest, 485, to the highest, 510. Plot the profile, fig.
117.
(b) Select a trial grazing point, say at P. Draw a horizontal line,
AP, through P.
(c) Calculate the quadrant angle of fall at P. The range to P is
seen to be very nearly 4,000 meters, and the altitude about 513 meters, or
37 meters below the guns. Calculating degrees and minutes (for similar
calculation in mils, see exam:rle 1, Calculation Methcd):
Angle of fall for 4,COOM 21°30',
Plus the site (being below guns), 37X.86
(from Table I in Range Table) 32',
Quadrant angle of fall 22°02'
Tangent of quadrant angle of fall, from tangent table, .4047 or .405.
(This quadrant angle of f211 and tangent are actually slightly less than
in examples 1 and 3, Calculation Method, because P in this example is 3
meters higher than C in the other examples, making a smaller angle of site
to be tdded. However, the diffe~ence is so small that the tangent to the
third place of decimals is the same in both cases.)
Multiply the tangent by the vertical exaggeration:
405X5=2.025, exaggerated tangent.
(d) Plot the slope of fall by this exaggerated tangent. Layoff, PH,
some convenient evend:stance, as long as the paper will allow, say 3 em.
Erect a perpendicular at B, and layoff on it BC equal to the base PB mul-
tiplied by the exaggerated tangent: 3X2.025=6.075 em. If this distance
runs off the top of the paper, fasten it over another sheet 'with pins or
thumb tacks until the :rlotting is completed. Draw, CP, the slope of fall.
It is now seen that CP goes through the ground profile at P. Hence P
is not the true grazing point. Take a ruler, and holding it parallel to PC,
move' it until it just grazes the profile at C. Mark C as the true grazing
point. Measure the distance straight across from C to line CP prcduced.'
, Mark off CD the same d:stance, and draw DC, which is thus made parallel to I
CPo Produce DC until it intersects the profile below at F, which is the point 1
of fall., I
The horizontal length of the 'dead space is HF, which measures 23 mm., I",
corresponding to an H. E. of 56 meters, the same as calculated in example
3. The shifting of the grazing point from P to C was too small to have any
appreciable effect en the quadrant angle of fall ..
QUN
/0
2/;:
3a
'In;
sa
60
70
80
90
MCTER0 BELOW GUN
5CALE=,o,ooo
, .
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION =..5 TIME0
Plate XVI. Note: .This graph should be on transparent paper.
$
-177-
Proof.
382. The proof of this may readily be derived from the proof in example
2 under the Calculation Method. In that example, see fig. 112, it was
proved that: '!:
GA
HF = Tan Slope of Fall-Tan Slope of Ground
Now in plotting with a vertical exaggeration of 5 times all vertical
distances, including GA, have been multiplied 5 times. The tangent of the
ground slope has also been multiplied by 5, because:
Vertical Distance
T angent = Horizontal Distance'
par. 34, and all vertical distance have been multiplied 5 times. while the
horizontal distances remained unchanged. The tangent of the slope of fall
was increased 5 times by measurement in plotting. ~hus all three factors
of the right-hand side of the above equation were increased 5 times. Sub-
stituting the exaggerated values, the equation reads:
HF' _ ~ ~ 5 GA
- 5 Tan Slope of Fall- 5 Tan Slope of Ground'
from which the 5's may be eliminated by cancellation, so that:
HE' - ~~~----2A--~
- Tan Slope of Fall-Tan Slope of Ground
.
Hence the value of HF, the horizontal length of the dead space, is exactly
the same with the exaggerated values as with the original values.
1. GRAPHICAL METHOD WITH SLOPE OF FALL CHART.

383. The complete graphical method sho"rn in par. 381, is too slow for
practical use. The following adaptation of the method. using a slope of'
fall chaI't, is much quicker, since it eliminates the calculation of the quadrant
angles of fall, but is less accurate on that account. This method uses the
angles of fall on the gun level, just as they are given in the range tables.
making no allowances for site, as is done when the quadrant angle of fall
is taken. The result, where grazing point and point of fall are above the~
gun level, is to make the plotted dead space a little shorter than the actual
dead space, because the slope of fall at the gun level is a little steeper than
the slope at both grazing point and point of fall. Where grazing point and
point of fall are below the gun level, the plotted dead space will be a little
longer than the actual dead space, because the slope of fall at the gun level
is less steep than at the grazing point and point of fall. Where the grazing
point is above the gun level and the point of fall below, the slope of fall at
the gun level will be steeper than at the grazing point and less steep than
at the point of fall. . Hence if the relative distances happen to be correctly
proportioned, the slope of fall at the gun level will represent the average
slope between grazing point and point of fall, and, the plotted dead space
will give the true value. Otherwise it may be slightly greater or slightly
less. In any case, wherever the grazing point is a~ove and the point of fall
below the gun level,' this method will give closer results than where both
points are above or below. It is not necessary for the user to make allowances
for these conditions, but he should understand them in order to know the
-17~
limitations of the method. A practical rule to remember is: . Do not use this
method where the site of the point of fall, whether above or below the gun
level, exceeds 20 mils. This method is also subject to the same limitation
as the others: that where the vertical or horizontal distance fl'om grazing
point to point of fall exceeds 150 meters,' the dead space should be calculated
by the minimum range method: Within these limits this method gives re-
sults which are close enough for most practical purposes. In average coun-
try the majority of dead spaces under the descending branch of the trajec-
tory come within the above limits. '
The following example illustrates this method.
Example 2.
384. (a) Prepare a slope of fall chart on tough transparent paper as fol-
lows, fig. 118. Layoff a base line representing the gun level. On this mark
GVN LlVLL
RANQE 3500 4000' 4500

TANGENT
ANGLEOF FALL
.J 83 .232.288
C
EXAG G ERATED
.915 I.IG 1.44
5 TIMt.s ---.5l0PE~ OFfAl~
Fig. 118.
the ranges every 500 meters from the shortest range likely to be used, say
2,000 meters, up to the maximum range of the guns. Find from the range
table the tangent of the angle of fall for each range. Multiply this by the
vertical exaggeration factor which is to be used for the profiles. Plot the -I
slope of fall by the exaggerated tangent for each range on the gun level ,
line, extending the slope 3 to 4 em. above and below the gun level line. This
chart may be preserved and used for determining dead space at any time
for the same scale of map and the same gun, charge, etc., for which it was
made.
(b) Plot the profiles as described in example 1 above. O~ each
profile draw a line showing the gun level, and mark the nearest 500 meter ,I
range on this line.
-179-
(c) Lay the slope of fall chart over the profile so that the gun level
line and the range marks on the transparent chart. coincide with the cor-
responding line and ~arks on the profile. If none of the slope lines on the
chart happens to just graze the profile, draw a line by interpolation between
the two nearest lines, as shown. This is done b'y measuring first, A G and
A'e, straight across, then measuring off points, D and E so that the cor-
responding distances are proportional to AG and A'G, and connecting DGE.
which is the desil'ed interpolated slope line. Grazing point, G, and point of
fall, F, are then pricked through onto the profile with a needle.
385. Instead of interpolating a new slope line, the following method, which
is somewhat quicker, may be used: . Slide the chart along until the nearest
slope line. on one side, say the 4,000 meter line in this case, just grazes the.
profile. Mark on the profile the grazing point and point of fall thus located
as first trial points. Then slide the chart back until the next line on the
other side, in this case the 4,500 meter line, ,just gI1.zes the profile. Mark
the grazing point and point of fall thus located as second trial points. Then
mark the poin~ midway between the two trial grazing points as the actual
grazing point, and the point midway between the two trial points of fall as
the actual point of fall.
If the profile is very close to a slope of fall line, say within 50 meters,
it is not necessary to interpolate between the slope lines. Draw a line paral-
lel to the nearest slope line, or slide the chart along until the nearest slope
line grazes the profile.
It is a mistake to attempt to make a slope of fall line on such a chart
correspond to the quadrant angle of fall at the grazing point by laying the
gun level line of the chart along a line drawn from the gun position to the
grazing point on the exaggerated profile. This method affects the tangent
by an amount which is out of all proportion to the true value of the site.
The only way to show_ the quadrant angle of fall graphically, except with
special charts, is to calculate and plot it on it:
horizontal line as shown in
example 1.
J. GRAPHICAL METHOD WITH SPECIAL CHARTS.
386. Special graphical charts by which the angle of site and the curve ~
the trajectory are allowed for are sometimes prepared and issued, with
directions for their use. Such charts are very convenient when available, but
the preparation of them usually is too complicated for the ordinary artiller~'-
man in the field. Such graphs should be prepared at corps. headquarters
and issued to each battery.
(1) Description Of The Graph.
387. , The method employed with this graph is simply that of a rapid pro-
jection of a given trajectory to the surface of the ground as represented by
the map. And since the method is one projection, all that is needed is a
. series of trajectories drawn to the same horizontal scale as the map and to
any convenient vertical exaggeration.
Since the method of projection is to be used in handling the graph, it
is necessary first, that a series of parallel lines be drawn representing
ground elevations above and belov; the gun position. A 10 meter interval
-180-
and a total difference of 100 meters above and 100 meters below the g'un
is sufficient for most terrain.
"With a zero plane of site construct a series of trajectories for the
particular gun and charge used, on the determined scale of vertical exaggera-
tion. Note: It will be necessary to construct each curve separately as an
attempt to draw in trajectories of lesser range by revolving one of greater
range which has been exaggerated vertically will result in a diagonal ex-'
aggeration of the lesser trajectories. These trajectories should be drawn
in for every 100 meters. For points between, interpolation of curves can be
made by estimation as the need arises in the consideration of ground forms.
Divide each of the parallel lines representing the ground elevations
above or below the gun level, into a series. of intervals representing the
horizontal distance which a given projectile will travel while dropping 10
meters at that particular range and elevation. These divisions afford a rapid
method of determining grazing points although not actually necessary to
the graph, since the trajectory curves. alone may be used for the purpose.
See Plate XVI.
(2) Use Of The Graph. ,
388. To use the graph draw a ray through the gun position and the area
being considered. From an inspection of the map determine the point most
likely to mark the near limit of the dead space and note the elevation of this
point.
Place the graph on the map so that the horizontal line, corresponding
to the elevation above the gun, just noted, lies along the ray, CPB, drawn
"
from the gun, see fig. 119. and so that the perpendicular line with zero range
passes through the gun position.
,I
Q
V
0
I
0 q- t
6(
.....
J"s~
'.....
Jo ,G
3
B
2C
10
()
I
l
3
Fig. 119.
To determine if P is the grazing point take the trajectory passing
through P and follow it down to a point 10 meters below. Project this point
upward to the ray considered by laying a ruler across this' point in the trajec-
tory, at right angles to the parallel lines, and note where the rule crosses the
line of fire on the ray CPB. By reading the contours it will be noted that
"Topography for Field Artillery
-181-
the rule crosses CPR between contours 325 and 330 or at a point about 12'
meters below P.
However the trajectory in this same horizontal distance has fallen
only 10 meters. Since the ground has dropped 12 tneters, the surface of the
terrain cannot be reached by fire and is dead spa~e. Evidently then, P is
the grazing point. Should the slope of the ground and that of the trajectory
be found to be exactly the same, P should still be considered to be the graz-
ing point and the beginning of the dead area. '
.If there were another 'contour showing above P, a point would be-
taken on that contour and would be examined in the same manner for a
possible grazing point. '
Having determined the near edge of the dead space, or the grazing-
point of the trajectory, the next step is to determine the far limits of the
dead area. This can be done merely by moving the ruler to the right along
the trajectory,' (keeping it perpendicular to the paratIel lines) and noting
the point where the ground elevations, read along the ray, CPR, correspond to
the elevations on the horizontal lines.
_ Thus at a point 30 meters below the level of P, or on a line marked
10 (10 meters above the gun level) it will be noted that the ruler, where it
crosses CPR falls between contours 305 and 310. In other words while the
trajectory has dropped 30 meters, the ground has fallen away 33 meters. '
When the ruler has been moved to the gun level (the line marked 0)
the ruler crosses the ray between. contour 300 and 305. That is, the trajec-
tory has fallen 40 meters while the ground has dropped but 37. Therefore
the point. considered last is in beaten area and the limit of the dead area
must lie between the two points considered.
Moving/back to x, a point 5 meters above the gun level, it is noted
that the ruler crosses CPR at the corresponding elevation, or at contour 305,
which may, therefore, be taken as the far limit of the dead space on this
, particular ray.
Instead of projecting upward from the trajectory, some find it easier
to project downward from the contours, as they cross CPR, to the corres-
. ponding horizontal lines and note whether the points so projected are~
above or below the trajectory. A point below the trajectory is in dead -
area; a point above is in the beaten zone.
389. To use the horizontal intervals marked on the parallel lines as above-
o
~
I{)
;ti
~ Eg~
..".tr') tr')tV
'.~ .. I
\ '"
Pill i I
t U
I ,I
P'i I: B
~ /i\\'
Fig. 120.
for the purpose of determining the grazing points proceed as folows, fig. 120:
Assume that ray CPR is being examined and P is selected as a possible
-182-
grazing point. From a comparison of contours it is seen that point P is 20
meters above the gun. Therefore the graph is laid over the ray CPBso that
the line 20 meters above the gun level coincides with the ray in the manner
already described.
By a comparison of intervals with the contours crossed, it is seen that
in the interval representing a drop of 10 meters in the trajectory, the ground
falls away but 7 meters. Evidently P is not the grazing point. It remains
, .
then to try a second point. Let the second point considered be pi on contour'
310 which is 10 meters above the gun levet' The graph must be moved
vertically upward until the line numbered 10 corresponding to the ground
level considered, lies along the 1'ay CPB.'
If this is done it will be found that the two contour intervals corres-
lng to a 10 meter drop in ground elevation, lie within the interval used. 01',
the ground drops nearly 12 meters while the trajectory is descending 10.
Therefore the area is dead and pi may be conside1'ed the grazing point.
In using this method of determining the grazing point it may be
necessary to move the transparency to the right- 01' left slightly until the
limits of one of the intervals coincide with a contour line. Care must be
exercised in doing this because such a movement changes the range on the
graph and a change of range changes the interval for a 10 meter drop. It
is safer and even more rapid to set o~, on a pair of dividers, the 10 meter
interval taken from the map, and apply this interval to the graph for th0
I'ame range and elevation.
The above graphs should be made on sheets of light celluloid for each :.
projectile and carried with the battery plotting board where they will take
up no appreciable room.
The advantage of the graph is that it is a time saver compared to the
ordinary graphical method since it is not necessary to construct profiles. I ,
Compared to the computation method it is more rapid while its accuracy is

quite satisfactory, variations between ,the two methods being in most in-
stances less than the probable enol' of the gun.
I
,I.
Tovography for Field Artillery

CHAPTER XVI.
MAP PROJECTIONS.
DEFINITION.
390. As has been stated elsewhere. a map is a representation, to scale, of
a certain portion of the earth's surface. Its purpose is to afford information.
Therefore maps are of varied sorts' depending on the information desired.
Moreover a map usually is a plane or flat surface while the surface of the
earth is in the shape of a spheroid.
It will be seen. therefore, that certain difflculties ~are met by the carto-
grapher, in the course of map making, when projecting a certain portion of
the earth's surface, reduced in scale, upon a flat sheet of paper. The means
by which this is done is called projection. There are many types of projec-
tion involving different formulae in spherical trigonometry'. It is not the
purpose of this text to workout these fOl'mulae but rather to show the ap-
plication of the various methods and to. point out the value of each fot'
certain definite uses.
The cartographer will choose the method of projection which will
least affect the accuracy of the work in hand. •
KINDS OF PROJECTION.
A. MERCATOR'S PROJECTION.
391. The oldest form of projection is the Mercator Projection, and is em-
ployed in making Navigator's charts. In this _method the surface of the
earth is projected outward to the surface of an enclosing cylinder which i3
tangent to the globe at the equator. Because the line on the cylinder and
the globe coincide at the equator, distances along the equator on a map made
MERCATORj pgOJECT/ON ~
NORTH-POLE. ~ 40 20 0 fO
~ __ .-. __ • _ _ ~ .LU 90
lUo
.....i=:
\ .:t-
ex.ti -~
\ C3:--J
- - -" J:~V.M~QR
0
./
I
,
\ I
~ ~
\ .. '
~ ,~-r:::..
\
\\ I
I /
/
CYUNDE R.
.4 __
.-- ~""'¥-'-'--------TA'N<;E:NT
,
/
\
(IM_RlDIAN
F
)
Of LCNq ITVDE.
TO qLoBE AT [CWi\TOR.
. Fig. 121. ,
with this projection are exact, but. beginning immediately north and south.
a distortion is encountered as the poles are approached. At the poles this
TopOlJ,'l'allhy for Field Al'tillel'y
-184-
is the greatest, for the pole has been projected outward in all direction::;
until it becomes a line represented by the circumference of the top of the
cylinder, and is as great as the equator itself.
Thus the Mercator projection creates noticeable distortion in maps of
North America and Asia.
The navigator however is concerned only with latitude and longitude
and therefore can use the projection above described. This would not be
satisfactory for the person who was measuring land areas, nor-for the artil-"
leryman who wishes to measure angles and distances with precision.
Figure 121, above, shows the projection of the globe outward to the
surface of the cylinder; also the map formed when the cylinder is slit
down one side and unrolled.
B. POLYHEDRAL PROJECTION.
392. The Polyhedral is a common form of projection which may be used
in mapping siege areas and cities, since only limited areas are involved. In
this system each small area mapped is represented by an isosceles trapezoid,
the parallel sides of .which "are
- POLYHEDRAL PROJECTioN equal in length to the arcs of the
corresponding parallels, while the
oblique ones are equal to the arcs
of the meridians comprised be-
tween the"se parallels.
The accurate assembling of
these small areas into a larger
whole is impossible. It only can
MfRIDIAN,5 OF LONqlnJOE. be done approximately by the play
Fig. 122. of the paper, see fig. 122.
C. CONIC PROJECTIONS.
393. The most common form of projection is. the Conic of which there are
various types. In this, a cone is passed tangent to the surface of the globe
, and the surface underneath the cone is projected outward to the surface of
" the cone. At the point where the cone is tangent to the globe, the distances
on the map wilI" correspond to those on the globe. Elsewhere the distortion
will increase as the line of tangency is left behind. This distortion is min-
imized by the application of certain mathematical formulae. The formula
to be applied will vary, according to the purpose to which the Jllap will
be applied. Figure 123 shows the cone tangent to the globe, also the same
cone after being split down one side and f~attened out to form a map.
D. POLYCONICPROJECTION.
394. The Polyconic Projection is a modification of the conic projection. It
was devised by Ferdinand Hassler, the first supel'intendent of the U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey', and has been applied to maps of the United States.
In it a series of cones has been passed tangent to the globe, the cones
having their apexes on the prolongation of the axis of the earth. Segments
of the cones, each with its central parallel, when unrolled, form a map which
is satisfactory along a north and south area in the vicinity of the common
meridian of origin; while the distortion east and west of the meridian in-
TO}lography for Field Artillery
-185-
creases with the distance from it, due to the increasing divel'gence of the
. several segments. Such a map causes an error as great as 6! % on the
Pacific Coast of the United States, while a map of the. United States on the
PROJECTiON'!:
Fig. 123.
Lambert pl'ojeetion would show a maximum distortion -north and south 'of
only 2%. The figure on the left, fig. 124, shows the centres (K, K1, K2,
K3) of circles, on the projection, that represent the conesponding parallels
on the earth. The figure on the right shows the distortion at the outer
meridian due to the varying radii of the circles in the polyconic develop-
ment.
:1""oK ... -' -'. ..... - . - - - - - . - - . - ~
:K
.. : : POLYCONIC
Fig. 124.
E. BONNE PROJECTION.
395. British and Belgian battle maps in the recent war were. made using-
the so-called Bonne Projection, another of the conic systems. The origin. of
this projection for these maps was Brussels. The earlier French battle maps 0
were also made using this projection taking'the town of Aurillac, Lat. 45
North, to the south of Paris, on the Paris meridian, as. the origin.
In this projection the meridian through the origin is a straight line.
All other meridians are curves, the curvature increasing with the difference
in longitude. The parallels are represented by concentric circles, with centres
at, S, north of the pole, p, the distance between the concentric circles being
equal to the lengths of the arcs of the meridians upon the globe. See fig.
"--186-";'
125., In this projection areas are preserved near the initial parallel and mer- .
idian; angles and distances along the initial parallel and meridian are pre-.
served in their exact relation; but departure from them brings distortions
which, at the edges of the map. of. France, reach a value of 18' for angles and
1/379 for lengths. These distortions are too great for use in computations
for artillery fire.
s
BONNE. PROJECTION
p
DISTANCE BETWEEN PARALL[L~

E:QUAL TO JlCTlLAL DI.5TANCE oN {1LClBE:
Fig. 125.
BONNE: PROJECTION Of HEMISPHERE
Dev",Lopment of conq, tangent a.long pa.raLLcz,l4SoN
160
EQvAmf.l
o
Fig. 126.
F. LAMBERT PROJECTION.
396. Because all projections, heretofore described, admitted too great a
distortion in angles and linear measurements, the French were forced to re-
SUlTect another projection at the beginning of the 'World 'War. The Lam-
-187~
hert Conformal Conic Projection was found to be satisfactory for artillery
Purposes due to the fact that angular and linear distortions were practically
negligible in any of the mapped areas likely to be used by artillery of any
calibre. .
This projection was evolved by .J ohann Heinrich Lambert, an Alsatian
(1728-1777). Lambert was a noted cartographer and mathematician who
worked out another projection which bears his name. The one used in French
battle maps is k~own as t~e Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.
For a base map covering a zone 500 kilometers in width, or 250 kil-
ometers on either side of the parallel of origin, 49° 30' (=55 grades) north
latitude, this projection shows a degree of precision which is unique, and
which answers every requirement as to orientation, as to direction and dis-
tance, and quadrillage (system of kilometric squares). It is admirably
adapted to a region of predominating east and west diIllfnsions, hence with
it, all the northeastern region of France, as well as Belgium and part of
Germany, can be represented on one map. It can be extended east and
west as far as desired, the projection remaining conformal throughout.
The angular distortion is so small as to be negligible and the linear
di:5tortion is no more than .05 per cent (1 meter in 2000 meters) which is
nearly negligible. It is to be borne in mind however that this is only true
within the base map, north and south limits of which, are indicated above.
In this conic projection the cone is secant to the globe instead of being
tangent to it; that is, the cone cuts the globe in two places,see fig. 127.
These two places at which the cone cuts the spheroid or globe are,
for the French battle map, along the 53 and 57 grade parallels as shown in
the figure. The origin of the projection is taken at 6 grades east of Paris
(called -6 grades longitude, since longitude east of Paris is minus and .thDt
west is plus), and at 55 grades nOlth latitude. Meridians are straight lines
perpendicular to the arcs representing the parallels~ see fig. 127.
Obviously along the pal'allels of 53 and 57 north latitude, distances en
the map will correspond to those on the globe. The arc or sector of the
globe between these parallels is somewhat distOl'ted in flattening it down
to the surface of the cone.. Two formulae may be used in caring for this ~
distortion, one of which is exact while the other is approximate. (See "Man-
ual for Orienbtion Officer", "W. D. Doc. No. 648", also "The Lambert Con-
formal Conic Projection" by Deetz, Special publication No: 47, gov. printing
office.)
397. In summing up, the Lambert conformal conic projection preserves
angles and distances with negligible distortion within a belt whose north and
south dimension is limited to the battle area of France and Belgium, but
whose east and west dimension is not. This is the only projection as yet
devised giving these relations of the earth's surface on a plane surface Ol'
map in sufficient exactness for use in modern artillery warfare. Such a
projection is well suited for mapping the United States where the greatest
dimension is east and west.
Below is appended a chart showing the Lambert conformal conic pro-
Jection, as applied by the French in the recent war, to France, Belgium and
Germany. See Plate XVII. It will be. noted that a portion of the grid sys-
tem is also shown near its origin (which coincides with the origin of the pro-
TOPOgrallhy for Field Artillel'Y
-188-
jection). In the chart the grid is not shown to scale, the lines being ap-
LAMBERT '..5 CONfORMAL'

CONIC PROJE.CTION.
Fig. 127.
1
,
proximately 4 kilometers apart in place of 1 kilometer.

This grid s~rstem is discussed in Chapter XVIII.

CHAPTER XVII.
l\iAPS.
PREPARATION OF MAPS.
A. TRIANGULATION SYSTEM.
:l98. After the cartographer has adopted a system of projection for his
map, his next concern is to place on this map, the points of the ground in
their proper relation as modified by the form of the projection.
The determination of the relation of the ground#Points is the work
of the topographers all of whose work is based on the triangulation system.
This system consists of a series of triangles. the vertices of which are ac-
curately located. This framework gives starting points from which any
detail may be plotted, see fig. 128. From astronomical observations one of
these vertices, A, may be located and one side AB, selected as base line, by
means of which the surveyor may orient himself. If this base is measured
with great accuracy. point B may be located.'
The' angles of the different triangles being measured, coordinates of
C, D •••• M, N may be determined. The operation is checked by astronomical
observations at N and the measur'ement of the base MN.
This skeleton is the primary triangulation. The sides of the triangles

are 40 or 50 kilometers long. Angles are measured with the greatest ac-
curacy. The accuracy of the base measurement must be about 1/1,000,000.
399. Starting from the system just described, the secondary triangulation
is carried out within the primary triangles. Points located by intersection
constitute the third or tertiary triangl,llation. Errors on points may be as
great as 2/10 to 3/10 meters in the primary triangulation, 1/2 meter in
-190-
the secondary triangulation, and from 1 meter to 2 meters in tertiary tri-
angulations.
This network of lines and points is completed by traversings,. by means
. of a transit. Calculation then gives the location of the successive vertices of
these traverses.
With all of these determined points at hand the topographer may noW ,1
draw on his plotting table any detail of the ground; may horizontally and
vertically locate, accurately, any critical point; and may give on the map the
representation of as many features of the area as required according to the
use for which the map is intended. This part of the survey is called
topography.
B. RANGE TRIANGULATION DETACHMENT.
400. The 'York of the Range Triangulation Detachment (detachment of
engineers) consists, in general, of keeping up to date all maps, and deter-
mining the location and elevation of a net of reference points more closely
spaced than those of the general control.
As an army advances it is the duty of these detachments to secure
all possible information of a topographical nature which will aid in pre-
paration of firing data for the artillery.
The work done on the ground is started with kno\\>"1ldata from the
triangulation net as described in the paragraphs above.
401. Preparation of revisions of battle maps is a function of this branch
of the service. Revised battle maps are frequently printed and issued (every
day in periods of activity). Reconnaissances and topographical surveys a1'3
constantly made on the ground. and bulletins and revised maps are issued
by these detachments. Battle maps showing enemy works only are dis--
tributed down to the Battery Commander. Distribution of maps showing
friendly works is limited to a few officers, usually battalion commander~~.
These maps must not be taken into the front line. All of these maps an:!
bulletins are confidential documents and consequently should be burned when
obsolete or when capture seems imminent.
C. SERVIC:[<~OF INFORMATION.
4112. Mention has been made in this chapter of the information rendered by I.!.....'.,
the engineer detachments, or Range Triangulation Detachments in prepar- •,
ing and keeping up to date, maps and list of reference points, in particular
the Plan Directeur or battle maps.
The Artillery Information Service (A. 1. S.) with which the range'
triangulation and topographic sections work for the distribution of all topo- J
graphical data that may be obtained, furnishes the artillery with valuable
. information of many sorts. The officer in charge of this service in the army
and corps is called the Artillery Information Officer (A. 1. 0.)
403. The A. I. S. should furnish promptly the necessary information for the
execution of the missions of the artillery unit such as exact positions of
enemy batterL~s, command posts, observation posts, signalling posts, camps,
dugouts and ammunition dumps. trails and roads most used, with hours of
heaviest traffic, etc .
. The most effective and active enemy batteries and the exact time
when they can be attacked most effectively is not~d in frequent bulletins.
Topog:raphy for Field Artillery
-191-
The direct control of the work of the flash ranging and sound rang-
ing sections and regulation of their use by artillery units, the maintenance of
communication with the:rn and prompt handling of information thus ob-
tained, is' another function of th~ A. 1. S.
Aerial photographs are used t~ study the det::iils of objectives.. Con-
clusions from such a study and those drawn from other observation, or in-
formation, is here coordinated and daily bulletins are issued to the' artillery
by the service.
404. The A. 1. S. works in close cooperation with G-2 (Army or Corps
Information Service) in receiving; comparing and forwarding information .
.Important information is communicated .at once by telephone, daily bulletins
are exchanged, and frequent conferences are held where all information re-
ceived is discussed and verified. For this purpose G-2 sends to each army
and corps A. I. S., an intelligence "officer, whose function is to obtain all
artillery information required by G-2. #'
Thus from every source, including prisoners and intercepted mdio and
telephone messages, the mass of information secured is compared and co-
ordinated and is issued in the form of orders, bulletins and maps to the
artillerr In an active sector this information is rendered daily.
MAPS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
A. FRENCH MAPS.
(1.) History Of French Maps.
405. (a) The 1/80,000 map, in black, is the French Staff map, reduced
from surveys on a 1/40.000 scale. This work was undertaken at the be-
ginning of .the 19th century and was finished some sixty years later .. It
includes France and Alsace-Lorraine and was revised as to France only.
The projection used is the Bonne (Lo=50 grades north latitude, Mo=meri-
dian of Paris). Each sheet is divided into 4 quarters extending over 20X32 ,
kilometers. The accuracy is good as to geodetic points., The error on other
points may reach 100 meters horizontally.
Ground forms are located by hachures. Elevations are marked op,.
posite geodetic points. ~
406. (b). The 1/50,000 in black is a photographic enlargement of the
1/80,000. Its accuracy is therefore the same. Grid lines are dra'\<'Il on.
it. The 1/20,000 battle map on the Bonne projection is a further enlarge-
ment of the Staff map with the hachures' removed. Elevations are shown
by contours in brown. French lines are in red and German are blue. This
map is provided with the Bonne grid. Some of these maps near the areas
which have been mapped under the Lambert projection also carry the Lam-
bert grid. In the areas near the Paris meridian this map proved to be no
satisfactory firing map.
407. (c) The 1/10,000 in black are the former battle maps of fortified
towns and are the result of precise surveys made on the ground on a scale
of 1/10,000. The projection is the polyhedral. The usual contour interval
is 5 meters. but for level regions it is 2.5 meters.
408. (d) The 1/20,000 in black is a photographic reduction of the
1/10,000. Each sheet includes four 1/10,000 sheets which are not fitted
together but simply placed side by side. with intervals between them. It
-192- '
follows that these maps cannot be used with accuracy for the measurement
of angles and distances.
On these 1/10,000 and 1/20,000 maps, points are accurate withh
10 meters horizontally and, on moderately rolling country, within 5 meter3
in altitude. "
409. (e) The 1/50,000 map in colors is based on accurate surveys oni
1/10,000 scale in level districts and on surveys on a 1/20,000 scale in
mountainous country. The projection is polyhedral. Each sheet represents '
an area 20 centesimal minutes in latitude by 40 in longitude. Altitudes
are represented by contour intervals of 10 meters, supplemented by shading.
The maps are printed in eight colors. They are in course of preparation
and therefore cover at present a very small part of France.
410. (f) The 1/200,000 in colors is derived from the 1/80,000. Each
sheet covers 128X80 kilometers. Contour intervals are 40 meters, with in-
termediate contours in level country at a V. 1. of 20 meters. Principal
contours are shown at each 200 meter interval by a line heavier than the
others. This map is printed in 6 colors supplemented by shading. On a
new type (1912) contours are drawn with V•. 1. of 20 meters. .
(2.) Battle Maps (Plan Directeur).
411. Battle maps are maps of large scale on which are shown enemy works
and, in certain cases, the friendly defensive and offensive organizations.
The Lambert projection is used for most of the battle maps. These maps
take precedence, to the exclusion of all other documents, for all the names
to be employed in orders, instructions and reports.
Battle maps showing the trace of the enemy lines are made, as re-
gards scale and size, according to the following types, each of which is
adapted to the particular requirement of the commander, the staffs or of the
different branches of the service.
412. (a) On a scale of 1/20,000 (the map usually meant when the term
"Plan directeur" is used). This is designed especially for the use of the
artillery. It is used for designating targets and for conducting fire, par-
ticularly on enemy batteries. It also affords the commander a map ona
, scale which gives a complete idea of the general layout of the enemy's de-
fense. Finally it constitutes a map of the whole into which may be com-
bined all maps of smaller area, but larger scale. It permits this combina-
tion and insures that all have the same titles and conventional signs. It is
distributed dov."Ilto include battery commanders.
'413. '(b) The 1/10,000 is a map of greater detail, showing the traces of
the enemy trenches in such detail as cannot be put on a 1/20,000 map.
It is issued to and used by the staffs and down to and including battalion
commanders. It is used by artillery in firing on enemy trenches and works
where their exact location cannot be seen from an observation post. In gen-
eral it is of more value' to the light artillery and infantry than the heavy
artiUery.
414. (c) The 1/5,000 is a detailed sketch for use in attack. It is in re-
ality an infantry map but is used also by the light artillery in direct support
of the infantry. This map is intended to provide an accurate picture of the
terrain. On it is developed a complete representation of all known details
of the enemy trenches.
-193-
415. In general each sheet of the Plan Directeur or battle map receives a
serial number and a title. This title is the name of the locality said to be
,the most important in the vicinity. A date is plac~d upon it, the date on
which the last data were obtained for the map.
In all of the above, except for the trace of the front line. the details
of the friendly trenches are mostly omitted so that if a map falls' into enemy
hands it will be of little value to the foe.
The French, however, make a battle map on the 1/10,000 scale which
:-;hows the friendly trenches to the last detail. This map is issued only to
a few trusted officers and is jealously' guarded.
j
B. MAPS OF BELGIUM .
.H6. The 1/20,000 map in black is compiled from land title (cadastral)
maps reduced to this scale and verified and filled in detail from fresh surveys.
Bonne's projection for the meridian of Brussels and the parallel of 56 grade;.;
is used. The relief is shown by contours representing vertical intervals of 1
meter on the left bank of the Meuse and 5 meters on. the right bank.
Some sheets have been magnified to the scale of 1/10,000.
The 1/40,000 map in black is established by joining and reducing the
1/20,000. The contour interval is 5 meters. A new editipn is' published
with watercourses in blue and roads in red.
The 1/100,000 in six colors is reduced from the 1/40,000. Each sheet
includes two sheets and two half sheets' of' the 1/40,000 map. The contour
interval is 10 meters.
c. MAPS OF GERMANY.
417. The 1/25.000 sheets in black are the reproduction of the original sur-
veys intended to be the basis of the 1/100,000 map._....The projection used is
the polyhedral, and the area represented is. about 144 square kilometers.
Contour intervals are 10 meters in broken country and 5 meters for slightly
rolling'eountry, with 2.5 and even 1.25 meters on gentle slopes. Principal
contours are shown every 20 meters. ~
. The 1/100,000 in black is a reduction of the 1/25,000. Altitudes are
expressed by hachures. These maps have been magnified into 1/50,000 by
.the French Service Geographique.
D. BRITISH MAPS.
See Appendix II.
TopOgraphy for Field Artillery

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE LAMBERT GRID.
ORIGIN.
418. In Chapter XVI on map projections mention was made of the fact
that the origin of the Lambert projection, used in tke preparation of the
battle maps, employed in the late war, is located on the meridian of 6
grades east of Paris and at a point on it 55 grades north latitude. A plate
- also was included showing the map as made from the projection, with a por-
tion of a grid at the origin of the projection as above noted.
This grid, consisting of parallel lines forming squares one kilometer
on a side, has been called the Lambert Grid simply because it has been used
with maps made on the Lambert projection, and because the origin of th,~
grid, for the sake of convenience and simplicity, has been made identical
with' the ,origin of the projection.' The map having been made, the grid
is rolled out upon it.
COORDINATES.
419. Compared with the method of designation of a point by means of geo-
graphical coordinates or by other systems of grids, the Lambert grid is by
far the easiest and most rapid of all methods devised for .designating a point
or objective. The north and south lines of the grid are called the Y lines.
The east and west lines are called the X lines- The Y axis (central Y line
of the grid) passes through the origin of the projection and is therefore co-
incident with the meridian of 6 grades east of Paris.
The X axis passes through the origin of the projection also, and is
tangent at that point to the parallel of the origin (55 grades north latitude).
All X and Y lines are perpendicular to one another.
A. COORDINATES OF ORIGIN.
420: To avoid confusion the origin of the grid is not 0 for the X and 0 for
the Y, since this numbering would necessitate the handling of both negative
~nd positive values. Such a consequence precludes any "0, 0", point on ter-
rain in the battle area. This "0, 0" point does occur, but at a point well
removed from the battle 'line, where the matter is of. no moment.
Actually the origin has been given the following coordinates: X=
500,000, Y=300,000, which means that the "0, 0," point is 300,000 meters
south of the origin and 500,000 meters west of it. With a metric scale,
therefore, a point can. be located without confusion down to the last meter
by dividing each square into 1000 parts by means of the scale. The distanc(~
from left to right along the X line or abscissa is first read, then the distanc0
upward along the ordinate or Y line is read until opposite the point in ques-
tion.
B. COMPLETE COORDINATES.
421. Distances along any X line from the 0 of the system are recorded by
-195-
means of the subdivisions on that X line made by the intersection of the Y
'lines. Similarly distanc~s on any Y line from the 0 of the system are re-
corded by means of the subdivisions on that Y line made by the intersecting
X lines. A point is always designated 'by taking the values (XY) of the
southwest corner of a kilometric square, then reading to the right or east
from that point, thence up or north to the point itself. Complete co~rdi-
nates are given in six figures for each axis,. the X always being given first.
see fig. 129.
PORTION or LAMBERT GRID

. ADJACENT TO ITj ORlqlN
Y-LINE.s~
~
30400 0
30300 0
30,00 0 ~
X- LINES
30100 0
,0RIGI N I
3000 00
pOINr-A
2990 00 ~A X-50e.200
~ ... Y-298300
29800
,2.970 00
.'
2960 00 ,. ,... ,...O
000 0 "'-J '-JO GO '-J
°0°0
000
0 °oxo ooOO
_0°0'00
It") \0 I:'-- co 0'
()\ 0
0 l\.J er>
0 0 o.
o~ It)o
()\ ()\ <l' 0'
lO to,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ It) 10 lO It")
Fig. 129.
C. REDUCED HECTOMETRIC COORDINATES.

422. For convenience in designating targets, a system of reduced hecto-
metric coordinates is employed. This system is sufficiently accurate for
purposes of identification and has' the advantage of reducing the number of
figures which must be sent over a wire, or which must be sent down from
an airplane. 1
Since hectometric coordinate means coordinates expressed in hundreds
of meters, the hectometric coordinates of the point A. in the above figure
would be; X=5022, Y=2983.
But even this abbreviation calls for the use of more digits than neces-
sary; and the above may be further reduced as follows .. A glance at any
of the ordinary battle maps will show. that there will be no duplication of
the figures in the hundreds of thousand's and the tens of thousand's columns
on anyone sheet, hence these digits may be dropped. Further, there will be
-196-
no duplication of the digit in the thousand's column nearer than 10,000 meters,.
and this is a distance great enough that it should cause no confusion. Thus,
in the above figure, it is seen that the lowest figure for the Y value is
296,000, the figure 6 being the value in the thousand's column.There is no
duplication of the figure 6 for the Y value in the limits shown, the other dig-
its in the thousands column being 7, 8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. Similarly there is nO
duplication of the digits in the thousand's column for the X values found
below nearer than 10,000 meters, the figures running 5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5. .
Therefore, if the above digits are used as the identification numbers
of a set of coordinates, the point can be recognized just as readily as if
the complete coordinates were used (within the limits of the single' sheet).
The hectometric coordinates for the above point, A, reduced in this manner.
then, will change from X= 5022 and Y=2983 to X=22 and Y=83.
However the reduced' hectometric coordinates will not be separated as
to X and Y values but will be written thus :-2283 ..
(1.) Errors Introduced.
423. As indicated above the use of hectometric coordinates brings into
being a certain amount of error. since th~ point is read to the nearest hun-
<Ired meter subdivision. The maximum error so in);roduced is 71 meters
which is within the dispersion of the 'ordinary field piece. An error of this
.size occurs only when the point in question is located at the center of a
hundred meter square, or in other ''lords, when the point is ;;;0 meters' re-
moved from both axes. The error introduced then is 50~ 50~ =71, see \j +
fig. 130, in which P is the true position of the point and P' is the point ac-
.cording to its hectometric coordinates.
For actual map firing the coordinates must be .read
<lown to the last meter.
47-4. In some areas of France both the Lambert and the
Bonne projection maps are used, with grids printed upon r:
them, each using the origin of the projection as the orig- g
in of ~he grid. These are cases where complete surveyfl
for the Lambert projection have not been completed, I~_-."...~_--,
hence an allowance must be made, in using the grids, 100 M
for the joininR" of maps of the h'lo systems. Fig. 130.
.D. PLOTTING POINTS.

42:>. The above discussion has referred to reading the coordinates of a point.
In plotting points to the nearest meter great care must be given to the plot-
ting with a metric scale, or scale which is divided into 100 units of any sort.
The X should be measured carefully in two, places on the grid, at least one
grid square apart and a line drawn joining the two points. .
Similarly it is best to measure along the Y lines in two places, at
least one square apart and join these two points with a line. The inter-
section of the two lines will determine the point which is to be plotted, see
fig. 131.
426. For example in the figure below it is desired to plot point B, the co-
ordinates of which are X=484,247,Y=307.751. Measure 247 meters ove!~
l'oPol!raphy for Field Artillery
-197-
from the 484,000 line at (1) and again at (2). Draw a fine light line between
(1) and (2) thus establishing the X coordinate of the point (B). Similarly
measure 751 meters from the 307,000 line upward, and plot (3) and (4). The
intersection of the lines (1)-(2) and (3)-(4) will determine B. Outline the inter-
section by heavy lines in soft pencil, as "8hOV\'l1 in the figure; leaving the
actual intersection untouched so that the point may be pricked with a sharp
needle.
PLOTTING A POINT
30~OOO
(I)
: ...
I
308000 Q-
0-
(3) ._~ .. • •• - .• -
iF>
+- .• '0' - . - - X(4)
_ •• - . :
.0
In
I
'lit
en
N
.307000 e-
306000
o o o
o
a 8 g
C'") IC1
co. co
'\t ~ "J"
,Fig. 13!.
Note: In drawing the lines a hard pencil sharpened to a chisel edge
should be used.
CONVERGENCE OF MERIDIANS.
427. On most battle maps based on the Lambert projection there are arrows
indicating the relation of magnetic north and true north with the Y (Lam ..
bert or Grid) north. Since all direction on firing charts is reckoned from
Y north, such direction being known as the Y azimuth of the point, the re-
lation. between grid north and true north or between grid north and mag-
netic north must be known. In case the map does not indicate this,' US0
must be made of the formula AD=(M-Mo) sin Lo, in which AD is the
angle of convergence (sometimes called angle of divergence); M is the longi-
tude of the point in question; Mo is the longitude of the origin of the pro-
jection (likewise of the grid since they are identical for French battle maps),
and Lo is the latitude of the origin of the projection (likewise that of the
grid). Mo is -6 grades (being east of Paris), and Lo is 55 grades north
latitude as discussed in Chapter XVI on projections. The formula then be-
-198-
comes, Angle of Convergence=(M-(-6» sin 55 grades. The sine of 55
grades is .76. The 'formula in its final form, then is AD=(M+6) .76, which
should be noted in all artillery field notebooks. A simple discussion of and
a figure showing this relation between true north and grid north,. as above
expressed, is appropriate here ..
428. By a theorem of spherical trigonometry, the divergence of the meri-
dians from the north pole to the equator is a function of the sine of the
angle of latitude.
CONVERG[NCE: OF" M[RIDIANS
LOOKING DowNQN NORTH PoLf:
Fig. 132
For example, in the left hand part of

fig. 132 are shown two meridians converging at
the poles. Figure 133 portrays a development
of these same meridians showing that the an- PARALLE.L
gle beteen them is greatest at the pole. At the \ Of 55.9:
pole the angle of latitude is 90° or 100 grades \
(see right hand portion of fig. 132) and the \ ANCrLE.5 Of ,

CONVE.RqE.NCE
sine of 100 grades=1, its greatest value. I \
However at the equator the meridians 00"=100.9'

EQVATOR
are parallel. At the equator the angle of lati-
tude is 0 and the sine of this angle is O. Hence
the meridians, being parallel, form no angle.
The amount of the angles formed by mClltl:::ms
may thus be seen to be a function of tLc :::~ne
of the latitude at any given parallel, such ~~s55
grades, the one used in the formula.
429. The divergence of the true north and
grid north is identical with that for meridian::;,
since the Y axis coincides with the meridian of ~.5. POLE.
orgin. This divergence, then, is the measure of DE\)E.LOPM ENT Of
some definite angle; that is, the angle between
the meridian of origin (-6 grades), and the Tt-IRE.E. ME.RID/AN'=>
point in question, M. Fig. 133.
Assume for example, that the point on the map in question is 3 grades
-199-
east of Paris. Applying t!l~ formula, Ad=(-3+6) .76=3X.76=2.28 grades,
see fig. 134. ANGLE- or CONVERGENCE
.I!:
3g 4<3 59 69
303
30Z
ME
301 ----
30C),OOO
ORIGIN Or GRID
AND PROJ eTloN
2.99
~98
'0
0\
~
t'-:-.
0\
't
«)
0\
"i
0\
()\
v
0
0
0
0-
0
a
te)
N
,.....
'-J
It) - -
(W)
'-
te,
Fig. 134. Ir)
Y-AZIMUTH.
-130. A direction from grid north is called Y-azimuth and is measured in a -
clockwise direction from the Y line. This is done by means of a protracto!',
see fig. :135.
Y-AZIMlITH
,,/' Y-UNE:S'-.....
Fig. 135.
CHAPTER XIX •.
USE OF GRID IN MAP READING AND. MAP FIRING.
- ADVANTAGES OF THE GRID.
431. As indicated in the preceding chapter, the grid offers a pl'ecise and
conyenient method of designating and locating points on a map or grid sheet.
In addition it also is possible to determine the direction of one point from
another, or the range from point to point, by comparing the coordinates and
making a few simple mathematical calculations. In all of this work with
the gridded sheet,' the artilleryman, who is to do map fhing, should be a:1
adept. Often he will find that the grid sheet and the rules used are not
of the standard dimensions. in' which case he will have to adopt some one of
the expedients indicated below.
A.METHOD OF PLOTTING A POINT.
432. (1.) \Vhen The Ruler Graduations are Longer Than The Distant'l-'
Between Grids.
To plot a point P, the coordinates of which aloe;
X=25,400 Y=55,400.
57000
p
c c'
a' .55,000
0 0 0
C 0 a
0 0
~
N
c.$)-
N
r--
N
Fig. '136.
I I •
Place the zero Of the scale on one grid line, 25,000, and the 10 or
multiple of 10 on the adjoining grid line, 26,000, see fig. 136.
Layoff the necessary unit, a'=400. Repeat by holding the ruler in
• TOIlOgrRphy for Field Artillery
•
-201-
the same manner but above or below this position. Layoff the same unit, a.
Join a and a'. This line determines the X-coordinate.
In similar manner layoff the Y":coordinate, c and c', joining them by
the line, c-c'. The point P is determined by the intersection of lines, a-a'
and c-e'. Show point as in diagram by drawing four rays with a soft.pencil,
none of which should pass through the point. Prick the point with a fine
needle.
Note: This method of using intersecting lines should be used fOl'
all accurate plotting, as it at once discloses any gross errors in the use t)f
" .
the rule while small errors are averaged together.
(2.) When The Ruler Grad.uations Are Too Small.
433. Determine the number of units on the scale that the scale lacks from
being equal to the distance between two ~djacent grids. Let U-is be equal to
l. Say that the X-coordinate is 25,400. Then it is necessary to allow for
(400/1000 of 1)=5 in laying off, a. This may be done by laying the zero of
the ruler 5 distance from the grid before starting measurements, fig. 137, or
else laying the zero on the grid and adding 5 to 400, fig. 138. The point, p,
must be determined by the intersection of rays, a-a' and c-c', as in fig. 136,
above ..
N N
0- 01
o o
o o
o o
O()(}~C;
55000
o o
o o
o a
'0
In (\J
N
Fig. 137. Fig. 138.
Example: Let the point to be plotted be, X=25,400; Y=55,500. To

plot the X-coordinate, let the distance between the grids be equivalent to
1000 plus 50 units of the rule. Then 1050 units are equivalent to 1000 meters
or 1 meter is equal to 1050/1000 of one unit. To layoff 400 allowance must
be made for the proper portion of the 50 extra units, which is equal to
400/1000 of 50 or 20. This may be done either by setting the zero of th~
ruler 20. units from the grid, or else by laying off 400 plus 20 units (420)
with the. zero on the grid. The Y-coordinate is established in a simiIa!'
manner taking into consideration 500/1000 of 50 or 25units, or 525 units.
Be METHOD OF READING THE COORDINATES OF A POINT.
434. Reading the coordinates of a point is the reverse of plotting a point.
It is essential at all times to keep in mind that the distance between adjoin-
ing grid lines is equal to 1000 meters, and that it is necessary only to find
Topography for Field Artil1ery
-202-
some means to interpolate or divide this distance up in the required numbel'
of equal parts.
(1.) When The Rule Is Correctly Scaled.
Lay the zero of the ruler on the grid'line and read the units to the
point. Add these units to the thousands of the grid. For instance, the grin
line on which the zero is laid is marked 35,000, and the number of units. to the
point from the grid line is equal to 475. Then that complete coordinate would
be equal to 35,475. The same applies for the reading of the other coordinate.
(Note:. When the grid is used to 10 times the scale for which it was
originally intended, then the distance between grid lines=100 meters. This
. case often arises when using a 1/20,000 grid for a 1/2,000 chart. Make
the proper allowance in this case).
(2.) When The Scale Is Too Large.

435. Bring the edge of the ruler opposite the point and at the same time
turn, it so that the 0 and 10 coincide with their respective grids. Read the
number of units and add to the thousands of the grid. If the ruler is too
much oblique, care must be used to get the exact value, see fig. 136.
(3.) When The Scale Is Too Small.
436. Determine the number of units on the rule that is equal to the dif-
ference in length between the rule and the distance between grid lines. Let
this distance equal I, see fig. 138. 1000+1= total number of units between
grids. Let m= the units read from the grid to the point. Then the true
distance, d, may be expressed as follows: d= [m+ (1000+1) ] 1000. Add th~
value "d" to the thousands of the grid to the left .and this will give one of
the complete coordinates. The other coordinate is obtained in a similar
manner.
Exa'mple: Assume the point up" lies between the grid lines 25.000
and 26,000; that the distance between the grids is equal to 1000 units of the
rule +50 units. In other words, there are 1050 units of the rule between
adjacent grid lines. These 1050 units are equivalent to 1000 meters. As-
sume that from the grid line of 25,000 to the point there are 420 units. Then
420 '
the distance in meters would be equal to lOOOXlOOO , which is equal to 400.
Therefore the X-coordinate =25,400. The other coordinate is obtained in
a'like manner.
(4.) With Right Angled Rule.

437: A more rapid method for plotting and reading cordinates is indicated
in' the figure given below. The right angled ruler enables one to read
both coordinates at one operation~ but does not give as exact results as the
o;erations described above.
This method is close enough for reading and plotting abbreviated
'hectometric coordinates, also for preparing firing data in some types of map
firing.
C. PLOTTING DIRECTIONS.
(1.) By Y-Azimuth.
4:J8. The Y-azimuth of a line, as heretofore stated, is the angular distance
'l'ollo~'Taphy for Field Artillery
-203-
measured clockwise from grid north or the Y-line. Therefore, in order to
plot a line, given its Y-azimuth. "it will be' necessary to determine the direc-
.'!:
ll.
tl 10 •• : -
q :
8 I
7 I
b I
5 I
4- :lO,OOO
J •
Z.I •,
w 0- ~•••.
,
I
1'1
10 /I Il 13
Fig. 139.
. tion of grid north by means of a line through the point from which the
direction is determined. Placing the center of the protractor at this point,
with the zero line of the protractor on the line in the direction of grid north,
layoff the clo~kwise angle equal to the Y-azimuth. see fig. 135.
(2.) By Coordinates.
439. A line may be determined by two points on it; therefore. if the co-
ordinates of two points are drawn and plotted and these points joined, the
line is then established. Drawing a line through one of the points parallel to
the Y-grid line and measuring the clockwise angle from this line, the Y-
azimuth of the line is determined. Note: If the line between the two points
intersects a Y-line of the grid, as is usually the case, the Y-azimuth may be
read directly without further work.
It sometimes arises that both points cannot be plotted on the same
grid, because the map distance between the two points is greater than the
size of the gridded sheet or map.
(.to. Take a case when working with a grid with a 1/2,000 R. F. If the
distance between the two points is 250 centimeters and the greatest distance
-204-
available on the grid is. 30 centimeters, it is evident that point a and point I>
cannot be plotted, fig. 140. Let point a be the station point; let b .be the
255
2.SQ900
x 4e8500
254- y e54400
1..5qBOO
2.53
25(>,700
252.
l50,GOO
2.51
25Q500
)( 4l.S500 R
z:50 Y 250400
l5q400 8
1I")Jt) \00
o
~\J)
~ 11)' V 10'
C\J
~ "It"
Fig. 140.
point, (250 centimeters on the map or 5000 meters on. the ground fl'om a),
which is to be sighted on in order to orient the board. The direction to thi3
point may be continued in three ways.
Let a=X=425,500, Y=250,400.
b=X=428,500, Y=2~4,400.
441. (a) By Auxiliary Points. The grid may be renumbered on a 1/20,-
000 scale for the time being and the two points. plotted, a' b'. The Y-azimuth
can then be determined from the line connecting a' b'. Through a on the
1/2,000 scale draw a line parallel to a' b'. This will give the direction to b,
~ee- fig. 140.
442. (b) By similar triangles. From the coordinates it will be seen that
the point, b, is 3000 meters east and 4000 meters north of a, fig. 140. Then
with a scale layoff 3000 units (say 3 inches) east and 4000 units (say .~
inches) north, and the point x is determined. Joining a and x the direction
of the line, ab, is determined, since similar triangles have been constructed
and x is in the same direction from a as b, see fig. 14l.
443. (c) By I~educed Similar triangles. Or by a comparison of similal'
TOPOg'I'Rjlhy for Fiel.1 Al'tilll'ry
-205-
triangles a point, p, may be established that lies on the line, ab, near enough
to a, so that a and p may be- plotted; and in this manner the direction of
line, ab, is determined, see fig. 141 below.
3000 : 4000 :: 150 : Y
600,000=3000 Y
Y=200
Then the coordinates of point p are;-
X=425,500+ 150=425.650.
Y~250.400+200=250,600.
Next plot point p and join with a, and the direction of the line, ab, is deter-
mined. •
H.t. (d) By Reversing Directions. It sometimes will happen, that the
point a is near one edge of the paper and the point b lies off the sheet.. By
revolving the direction ab, through 3200 mils, or in other words by plottin '.~
a point b, which diffel's in its coordinates from a, in the same direction and
by the same amounts as a differs from b, the direction, b' a, which is the same
as ab, is established.
Since a is 3000 meters west and 4000 meters south of b, the point b'
will be 3000 meters west and 4000 meters south of a, see fig. 142.
')..x '
---- 3000----
Fig. 141.
!
l
.....
Fig. 142.
Subtracting 3000 meters from the X-value of a, and 4000 meters from
the V-value of a, the coordinates of b' are found to be, X=422,500, Y=246,
400. This point is plotted and the direction determined, see fig. ,142.
D. DETERMINATION OF. RANGE AND Y-AZIl\IUTH BY

COORDINATES .
. (1.) Range By Square Root.
Ha. The coordinates of a point. not only determine its location on a grid
but also c:1.etermineits distance and direction from other points. The dis-
tance may be found in a mathematical way by finding the east and west,
and north and south distances between the two points. Take into consider-
TopoJ-rraphy for Field Artillery
-206-
ation the problem stated above, see fig. 140. The two legs of the right angle
triangle are found to be 3000 M. and 4000 M.respectively. The distance
a'b' or the range from a' to b' is equal to ~3,0002 + 4,0002 :"'=~25,000,OOO~
5000M.
(2.) Direction.
446. (a) The direction of a line given by two points may be detei'mined by
a brief calculation without plotting the points, when the direction
does not lie more than 330 mils off either the X or the Y direction~.
When angles are formed greater than this, the difference between
the mil and the tangent relation tends to give inaccurate results,
fig. 9.
UI
Example: o
Given the coordinatesof a, as X=25,000 Y=50,000
8
lOOP(
b, as X=25,500 Y=55,000
b is 500 meters east and 5000 meters north of a. Figuring the
angle by dividing the distance subtended, by 1/1000 of the range,
the angle of 100 mils is found. This is equal to the V-Azimuth
of the line ab, fig. 143. a.
Fig. 143.
Example:
Given the coordinates of c, as X=30,000 Y=60,000
d, as X=24,000 Y=58,800
d is 6000 meters west and 1200 south Y
of c. The angle made with the x-axis
is equal to 200 mils. (1200+6) The
V-azimuth is equal to 4800-200 or
46001'jt.
447. (b). When the direction lies
more than 330 mils from the X or
the Y axis. X
x
When this situation arises the
. V-azimuth may be determined accu-
rately by comparing the coordinates
to determine the tangent of the angle
considered, and then by consulting
the table of natural tangents (Appen- v
dix III). Determine the correspond- Fig. 144.
ing angle.
Example:
Consider the direction a' b', fig. 140. The perpendicular side oPPOSit:3
the angle, b' a' R, is 4000M. The side adjacent to the angle b' a' H is 3000~L
The tangent of the angle then is 4000/3000, or 4/3 or 1.333. From t.he
table it is found that this corresponds to an angle of 53°8'=955*.
The V-azimuth is reckoned from the V-line or vertical line. TherefoI'2
the V-azimuth will be 1600ljt-9551'jt=645ljt.
J
-207-
E.' TO LOCATE ON THE GROUND A POINT THE CO-
ORDINATES 01<'"WHICH' ARE GIVEN.
448. Let p= the point to be determined on the ground. Plot this point on
the plane table or map. By examination of these coordinates and coordi- .
nates of nearby control points, make an estimation of where this point would '
be on the ground. Set the plane table up at this point (called x), fig. 145.
Fig. 145.
Determine by accurate resection the location of x on the plane table. Measure

the distance on the plane table between x and p and determine the relative
difference on the ground. With the plane table oriented and the alidade on
x p, p being the point farthest away, line a man in with the line of sight of
the alidade and at the required measured distance away. This should be
the point. Verify by resection and make the necessary corrections.
449. It sometimes oCCUl'Sthat brush or a crest intervenes between P and x,
fig. 146. If such a case arises it will be necessary to run a- two (or more)
,P
r,
f
,.
f'
,f
~-----------~ ~
-----~
.
Fig. 146.
legged traverse, determi}1ing another point .Y on the plane table and gro'und.
Proceed from .Y in the san;).emanner as x in the preceding problem.
Topography fot' Field Artillery

CHAPTER XX.
THE COMPASS.
GENERAL.
450. In modern artillery practice the compass needle plays an important
part since it affords a convenient and reasonably accurate method of deter-
mining directions, of making traverses, of intersection, resection, and of lay-
ing guns for direction. Other things being equal the longer the needle the
greater the accuracy of the direction determined. Even with a long needle
some sort of s:ghting device and some method of reading the subdivisions
of the angle set off is needed, in order to do satisfactory work; hence the
prismatic compass, the aiming circle or similar instruments only, can be
used with a satisfactory degree of accuracy.
NORTH.
451. Because the al'tilleryman is dealing with three different norths-True
North, Magnetic North and Grid North (Lambert or Y-North) it is con-
.venient to designate horizontal angles measured from these various direc-
tions by different names.
452. Azimuth. Thus in this publication the horizontal angle, measured
clockwise from true north around to a given direction will be spoken of as
the azimuth of that direction.
453. The magnetic bearing or bearing of a given direction will be used to
designate the horizontal angle measured clockwise from magnetic north.
454. . The Y -Azimuth (Gisement) of a direction is the horizontal angle
measured clockwise from Y -north or Grid nOl.th.'
Note: Actually Azimuth is any angle measured horizontally in a
clockwise direction from a given vertical plane. In some engineering man-
uals and in the air service, the, term is used to designate the horizontal
angle measured from magnetic north, the same angle which, in this text, will
be termed bearing.
Bearing on the other hand in some texts is confined entirely to mea-
surements within a certain quadrant as "North North East" and always such
bearings are less than 90 degrees.
DECLINATION.
A. MAGNETIC DECLINATION.
455. The north magnetic pole is situated south of the north pole and in
the western hemisphere. Therefore the magnetic meridians and the true
meridians generally do not coincide. Magnetic Declination is the angle at
any given point between these two meridians or between true north and
magnetic north.
Since the compass needle points toward the magnetic pole it is evi-
dent that, except at a few localities it will not point toward the north pole.
-209-
At certain parts of the earth's surface it will point east of the true north
giving an easterly declination and at o~hers it will point west giving a west-
erly declination. '!:
-156. In America there is a westerly declination in the eastern part of the
continent and an easterly declination in the western portion of the continent.
The amount of declination varies with the locality. The amount of declina-
tion may be determined from an isogonic chart, such as that included in this
chapter, plate XVIII, which, for the epoch noted, gives, by curved lines con-
necting points of equal declinations, the approximate declination for point~
in the area represented.
Note: "Isogonic, of, pertaining to, or noting equal angles." Hence
isogonic lines are imaginary lines joining points on the earth's surface at
which the magnetic declination from the true north is the same. ~
At no point is the magnetic declination a constant .. It is subject to
a number of different variations.
(1.) Magnetic Variations.
457. There are innumerable variations in the lines of magnetic force of
the earth very few of which can be computed. Following are the more im-
portant variations to which the/'compass needle is subject. Of these, the
first two only, usually are considered.
(a) The daily variation, consisting of a swing from the extreme
easterly position at about 8 :00 a. m. to the extreme westerly position about
1:30 p. m.; the mean position occurring about 10:00 a. m. and 5 :00 p.m. This
variation is from 5' to 15',' and the exact amount to be expected for any
hour of the day and the months of the year may be obtained from tables
that have been computed. This often is called the diurnal variation ..
(b) The secular variation, a long slow swing, covering. many years.
In the United States both east and west declinations now are gradually in-
creasing at varying rates depending upon the locality.
. (c) The annual variation, which is very small (less than l' per year)
and need not be considered.
(d) The lunar variation, which is still smaller.
(e) Irregular variations, caused by so-called magnetic storms, un.
certain in character and not to be predicted. Such variations are sometimes
large.
(f) Local attractions. These may greatly disturb the needle, and
often come from unknown sources. The observer should have them con-
stantly in mind and endeavor to keep all magnetic influences, such as mag-
netic bodies, electric wires, steel helmets, etc., at a distance from the in-
strument when the needle is being read. Experiments indicate that' a tran-
sit compass needle is not materially affected by large masses of metal at
.distances greater than fifty feet.
Compass Error.
(g) The geometric axis of a needle may not coincide with its mag-
netic axis, hence the readings of two compasses at. the same point may diffe...
slightly. This last is known as a compass error. Any variation due to
faulty construction of the compass itself is a compass error.
-210-
(2.) Use Of Isogonic Chart.
458. When the artill2ry officer is ca.lled upon to run a direction or to lay
his guns, and the declination of his compass needle is not known, and can-
not be determined in the time allotted, he will be compelled to use the datn
t)
'';:;
Q)
~bD
ro
~
"@
::s
0'
~
.....0 ~
rFl
a
Q)
~
~
o 0 0
ell If). l't)
(0 ~ ~
furnisheu by his isogonic chart and by the tables of diurnal variation, in
determining the magnetic declination which he will use. The following prob- j
lem will indicate the method of procedure.
Topog-raphy for Fielcl Artillery
J
-211-
AMOUNT AND VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE FROM ITS
MEAN DAILY POSITION.
The letters E and W indicate which side of the

mean position the needle points.
Local mean time: - Morning Hours.

Season and Position
in Latitude. 6h. 7h. 8h \9 h 11Oh. \ 1~~~.:~h.
Dec., Jan., Feb., . Min. Min. Min. I Min.! I Min. Min._ Min.
Lat., 25° to 37° . O.IW O.IE 1.0E 2.0E 2.2E l.IE O.5W
Mar., Apr., May,
Lat., 25° to 37° ., . lo6E 2.8E 3.3E \ 2.6E 11.IE 0.6; 1.9W
Jun., Jul., Aug.
Lat., 25° to 37° .,
Sept., Oct., Nov.,
Lat., 25° to 37°
.
. ::::::;:;~::J;;:\::~:\~~~:;~::
Local mean time: Afternoon Hours.
Season and Position 1-------
in~~tit~de.
.
__ I
I
OhJ h._i_2hj~J~h~ t5~~ ~
I
1_
I I
Dec., Jan., Feb., \ Min. \ Min. Min. Min. I Min. Min. Min.
Lat., 25° to 37° .. 0.5W 1.5W 1.8W l.6W l.OW O.4W O.IW
Mar., Apr., May, I I
Lat., 25° to 37° .. l.9\V 2.6\V 2.8W 2.4W l.6W O.9W 9.5W
Jun., Jul., Aug.,
Lat., 25° to 37° ..
I 2.8W 3.2W 3.IW 2.4W l.5W 10.8W O.4W
Sept., Oct., Nov., i
Lat., 25° to 37° 1 2.IVI 2.3W\l.9W\lo2W 0.7WI0.4\y 0.2W
;.:. 1 ------------ __ --- - - ----------
(From Tracy's Surveying)

Latitude of Fort Sill is about 34°-40'.
----_._. ---_ ... --- ._--~_._--._-_. __ ._-_._-- _.,._--_._-----_
---- _
-- _._-~.-
.. ---_.- ..,.'--,"-_._---- ,---._---_ .. _----_ .. -------_
.. - -_.---------
.•.-~_. -- ~-----_._-~.--
--_._.- ---~------_ _-
....
~'-
459. Assume the -officer is located at Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, and that he expects
to use his compass needle at 3 o'clock on the aft8l'noon of May 1, 1919.
From his map 01' from the isogonic chart he finds that on Jan. 1, 1915, th:_'
magnetic declination at Ft. Sill was 10 degrees 4 minutes east. From the
isogonic chart, Plate XVIII, he notes that the line of secular change of 2'
east per year is north of Ft. Sill and that of 3' is south of the same place.
By interpolation he finds that there should be an annual increase of easterl~~
declination at Ft. Sill of 2.6'. Since Jan. 1, 1915, four and one third years
have elapsed. Therefore the easterly declination would have increased ir
that time by 4 1/3X2.6' or 11.26'.
From the table or" diurnal variation he finds that at 3 o'clock in the
afternoon in the month of May the needle will show-a vatiation of 2.4' west
of its mean position. He acds the variations and secures the total of 10°
12.86' or a variation of 181.5811z=1821jt east.
Topography for Field Arti!l..,ry
...:
-212-
Mangetic declination as given in isogonic chait 10° 4: E
Secular change in 4 1/3 years 11.26' E
Total ...........•........................... 10° 15.26' E
Less Diurnal variation for 3 p. m. May 1 2.4'. W
0
Total ~ 10 12.86' E
10° 12.86'=181.58'11=182,/1-.
B. COMPASS DECLINATION.
460. Compass Declination includes the magnetic declination, the magnetic
variations, and the error of the compass itself. NaturallY it will be different
for each compass.
Since all of these are difficult to compute, and since the magnetic
declination and the variations generally are not subject to any sudden changes
of great size in a given locality, the most satisfactory method of procedure
is to determine the compass declination by a topographical operation and
to use the value so obtained for a limited period of time.
(1.) Sighting On The Pole Star.
461. The most accurate method of determining the compass declination of
.a given instrument is by sighting on the pole star at the hour of the night
when it is in an approximately north position. This OCCUl'S when the Dippel'
and Cassiopeia are above or below the North Star.
For practical details of the observations made on Polaris, the following
will serve as a guide. Select a clear space of level ground not too near
buildings or any object which might cause local disturbances of the needle.
Drive a picket. leaving the top smooth and level, about 18 inches from the
ground. Six feet north. of the picket suspend a plumb line from a point
high en<?ugh so that Polaris, seen from the top of the picket, will be neal'
the top of the line, fig. 147. The line should be hard and smooth, and abovt
1/10 of an inch in diameter. .
Fig. 147.
The weight at the bottom of the line should hang in a vessel of

water. or in a hole dug in the ground, to lessen the vibration of the line.
Drive a second picket in line with the first one and the plumb line,
a short distance north of the latter. Make a peep by punching a hole about
1/10 of an inch in diameter in a piece of paper and hold it on top of the
first picket. Adjust the peep so that the star is behind the plumb line when
looking through the peep. Mark the position of the peep on the top of the

-213-
first picket, and lay a straight edge or stretch a string from the point,.
touching the plumb-line, to the second picket.
Place the north-south edge of the compass box against .the straight
edge and read the needle.
To find the azimuth of Polaris at the. time of th,e observation see
figure and table of Appendix VI.
Fig. 148.
(2.) Using Sun To Establish Meridian.

462. Prick a small hole in a piece of tin or opaque paper and fix it securel~~
over the south edge of a table or other surface perfectly level;-.so that the
Runlight coming through the hole will fall on a convenient place on the sur-
face, see fig. 148., The hole may be two feet above the table 'for long day~
and 18 inches f01:-short ones. Half an hour before to half an hour aftel-
noon mark the position of the spot of sunlight on the horizontal surface at
equal time intervals of about ten minutes. Draw the curve bd, fig. 148.
through the points marked, and from a point e on the horizontal surface and
in the 'vertical line through the hole, a, sweep an arc, ef ,intersecting bd in twO'
points. The line eg, drawn through from e, through a point on the arc mid-
way between the intersections, is the true meridian. The curve, bd, illus-.
boates this method. Its form varies with the sun's declination.
The .meridian being established on the table the compass may be'
placed on this line and the declination of the needle read.
(3.) Comparison Of Azim!u.ths And Bearings.
463. Determination of the compass decli~ation may be secured "in the fol-
lowing manner, see fig. 149.
Select a position to work from, which is clearly marked on the map
and from which can be seen at least three distant objects,. widely separated'
if .possible, which also are clearly marked on the map. When selecting this
position, it is important to see that no metal is near which might have an
effect on the needle of the compass.
Topography for .Field ArtillelT
-214"':"
Lay the map on- a table, care being taken that it has no blank space~;
on it caused by the joints, as in some folding maps. .
-215-
Draw a line through the selected point on the map ~arallel to the
true north':'south line found on the map.
Mark the selected point carefully on the line and draw.!:rays from it
_ to the three indicated objects already selected. "
Place a circular protractor on the map with'its center on tili\ point
where the rays meet, zero toward the north, so that the 0-3200 diameter
coincides with the true north-south line drawn on the map.
Read off the number of mils ,at which the rays to the three distant
objects cut the edge of the protractor; in other words, read the azimuths to
these objects, making a careful note of each in turn.
Set up the prismatic compass at the position on the ground from
which the azimuths have been read on the map, and read carefully the
magnetic bearings to the three distant cbjects,m2king a careful note of each
in turn as before. Th ~ average of difference between bearings and~azimuths
will give the mean compass declination.
In figure 149 is shown a map on which a protractor is laid, giving
the azimuths to a schoolhouse, a church, and a wir.dmill , all taken from a
turn in a main road.
A compass is set up at this turn and the magnetic bearings to thes~
three objects are read. The results are tabulated as follows:
AZIMUTH MAGNETIC BEARING COMPASS
READ WITH COMPASS DECLINATION
READ WITH PROTRACTOR
Schoolhouse. 450 mils 775 mils 325 mils W
Church. . . . .. 5670' " 5985 " 315 " W
Windmill. . .. 3880 " 4185 " 305 " '\V
Total •..•.. : •..•...•.•••.•..•.•...•••. 945 " W
Mean declination .....•............... 315 " W
This mean declination can be taken as the compass declination of the
compass used for the experiment. If this is compared with the magnetic
declination computed for the particular locality ~nd particular time, the
error of the compass can be ascertained ar:d maTked on the' back for future
guidance in this locality .•
It is important to take at least three bearings to guard against pel'.
~onal error, and desirable to select objects as much as'10 or 15 miles distant.
(4.) Reading Bearings Of Sun Or Of A Star.
464. A third method of determining the declination of a particular com-
pass needle is given below.
Read the bearing of the sun, a planet, or a bright star at rising and
~etting on the same day, or at setting one day and rising the next.'
Add these two bearings.
0
Take the difference between this sum and 360 or 6400*.
On half of this difference is mean compass declination f6r the par-
ticular time and place.
The declination of the compass is east if the sum of the two readings
is less than 64001/t and west if it is greater than 6400*. see fig. 150.
465. In fig. 150 let E be the sun at the time of rising and W at sunset. Let
a be the observer's position, N the true north and MN the magnetic north.
Let A be the bearing read when the sun is rising. B, the bearing when the
Topography for' Field Artillery
-216-
sun is setting and M the sum of these two bearings. Let D be the compass
declination.
Fig. 150.
Since the sun is at the same distance north. or south of the equatorh.1.1
line at sunrise and sunset, the angles NOE and NOW are equal.
However, the bearing read to the sun position to the east, include:'
the compass declination, as does the bearing read to the sun position in th~
west. If the two bearings are added then the compass declination will have
been included twice. This is evident from the figure. The angle WOX i..,
equal to MNOE (angle A).
To the angle B add WOX (equal to angle A). This g'ives ang'le M
which is more than one complete circle by an angular amount equal tp D+D'.
5400+ 1600=7000.
7000-6400=D+D'=600.
D=1/2 (600)=30011•
Compass declination, 3001/1 west.
(5.) Declination _Constant.

,
466. The Dedination Constant, is the reading which must be set off on an
instrument in order that, when the compass needle is brought opposite its
index, the instrument will be oriented. !
For a clockwise instr~ment the declination constant is the-.same' as
the compass declination if the compass declination. is east. If the compass
declination is west, the declination constant is equal to 6400--the' compass
declination. . ;"\
467. Y-Declination, fig. 151, is the angle which magnetic north makes. with
grid north. If the Y-Declination is used in orienting the instl'ument the
declination constant is spoken of as The Magic Number. In this case th~
zero of the instrument, when oriented will point toward Y-north. : ;.i
TopOJo!,'rRphy for Field Artillery
-217-
North,
Conv~r9(2,nc<t"
Fig. 151.
USE OF COMPASS AND MAP.

A. TO FIND A MAGNETIC BEARING ON A MAP WITH A
PROTRACTOR.
468. Dnlw a true' north-south-line through the point on the map, fig. 152,
from which it is desired to take a magnetic bearing. .
Place a circular protractor on the map, with its center on this point,
zero toward the north, so that the 0-3200 diameter coincides with the true
north-south line.
Mark off the map, by a light pencil mark, the exact number of mils
that the compass in use varies from the true north; clock-wise, if the varjs,-
tion is east, counter-clockwise, if it is west.
Join this mark to the point at the center of the protractor, and the
line so made is the magnetic north-south line through the point from which
bearings are to be taken. .
Place the protractor on the map with its center on the same point
as before and with the 0-3200 line coinciding with the magnetic north-south
line just drawn. _
Keeping the protractor in this position, by means of a' piece of fine
stl"ing attached to the center, magnetic bearings can be read to any objec:
on the map across which the string is stretched, by noting the number of
mils where the string cuts the edge of the protractor.
B. MAGNETIC RESECTION (BACK AZIMUTH).
To Use A Compass And A Protractor To Locate A Position On The Map. -

469. When selecting a position, it frequently happens that it3 situation '.m
the map, obtained by a study of the surrounding country, is not sufficiently
exact. In order to obtain accurate bearings and ranges to objectives, it
is very important to locate precisely, on the map, the position selected.
A simple method is as follows:
Topographv foT' Field Artillery
-218-
Fig. 152.
Topogr ap h y £01" F'Ie Id ~rtil1ery

-219-
Topography for' Field Artillery

-220-
"In fig. 153, P is a position ,vhich it is desired to fix exactly on the map .
. Set up the compass at P and read the magnetic bearing to a prominer.t
distant object, as W, a windmill which also is marked on the map. This
bearing proves to be 4410 mils. .
Draw the magnetic north-south line through W to agree with the
magnetic variation of the compass used, and place the protractor with it;;
center on the windmill, with zero to the north on the magnetic north-south
line just drawn.
Make a pencil mark at A on the map close to the edge of the pro-
tractor, at 4410 mils, the magnetic bearing of W from P.
Draw a line from A to Wand produce in the direction of P.
Repeat this process for another object, as C, a church to which the
magnetic bearing is 5660 mils. .
Draw the magnetic north-south line as before through C. lay the
protractor on it and make a pencil mark at B, on the map close to the edge
of the protractor, at 5660 mils.
Draw a line from B to C and produce in the direction of P until
it cuts the other produced line, A W.
The intersection of. these two lines is the point from which were read
the bearings to the windmill and church, and is therefore the position which
it is desired to locate.
Note: The above process is the same whether the operator works
with the true north and magnetic declination or with Y-north and Y - declina-
tion, fig. 59, par. 207.
TopO!.l.Taphy fol' Fie"l Artille,"y

CHAPTER XXI.
LA YING GUNS WITH A DECLINATED INSTRUMENT.
USING PRISMATIC COMPASS.
-t 70. In laying the guns for direction with a compass there are two steps:
First, the determination of the bearing of the direction, gun-target or
the direction gun-base point, and
Second, the laying of the guns with the bearing determined. #
A. TO DETERMINE THE CO:MPASS BEARING OF A GIVEN TARGET.
The bearing of the target or base point may be deteWlined in two
wayR:
(1) If &n accurate map is available, on \vhich both gun and target
positions are shown, the bearing may be read directly from the
map with a protractor, as described in Ch. XX, or the azimuth or
Y-azimuth may be read from the map, and the bearing computed ..
(2) If the map is not available the battery commander must compute
the bearing by the offset method, analagous to the parallel meth-
od of com'puting firing data, described in Drill Regulations.
The Offset Method.
tH. Assume that the target is not visible from the gun position, but that
there is an el.~vation near at hand from which the battery commander. can
see both the target and the directing gun.
From this elevation he takes the bearing of the target and the bear-
ing' of the gun ...c
The batte'l:y commander also measures or estimates the distance be-
tween the compass and the gun position, and the distance between the gun
pORitionand the target.
With these data he computes the angular offset for the gun position
and modifies the bearing of the target, read from the B. C. station, by the
amount of the offset. Since magnetic north is the same for both the gun
position .and the B. C. station there is no offset to be computed for that
<lir~ction, (corresponds to "P" in parallel method).
The bearing as determined by the battery commander is sent to the
executive who lays the guns accordingly.
472. The following problem will illustrate the steps taken by the battery
commandel' in computing the bearing of the target.
Let C b~ the compass position.
Let G be the gun position.
Let T be the target position.
The distance from gun to target is 4000 meters.
The distance from the compass to the gun is 400 meters.
The battery commander reads the bearing to the target and finds that
thiR is 1400 mils, see fig. 154. He also reads the bearing to the directing
-222-
gun and determines the bearing of the direction, compass-gun, to be 3800
mils.
The difference of these two bearings will give him the value of the
angle TCG. If this angle is equal to 1600 mils the line gun-compass is normal
to the line gun-target . .If not there will be an obliquity factor to be.applied.
/"'N
Fig. 154.
The battery commander subtracts 1400 mils from 3800 inils and finds that
the angle TCG is equal 2400 mils. In other words it is 800 mils greater than
the normal angle, hence the obliquity factor of .7 will be used.
At range 4,000 (the distance to the target) a base of 400 meters be.
tween the gun and the compass would subtend 100 mils if the base were
normal to the gun-target line.
In this case an obliquity factor of .7 must be applied as determined
above, hence the angle subter.ded at T will be 100X.7::=70 mils. The offset
then, is 70 mils .. 1400-70=1330 mils which is the bearing of the target
as viewed from the gun position and this is the beal'ing sent to the ex ..
ecutive.
B. LAYING THE GUNS WITH THE BEARING DETERMINED.
473. In laying the guns with the bearing just determined by the batter)"
commander, the executive should have..a compass which reads the same a~
that of the captain, or at least the declination of both compasses should be
known in order that any difference in their readings may be considered.
In the above case assume that the battery commander is using a com-
pass with a declination of 180'1t east, while that of the executive has a
reading of 1701jt east. Should the battery commander therefore, send down a
bearing of 13301jt for a particular target, the executive would modify that
bearing by th~ amount of 101ft applied in the proper direction, or he wou}.i
add 101ft to 1330'1t making 1340'1t, which would be the bearing he would use
in laying the guns, see fig. 155.
On the tther hand, suppose that the battery commander should send
down the Y-azimuth of the target as measured from the map. Assume this
to be 1320,j1. Knowing the Y-declination of his instrument, for that pattie-

-223-;- ,
ular locality, the executive would apply this in the proper direction and lay
accordingly. .b.ssume that the Y-declination of the executive's compass is
20tjl west. The magnetic bearing with which he would lay the: guns would
therefore be 1320+20 or 13401jt, see fig. 156.
MAQNE.TIC DECLINATION
<:~ \
N~A
!?Ii Z .
t6 l0vf. Y DECLlNATIOt-J
T
G Fig. 156. -
Fig. 155.
Several methods may be used by the executive in laying the gun::-
with the compass, the methods varying with' the time available and the ac-
curacy desired.
(1.) Lining In.
474. The executive places himself fifty feet or more in the rear of the
dh'ecting gun, so that the bearing, A, of the gun, see fig. 157, as read with
the prismatic compass, is the same as the magnetic bearing of the line direct-
ing gun- target, determined by the battery commander. In order to do this
the executive moves from C" to C' to C to the right or left as the case may
be while sight3ng on the gun, at the same .time causing' the piece to be tra-
"'1'1
t
versed, until the vertical plane through ... MN
the sights of the prismatic compass, cor-
. responds to the line of metal. MN
The above method may be modi-
fled by sighting on the sight shank of
the directing piece with the determined :.., e"
bearing, and causing the gunner to lay f'l\l'l
I ~/
the gun with a deflection of 3200 mils.
Similarly, it also is feasible for the
e~ecutive to line himself in frolp a posi-
bon in front of the guns, the only dif-
ference being that the compass reading ~
I C'
//
// .
'.1 ,,/
,#~
he uses will be modified by the £.ddition //

of 3200 mils. If the compass is in front (
of the gun on the line gun-target, the Fig. 157.
gunner may lay his piece on the compass with a zero reading set on his sight.
With the gun established on the line of fire the piece is referred to s
distant aiming point and the sheaf formed.
-;-224-
(2.) Using Compass As Aiming Point.
475. Ordinal'ily when the guns are laid by compass, the executive sets up
the instrument in the vicinity of the guns, but distant enough that. the
masses of metal do not affect the needle, and after he has made his com-
putations, the gunners lay for direction using the compass as an aiming
point.
Let G b'~ the gun position, C that of the "compass and T the targ~t.
The executive already knows the X
bearing of the target, angle A, fig. 158. MI\J {
He reads the bearing of the gun, angle B, I
fig. 158. Now it is evident that, since the I
deflection must be computed for the gun {
position. (not the compass position) and {
since the gunner is to usP- the compass ",
as an" aiming point, that the executive I
needs to determine, not the bearing of M N
the gun as seen from the position of the
compass, but rather the bearing 9f the
/
compass as measured from the gun posi- /
/
tion. It is evident also, that these two
bearings will differ from each other by
{
\
3200 mils. Therefore the executive may \
modify the bearing of the gun, angle B, \' , M
....... -,.._ ...... ,,/
or the direction, CC, by 3200 mils, and
will obtain the bearing K, or the direc-
tion. GC, which is what he wants.
The angle K, just obtained, sub- /'-
traeted from the bearing of the target, /
angle A, leaves the angle, L, one side of {
which" contains the line of sight from the \ G
gun through the compass and the other \ /
side of which contains the line of, fire to ', __ ..-;/M Fig 158.
T. If the gun were provided with a sight graduated counter clockwise this
angle, L, would be the deflection. But since the American sight is graduated
clockwise the angle, M, is wanted. 6400tjl-L gives the angle M. the d~-
flection desired.
476. The steps listed above are then: The" bearing of the gun, minus 3200
mils, minus the bearing of the target, plus 6400 mils.
This is the same as saying that the deflection is equal to the bearing
of the compass. minus the bearing of the ta:rget; the bearing of the compass ,
being increased by 6400 mils if the compass bearing is less than the target
hearing. The above formula applies in all quadrants.
This also may be expressed by the following equivalent formula:
Bearing of the gun plus 3200 mils minus the bearing of the target
equals the deflE"ction. G+3200-T=D.
477. An examination of the four cases below, arising as the compass is
placed in each of the four quadrants with respect to the gun position, will
establish the ~alidity of the formula. In each of the cases considel'ed:
Topoj,rraphy for Field Artillery

-225-
let G. be the gun position,
C the position of the compass,
T the target position,
A the bearing of the target,
B the bearing of the gun.
478. First Quadrant, fig. 159.
MN
x
. I'st.
C~VADRANT.
Fig. 159.
Assume that A=12001jt and that B=36001/1.

3600+3200=6800=angle M which is greater than 6400l/t, by the angle K •.
6800-1200=5600=deflection D.
479. Second Quadrant, fig. 160.
,
/
I
I
\
\
,
....
....
..... - - ~,.
. 2.ncl' •
O\./ADPANT
Fig. 160.
...
-226-'
Assume that A=1200t/t and that B=5500t/t.
55001-3200=8700. "
8700-1200=7500t/t which is greater than.6400*, by the, angle D or
1100111.. And since 7500 cannot be set on the sights, the setting will be
1100111.,which 'is the desired deflection. -
480. Third Quadrant, fig. 161.'!
MN
. J'rd.-
(~VADRAI'lT
Fig. 161.
Assume that A=12001/t' and that B=8001/J.

8001-3200=4000=angle AI.
4000-1200=2800=angle D=the required deflection.
, 481. Fourth Quadrant, fig. 162.
."'\N
I
I
\\ .
\.'_-..,.,,,,/
.......
M
4 th
(lvAOAANT
".
Fig. 162.

-227-
Assume that A=120011~ and 'that B=2500*.
2500+3200=5700=angle M.
5700-1200=4500=angle D=required deflection.
482. It sometimes will happen, when the above formul~ is used, that the
answer will be a negative quantity. If such is the case, subtract the angle
obtained from 64001f~. The remainder will be the required deflection, see
fig. 163.
MN
Fig. 163..
In the figure above assume that B, is 7501jl and that A=61001j1,.
750+3200=39501jt=angle M.
3950-6100=-2150* = angle X.
6400-2150=425011l=angle D= required deflection.
USING THE AIMING CIRCLE" OR PRISMATIC COMPASS AND THE
MAGIC NUMBER METHOD OF LAYING.
See paragraphs 576-582, Chapter XXV.
ropography {OJ' Field. Artil.lel'Y

CHAPTER XXII.
THE TYPICAL BATTERY SECTOR.
t
TERMS, DEFINITI01 S, AND DIAGRAMS.
483. Adjusting Point: the point used for the adjustment of the elements of
fire. The particular point of an objectke on which the guns are adjusted.
Note: Terms used in this chapter are illustrated graphically in figs.
164, 165, 166. 167, 168.
484. Aiming Point: the point on which the gunner sights when laying hi:'
piece for direction: the point which defines' the line of sight from the gun .(
485. Base Angle: the horizontal angle between the base line and the
orienting line measured in the same direction as the sight graduations.
Therefore it is a clockwise angle for the American panoramic sight.
486. Base Deflection: that deflection which, if used in layinz the piece,
will place the gun on the base line.
487. Base line: sometimes called Base Direction; the line joining the base
piece and the base point, always continued across the orienting line, if an
orienting line exists, to form the base angle. It is used as an origin fo::
direction from the gun position.
488. Base Point: So~etimes called Reference Point but having a more
restricted meaning than the reference point of the Drill Regulations; a well
defined point of the terrain or of the enemy sector, generally, but not al-
ways situated within the battery sector. It is generally shown on the map,
and usually is invisible from the battery position. Sometimes it is visible
from the obsel'vation post from. which it is simply designated on the terrain
and may not bE: shown on the map.
One base point may be common to several batteries.
A battery can have several base points in which case they are desig-
nated, "Base Point No.1", "No.2", etc.
The base point may be the objective itself if fire must be. opened im-
mediately, or if there is but one objective.
489. Battle Map (Plan Directeur): a
large scale map, (1/20,000, 1/10,000.
1/5,000) showing the. enemy works, and occasionally the friendly works.
The term is most commonly applied to the 1/20,000 map on the Lambert
projection.
490. Command Post (Post of Command, P. C.): the post from which a bat.
tery commander directs the o'perations of his battery, usually a post or dug-
out near the battery. Posts of command of the higher units are near roads
or trails permitting easy communication between various units of the com-
mand. The brigade command post for the artillery usually should be neal~
the division or corps headquarters.
491.. Contingent Zone (usually contingent zones Nos. 1 and 2): the zones
within the objective zone but outside the normal zone, within which the bat-
tery may be c'J.lled ~pon to fire' in certain contingencies.
-229-
492. Control Point: a geodetic point or other point, the coordinates of which
are known,' which may be used by the topographer in his topographical
operations. -'!:
493. Control Sheet: a sheet containing a list of control points, each with it:;
coordinates, for use by the battery reconnaissance officer, battery commander,
or the battalion orienting officer, in the location and development of the posi-
tIon.
494. Datum Point (but auxiliaire): a clearly visible point selected as an
adjusting point. It must be shown onthe battle map, or be capable of being'
accurately plotted. Also it must be chosen so as. to be not more than 300
mils from the objective with which it is to be used, while the range shoul;l
be not less than 3/4 or more than 4/3 of that of the objective. This limited
meaning of Datum Point should not be confused with the term. "datum
point," "datum level," "datum plane," used in surveying.. #'
495. Declinating Point: a point thl'ough which several lines pass, the Y-
azimuths of which lines are knovvn.
496. Deflection Constant: the deflection setting which must be set on the
sight to bring the plane of sight on a plane parallel to the plane of fire.
For the American sight it is 0, for the French 75 it is 1001!1, and for the
Schneider 155 it is 1000//1.
497. Directing Piece: the gun for which the initial data is computed, usually
No. 1 in precision fire.
498. Field of Observer: the angle between the right and left limits of ob-
servation, either with the naked eye or with an instrument. Usually the field
of observation is limited by the location of the observation post. The O. P.
should be located so that the entire objective zone is included in the field
of observer.
499. Firing Angle: the horizontal angle between the plane. of. fire and the
plane of sight measured in the same direction as the sight graduations.
For the American panoramic sight, it is the angle measured clockwise from
the plane of fire to the aiming point, and corresponds to the deflection, (ex-
cept for corrections for drift and atmospheric conditions). -
500. Firing Board (planchette de tir): a' board of wood, or of zinc ann.
wood, on which is mounted the firing chart or battle map, preparatory to
the measurement of the elements of fire. The term is sometimes applied to
the Firing Chart.
501. Firing Chart: a grid sheet, or the battle map itself, on which are
shown the position, the sector, objective zone, objectives, base points, regi,3-
tration marks, orienting line, and other elements used in the computation
and preparation of firing. data.
502. . Limits of Fire: the straight lines from the guns mal'king the limits
of fire in deflection, and the lines marking the, minimum range and the ex-
treme range of the gun. Battery emplacements should be so .collstructed
that the lateral limits of fire will include an angle of at least 1600r,'~.
503. Marker: a wooden or metal stake thl'ee or four feet in height used
in materializing an orienting line. The markers used in staking out an
orienting line should be distinctive for each battalion.
504. Normal Zone: the zone within the objective zone, for which the b:lt-
tery normally is responsible and within which its normal fire is directed.
-230-
Usually the battery and battalion .normal zones are identical.
505. Objective Zone: the areas beyond the friendly lines within the lateral
limits of fire; that portion of the sector beyond the friendly lines. "
506. Observation Post (0. P.): a post for the observation ana conduct of
fire, for the observation of a sector, and the study of obje~tives, and for the
purpose of securing information of the enemy and hi::; act;vitie:i'
a07. Observer Displacement: is the angle at the objectiv~ behveen the ob-
~erver and the battery; the angle T' of the drill regulation'-3; applied also
to the angle between the origin line a;nd the base line.
50S. Observing Line: the line joining the observer and the adjusting point
of the objective, or the point on which fire is adjusted.
509. Observing Sector: the sector subtended by the objectiY'3 as viewed by
the observer. It contains the observing line.
510. On the Base Line: A battery is said to be on the hase line (en ~mr-
veillance) when the plane of fire of the base piece is dil'eded on the base
point. and when the planes of fire of the other guns form a well defined
sheaf, generally a parallel sheaf.
511. Orienting Line: a line of known direction, materialized on the ground,
and located on the map, by reference to which the guns are laid .for dirf'ction.
512. Orienting Point: a point from which it is possible to orient, the co-
ordinates of which are known, used as a starting point for ~h,~ol'icnting line
or for a traverse to locate the orienting line or place marks.
513. Origin Line: a line selected near' the center of the field of observer to
which angular measurements are referred. If the sector is very extended
several origin lines may be used. Usually the origin line is the line extend-
ing from the observation post to the base point.
514. Place Mark: a point materialized on the ground, exactly located on
the map with known coordinates' and known elevation, by referen~'~ to which
the guns may be located, on the ground and upon the map, both horizontally
and vertically.
515. Plan Directeur: battle map made on the Lambert Projection.
516. Point of General Control: control point.
517. Position: strictly speaking, the Gun Position; actually the position
includes the battery organization for combat, or all elements outside the ob-
jectiv~ zone uaed in the computation of data, the observation and conduct of
fire.
518. Range Deflection Fan: drawn sometimes for the directing piece, some-
times for the observation post, and sometimes for both; a graph composed
of rays and arcs, showing range and deflection, and drawn ~n the firing
chart, the battle map or on separate transpare:r'cies for the determination of
firing data. In many cases, the deflection arcs only will be. drawn, and the
ranges will be measured by' a range arm.
519. Reference Point: a prominent point on the terrain by reference to
which objectives may be identified.
520. Referring Point: an auxiliary or individual aiming point used by the
gunner in referring his piece.
521. Registration :Mark: Registration Point, Registration Target, Adjusting
Point, Auxiliary Target, Datum Point, Witness Point, Witness Target; the

-231-
first term being preferred; an object within the ~bjective zone selected to
facilitate registration of fire. .
522. Sector: the area within the lateral limits of fire of the battery. These
limits should include at least 160011t.'!'
523•. Witness Point or Witness Target (see Registration mark). The French
make the distinction between Datum point and Witness point, in that where-
as the former is an adjusting point which not only must be clearly visible
but must also be accurately located on the map, the latter may be uncertain
as to map position.
TO POINT OF GENERAL.: (O!'ITROL

(f4lgh PeQK, 22 KIloS.)
I
/1
;/
To POINT Of GENERAlCONTR C'
(TOWer; 7. Kllm)
~~~
To -STEEPLE
(3- f~llos)
Fig. 164.

-232- -
'I'
""AXI""VM.RA~G[.CJf::.-~__ .1
-- -- -...............- I
- -----.... I
Fig. 165.
'l'opo,{I'I\!lhy fot' Field Artillery

-233-
Fig. 166.
\ .
Topography for Field Artillery,

-234-
..
Fig. 167.
Topography for I<'ield Artillery

-235-
/
/
/
TO POINT OF"
GE:N.CoNTRClL.
Fig. 168.
Topography for' Field Artillel'y

CHAPTER XXIII.
MAPS AND RECORDS OF THE ARTILLERY SECTOR.
CLASSES OF RECORDS.
524. One of the important duties of the battery commander is the com.,
pilation of exact records, the elaborateness and exactness of which, depend
upon the stability and importance of the battery position to which they
pertain. "
Records are kept of all battery activities and of all data affecting the
battery's functioning in combat, such records being for permanent use in
the battery position, either by the original battery. commander or by his
successors. Briefs of these records are made, from time to time, for trans-
mission to battalion, regimental and higher commanders.
Data peltaining to the artillery sector fall into two general classes;
(1) maps and charts, and (2) written records.
A. MAPS AND CHARTS.

(1.) The Battle Map Of The Sector (Piau Directeur).
525. There should be kept at the observation post and at the command
post a battle map, of the latest edition, constantly kept up to date by the
by the aid of additions and revisions published by the topographic section.
(2.) Charts. •
526. Among the several charts usually prepared are the following:
(a) The firing chart: a great saving of time and ammunition can be
effected by making use of a suitably prepared firing chart. to be used for
the computations and measurements incident to the preparation of fil'e.
A complete chart of the TJ'pical Battery Sector would show:
Preliminary topographical operations;
The Sector, which is the al'ea enclosed by the lateral limits of fire,
the maximum range and minimum range of the battery;
The Objective Zone, which is the area beyond the friendly line within
the sector;
The Position, which means strictly the Gun Position, but includes the
battery organization for combat, or all outside the objective zone which is
used for the computation of data, the observation and conduct of fire.
;~.27. The following method of preparing a firing chart has been found
satisfactory. A sheet of drawing paper is mounted on a flat surface,;'
wooden board. or zinc sheet. Squares are drawn upon it, the sides of which
are 5 em. long. The lines are numbei'ed to correspond to the grid lines of
the battle map of the sector considered. Upon the gridded sheet are plotted
the elements necessary to the calculation of map data for the conduct ot
fire. No topographic detail is really essential on a firing chart, for it always
j
-237-
can be obtained from a corresponding battle map. However it is usual to
draw, or pad ~e on, the enemy organizations, see eh. XVII. '!:
The ouadrillage or grid system should be drawn first with a hard

sharp pencil and, after checking, with ink. It is indispensable that its con-
struction be precise. The error should not exceed .2 mm. in a 5 em. square.
The following method of procedure is suggested, fig. 169,
c.
... ,/
"
/
" /
/\
\
a A B b
"/'..., /
/'
"'-
~ "- \
-
d
\ I
Fig. 169.
1. Dra"w the major axis, ah, approximately in the middle "of the paper.
2. Draw the minor axis, cd, perpendicular to ab, see par. 72.
3. Draw arcs with centers on the axes. The radii for the arcs from
each axis should; be in .,multiples of the distance between the lines of thf
grid (5 em. on a 1/20,000 map) and the arcs should be tangent to the pro-
posed outer lines of the grid.
4. Draw tangents to these arcs. They will be parallei to the axes.
5. Commencing at axis cd, by means of a carefully graduated ruler, de-
termine points at 5 em. intervals on the axis, ah, and its two parallels. Join
successively the set of three points, lining the paper in the direction of cd.
6. In the same way the paper may be lined parallel at ab.
7. Place numbers on the grid lines representing the metric coordi-
nates of the portion of the battle map to which the firing chart corresponds.
The grid may be checked by drawing a diagonal through two inter-
sections .. This diagonal should pass through all corresponding intersections.
The battle map is sometimes used as the base of the firing chart.
\Vhen the map is mounted upon the board by pasting, considerable angula ..
error may occur, due to the irregular expansion and contraction from wet-
ting. Th;s error may be confined within a small area by cutting and mount-
ing the map in sections. This, however, is a slow process and requires
great care.
528. (b)' The Range and Deflection Fan. To rapidly determine angular
relations, and map ranges to certain points or targets .within the sector, a
Topography for Field ArtilleJ'y
-238-
range and deflection fan may be prepared on transparent paper, or on the
firing chart itself. Rays are drawn usually every 50 mils, to include the
width of the field of observer when used at the observation post,. or. the
width of the limits of fire when used. for the directing piece, fig. 170. With
the. middl~ ray as zero, the rays are numbered to the right and left in mul-
<Q
Fig. 170.
tiples of 50. "Vith the O. P. or the base piece as the center, arcs are drawn
over the rays at ranges of, usually, every 500 meters to include the extremf\
range of the gun .. These are numbered properly.
Topoj;('raphy for Field Artillery
-239-
An\Jther method, which has been found satisfactory, is the use of th~
range arm. An arc is constructed' upon the firing chart with.'!: a radius of
ci:.
Fig. 171.
Topography for Field Artiller)'
-240-
the extreme" range of the gun and is graduated to five mils. with 'zero at
the intersection, of. the base line with the arc. The range arm, made of some
non-shrinkable material, is graduated to ten meters and includes the extreme
range of the gun. The range arm is' placed upon the chart with zero at the
gun position and its edge passing through the target. The range is read I
from the arm and the deflection, right or left, is determined ,by the point ~
where the edge of the arm intersects the deflection arc, see fig. 171.
Although it is desirable to keep the firing chart free from unnecessary
lines, there is an advantage in placing the range and deflection fan upon
the chart itself. The error due to contraction or expansion is in this ,way
31:4800
~~?~~t
1\,\
/ I \
/ 1\\
/ /- \ \
/
,
I \\
I'
\\
\ \
\
-::-= -\------
\
\
\
324600
/ /
/
324500
o
o
'0
g
'3'
Fig 172.
eliminated sinct the fan expands or contracts with the chart. The deflec-
tion rays need not be continuous, only their intersection with the range arcs
need be shown. It is desirable, however, before placing the fan upon the
chart permanently, to check its accuracy by actual fire upon registration
marks.
529. (c) Position Chart. This is a chart showing the organization of the
gun position in detail. Preferably it is made on a scale of 1/2,000 and
TOpOgl'aphy for Field Artillery
-241-
usually shows:' (1) the position of each gun, its coordinates' and elevation',
referred to .th~ place mark; (2) tne orienting line; (3) aiming stakes for
day and night, and the direction and designation of aiming points or auxil-
liary aiming points; (4) avenues of ingress and egress, with notes on' hours
for their use; (5) command post, deep shelters, telephone stations, latrines.
kitchen, etc., fig. 172.
:)30 (d) Auxiliary Positions. Diagrams and charts are also prepared
showing auxiliary positions with routes thereto, and coordinates and eleva-
tions of place marks therefor.
531. (c) General System of Communication. Charts are required show-
the general system of communication between elements of the battery, with
other units, and with higher command posts.
532. (f)' Chart of Visible and Invisible areas. The zones, visibl~ and in-
visible, from the observation post should be accurately indicated, either on
a special map posted at the observation post or charted to scale on trans-
parent paper which may be superimposed upon the firing chart or battl~
maps of the sector. Copies of this chart are prepared for use by the bat-
talion and higher commanders. The method of preparing the chart has been
considered in Ch. XIV.
Areas that are invisible from one O. P. may be visible from another.
By dividing' the area included in the field of observer into small squares,
the possibilities of observation from auxiliary O. P's., on areas invisible
from any particular O. P., may be indicated. The nUrriber- or numbers of
the auxiliary O. P's. which can be used are placed in the square in question,
fig. 17& •
.. 533. (g) 'Chart of Dead Space. The study of the possibility and the ef-
t fectiveness' of fire on reverse slopes and on heavily wooded areas within a
sector. is purely topographic and its value depends upon the 'degree of ac-
curacy of the battle map. In no case, however, should the study be neg-
lected, for all topographical conditions capable of affecting the precision of
fire must be ascertained as far as possible. Such ~harts are particularly
important for the fire of guns with a flat trajectory. The chart of dead
areas is prepared to scale, either on a special map or on transparent papel"
which may be superimposed \lpon the firing chart or battle map of the sector.
Copies of this chart are prepared for use by the battalion and higher com""
mander. The methods of computing dead space have been considered in
Ch. XV. •
534. The possibilities of fire by neighboring batteries upon the dead areas
of a particular battery should be indicated upon the chart of dead space of
that battery. This may be accomplished by dividing the field of fire into
small squares, either 1 em. or 2.5 em. on a side; inserting the number of the
neighboring battery within the squares indicating the areas upon which it
can deliver fire. The correct squares may be determined by a study of th~
chart of dead space of the neighboring batteries, see fig. 174.
535.: (h) Combined Charts of Higher Commander. The topographical
records of the battalion and higher organizations comprise information trans-
mitted by the batteries, together with that secured from other sources. These
records consist of information relative to the organization of the gun posi-
tions, fields of fire,
. observation posts, ..fields of observer, objectives,
" -. and al-
'rQPography for .FieldArtillery
-242-
lied items. The information is compiled in compact and convenient form,
much of it being diagramatic. When so arranged the battalion commandel'
46
~'
45
~ If{ ~ ~
44
I~ 'I I
/
43
j} ~ / 4e
I~
¥ /
V 41
"- Ii 0/I /
/ 4(J
~ ~ ~ / .
3g
""" y
~
~
1/ 38
/ 37
c ,ltJ / 36
~ /
/ 35
I :34
7 -
~O p~e
33
,
e~~lPi 32-
31
za 2.9 30 :31 elZ 33 c34 ~5 36 37
Fig. 173.
Topography for Field Artillery .
,
,"
~
-243-
'\ J~
~~
I
'\ ~ ~ j
~ I'~
. "~:;
\, II ~
)~
\ 1v ~
I
\~ l
~\ G'\ ~
~
~
<;.i
E \yo'
-c.
~~ ~ ~
- I"
~
~\ .~
~~ 7i;
~
\ \
~
I~ - .-
\
'\ F",'
"-l_.
\ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
;;; '-J1
7
~ ,
-I- \ .j
LJ
-;: 2
~ \ I (1\
-
cI .\. III J
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o......J
l(;
7 ~
~:J
05
Ql!)
,
~..., ~
dJ --
-244-
IS enabled to pass along,' without difficulty, all information that his succes-
sor may need to perform his duties .
.536. The artillery commander, in order to direct properly the fire of his
artillery, needl:i to have a map so arranged that he may see instantly the
possibilities of fire of each battery. . .
There are various methods of preparing such a map. Among the
most simple and most practical, may be mentioned that one that consists
of sticking into the battle map, (fastened to a. board or to the wall), pins
.01' needles at each emplacement of the batteries of the command. A colored
thread, indicating the caliber, attached to each pin, carries a mark cor-
responding to the limits of the range of the battery. It is, therefore, easily
seen whether a target may be reached, and if so, by what batteries.
537. To prep::i.re plans of fire concentration, the following system may be
used. Cover the battle map, 1/20,000, with a sheet of tracing paper marked
off into squares of 2.5 em., one fourth of the ordinary square, see fig. 175.
Construct the field of fire of battery A, drawing an arc, Be, representing'
the range corresponding to the maximum elevation. Indicate the dead areaJ
within the field of fire.. Mark in each square, or fraction of square that
.can be reached by fire, the number of the battery which can fire on the
square, such as, 171. Repeat the operation for each battery. The result
will be a very simple and clear document enabling anyone to make up, with-
out difficulty, a plan of fire concentration of the command.
538. A document maybe prepared in a similar manner to indicate areag
v;isible or. invisible from any observation post of the sector. Such a chart
Offers a convenient method of rapidly determining the most suitable obser-
vation post to use in adjustment of fire within any particular area.
. .
B. WRITTEN RECORDS .
.539. (a) The B. C. Data Book. The written records of a sector consist
,of the B. C. data book and certain subsidiary documents. The B. C. data
book contains the record of all accurate data pertaining to the preparation
:and occupation of the position and its subsequent activities, including initial
elements of firing data and tactical and technical problems concerning' thi~
sector and position. It is a permanent record of the position and is turned
over to the relieving battery commander. If the position is abandoned, the
book is forwarded to the chief of artillery of the sector concerned, and, in
case of close attack, it is destroyed.
540. (b) ThE' battery commander keeps an Ammunition Record and 8
Gun Diary for each gun, which diary remains with the gun throughout it.:.;
life.
541. (c) A Target Sheet is kept at the observation post upon which j-l
entered, data concerning new targets discovered, and corrections on the loca-
tion of targets previously reported. ...
542. The battery commander transmits, from time to time, reports on the
general enemy activity on his front,. sometimes including exact records ot
enemy artillery fire, reports on new targets discovered, and corrections on
the location of targets previously reported. .
543. With reference to records, it is important to remember that the ef-
ficient battery commander will not permit himself to become a slave to form~
and schedules. The elabor.atjon of l'ecords is valuable only in the exact
--245-
measure that it facilitates the tactical and' technical work of the batter~:-
,
_ and increases the efficiency of the battery's fire.'!:
,
I \
35
34
~J,
,
3l.
31
30
7..9
2B'
2.7
2.6
2.5
24
&t- ,3 .
. ~ 2Z .
I~
/ '.
ZI
..- 5=171 2.0
.;,(9 30.' 31 32., 33 :34 35 36 37
, . Fig. 175.
To})ogl"Rphy for Field 'Artillcr)'
CHAPTER XXIV.
TOPOGRAPHICAL OPERATIONS IN OCCUPATION OF
A BATTERY SECTOR.
GENERAL.
54(. Topographical operations to be performed in the occupation of a
battery sector are dependent on:
First, the time element;
Second, on the instruments available for use;
Third, on the accuracy of the map us€:d;
Fourth. on the proximity of geodetic points or points of. general
eontrol.
The object of the topographical operations is to determine the initial
elements of fire. These operations are performed, partly during l'econnai3.'
sance, and pm'tly after the position is occupied.
The topographical steps may be pedormed: (1) entirely by the bat-
tery commander or his rec'onnaissance officer; or, (2) by the battalion orient-
ing officer who locates the orienting line ar.d place marks for all batteries,
followed by the battery commander who completes the work for his partic-
ular battery.
GUN POSITION.
(A)" WHEN COORDINATES OF GUN POSITION CAN BE READ
DIRECTLY FROM THE MAP.
545. The simplest operations arise when the battery is located at a poin~,
which may be identified on the map so that the coordinates may be taken
directly from the sheet.
If the base point or the target also can be identified on the map the
base line, or the direction to the target, may be taken from the map, as
may the range, while the site may be computed by using the map elevations.
In such a case a line of sight may be established through a distant
aiming point, or along a line of established direction, and the guns laid a~.
cordingly; .or, the direction to the base point having been determined, th/~
guns may be laid with a declinated instrument on the base line! see Ch. XXV'
B. WHEN THE GUN POSITION CANNOT BE IDENTIFIED'

ON THE MAP.
546. In the majority of cases the position of the guns cannot be identified
on the map. '
Since the position of the guns must be known before any firing data
may be computed from the map, the first topographical step is the de-
termination of the battery location. This may be accomplished in a number
of different ways.
Topogoraphy for Fipld Artillery
-247-
(1), Using. A Geodetic Point
;)47. If the battery is close to a geodetic point the coordinates and elev:.t-
I tion of the gun position may' be determined by a short traverse.
(2) By Resection.
548. If the battery is in a position from which two or more control points
can be seen, the position may be determined by resection.
(3) By An Orienting Po~nt•.
;)49. If neither of these conditions hold, it will be necessary to establi~h
an orienting point, which will be used as the starting point for fUl'thp.i.'
topographical operations. The guns are located, in this case, by:"running
a traverse from the orienting point. " .'~
If the topographical operations are performed in advance of the ar ..
rival of the guns, it is customary to establish a place mark near the bat-
tery position. The coordinates and elevation of this place mark will bE'
recorded and when the battery does arrive, the exact location of the guns,
horizontally and vertically, may be determined, either by traverse, or by
determining how much east or west, how much north or south, and how
much above or below the place mark, the. gun position may be .
•
BASE POINT OR TARGET.
A. WHEN THE POSITION OF THE BASE POINT OR OTHER TAR-
GETS MAY NOT BE DETERMINED. FROM THE MAP.
550. (See Ch. XXVII).
B. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION TO TARGET OR BASE
POINT FROM THE MAP.
551. With the gun position and the target position determined by coord~p..-
ates, the direction or Y-azimuth may be read directly from the map by
means of a protractor, or the direction may be computed directly by a com-
parison of the two points, see eh. XIX.
AIMING POINT.
A DETERMINING DIRECTION TO AIMING POINT.
;)52. The direction to the base point or target being known, it is nece&-
sary, before the guns can be laid, that a plane of sight should be determined,
This also may be done topographically.
The desired direction may be determined by using a distant known
aiming point, see Ch. XXV; by using a declinated instrument, see Ch. XXV;
or by making use of an orienting line.
B. THE ORIENTING LINE .
. 553. The orienting line, as the name implies, is a line of known direction,
usually materialized on the ground by means of which the battery commandc)'
can orient his guns. Magnetic north, as used in connection with a declinatcd
instrument, is such a direction, and if this direction is materialized on the
ground, it becomes a true orienting line. The direction, Gun-Aiming Point,
if materialized on the ground, also ,becomes such a line. \
-248-
(1) Two Types Of Orienting Lines .. (S~e cuts, Ch. XXII).
554. In generai there are 'two types of orienting lines, viz;
(a) Those established through a knovrn point or points, and
(b) Those established with a known direction.
Magnetic north, if materialized, is of the last type. In some cases it
is easier and more accurate to estabHsh an orienting line by direction rathe:
than to l'un it through known points. If such a line is established it is not
necessary to determine the coordinates of any points on the line. The lin~
may be run through the gun position, or in front or rear of it, and in any
direction, and the guns speedily laid by means of a plane table or angle .
measuring instrument set up on it at any place visible from the guns.
555. Where the orienting line is established by direction it still is necessar~'
for the battery commander or reconnaissance officer to take the topographical.
steps necessary to determine the coordinates of the battery.
On the other hand where the orienting line is run through an orienting
point which has been occupied in the work, the two sets of operations may
be performed simultaneously and the reconnaissance. officer will reach a
point in the vicinity of the battery with all control elements determined.
Fig. 176.
556. The orienting line should be established by means of a set of COTj-

spicuous stakes or markers set up at such intervals that, from anyone stake
at least two others will be visible. This affords a check on direction and
-249-
alignment in case a stake is destroyed. Usually the stakes or markers of
each battalion will be of a distinctive type'.~:
(2) A Typical Case.
557. Assume that the battalion has been assigned a sector, that the general
, location of gun positions and of objectives is kno\\'ll, and that' there is time
enough for the. completion of the topographical operations.
In such a case it is probable that an orienting line and place marks
would be establIshed by the battalion orienting officer after which the batter.,1
commanders would continue the work. " "
Assume that the battery positions are so situated that no control
points are visible therefrom, fig. 176. ,
From the hill-top, P, the battalion orienting officer i~entifie~'three con-
trol points," A, B, and C, which he uses in making an Italian resection and
so establishes an orienting point, P. The battery positions cannot be seen
from the, hill so the orienting officer l"UnSa traverse PX)}, and arrives at 11,
the coordinates and elevation of which he computes and records.
From )} he notes a distant church steeple.in the direction of the gun
positions and so decides to run the orienting line through that object. He
measures the Y-azimuth of the direction from .Y to the steeple and finds that
it is 2450*. This is recorded.' '
Starting from )}, the orienting officer then runs a line with a Y-azi-
muth of 2450ljt past the battery positions, establishing his markers, and de-
termining coordinates and elevations of one or more place mat"ks in the
vicinity. of the batteries, see fig. 176. , . ' "
558.' All data secured is recorded, and the battery commanders are furnisherl
rough sketches showing the Y-azimuth of the ,orienting Jip.e and the co'.
ordinates of thE' place marks in the vicinity of. their ,battery positions. With
theRe data the~ then proceed to establish the,ir gun,s on the base "line. '
"~;"
Topol{l'aIlhy for Field' Artillery

CHAPTER XXV.
LA YING THE GUNS ON THE BASE LINE.
STEPS P£RFORMED IN THE OCCUPATION OF A SECTOR.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BASE PIECE ON THE BASE LINE.

562. The operation of laying the base piece on the base line or the target,
fallsinto three general classes:
First, Staking out or Lining in;
Second, Field method of measuring angles and calculating offsets
from the B. C. Station;
Third, Topographical methods.
A. STAKING OUT.
563. Let C be the gun, T the point through which the plane of fire is to
be directed. T cannot be seen from the gun position but can be seen from
the crest between C and T (or back of C). (Note: It is not necessary that
T be the base point selected. It need only be' some visible point on the line
Gun-Base point.)
., -251-
Two men, M1 and M move in such a way that M1 constal).tly keeps M2
2,
lined up between himself and T, and M2 constantly keeps Ml lined up between

'himself and C. They cause each other to move until they are on the line
CT at M/ and M/, see fig. 177. The position indicated should be marked by
stakes and the alignment verified, after which the guns may be laid on th8
CT line.
Jv1,
O~
,,
Fig. 177.
Instead of two men, an aiming circle or other angle measuring instru-

ment may be moved until exactly on the CT line. This occurs when the ang-
ular reading between the two points is 3200 mils.
B. USING AN AIMING POINT, AN ANGLE MEASURING INSTRU .

. MENT, AND COMPUTATION OF OFFSETS FROM THE
BATTERY COMMANDER'S STATION.
564. This method is discussed in drill regulations.
C. USING TOPOGRAPHIC METHODS.
565. Quick and accurate fire on a given point demands careful preparation.
The required data for opening fire: deflection, range, and site, may be read
off the map, after the gun, the target, and the plane of sight, aiming direc-
tion or aiming point, have been plotted. .
Topography. for Field Artillery
-252-.
The accuracy of these data depend on three things:
First; The accuracy of the map itself;
, Second, The care with which the topographical operations have been
'Perf();rmed;
~'.j Third, On the. precision of the subsequent measurements;
Fourth, Additional errors may also be expected if measurements arc
made from the map, due to the contraction and expansion of the paper.
These last errors, however, may be minimized by the use of the firing board.
If the Plan Directeur (French Battle Map) is used, the original errors
due to the construction of the map itself may be disregarded. If the plot-
ting board is employed the distortion of the map, due to weather conditions,
may' be overlooked.
There remains then, the consideration of the errors likely to aris'~'
in locating and plotting points. and in measuring distances and directions'
also the consideration of the methods to be followed which will be leal:;~
likely to involve error.
CLASSES OF TOPOGRAPHICAL lVI"ETHODS.
566. In general there are two classes of topographical methods of laying

the base piece on the base line:
First, That in which the plane of sight is established by two points
which have been located by their coordinates;
Second, That in which the plane of sight is determined by an es-
tablished direction~
FIRST CLASS. PLANE OF SIGHT THROUGH POINTS LOCATED BY COORDINATE!:;.
567. The simplest of all cases involving computation of firing is that

wherein the position of the gun, the target, and the aiming point all are defl-
nitely known. A reading scale may
then be used to determine the range,
1200 a protractor employed to compute the
deflection, while the site may be com-
puted by determining the difference
in elevation of the gun and target
as shown by the contours of the
map, and dividing this difference by
thousandths of the range, expressed
in the same units as the difference in'
altitude.
In' fig. 178 let G be the gun
position, P, the aiming ,point which is
visible from the gun position and T,
.. , .. .:the target position, all of
them being
points accurately plotted on the map .. Draw the lines, GT and GP. With
a protractor measure the' angle;' PGT. Assume this to be 950 mils .. The
firin'g"ungle .or 'deflecfion for the American sight" then will be 6400 minus
95001'5'450. '. Measure the distance GT.' Assume this to be 2500 meters. T
is. situated on contour .1200 'and 'G .is located 'at an elevation of 1225, giving
a difference of 25 meters. This elevation',' 25,. divided by the range in kilo-'
Topograph~.for Field Artillery
-253-
meters gives a site of minus 10. The data obtained from the map then be-
come:
Deflection : 54501it,
Site' : 290111,
'Range 2500M.
(1.) Errors.
5€8. This. method is necessal'ily li~ited in jts use- for the reason that an
aiming point .located on the' roapor firing board by its coordinates is likely
to, involve a considerable error in deflection unless that point is more thml
2,000 meters distant."
If care if used in the topographical op~rations of' resection, of tra-
verse, and in plotting of gun and aiming point positions, these t~') point~
shol:lld be located on the map within' 20 meters of, their true positions. If
both these errors are in opposite directions the maximum relative displace-
ment is 40 meters, which, at a distance of 2,000 'meters, means an error of
20 mils in deflection.
Rapid preparation of fire without previous organization will involvt3
even more considerable errors when the above method is used.
569. On the other hand if the base deflection be determined with reference
to a determined direction passing through the base piece, the error brought
about by the false location of the A. P. is eliminated. There remains the
error of orien1ation, which, with the ordinary declinator, should be under ;)
mils; also the error caused by the error in the location of the gun position.
In deflection this last error is equal to the parallax of the distance by which
the gun is offset frQ.ffiits true position, as viewed from the target, and sincn
the target usually is at a great distance this angular displacement is small. '
In range the displacement should be within one probable error ..~'A compari.
son of the errors resulting from the two general methods is shown below.
570. (a) First Case: (Using a direction established by points plotted by
T'" T
\
\
\
\"
"\
\'
\
p
~'-"
............
............
", - -p -
..
Fig. 179.
their coordinates).' Let T be the target, Gthegurr position, andP the' aim,.
ing point in thei~ true positions:" Le~ T',- G';:~ndP'be, thesesamepositip113
TopographY' ,for ,Field. Artillery
-254-
as they are plotted on the map or firing board. Assume that P' as plotted
is displaced 20 meters in one direction from P, and that G' is displaced 20
meters from G in the opposite direction. The total displacement is, then,
40 meters. If the distance from the gun to the aiming point is 100 meters
the total angular error, a, fig. 179, involved, is 400 mils. Because of the dis.
tance to T, the angular displacement due to the error in plotting T may be
disregarded. Therefore if the gunner lays with the deflection as measured
from the map he will set off the angle, PGT", equal to P'G'T' instead of
PGT, and his plane of fire will be passing 400 mils to the left of the target:
571.. (b) Second Case: (Using a direction). Let T be the target, G thp.
gun position, fig. 180. The plane table or aiming circle is set up in th~
Fig. 180.
vicinity and oriented. Let P be the location chosen. Let g' and t be the gun
and target positions as plotted on the plane table. GP is a definite direction
defined by the two points, G and P. Sight across g', the plotted position of
the gun, at the gun and draw the direction, Gg'P. Assume that g' is falsely
located by a matter of 20 meters and that g is the true position on the
board. On the 1/20,000 map, 20 meters on the ground is equivalent to onl~
millimeter. If the point P, where the board is set up and oriented is 100
meters from the gun, the angular error caused by the false plotting become:;
one one hundredth of a mil (the parallax of one millimeter at a distance
of 100 meters). If the plane table or aiming circle, be used as the aimiTI1~
point it is evident, therefore, that the error in the plotted direction of the
plane of sight may be disregarded entirely. There still remain the errors in
deflection caused by the error in orientation at the point P, and error, g'tg,
which is the parallax of the gun displacement measured from the target,
but the sum of these usually is within. the allowable error.
j
-255-
. ... (2.) :Methods Of Checking.
572. Often it is desirable to use a plane
of sight passing through a point located by IG
its coordinates ar.d not at a great enough I
distance to reduce the expected errors with- /
in the permissible limits. Sometimes it is I
possible to check the direction of the plane I
of sight by one of the following methods. I
773. (a) First :Method. \Vhen it is pos- /
sible to occupy the. A. P. ,Occupy the 'point
P which is to be used as an aiming point
and orient the board. Plot p on the plane
table. Plot. 'g, the gun position. Sight over
p at the sight shank of the gun and draw
the line pC', see fig. 181. If this line does
p
not contain the plotted gun position, g, it may
be possible to move the piece slightly from
C to C' until the sight shank falls in the line
of vision. This will bring the plotted posi-
tion of the gun to g', and the direction, C'g'p, Fig. 181.
may then be taken as the true plane of sight.
574. (b) Second method. Set up the instrument used on the line PC.
Move the instrument perpendicularly to PC until the angle, PpC, is equal to
i- _
Fig. 182.
3200 mils. or the line, PpC, is a straight line. Carefully' orient the In'stru-:-
ment or the board with the compass, or by angular traversing, and sight ovel
p. Draw the corresponding line on the plotting board or note the, readings'
if the aiming circle is used. Any error in this direction is dependent on the
orientation and not on the plotted location of the points, p and g. Assume
that the direction, PpC, does .not pass through the plotted gun position, g•
. This may be due to the errors in plotting either or both p and g. Assume
that this angular error is g'pg. If p is a goedetic point its location on the
map may be assumed as correct, in which case the plotted point, g, should be
displaced to g' and the coordinates of g' taken as the true ones for the gun
position.
If, on the contrary, the gun position, g, has been located from a geo-
detic point by short topographic operations, the plane of sight. should be
-256--.
dravvll through g, fJ being displaced to this line and new coordinates recorded.
These last cases, in reality belong to those classes of. operations ii,
which the plan~ of sight is determined by. reference to an established direc-
tion, since it was necessary in these cases to orient the board and correCt
the direction determined by the, plotted positions.
SECOND CLASS. PLANE OF,'SIGHT DETERMINED BY AN ESTABLISHED
DIRECTioN.
(1.) Direct ,Orientation Of The Directing Piece 'Without The Use

Of An Orienting Line.
575. (a) Using ~ plane table.' Plot the gun position, g, on the board and
the direction gun-target or gun-base, point, either by means of the coordi-
nates of the two points or by means of the Y-azimuth of the direction.
Orient the plane table in the vicinity of the' gun position, either by resection.
by a short traverse, (not more than three legs) or by use of the magnetic
needle (the declination co~stant of which has been determined' previously).
" With the alidade pivoted ~bout g, ~ight C (the panorar:'lic sight of the gun,
,T
1 :~ !
I '
•J ' ~ I
I ','
I
t
,
t
1
_----I G
Fig. 183.
and draw the direction, CgP. Mea~ure '~ith a protractor'the ang'le which
thislinemakes:with:the base line~ CT. Let this be the angle a. In the case
illustrated 'in: fig. '183, subtract angle,' a, from 6400 mils. The remainder.
angle b, is the firing angle' which, with the deflection constant added, is the
deflection (see note) given the' 'gunner. With this deflection on his sight I
the gunner next lays for direction, using as an aiming point a pencil held
vertically' on the' point, p',' on' the plane table. The operation"shouP be re-
peated ,once or twice on account of the displacement of the gun sl~ht duthJ~ •
the process of laying, the gun being moved slightly until this is accomplished.
'\Vhenthe gun finally is laid on the CT line the gunner l'efersthe piece \rNl.ds
t.he,deflection to a more distant aiming point) and, records the deflection;
Note: The "deflection constant" is the deflection which causes the
plane of sight: to' be parallel'to. ,the plane of fire .. It is plateau 0, tambour
400'for the 75,.and deflectiot1 1000 for the 155 Schneider howitze~: ,,:,.r
Topograph~L for" Field' Arti Ilel'Y;

-257-
576. (b) Using the aiming circle' (French). The battery commander first
measures on the map or computes from the coordinates, the 'l-azimuth of
t he base line or gun-target line.
The Battery commander knows the Y-azimuth of mag'llet~~ - north 01'
(declination constant) (magic number) of his instrument (the reading which
must be set off in order that, when the needle is brought oppol:>itJ its index
by the gen~ral motion, the instrument will be oriented). He sets this on the
instrument and orients. This brings the zero of the horizontal HCHle on the
Y-line. N ext he sets off a reading equal to the Y':a'zimuth of the base lin,.~,
and with the general'motion turns the instrument until the needle is opposite
its index. The instrument then will be laid so that the line of sight will be
parallel to the base line when the reading on the lower (red) scale ij. 7.el'o. '...
With this line' established parallel to the base line' it is necessary
only to turn the line of sight, using the upper. motion, to the sight of the
directing gun, note the readings, and announce it in terms of plateau and
tambour. The gunner sets off the announced deflection on his sight and
lays on the spindle of the aiming circle as an aiming point.
577. Note 1: By making use of the deflection constant the setting on th.~
gun sight 'may be read directly from an aiming circle (graduated clockwise)
by reciprocal laying methods; that is, the setting (using a French aiming
circle) must 'be Plate 0, Drum 100 for the 75; 1,000 for the Schneider 155
howitzer; and 3200 for sights graduated clockwise from 0 to 6400.
=>78. Note 2: A modification of the above method sometimes spoken of as
the magic number method is given below. Let L be the declination constant
(magic number) of the given instrument. Let V be the Y-azimuth of tlF~
base line. The deflection of the base line from magnetic north then, is L- f'
or 6,400 plus L-V if L is less than V. Set the aiming ell'cIe "at the value
determined and proceed as before.
=>79. The following problem 'will illustrate the above method, fig. 184.
The Y-declination is found from the map to be 250 mils west. This
makes the Y-azimuth of magnetic nOl.th equal to 6150 mils. In other worrh
the magic number (declination constant) for a clockwise instrument is 6150.
From the map the Y-azimuth of the target, T, measured from the gun posi-
tion, is found to be 2000 mils.
6150-~000=4150 which is the deflection from magnetic north which
will place the gun on the GT line. Setting 4150 on the instrument the needJe
is brought to its index whereupon the line of sight is in the direction CT',
parallel \to the G T line. Note: When opel'ating an aiming circle use thp.
slow motion screw rather than the rapid motion if accurate results are de-
sired. .
With the line of sight still directed along the line CT', a setting of'
3200 mils is placed on the instrument and the line of sight is then swung
around to the gu~, G, fig. 185. The 'actual angle read is xCG, measured clock-
,vise. Assume that the angle T'CG, is 1900 mils. The reading on the instru-
ment is 5100 mils. If the deflection constant of the gun is zero, this is the
deflection given to the gunner who sets it on his sight, directs the line of
sight on the aiming circle (line GC) and lays the gun on the GT line. The
actual firing angle laid by the gunner is TGe, measured clockwise from T,
which (by geometry) is equal to x CG, measured clockwise.
Topography fOl' Field Artillery
T
flJi. ,!o\'I'aphy for F'IeId Artillery

-259-
580. If the aImIng circle is one divided into four separate quadrants it
will be impossible to add 3200 mils in advance. Therefore the angle read
will be J/CG or 300 mils in the second quadrant which, with the deflection
constant added, is given to the gunner. If the gunner sights on the aiming
circle with this setting he will have set off the angle, CGJ/', and the gun will
be pointed along the line, GJ/'. Therefore he swings his sight through three
additional quadrants and with the same reading in the fourth quadrant lays
the gun on the GT line.
581. Since th0re is a variation in the compass readings of different-instru-
ments, and also daily and seasonal variations it often is of advantage to
materialize either the line, CT', or the line, GT~ on the ground as a check on
the future laying of the piece. In this case the materialized direc'jon be-
comes a true orienting line.
A.P
T
Fig. 186.
582. In case the base piece is not in position it may be more convenient
for the battery commander to set up his aiming circle on the base line at the
selected position, see fig. Ig6.
As before he directs his line of sight along the base line GT. Having
done so he turns his line of sight on some suitable aiming point, AP, or on
a selected aiming stake and reads the deflection. If the line GT has been
materialized on the ground, it will afford a check when the gun is moved into
position, and it will be possible to move the piece forward ar..d backward
until the selected aiming point, AP, comes in the line of vision after the
gunner has set off the announced deflection.
(2) Orientation Of The Directing Piece By Means Of An Orienting Line. ,
583. (a) Advantages of an orienting line. In using an orienting line the
artilleryman will find several advantages;
TOPOgl"aphy for Field Artillery
-260-
First, Since the orienting line establishes a particular direction, the
guns are laid using a direction, thus eliminating the enol'S mentioned in
par. 568.
Second, The orienting line. being established, permits of rapid deter-
mination of firing angles since it is necessary only to set up the plane table
or aiming circle at any point on the line and read the angles to the various
pieces; ,
Third, It is a convenient method in close country where distant aim-
ing points are not visible;
Fourth, It is permanent and affords a convenient way of checking
deflections or of re-Iaying the guns if they are moved a stort distance;
Fifth, Since the orienting line may be common to two or more bat-
teries or even to two or more battalions, the advantages of a regular sheaf
within a battery can be extended to' many pieces.
584. (b) Steps to be performed. The establishment of a battery on the
base line, making use of an orienting line consists of:
First, The determination of the base angle or the angle between the
base line and the orienting line measured in the same direction as the sight
graduations;
Second, The establishing of the base piece on the base line;
. Third, The establishing of a parallel sheaf or a sheaf of other well
defined relation.
The last two operations usually are performed successively or sim:-
ultaneously.,
_ A battery with an extended field of fire often uses several base points.
The object of this is, in shifting fire. to avoid the errors incident to measur-
ing large angles. Consequently, if a shift will carry the line o~ fire past u
base point other than the one being used, the piece should be established on
the new base line.
I. Determination of the base angle.
585. Plot th~ base piece and the basepoint on the firing board or map
by' means of their coordinates .
. Draw the base line joining the two points ..
The orienting line having been materialized either by battalion or
battery orienting officer, plot the orienting line on the firing board by its
Y-azimuth or by coordinates taken from the plane table.
With a protractor measure the base angle-
II. Laying on the base line u~ing an aiming circle.
586. If the orienting line passes through the sight of the base piece, the
orienting line is used directly in laying for direction.
. If the orienting line does not pass through the sioght of the base
piece, an aiming circle or other angle measUl-ing instrument, or plane table'
must be set up on the orienting line and used. .
If the orienting line has not been previously established .and material-
ized, the base piece is established on the base line by means of a declinated
instrument, see pars. 576-580, and the line is afterward matel'ialized. ..
587. .First .Case. Orienting line passes through sight of hase piece. - In
this case the plane of sight is taken as coincident with the orienting line
-261-
while the firing angle becomes the same as the base angle, providing. the
aiming point is to the right, see 'fig. 187..
Convert the firing angle
into deflection by adding the
deflection constant of the par-
ticular gun used.
Lay for direction with
this deflection" using the orient- (';-- L
ing line (extenaed to the right
for sights graduated clockwise) Fig. 187. '
as an aiming direction.
Refer the piece to another aiming point and record the new deflection.
When the marker of the orienting line which is to be used as4an aim-
ing point is close to the gun, care must be used to insure that the base
piece is not thrown off the orienting line while laying for direction. To
this end it is well to establish a supplementary marker on the orienting line
near the gun.
588. Second Case. Orienting line does not pass tht'ough sight of base piece.
In this case an angle measuring instrument or a' plane table is set
up on the orienting line, so that the sights of the several guns are visible, .
and the firing angles are determined. There are a number of different meth-
ods of doing this, the order of measuring the angles usually being dependent
on the manner in which the one doing the work visualizes the relations of
the angles. he desires.
i)89. Method No.1. Using an aiming circle, laid parallel to the base line.
One favorite method is to set up the instrument on the orienting line
with the zeto of the instrument pointing in a direction parallel to the base
line and then lay the guns by reciprocal laying as in par. 576.._.
Establish the aiming circle on the orienting line (within at most a
few centimeters).<
Set the instrument at the base angle ..
Using the general motion, point the aiming circle along the orienting
T T'
B~(2. Pomt.
Fig. 188.
line to the ri~ht (the right as one faces the base point). The zero of the
instrument is then on a line parallel to the base line, fig. 188.
Topography for Field Artil1el'Y
-262-.
Note. The above applies to an aiming circle graduated clockwise. If
the graduations of the aiming circle are counter clockwise (opposite to those
of the panoramic sight) set the aiming circle at 6400, minus the base angle.
590. The aiming circle or director being established parallel to the base
line, to lay the base piece on the base line, using the aiming circle as an
aiming point. ,
With the zero of the instrument laid in the direction, CT' or paralld
to the base line take the reading to the sight shank of the base piece. Let A
be the read:ng so obtained. .'
If the panoramic sight and the aiming circle are graduated in the
! same direction, the firing angle for the piece is:
A +3200 mils, if A is less than 3200 mils:
A-320J mils, if A is greater than 3200 mils. See figs. 189, 190, 191•
. 192, for the four quadrants, below, the first and fourth occuring when the
orienting line is in front of the battery, ar.d the second and third when the
orienting line is in the .rear of the guns .
. ,..,t.
• QVAORANi:
o L
Fig. 189.
T'
.2, nd
QVAORANT
Fig 190.
Top~graphy for Field Artillery
-26~-
T
. J. rd.-.
QVADRANT.
4.th.-
(~VADRANT
Firlng.4 ngle
o
Fig. 192.
In each of these figs., OL is the orienting line;

C is the gun position.
C is thE" aiming circle position.
C T is the base line.
CT' is a line parallel to the base line.
A is the angle measured from the base line to the panoramic sight of
the gun.
Having cietermined the firing angle in each case it may be converted
into deflection by adding the deflection constant for the. particular type of
panoramic sight used.
After the base piece has been laid on the aiming circle it will be re-
ferred to some other aiming point and the deflection recorded.
Note. If the sight and aiming circle are grr.duated in opposite direc-
tions the firing angle is:
3200 mils-A, if A is less than 3200 mils.
9600 mils-A, if A is greater than 3200 mils.
-264-
591. .Method No.2. Using an aiming circle laid on the orienting line.
Another convenient method of laying with the aiming circle is as fo]-
lows: •
Set up the instrument on the orienting line.
With the zero of the instrument laid to the right along the orienting
line (to the right as the operator faces the base point) measure the angle
(measured clockwise) between the orienting line and the sight of the gun:
The firing angle will be equal to the reading thus obtained, plus the
base angle, plus 3200 mils. If the sum of these three angles is greater than
6400 mils,' subtract 6400 mils from the reading.
Let A be the reading obtained for the angle between the orienting
line and the gun sight.
Let 8 b~' the base angle.
C is the gun position.
C is the position of the aiming circle.
C T is the base line.
T is the base point.
OL is the orienting line.
In each case the firing angle becomes A+8+3200 mils. This will
also be the deflection for the American panoramic sight.
592. First Quadrant;
- ""t ..
(~VADRANT
.....
()
L
Fig. 193.
Let angle.8+angle A+3200 mils=angle M •
•, .But angle M is greater than 6400 mils by the angle T'Cx, whereas the
actual firing aagle is the angle T'Cx.
Subtract 6400 mils from angle M, and the firing angle, rcx is ob-
tained.
Let 8=1200 mils,
Let A =2800 mils,
Then M=1200+2800+3200=7200 mils.
7200 miIs-6400 mils=800 mils=firing 'angle.
'fopogl'llphy for Field Artillery

-:265-
593. Second lluadrant;
e..nd.
<'M~DRANT
L
o
Fig. 194.
Let B=1200 mils,

Let A=4000 mils,
Then M=1200 mils+4000 mils+3200 mils=8400mils.
8400 mils-6400 mils=2000 mils=firing angle.
594. Third Quadrant;
'. Jord'
GlvAD RAN T.
o L
Fig. 195.
Let B=1200 mils,

Let A=5700 mils,
Then M=1200 mils+5700 mils+3200 mils=10100 mils.
10100 mils-6400 mils.:=3700=firing angle.
fopography for Field. Artillery
"
-266-
595. Fourth Quadrant;
.4.th.
(~VAoJ1ANT.
Fig. 196.
Let 8=1200 mils, .
Let A=900 mils,
Then M=1200+900+3200=5300 mils=firing angle.
Note. If the zero of the aiming circle is.set to the left on the Ol'ient-
ing line when facing the direction of fire, then 3200 mils will not have !0
be taken into consideration.
Also, if the base angle is first set off on the instrument and then laid
to the left on the orienting line, the clockwise angle read to the gun gives,
the deflection directly. .
Fig. 197.
Let' 8' equal the base angle, B. Then if the operator. at C sets B on
his instrument and directs his line of sight along the orienting line to the
left toward 0, the 0 of his instrument will be pointed to the rear on a line
parallel to the base line, GT~ see fig. 197. The reading D' to the gun, then
Topography .for. Field Artillery
-267-
will be the reading from this 0 at. the rear ar~und to the gun, or it is equal
to the firing angle, D. Proof. By geometry L=L', (alternate interior angles
of parallel linEs). Therefore D=D'.
III. Laying on the base line using a plane table.
596. The orienting line and the base line should be drawn the full length
of the plane table.
Set up the plane table over the orienting line.
Orient the table by sighting on a
distant point of the orienting line.
This must be done carefully so that the orienting line on the plane table
will be parallel to the same line on the ground and over it to within a few
centimeters. 'With the alidade pivoted about g. the plotted position of the
gun, sight at C, the sight shank of the base piece, and draw the liIle Cg, the
full length of the rule. ..
With the protractor measure the angle between the base line and the
line Cg, measund in the same direction as the sight graduations.
This is the firing angle' which is converted into deflection by adding
the deflection constant. see fig. 198. .
IT
/
/
/
/ ~
<;:-0)
/ ~
o-~i~
. /~//
/ /.
'~/
Fig. 198.
With this deflection, lay the gun for direction, using as an aiming
point a pencil held vertically at any point on the line Cg.
Repeat this operaticn until the sight no longer moves in laying the
piece.
Refer the piece~
Record the base deflection.
Cases in the other three quadrants will be solved in a like manner.
597. Note: In all cf the above rnethcds it is better to determine the base
deflection after the guns are in position. The method of marking the posi-
tion of the gun sight with a stake and sighting on that stake from tt r.car-
by point, or of setting the aiming circle over this ~take and computing the
deflection, should not be used if time' permits the establishment of the piece.
If used. the piece should be moved until the deflection read on the sight
checks with that previously determined, or should be checked in some other
manner, and the corrections made.

CHAPTER XXVI.
THE OBSERVATION POST.
GENERAL FACTS.
598. Above all, the observation post (0. P.) should be able to fulfill its
mISSIOn.,Observation must be reliable and continuous. . Other desirable
qualities such as command, facility of construction, communication, etc.,
should be possessed if possible. -
The elaborateness of the O. P. depends upon time, varying from a
tree-top, shell hole, or bare crest to a well-equipped concrete dugout. Ruins.
steel towers, windmills, chimneys, church steeples. or any objects affording
a good view of the desired terrain are employed for this purpose. The more
inconspicuous, and permanent the O. P. is, the more desirable is the positioJl.
The observer must be efficient. If he is inattentive or inexperienced,
the artillery wastes ammunition, is poorly informed. and is not promptly
responsive to calls made upon it. Men used for observel's should be thorough-
ly familiar with the sector and specially trained in:
1. Loc:ltion of objectives. '
2. Observing and adjusting artillery fire.
3. Observing a zone.
FUNCTIONS AND CLASSES OF O. P's.

599. Artillery O. P's. are of three kinds:
~.
,
1. Intelligence.
2. Command.
3.; Firir.g.
A. INTELLIGENCE O. P's.
600. The Intelligence O. P's. proper are connected directly' with the Intelli-
gence Section (G2) of the General Staff. These are located in or near the
front line trenches. But, any O. P. is an intelligence O. P., in the proper
sense of the. word, because a repol.t goes back once' in every twenty-foul'
hours, on all observations made in the preceding period.
B. COMMAND O. P's.
601. Command O. P's. for artillery pertain to the different units, such as
battallion, regiment, "groupment", division artillery, and corps artillery.
These stations are situated so as to afford to each unit' an extended view of
the sector. and not merely the zones of action assigned to the battel'ies of
~'the, unit. The fields of view should overlap, so that all terrain can' be ob-
'~e~ved. These posts are us€d to keep commanders informed as to the sit-
uation, and indications of hostile activity. In order to take full advantage
of any information gained in the battalion or groups, their observation posts
'~ should constitute an "Observation System", which is particularly important
"¥~~~~~a~hY' for Field' Artillery
for heavy artillery,
.
because
-269-.
-
of theIr long range and the large areas covered.
Command O. P's. may be used sometimes for firing, as well. f~ such a case,
I they should possess the properties of a firing O. P., as listed below.
C. ,FIRING. O. P's.
602. The purpose of firing O. P's. (Battery or Battalion) is to obsei've and
adjust fire, an(l to locate objectives. These posts must, above all. permit the
objective to be seen, even in most unfavorable. weather. They should be
concealed, and be as close as possible to the front lines. In addition, they
should, if possible, have some command; should afford easy commuication
with the battery firing; should be accessible in the daytime; and should be
as close to the'line of fire as possible, as axial observatiop. shoul~' be used,
when,ever possible.
METHODS OF ESTABLISHING AN O. P.
A. RECONNAISSANCE.
603. The amount of reconnaissance pedormed before occupying an O. P.
depends upon the time available and the style of warfare. In close wadare,
it is usually done first from a map, as the proposed position probably will
be behind the enemy's lines. A "visibility chart" is made of the new sector
from the most promising points. The station possessing the least invisible
area should be chosen.
B. PRELIMINARY TOPOGRAPHICAL OPERATIONS AT THE O. P.
604. ' These include:-
1. Determination of the exact coordinates by Italian-'resection, (or
some other accurate method), and sending same to the battalion commander,
2. Checking the visibility chart previously made from the map, and
sending copy c.fsame to the battalion commander.
3. Drawing accurate panoramic sketch of sector.
C. DETERMINATION OF ORIGIN LINE.
605. This may be determined by Y-azimuth or it may be tied to some
reference point, which point must be visible even in foggy weather. The
reference point should also be near the center of sector if there is only one
point. MeasUl'ements to targets from the origin line must be exact if the
plotting of the targets discovered is to be accurate. Observers must fre-
quently check t::p their instruments to see if they are on the origin line.
D. CONSTRUCTION AND CONSOLIDATION.
606. Special Orders are issued concerning concealment, routes of approach,
activity around 0 .P., and observation.
E. , DETERMINATION OF REGISTRATION MARKS FOR TARGETS.
607. These are plotted on the firing board which stays at the O. P.
These various characteristics are entered' in the Observation Post
Book.
Note: This is an example of the organization of the most elaborate post,
The development of the O. P. depends largely on the time available.
Topography for Field Artiller,r
'- ','-.', ..' ',<: ~ -"; ;(~'q(l'l
.~270-
RECORDS KEPT AT O. P.
608~ Records kept at the O. P. should include:
1. Accurate visibility chart of whole field of view checked from the
actual terrain.
2. Accurate panoramic sketch of same drawn either by an officer- or
dependable man.
3. Firing -chart which must be kept up to date.
4. Observation post records of observations of enemy movements,
enemy works, machine gun and trench mortar emplacements. flashes, signals
from our own and enemy infantry, aeroplane movements, balloons, with time
of ascension and descension, with azimuth and approximate locality. These
observations ar€ initialed by the observer, and the time and the angle from
the origin line or Y-azimuth both are given.
"The O. P. Record Book" also contains the standing orders before
mentioned, and the liaison system (prescribing to whom the information ob-
tained shall be communicated. and the order of priority).
This book is passed on to the battery relieving; is destroyed if in
danger of falling into the hands of the enemy; and, in case the position js
abandoned, is sent to Chief of Artillery of the sector.
5. A record showing to whom rocket signals should be communicated
or relayed.
6. A record showing to whom and in what order -gas alarms should
be passed.
Topogl"aphy for Field AI"Ulle,'y

-271-
PLAN OF OBSERVATION.
609. Taken from Plan of Employment of the 51st F. A. Brigade, March, 3
1918.
PERMANENT OBSERVATORIES
NAME Personnel Location Alternatives REMARKS
1 Officer Each station will have

1 Non. COm. permanently a scissors
ANCENIS 01-26
3 Enl. Men RENARD inst., a fir~ng boata (chart)
,1 Tel. OPt
with hidden and visible
areas, ar.d a panoramic
1 Officer
sketch, and a record book
of observations. The en-
1 Non. Com.
RENARD 08-30 ANCENIS listed men will live near
3 Eill. Men the station, and one man
1 Tel. Op. will always be in the ob-
servatory. Daily reports
1 Officer will be handed in of all
1 Non. Com. observations, and infor-
BXO 75-28 CAMllRAI mation of immediate in-
3 Enl. Men
terest will be telephoned
1 Tel. Op.
to the regimental com-
mander for forwarding t9
1 Officer
the Div. ArE -'-Comdr.
1 Non. Com. RHEIMS All rockets or other sig-
CAMBRAI 63-30
3 Enl. Men 65-33 nals will instantly be tele-
1 Tel:"Op. phoned to the Bn. Comdr.,
______________ and each station will have
1 Officer aiming device arranged to
locate the positions of
1 Non. Com.
WILSON 53-57 CASHMERE rockets fired at night.
3 Enl. Men 59-38
1 Tel. OPt
Aerial Observation.
The Division Escadrille at Mont de Soissons and the Division Balloon
Co. at Veilly are at the, disposition of the Battalion Comdrs. for either
adjustment or fire for destruction.
;1 I

CHAPTER XXVII.
LOCATING TARGETS.
I( TERRESTRIAL OBSERV,t\TION.
~6io..._,While the airplane and the aerial photograph afford means ,of locat-
in:g ~~~v'ta~gets. terrestrial observation continues the most important obser-
vation,' method, ,hence the battery commander, to secure the most effective
use of; his aqvantages must be familiar with all methods of 'securing the
rcoordinat~s; of the targets in his sectol'. If 'a target is visible he may d'3-
~ermin'e the range and azimuth by registering on it and then swinging his
'fire to a 'registration mark, the range and deflection of which are known.
With the range and azimuth so determined he then may plot the target in
question on his firing board or battle map. It frequently is possible, by
the employment of a few simple topographical operations, to accurately lo-
cate objectives in the battery sector, thereby saving time ..and ammunition
required for the attack.- Therefore all possible use of topographical methods
should be made in the determination of the coordinates of new targets.
COMPARISON OF METHODS.
611. The ~ost co~mon method of locating objectives is by intersection, and
where two observation posts both are accurately located, and are some dis ..
tance apart this method is quite satisfactory. It is necessary only to take
the Y-azimuth of a given objective as seen from the two stations and to plot
the directions on the firing board. It usually. happens, however, that where
the observation posts are some distance apart they are unable to pick up the
same objective. ' An auxiliary O. P. may be established near the first station,
but usually in such cases the base is so short that an intersectio;I will show
f con.siderable Hrror~n range. Therefore it is better. where it can be done,
to determine the value of t1?-eanglesubtended at the desired point by a base
of given length and thus determine range by use of the mil relation. There
hre a number of different methods of approaching such a problem .
•Case I.
612. Given' an O. P. at A, fig. 199, a reference point at T.., and a target which
it is desired to locate, at some unknown point, T'. From A, the observer
erects a perpendicular base to B. Assume this to be 100 meters in length.
The observer knows the distance to the reference point. Assume this dis-'
tance, AT, to be 2500 meters. The angle x subtended by the base of 100
meters is then 40 mils. At A the observer measures Ithe angle a. Assume
this to be 110 mils. Proceeding to B the observer meaSUl'es the' angle, h.
Assume this to be 120 mils. By geometry a+x=b+,y. Therefore a+x-b=,Y.
or 40+110-120=30 mils. An angle of 30 mils will subtend a base of 100
meters at a distance of 3333 meters, which is the distance to T'.
If the angular distance between T and T' is great, this method will
not be accurate.
TO[lography for Field Artillery
~273-"
T T
A 100 .B
A 'dc) .B
Fig. 199. Fig. 200. Fig. 201.
Case II.
613. When T' is in line with T, as seen from the observation post, A, fig.
200. Layoff the base AB. Again assume this to be 100 meters. From lJ
measure the angle .Y between" T and T. Assume this to be 10 mils. Ha,,:ing
a known base, AB, and a known distance, AT, the angle, a, is commputed.
Assume this to be 40 mils. By geometry a=x+'y. Then a~'y=x" or 40-10
=30. If x equals 30 mils and AB equals 100 meters then the distance AT'
equals 3333 meters.
Case III.
614. Layoff a base, AB, from the" O. P., fig. 201. Let this be 100 meter'5.
Assume the angle, a, to be equal to 1600 mils. At B take a back sight and
measure the" angle, b. Assume this to be 1570 mils. By geometry a+b+x=
3200 mils. Therefore x= 30 mils. Therefore the distance to T equals 3333
meters.
Case IV.
615. From A the observer reads the bearing or the azimuth to the target,
:T fig. 202. Assume this bearing, a, to be equal to 350 mils. Proceeding to
j
B, 100 meters distant, he reads the bearing to the point, T. " Assume this to
be 300 mils. By geometry a-b=x or 350-300=50
I mils. Therefore T is
2,000 meters distant.
Case V.
616. In any of the above cases where, because the observation post is under
fire, it may be impossible to layoff a perpendicular. base. It often is possi-
ble in such cases to run a traverse down a trench line to B, fig. 203, and by
plotting this point determine the perpendicular distance, A'B, after which
the value of the angle x may be determined as before.
Topo~raphy for Field Artillery

-274-
Case VI.
617. The observer at A desires to learn the distance to a point, T, fig. 204.
From A he measures the angle between T and another visible point, T', and
MN
I T'
I
I
I
I
I
I.
I
I
a
Fig. 203. Fig. 204.
finds this to be x mils. (Assume a value of 50 mils). From A he walks to-

ward T a given distance, say 100 meters. At A' he again measures the angle
. between T and T', and finds it to be 60 mils.
Note: T and T' should be of about the same range.
The angle x, multiplied by the range, A T, in thousands of meters
equals TT'. The angle .Y multiplied by the range, A'T, in thousands of
meters, equals TT'.
(AT)
x (1000) = TT'
(A'T)
y (1000) = TT'
AT A'T
Then x ( 1000 = Y ( 1000 )
But A'T = AT - 100
Substituting in the above equation
-275-
AT AT 100
x ( 1000 )= y (1000 1000 )
Substituting the measured values of x and y
AT AT 100
50 ( 1000 ) = 60 ( 1000 ) -60( 1000 )
50AT 60AT 6
1000 = 1000 T
50AT 60AT
1000 - 1"000= - 6
10AT
.- 1"000 =- 6
- 10AT = - 6000
AT= 600 M.
\
Topography for Field ArtilleJ')'
CHAPTER XXVIII.
DUTIES OF VARIOUS OFFICERS IN POSITION WARFARE.
GENERAL.
,618. This text being concerned with the topographical sid~ of position war-
fare, the following chapter treats only, so far as is necessary, of the topo-
graphical duties of officers. It must be kept in mind that these duties are
elastic and transferrable, due to different situations. The executive often
lays the guns to save time, the battery reconnaissance officer often picks the
position for the battery, because the B. C. is occupied elsewhere. In fact,
.every officer must be able to fill every other officer's position in the battery.
A. THE BRIGADE COMMANDER.
,619. 1. By map designation or terrain description, assigns to his regi-
n1ental commanders;
(a) Their mission.
(b) Their command posts,
(c) Areas within which battery empla~ements must be built.
2. Organizes and subdivides;
(a) The general system of observation within the brigade sec-
tor, especially of enemy activities.
3. Must see that the brigade intelligence officer furnishes regiments
• with maps.
B. THE REGIMENTAL COMMANDER .
.,20. 1. Assigns to his battalion commanders by map designation or ter-
rain description;
(a) Their missions,
(b) Command posts,
(c) . Areas to be occupied by battery emplacements.
2. Organizes and subdivides;
(a) The general observation system of the regimental sector,
especially with a view to the "general observation of fire."
Note: Generally done by the regimental orientation
officer.
C~ THE BATTALION COMMANDER.

621. . (1) Prior to the occupation. of the sector, (reconnaissance);
1. Assigns missions to the batteries,
2. Supervises and is responsible for the detail~d study from the map
(and from the terrain if possible) of the following;
(a) Positions for the battery emplacements.
(b ) Available location for O. P's., both battery and battalion,
(c) Visibility charts for each O. P.,
(d) Panoramic sketches from each O. P.,
.Topography for Field Artil'lery
-277-
,'(e) Chart of "dead space" for each battery,,!:
(f) "Field of Fire" chart for each battery.
622. (2) When positions have been approved, and are to be occupied;
1. Assigns to the several batteries;
(a) Their areas within which emplacements must be built,
. (b) Their C. P's.
I:: (c) . Their' O_P's.
2. Supervises preliminary topographical Qperations (usually done by
-_... ',.the Bn.Adj.); ...
(a) Locating. place marks of the O. P's;, emplacements, etc.
on the map, . #
(b) Orienting line drawn on the map, and if need be material-
ized on the ground,
(c) Determination of complete coordinates of the base point.
623. (3) When sector has been organized, Bn. Co. Sees that the Bn. intel-
ligence officer (Bn. Adj.); .
(a) Furnishes the batteries with information that has been
sent down through the regiment by the Intelligence De-
partment,
(b) Consolidates reports sent in by batteries of observations
made during period covered by the report, (usually 24
hours previous), and sends this to the regimental intelli-
gence officer,
(c) Keeps Bn. firing chart up to date,
(d) Makes "Consolidated Visibility Chart," "Dead Space
Chart", and "Field of Fire Chart" of the sector,
(e) Takes charge of and supervises the Bn. O. P.,
(f) Supervises the training of battery and battalion observers.
~-l_. D. THE BATTERY COMMANDER.
624. (1) 'Vhen position is to be occupied, supervises the following:
1. Preliminary topographical operations;
(a) Placing guns with respect to the place mark,
(b) Locating O. P. exactly, and getting complete coordina'tes;
(c) Identifying and locating exactly upon the map, the base
point or base direction,
(d) Drawing the orienting line upon the firing chart, which
line has been given by azimuth, or materialized on the
ground or battalion board by the Bn. O. 0.,
(e) "Laying the battery on the base line" or "with base de-
flection."
2. Computes the initial elements of firing data in the following order;
(a) To lay the battery with base defle<;tion,
(b) To lay the battery for normal barrage,
(c) For other targets, or objectives, in the order of their im-
. portance.
(2) After the position is occupied and the sector has been fully
organized as enumerated above;
Topography for Field' Artillery

-278-
625. 1. He sees that the following records are kept up to date;
(a) B. C. Data Book,
(b) Visibility Chart.
(c) Firing Board or Chart.
(d) Panoramic Sketches.
2. Makes consolidated report to Bn. intelligence officer of observa.
tions made during the period covered by the report, (usually 24
hours),
3. Responsible that observers are well trained by R. 0., and that
they are thoroughly familiar with the sector.

-279-
APPENDIX I.
. SLOPES.

-280-
PRACTICABILITY OF SLOPES.
626. Slopes from 0° to 5 ° are practicable for maneuvering all arms, singly
or combined.
On slopes fr0:t:n 5° to 10° all arms can still be maneuvered, but with
increasing difficulty. .
On slopes of 10° to 15° all arms can be moved up or down.
Slopes from 15° to 30° are practicable for small detachments only.
On slopes from 30° to 45° foot troops can move with difficulty. War
materiel can be dragged up any slope.
_Lpegree I
_ ('7}~3:~~~!.1~ Operati~ns
--i"-on-60 --. r -1 J-m~aximum for railroads --~-----
1--on---20 --- I 3 -'l-ni~ixiin-umforfirst --class- "i-"oads -.-------.--
-ron-12 - 1--5~ ----"-practlcaole1or all arms - -----------.---.,-----
-.!on - ~_I~ .,- not pracHcableforheavilYloaded . ~~~~les. _
1 on 6. ..1 9~.. I field artillery can no longer maneuver
-ion4--1-T4-15---r-majdinumuptO-\vhIcllall arms-can-m:ove--- -"~----~
1 on 3-T-I8~--I-ngh:tvclilcles can ascend
1 _.on2-!- 2-6~--'-l-r~div~_dll_~l~ ~~(r-mules <?~n-.-a-sc-e-n~
__
~I~or-.~.4e~_cen~:---.--
i -o"n 1 I 45 I foof troops can -ascend 01' descendalded -bOy hands----::-
627. }'ords. Practicable depth depending on current and nature of bot-
tom, 3-3.5 feet deep for Infantry and Artillery, 4 to 4.5. feet deep f01' Cav-
alry, 2-3 feet deep for wagons~
628. Strength of Ice-3 inches thiCk 'will 8upportsmall group of men. 4~
to 7 inches t~ick will support caY;l.lry and light guns, 8 to 12 inches thick
will support heavy guns and wagons:.' " ..•.
LEKGTH OF PACE.
629. Length of pace on slopes corresponding to normal pace on a level of
30.4 inches.
Slopes. . ...10° . j 5° I 10° I .. 15°...1 20° I 25° I 30°

Length or-step asce~di;;i-= 1~-36:;rT27~6 -r24.4-r~.::f2J.-.J =r!f.1-rT'7'-8~r--i~~(r
Lengthofstep-descendiIlg-I-3(Y.4-1-2![2-128.3-1- 27.6 -~I- 26-:-41-23:-6
-1-19~7--
'3;'opography for Field Artjlle.1:Y;

-281-:'"
Reduction to horizontal of distances paced on different.!:slopes ascend-
ing and descending.
o
o
cY:)
I oo'<:l'OLO...-It-cY:)O)~O~'<:I'C\lOoo~~C'l
.....I
.::> I ~g~~g~~g~~~~~~~g~~
,00000000000...-1...-1...-1 C\l C\l C\l cY:)
rn
Q)
C\lOoot-LOcY:)...-Io)oo~'<:I'~ooOC\l~~oo
I ~~~~~~g~~gg~~~g~~~
Q,
o o 0 0 0 0 ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l C\l cY:) '<:I' '<:I' LO ~
''iii
...
.B
I
ooo)OO...-lC\lcY:)~~LO~~C\lOoo~~C\l
o
g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~
o 0 0 ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l ~ '<:I' '<:I' LO ~ ~
o
C\l oot-~'<:I'cY:)C\l...-lOoot-~~C\lOoo~~C\l
~~~~~~~g~~~~~~~~~~
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...-1•...-1 ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l C\l cY:) ~ '<:I' 1O
'<:I'...-I0)~'<:I'...-I00~cY:)...-I00C\l~0~00C\l~
~~~~~~moo~~~~m~~~m~
o
LO
~8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
...-I cY:)C\lC\l...-lOoO)oot-t-~o)C\lLOoo...-l~t-
g~~g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
o 0 0 0 0 ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l C\l cY:) '<:I' '<:I' LO c.o
LO 0 00 0 ...-I 1:1':> '<:I' ~ t- 0) 0 LO 0 LO 0 LO 0 LO
o
~8g~~~~~~~~~g~~~~~
o ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l cY:) '<:I' LO ~ t- 00
o
...-I
~J ~~~g~~~g~~~~~~~~~~
t- ~ '<:I' cY:) C\l ...-I 0) 00 t- LO '<:I' ...-I 00 ~.~ 0) ~ C':l
!-I
~ 0 t- C':l 00 '<:I' 0 LO ...-I ~ C\l 00 '<:I' 0 ~ C\l 00.'<:1'
o
~ ~ ~ ~ ~.~ fJ ~ cxi ~ ~ ~
gO...-l...-l...-l...-l...-l...-l...-l...-l...-l...-lC\lC':l'<:l'LO~t-oo gi g2 g ~ g
1O
'<:I''<:I''<:I'LO~~~t-t-ooooC\l~O~ooC\l~
_~~_'" I
gg~~~~~~fJ~g~~~~~~~
o 0 ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I ...-I C\l cY:) '<:I' LO c.o t- 00
:.

-283-
APPENDIX II.
BRITISH MAPS.

-284-
BRITISH COORDINATES.
630. In the recent war a considerable portion of the front in France and
in Belgium, was held by the armies of the British Empire, and in this portion
these armies used in part, maps which varied from those used by the French
armies.
The large scale maps of Belgium are plotted from the Belgian origin
which is on the meridian of Brussels, those of the French area having been
.made to conform to the Belgian system.
The large scale maps are on three scales: 1/10,000, 1/20,000 and
1/40,000.
Belgian Area. The original maps have been redrawn both on the
1/10,000 and the 1/20,000 scale. A 5-meter contour interval has been
adopted.
French Area. These maps have been drawn on the 1/20,000 scale
and enlarged or reduced for the other two scales.
The maps are on the metric system. Each sheet (1/40,000) repre-
sents an area 32,000 meters by 20,000 meters. At the corner of each sheet
are printed the distances of the sheet lines fI'oJn the origin.
631. The basis of the British system is the 1/40,000 sheet, which is identi-
fied by a number; for example, "sheet 28", fig. 205. Each 1/20,000 sheet
covers one quarter of the area of a 1/40,000 sheet and is identified by the
letters, N.W., N.E., S.W., S.E., denoting its position on the 1/40,000 sheet
A 1/2D,000 sheet is thus called "28 N.W.", fig. 205.
Each 1/10,000 sheet again. _COY~l:S_ one. quarter of the area of a 1/20,-
000 sheet, and is identified by -the number 1; . 2, 3, or 4. The northeastern
1/10,000 sheet of a 1/20,000" area is thus called "28 S.\V. 2". In addition
the 1/10,000 sheets are given -names, as ihis'provides an easy means of
reference when, as often happens, a combined 1/10,000 sheet is made. The
.subdivision of the areas as above does not change the lettering of the sub-
divisions found in the 1/40,000 sheets.
The preparation of combined 1/10,000 sheets made up of parts of two
or more adjacent regular sheets, has been necessary in many cases in order
to provide a sheet on which the trench line falls conveniently. These com-
bined sheets are in general of the same size as the regular sheets.
THE GRID SYSTEM.

632. Over the 1/40,000 metric map the British cartographers have placed
a grid expI'essed in yards. This is merely for convenience in indicating lo-
calities and obviously cannot fit exactly with the sheet lines which are in
terms of meters. The grid has therefore been placed with its central point
in the center of the 1/40,000' sheet, and allowed to overlap the sheet lines as
shown in fig. 206. -
The first sub-divisions of the grid are a series of large rectangles
lettered A, B, C, ~o X from left to right, there befug 6 rectangles in a row
and 4 rows. The two middle rows of rectangles are squares, the top and
bottom rows are not. Each of the lettered rectangles is further subdivided
,into a series of-1000 yard squares, which are numbered from left to right
and from top to bottom.
At the north and south edges of the 1/40,000 sheet there is an over- .
TopogI:aphi :':{or Field- Artillery
-':'285-
. . ..
L)YSTEM OF [)R'ITt5H 'MAPS
ON THE Wf..5TERN FRONT
/ 'l
:f DVNKIRK N.W. ,'.N.E_ Yz.o,OOO

--lj9-- --2..1----
.s.w. " .5.E. ,
---~=t--
:PRE~-i&
.
_ ---l19-- }~o.ooo
-_o-3libA-- I
--3,-- °TOVRNAI
.,
-.-' 3i<:>e>-- --:3~f,'E-- ---.-4{4--
, DOVAI
'0
• 0
i i. VAlE.N!I~NNE5
--5jlE- ---7j.ll)--. --!lIrA--
.1
• I' .•
I
,
----5hD--
I .
• I
-r,
0 ~
--' --Gjc-D-- '---~.2.B-' gdU~
AMIEN5
o0T_QV NTIN ._LE
~32,000 MUER.5-{
•• ; ; j .'Fig_.205: !~.... c, ,",..., '.:. r Jd
-286-
lap of the gr}d which is the difference between 10,000 meters (half the width
of the sheet) and 11,000 yards (the nearest grid line). This overlap amounts
~ rcsp,.(OOO'~+- sP"<OOO'9+rt- sP'<OOO''7-+~P,«()()O'~-i

,
~.Il T
'+-
\j)
N
1- r cr:.
11\
-a
$)
I
I
lL..- -1 >< 0
0
0
0- \j)
<
t.
...J
r:t: c.l
u..I Q)
> I1.J .c.0
0 '"
\I') ""0
CI
0
et: 0 ~ C5 ~ 0
I.J ~~ 0
0'
0
! lJ)'
l/')
I ~
a::
IL..I
)-
IL.I
t.
11\
\j
il
>..
.....
....,
0 --;:)
0..
> 0
c
\.!5'
C\J'
rf) 1
01
cf.
0
If)
0 U - ~~ ..
>.
~
an
G)
:g1.P ~ ~
3
If)
u ~-
.
If')
,
~
(j')
~
\O~
If)
~ ~
= t::: ...., /l")
N ~II) - t::
;t
"..,
0\.1)
rr)1i)
en
...... N :R
t'
If) r::
If) "
cr
r<')
-:t-2 ~
---z+-.;-
\D \o!)
~q- .f:f ~
~
~ (5)
;::\
~ N
N
~ft') G)
"":.;
!!5' -=- r-
("oJ N
I"")
Ii)
-+-~-' '\.
-+J
':-rt- N cO ~ 0 ~N co s: 2 ~
c.!)
- v tl) ~
N N
m
- ~ ~ ~- ,.... ~ ~ ~ iri 3~ :3
~-
I'- (f')-r) .,...; rJ
m
-
r
CI U 0
r--
a: lr)
0
0.
0
If)
~ I
-~«
. I I
t!J L ~ CI) 0.
4
--r-T--l-
I I I I
~
,
--t--"1-_!. - +-
I
i
Q.
<{
~
01.
a:
'-="
to 192.4 feet and appears on all large scale maps. .The diagram shows how
TOJ)Ol{raphy for Field Artillery
-287-
it appears on the 1/20,000 and 1/10,000 enlargements of the different por-
tions of the original 1/40,000 sheet, fig. 206,'r
(a) On the 1/20,000 sheet "N.W." the full overlap of 192.4 feet ap-
pears along the northern edge, but at the southern edge, this being the
center of a 1/40,000 sheet, the grid and sheet lines coincide.
(b) On the 1/10,000 sheet, "S.'\V. I", at the northern edge the grid
and sheet lines coincide, while the southern edge shows half the overlap, i.e.,
96.2 feet.
(c) On the 1/10,000 sheet "S.W. 3", the northern edge shows half
the overlap, while the southern edge shows the full overlap. .
633. Because 32,000 meters, the distance east and west, represented on the
1/40,000 sheet, corresponds to 34,995.6 yards,' the grid, which&'is 36,000
yards east and west overlaps about 500 yards at either en'd. Thus the map
proper will show only about half of the last tiers of 1000 yard squares on
the east and west.
In each large rectangle' of the grid these 1000 yard squares are num-
bered from left to right, 1, 2, 3, etc. to 30 or 36, depeding upon whether
the large rectangle is in either one of the two outer, or one of the two inner
rows. This difference in number of small squares is due to the fact that the
1/40,000 sheet measures 20,000 meters from north to south limits, hence
each half is 10,000 meters. 10,000 meters is equal to 11,000 yards approxi-
mately (10,930 yards exactly). Thus the large rectangles in the outer rows
measure 5000 yards from north to south and those in the two inner rows,
6000 yards. Consequently there can be but five rows of small rectangles in
a large outer rectangle. 1000 YDj--------.
To .r e pea t, the
large rectangles are di-
vided into squares of 1000 I
yards on a side which are I
I
numbered 1, 2,~-3, etc. I
I
Each of these squares is
subdivided into four min-
a. 4L---l- b
I I
or squares, 500 yards on a II Cf)
side. These minor squares .0
are lettered 0, b, c, J, from >

o
left to right, fig. 207. --------~-~---.-- o
o
A point may thus
I
be roughly located as. ly- I
ing, for example, within
square M. 5. b. To locate
c I d
I
a point within a minor I
square, consider the sides I
divided into tenths, and I
define the point by taking
so many tenths, first from
Fig. 207.
W. to E. along the south- ,
ern side, and then from S. to N. along the western side; the southwest cor- .
ner always being taken as origin and the distance along the southern side
always being given by the first figure.
-=288-
A .point may thus be described located at M. 5. b. 3. 4., i.e., three
divisions east and four divisions north from the southwest corner of square
M. 5. b." fig. 207. This gives a 50 yard subdivision or square.
By simple extension of this method, the 0
point may be more accurately located if the 9
sides of the minor squares be considered as 8
divided into 100 parts, and. the point described 7
by using four figures. 6
5
In figuring the square coordinates of 4
point C they are 6.4 on the two figure system, ;; 0
or more accurately 64,44 on the four figure sys- z.
,tern, i.e., 64 hundredths east, and 44 hundredths
north from the southwest corner of the square,
see fig. 208.
The coordinates of A are 0.8; of B, 3.0; of D, 0.3 in the adjoining
square to the right. Note that in using these coordinates the numbers 0 to
9 should be used, but 10 never should be used, as mistakes 'may occur. To
facilitate reading coordinates, special cards may be prepared graduated
along two edges into tenths and hundredths parts according to the map scale,
and by placing the corner where the two graduated edges of the cards meet,
parallel to the respective sides of the squares, the coordinates' may be read.
THE NORTH POINT.

634. In any system of rectangular sheets, as soon as a point is reached
far from the origin on which the system. is based the vertical sheet lines no
longer point true north and south. The inclination to the sheet lines of the
meridian of longitude i.e., true north, increases with the distance from the
'ori~~ .
Hence, the vertical sheet lines of the large scale map which are all
rectangular are not true north and south. On sheet 28, for instance, the
angle between sheet line and true north is 1 04'. Since the Y-axis of the
0
grid is parallel to the vertical sheet lines then for sheet 28 the grid north is
0
1 04' west of north. This declination must be considered when using a
compass or when computing a direction from the Y-axis.
DESIGNATION OF SHEETS.
635. As has been stated, the 1/40,000 sheets are designated. by number,
fig. 205. There are a few sheets that have the same number, but are distin-
guished from each other by a small letter placed to the right and a little
above, as 57c. .
I. In the upper left hand corner, is an index showing the' number of the
adjoining sheets.
Suppose that a large scale map is wanted of the northwest part of
57c. The map to get would be 57c N.W. Such a map would be to 1/20,000
scale. If a larger scale map than that is needed ahd, say, the area desired
is in the southeast corner of the 1/20,000 map, then the map to get would
be 57c N.W. 3.
Instructions regarding their use are printed on the margin of each
map.
Topograpny for Field Artillery
-289-
. ~.
APPENDIX III.
TABLE OF NATURAL FUNCTIONS ....~.

-290-
636. Natural sines and tangents to a radius 1:
Arc. Sine. Tang. Cotang. Cosine.

v , 0
,
o 00 .0000000 .000000 Infinite. 1.0000000 90 00
10 .0029089 .002908 343.7737 .9999958 50
20 .0058177 .005817 171.8854 .9999831 40
30 .0087265 .008726 114.5886 .9999619 30
40 .0116353 .011636 85.93979 .9999323 20
50 .0145439 .014545 68.75008 .9998942 10
1 00 .0174524 .017455 57.28996 -.9998477 89 00
10 .0203608 .020365 49.10388 .9997927 50
20 .0232690 .023275 42.96407 .9997292 40
30 .0261769 .026185 38.18845 .9996573 30
40 .0290847 .029097 34.36777 .9995770 20
50 .0319922 .032008 31.24157 .9994881 10
2 00 .0348995 .034920 28.63625 .9993908 88 00
10 .0378065 .037833 26.43160 .9992851 50
20 .0407131 .040746 24.54175 .9991709 40
30 .04~6194 .043660 22.90376 .9990482 30
40 .0465253 .046575 21.47040 .9989171 20
50 .0494308 .049491 20.20555 .9987775 10
3 00 .0523360 .052407 19.08113 .9986295 87 00
10
20
I .05524C6
.0581448
.. 055325
.058243
18.07497
17.16933
.9984731
.9983082
50
40
30 .0610485 .061162 16.34985 .9981348 30
40 .06"9517 .064082 15.60478 .9979530 20
50 .0668544 .067004 14.92441 ,
.9977627 10
4 00 .C697565 .069926 14.30066 .9975641 86 00
10 .0726580 .072850 13.72673 .9973569 50
20 .0755589 .075775 13.19688 .9971413 40
30 I .0784591 .078701 12.70620 .•9969173 30
40 .0813587 .081629 12.25050 .9966849 20
50 .0842576 .084558 11.82616 .9964440 10
5 00 .0871557 .087488 11.43005 / .9961947 85 00
10 .0900532 .090420 11.05943 .9959370 50
20 .0929499 .093354 10.71191 .9956708 40
30 .0958458 .096289 10.38539 .9953962 30
40 .0987408 .099225 10.07803 .9951132 20
50 .1016351 .102164 9.788173 .9948217 10
• 6 00 .1045285 .105104 9.514364 .9945219 84 00
10 .1074210 .108046 9.255303 .9942136 50
20 .1103126 .110989 9.009826 .9938969 40
30 .1132032 .113935 8.776887 .9935719 30
40 .1160929 .116883 8.555546 .9932384 20
50 .1189816 .119832 8.344955 .9928965 10
7 00 .1218693 .122784 8.144346 .9925462 83 00
10 •1247560 .125738 7.953022 •. 9921874 50 .
20 .1276416 .128694 7.770350 .9918204 40
30 .1305262 .131652 7.595754 .9914449 30
40 .1334096 .134612 7.428706 .9910610 20
50 .1362919 .137575 7.268725 .9906687 10
Topography
I Cosine. --I
for Field Artillery
Cotang. Tang.
I Sine. Arc.
-291-,-
Natural Sines and Tangents-Continued.'!:
I
Arc.
0 , I Sine.
I, Tang. Cotang.
I Cosine.
I 0 ,
8 00 .1391731 .140540 7.115369 .9902681 82 00
10 .1420531 .143508 6968233 .9898590 50
20 .1449319 .146478 6.826943 .9894416 40
30 .1478094 .149451 6.691156 .9890159 30
40 .1506857 .152426 6.560453 .9885817 20
50 .1535607 .155404 6.434842 .9881392 10
9 00 .1564345 .158384 6.313751 .98768E'3 ~ 81 00
10 .1593069 .161367 6.197027 .9872291 50
20 .1621779 .164353 6.084438 .9867615 40
30 .1650476 .167342 5.975764 .9E'62856 30
40 .1679159 .170334 5.870804 .9858013 20
50 .1707828 .173329 5.769368 .9853087 10
10 00 .1736482 .176327 5.671281 .9848078 80 00
10 .1765121 .179327 5.576378 .9842985 50
20 .1793746 .182331 5.4?4505 .9838808 40
30 .1822355 .185339 5.395517 .9832549 30
40 .lf50949 .18f349 5.309279 .9827206 20
50 .1879528 .191363 5.225664 .9821781 10
11 00 .1908090 .194380 5.144554 ' .9816272 79 00
10 .19366~6 .197400 5.065835 •. 981C680 50
20 .1965160 .200424 4.989402 .9805005 40
30 .1993679 .203452 4.915157 .9799247 30
40 .2022176 .206M~3 4.843004 .97934r6 20
50 .2050655 .209518 4.772856 .9787483 10
12 00 .2079117 .212556 4.704630 .9781476 78 00
10 .21071)61 .2151)98 4.638245 .977;)386 50
20 ".2131)988 .218644 4.573628 .9762215 40
30 .2164396 .221694 4.510708 .9762960 30
40 .2192786 .224748 4.449418 .971)6623 20
50 .2221158 .227806 4.389694 .9750203 10
13' 00 .2249011 .230868 4.331475 .9743701 77 00
10 .2277P44 .233934 4.274706 .9737116 50
20 .2306159 .237004 4.219331 .9730449 40
30 .2334454 .240078 4.165299 .972~699 30
40 .23627?9 .24311)7 4.112561 .9716P67 20
50 .2390984 .246240 4.061070 .9709953 10
14 00 .2419?19 .249328 4010780 .97029Fl7 76 00
10 .2447433 . .252420 R961651 .9<-:91)879 50
,20 .2475627 .255516 3.913642 .9688719 40
30 .2503POO .258617 3.866713 .9681476 30
40 .25319)')2 .261723 3.820828 .9674152 20
50 .2560082 .264833 3.775951 .9666746 10
I
15 00 .2588190 .267949 37320fiO .96)')9258 75 00
10 .2616277 .271069 3.689092 .9601681 50
20 .2644342 .274194 3.647046 ". .9~44037 40
30 .2072384 .277324 3.605883 .9636305 30
40 .2700403 .280459 3.565Fl74 .9628490 ' 20
50 .2728400 .283599 3.526093 .9620594 10
Cosine. 1- Cotang. Tang. ). Si~-'-Arc.
Topography for Field Artillerr

-292-
Natural Sines and Tangents-Continued.
Arc. Sine. ,I
I
Tang. I Cotang. I Cosine.
0-'--
16 00 .2756374 .2~67451 3.487414 .9612617 74 00
10 .2784324 .289f96 3.449512 .9604558 50
20 .2812251 .293052 3.412362 .9596118 40
30 .2840153 .296213 I 3.375943 .9588197 30
40 .2f'6RC32 .299380 I'
3.340232 .9579895 20
50 .2895887 .302552 3.305209 .9571512 10
I
17 00 .29237171 .305730 I 3270852 '.9563048 73 00
10 .29S1fi22 .30~914 3.237143 .9:554502 50
20 .29793('3 .312103 3.204063 .9545876 40
30 .3007fl58 II
.31529R 3.171594 .9537170 30
40 .3C347P8 .31~499 3.139719 .9528382 20
50 .3062492 .321706 3.108421 .9519514 10
I
18 00 .3C90170 I .324919 3.077683 .9510565 72 00
10 .31l7R22I' .32R1 ~R 3.047491 .9501536 50
20 .314Fi448 .3~J~6~ 3.017830 .9492426 40
30 .317~('47 , .33dfi9fi 2.988685 .94f3237 30
40 .~20()619 .337P~~ 2.960042 .9473966 20
50 .3228164 I .341077 2.931888 .9464616 10
19 00
10
.3?!'\!'6R2
.32P~172.1
I , .M4327
.347fi94
2904210
2.876997
I .9455186
.9445675
71 00
50
20 .331r6~4 .350~4R 2.850234 .9436085 40
30 .3~::l9r69 I .3f'411 R .9426415 30
40
50
.3~6!)47f)
.3392852
I .3fi7~95
.360679
2.8239121
2.798019
2.772544
.9416665
.9406835
20
10
20 00 .3420201 .363970 2.747477 .9396926 70 00
10 .~J.47:;?1 .~fi7')6R 2.722807 .9386938 50
20 .3474R12 .370572 I 2.fl.98525 .9376E'69 40
30 .~5C2074 .373RP4 2.674621 .9366722 30
40
50 I .3:;29~r6
.3556508
.3772n~
.380530
2.651086
2.627912
.9356495
.9346189
20
10
21 00 .31'\83679 .3P3964 2.605089 .9335804 69 00
10 .3610R21 .3R7205 2.582609 .9325340 50
20 .36~7932 .390fi54 2.560464 .9314797 40
30 .3f6~n12 .::l9~910 2.538647 .93C4176 30
40 .3~92('61 .397274 2.517150 .9293475 20
50 .3710079 I .400646 2.495966 .9282696 10
22 00 7
.3 46"66 I .40402fl 2.475086 .9271839 68 00
10 .3773121 I .407413 2.454506 .9260902 50
20 .3799944 .410R09 2.434217 .9249888 40
30 .3P2fiP~4 I .414213 2.414213 .9'238795 30
40 .3R53693 .417625 2.394488 .9227624 20
50 .3880518 I .421046 2.375037 I
I
.9216375 10
2300 .3907311 .424474 2.355852 .9205049 67 00
10 .39M071 .427912 2,336928 •. 9193644 50
20 .3960798 .431357 2.318260 .9182161 40
30 .3987491 .434812 2.299842 .9170601 30
40 .4014150 .438275 2.281669 .9158963 20
50 •.. -
.4040775 .441747 2.263735 .9147247 10
I Cosine. ( Cotang. Tang. I Sine. Arc.
'fopography for Field Artillery

-293-
Natural Sines and Tan.gents-Continued ...;
Arc. Sine. ,I
I
Tang. Cotang. j Cosine. I
I
24.00 .4067366 .445228 2.246036 .9135455 66'00
10 .4093923 .448718 2.228567 .9123584 50
20 .4120445 .452217 2.211323 .9111637 40
30 .4146932 .455726 2.194299 .9099613 30
40 .4173~R5 I .4!'l9?43 2.177492 .9087511 20
50 .4199801 .462771 2.160895 .9075333 10
25 00 .4226183 .466307 2.144506 .9063078 - . 65 00
10 .4252528 .469853 2.12P321 .9050746 # 50
.20 .427RP38 .473409 2.112334 .9038338 40
30 .4~05111 .476975 I 2.096543 .9025853 30
40 .433J 348 .480551 2.080943 .9013?92 20
50 .4357548 .484136 2.065531 .9000654 10
26 00
10
I .4383711
.4409P~8
.4877~2
.491 P3Q
2.0f)0~03
2.C35256
.8987940
.8975151
64 00
50
20 .44%927 .494954 2.020386 .8962285 40
30 .4461978 .49Pfi81 2.005689 ~949~44 30
40 .4487992 I .502218 1.991J 63 .89~6~26 20
50 .4513967 .505866 1.976805 .8923234 10
27 00 .41139905 .509525 1.9h2610 .8910065 63 00
10 .4565P(l4 .513195 1.948577 .8896822 50
20 .4S91665 .51687fl 1.934702 .8883503 40
30 .41'l174P6 .520567 1.920982 .8870108 30
40 .464~269 .524269 1.907414 .8Pf6639 20
50 .4669012 .527983 1.893997 .8843095 10
I
28 00 .46947J6 .531709 1.8P0726 I .8829476 62 00
10 ~4720380 .535446 1.867600 .8815782 50
20 .4746004 .539195 1.854615 .8802014 40
30 .:{.4771588 .54?9fl5 1.841770 .8788171 30
40 .4797131 .546728 1.829062 .8774254 20
50 .4822634 .550512 1.816489 .8760263 10
29 00 .4848096 .554309 1.804047 .8746197 61 00
10 .4873517 .558117 1.791736 .8732058 50
20 .4~98897 .561939 1.779552 .8717844 40
30 .49242~6 .565772 1.767494 .8703557 30
40 .4949522 .56%19 1.755559 .86P9196 20
50 .4974787 .573478 1.743745 .8674762 10
30 00 .5000000 .577350 1.732050 .8660254 60 00
10 .5025170 .581235 1.720473 .8645673 50
20 .5050298 .585133 1.709011 .8631019 40
30 .5075384 .589045 1.697663 .8616292 30
40 .5100420 .592969 1.6P6426 .8601491 20
50 .5125425 .596908 1.6752C8 .8586619 10
31 00
10
.5150381
.5175293
.600860
.604826
1.664279
1.653366
I .8571673 59 00
.8556655 50
20 .5200161 .608806 1.642557 .8541564 40
30 .52249f'6 .612800 1.631851 .8526402 30
40 .5249766 .616809 1.621246 .8511167 20
50 .5274502 I .620832
l
1610741 .8495860 10
Cosine. Cotang. Tang. I Sine.----r- Arc.-
Topography for Field. Artillery

-294-
Natural Sines and Tangents-Continued.
Arc.
0
,
Sine. ( Tang. Cotang. ( Cosine.
I --o-,_~_-
32 00 .5299193 .624869 1.600334 .84f'0481 58 00
10 .5323839 .628921 1.590023 .8465030 50
20 .5~4R440 .6~2988 1.579807 .8449508 40
30 .f-372996 .637070 1.569685 .8433914 30
40 .5397507 .641167 1.559655 .8418249 20
50 .5421971 .645279 1.549715 .8402513 10,
33 00 .5446~90 .649407 1.539865 .83f67C6 77 00
10 .54707h3 .6Fl3fi51 1.530102 ,,8370827 50
20 .5495090 .657710 1.520426 .8354878 40
30 .5519~70 .661R85 1.510f35 .8338858 30
40 .554~60~ .666076 1.501328 .8322768 20
50 .5567790 .670284 1.491903 .8306607 10
34 00 .51"91929 .674fiOR 1.482561 .8290376 56 00
10 .5616021 .678749 1.473298 .8274074 50
20
30
.5640066
.f;f>64('62
.6R~0(,6
.687281
1.4€4114
1.455009 I .8257703
.8241262
40
30
40 .5688011 .691572 1.445980 .8224751 20
50 .5711912 .695881 1.437026 .8208170 10
, 35 00 .5735764 .700207 1.428148 .8191520 55 00
10 .57591168 .7C4551 1.419342 .8174801 50
20 .57f13323 .70R913 . 1.410609 .8158013 40
30 .5807030 .713293 1.401948 .8141155 30
40 .5t'3C687 .7176!H 1.393357 .8124229 20
50 .5854294 .722107 1.384835 .8107234 10
36 00 .5877853 .7261142 1.376381 .8090170 54 00
10 .5901361 .73C996 1.367995 .807~0~8 50
20 .5924819 .735469 1.359676 .801)5837 40
30 .5948228 .739961 1.351422 .80~8;;69 30
40 .59715t'6 .744472 1.343233 .80212~2 20
50
37 00
.5994893
.6018150
.749003
.753554
1.335107
1.327044
I .8003827
.79P6:355
10
53 00
10 .6041356 .758124 1.319044 .7968815 50
20 .6064511 .762715 1.311104 .79fi1208 40
30 .6087614 .767327 1.303225 .79~~;;33 30
40 .6110666 .771958 1.?9S405 .791 f\792 20
50 .6133666 .776611 1.287644 .7897983 10
38 00 .6156615 .781285 1.279941 .7880108 52 00
10 .6179511 .785980 1.272295 .7f'6~165 50
20
30
.6202355
.6225146
.79C697
.7954~5
1.2647('6
1.257172
I .7P44157
.7P260?2
40
30
40 .62478P5 .800196 1.249693 .7P('7940 20
50 .6270571 .804979 1.242268 .7789733 10
39 00 .6293204 .809784 1.?~.1997 .7771 Ll60 51 00
10 .63157t'4 .814611 1.227578 .7753121 50
20 .6138310 .819462 1.22('312 •• 77~4716 40
30 .6360782 .8243~6 1.213097 .7716?46 30
40 .6383201 .829231 1.20~9~~ .7(:()7710 20
50 .6405566 .834154 1.198818 I .7679110 JO
I I
Cosine. Cotang. Tang.
J
Sine.
I Arc.
......
-295-
Natural Sines' and Tangents-Continued.
t~:
Arc. Sine. Tang. Cotang. II Cosine.

I
, ,
I
0 0
40 00 .6427876 .839099 1.191753 .7660444 50 00

10 .6450132 .~44068 1.184737 .7641714 50
20 .6472334 .849062 1.177769 .7622919 40
30 .6494480 .854080 1.170849 .7604060 30
40 .6516572 .859124 1.163976 .7585136 20
50 .6538609 .864192 1.157149 '.7566148 10
41 00 .6560590 .E'69286 1.150368 .7547096 49 00
10 .6582516 .874406 1.143632 .7527980 #'
50
20 .6604386 .879552 1.136941 .7508800 40
30 .6626200 .884725 1.130294 .7489557 30
40 .6647959 .889924 1.123690 .7470251 20
50 .6669661 .895150 1.117130 .7450881 10
42 00 .66913C6 .900404 1.110612 .7431448 48 00
10 .6712895 .905685 1.104136 .7411953 50
20 .6734427 .910994 1.097702 .7392394 40
30 .6755902 .91 6~31 1.091308 .7372773 30
40 .6777320 .921696 1.084955 .nfi3090 20
50 .6798681 .927091 1.078642 .7333345 10
43 00 .6~199P4 .932515 1.072368 .7313537 47 00
10 .6P41229 .937968 1.066134 .729~668 50
20 .6862416 .943451 1.059938 .7273736 40
30 .6R83546 .948964 1.053780 .7253744 30
40 .6904617 .9fi4508 1.047659 .7233690 20
50 .6925630 .960082 1.041576 .7213574 10
44 00 .6946584 .965688 1.035530 .7193'398 46 00
10 .6967479 .971326 1.029520 .7173161 50
20 .6988315 .976995 1.023546 .7152863 40
30 "-).7009093 .9R2697 1.017607 .7132504 30
40 .7029811 .988431 1.011703 .7112086 20
50 .7050469 .994199 1.005834 .7091607 10
45 00 .7071068 1.000000 1.000000 .7071068 45 00
I
I Cosine. Cotang. Tang. ) Sine.
I Arc.

-297-
• I
APPENDIX IV.
CIRCULAR MEASURE .
.i.
'fopography'f~' Fi~ld 'Artillery

-298- ,
CONVERSION TABLES.
637. 360 degrees=400 grades=6400 artillery mils.
1 degree= 17.78r/t. 1 grade=16 mils.
1 degree=l.l1 grades.
A. MILS IN TERMS OF DEGREES AND TANGENTS.
. ..~. :. f. ~
6;:8.
l'opography for Field Artillery

-299-
APPENDIX V.
REDUCTION OF STADIA READINGS.

-300-
639.' Table I.
I I
QN""'~OOQN"",~oo Q"''''''~OOON..,jo''''OO =C'1..-j'tf.OOO=N~tDOOO laOlac.l
~ ........................ NNNN NM~ MC'.~~ ""l!l~~<iIIdl~~lQlQlQlt':lW t-oC'l
-,..;,...;
...... OlO ......

r:-C'lOO~o)lO.,..... ~C'lOO..:>O>laO<OC'lt- C'f.'O)~oco ......
r:-~OO~o
~~~
00 ....
"'"
> ~~~~~~t-:~CX1~ ~oO~"""C'Jt:I?O':)~-.::t4 ~~~t-:t--:~~C?O:~~

0000000000 0"';"';-:"';"';-:"';"';-: ~""'''''''''''''''''.-t''''''''''''''''C'JC'J
0 ................................................ ................................................ ..................................................... -I
CD
... ..... 000 r:-u=tlOO':)e--J ..... O OOr:-(,Cl~CX'e-l ..... c:Door:- LO~C¥:l .....
OOOr:-tD~C'l':) ..... la 0> "'"
0
~~~~~~~~~~ r:- r:- t- l-
r:- t- r:- CJ:) W c.o
~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~
== 00000000000000000000
0>0>0'>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
ocia6ocia6ocioca6ooaOaO
0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
000000 oooooooooc
O)(T.lO')cn~C')O)C)cnCDCD
0000 00
-,.
-
...... 00 ""'Ola
t,gt-oooo
...t-":>oo "",0
0) Q')o 0 .....C.J
1O .... r.-C'I':)OO""d40LO
:--J C":I C!':) ~ ~
......
IQ t.e tQ t-
r-
r:- ..:>
00 """0 la ...t- C'I00 "'"
ooooooO ..........
C'JC'JIX'~
° 1-0) .....
<II
.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.; "';"';"';00000000 ~~-!
0
> aOooaOaOaOaOci"';"';"';
........................................
It)
OCDOOr:-""LO
... ~~C'J
C\JC'JC'JC'JC'1
.....
.......................
""''':>'''00>00
....................
000000
t-<Ola "'" ":>"'0 0>00 t-<o"",..:>C'I'"
0000>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> laO>"'"
0 .,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.; ci~eieieieioiai~ai aieicicx:ioooooOoooooooO t-:~~
== 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> CDQ)Q)C:lC')~(J)cncno 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
,
-_ _._~.--_.
.•..
---'--
...... <OC'lt-":>O>laO<OC'lOO C"':l~LO""tDC'JOO~O')lO .....r- t'1 oo~o~ ~r:-"",oo <0000
~q.-:
(,/ O:~~~~~~~~~ lQlOCoOt-t-OOOO0'4Q')O ...........
C\1NO':)~~l.QlOc.ctQ
> <Ot-t-t-t-t-t-t-t-t- ~r:~~~~~~~aO a6aOoOocaOaOaOooooaOaO

~
0
...0 ......... Oc::nOOI:-COt.ClLO-.::f'I ..:>N ...Oo>oooot-<ola "'1''':>C'I'''oo>oot-<Ola'<t'

~~~~~~~~~~
0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
"I:::I'''I:'J'~'''l:jl0':)~0':)0':)0':)0':)
"';"';"';"';0>"';"';"';"';"';
":>C':lC':lC':lC':lNNC'lNC'IC'I
aia)o)aiaiaiaiaieDaiai
laOla
~::;~
== 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
------ --,---"---------
...... ..:>oo"'1'O<OC'lt-":>O>la Oc.oC'JOO~o)LO""'r:-CI':l OO""l1'O('o ......

t-~oo-.::t'O(,Cl la<OOO
(,/
C"C'JO':)""l::f4~LQI.Qt.Ct.Ct-
..Q.o.o.o.o.o..Q..Q.ou:i
ooooO')c:nOOf"""lC'lC\l~
..Qu:iu:iu:i..;..;..;..;..;..; ..;..;..;..;..;..;..;..;..;..;..;
Ct:)~Lr.)l.Qtetet-t-OOQ)G')
~~~
>
~
0
... C't:lC'J~~oO')C)oooot- <O<Ola"'1'..:>..:>NN ...O 0> 0> 00 t- <0 <0 la ~ ..:>

C'I.... laOla
0
t-t-t:-t:-t-teC"o;lt.Ct.Ct.C
.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,;
c.ct.C~t.CtClt.Ct.C~t.Ct.C
~oi~ciai~aima)oi
I.QLQLQLQLQI.QLQl.QlQLQLO
.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,;.,.; t':5:;
== 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> 0> oC)c:nc:nc::n""-:lC':lc:nQ)cnc:n
---- ~-----
...... O>laO<ONoo"'1'Ola ... t-C':)00"'1'0<0 C'I00":> 0> LO.,....t.Ce--l00~Ct.llO ....r:-e¥'3 ":>"'1'la

<II
~lQt.Ctet-t-OOo)o)O
cQcQcQcQcQcQcQcQC':i~
O_""""C'lC'l':I~~~1.Q1.Q
~~~~~~~~~~
t.Ct:-t-OOOOc:nO)O,.....
~~~~~~~.ou:iu:iu:i
....C'J ~~~
0
>
IN
~
0
OOt-t-t-<O<Olala"'1'"'1'
00000000000000000000
C't:lc:QC'Je-.1...-(~oocncn
oooooooooooooooot-t-
oooot-t-<O<Ola'01'"'1'C':lC':)
t-t-t-t-t-t-t'-t-t-t-t-
laOla
~5~
aiaiaiaiaiaiaiaiaiai maiaiaiaiaiaiaiaieD aiaio)~oioieDoiaioiai
== 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> 0>0>0>0>0>0>"'0>0>0>0>
... "",O<ONoo"'1'o>la
t-ooOOc:ncnOO-Ne-.1
.. t- ":>00 "'1'0 <0 N t-":>O>la
CQet:)~l.QlQ~t.Ct:-t-oo
9""'lt"--C'lOO~Ot09""'lt-~Ct.l
O':lO')OO9""'lC'!C'J~CQoo:::tt-.::ll
C'1..:>..:>
~~~
0
..-4
> ...:,..;,..;~
t-t-t-t.C~tOCOLQI.QI.Q
..... C'iC'ie-.ie-ic.i C'iC'iC'iC'iC'iC'iC'iC'iC'iC'i
la"'1'"'1'"'1''':>'':>C':I..:>NC'Ie-.1 ..........
C'iC'icQcQcQcQcQcQcQcQcQ
... 0>
000CDO':lo,)OOOO
C':lO':!.C)C)C)O)oooooooooo
laOla
0
0>0>0>0>C::>
"';"';"';0>"';"';"';"';"';"';
0>0>0>0>
~~~~O:O>~~~~
0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0> .,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.;.,.; ~5~
== 0>0>0><:>0>0>0>0>0>0> G')c:ocnc:nQ')Q)cnc:n<J)O) 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
-- -------~"---------- ------- ----

...... OCOC"Jt-C'I':)O')109""'lr:-N oo~ot.C9""'lt-C":lo,)l.Q ..... tClC'100~OlO ..... t-C'l':)c:n~ ......C'I
<II ~~.-;-:C'!~~~~~ ~u::r:-:t:~~~~5:; ......C'JC'J~-::fl~LQLQc.cc.cl-
~~~
0 > ~...:,..;~~.....t...;,...:,...:...;~
0 0000000000 0000>0>0>0>0>0>0> r-t-t- laOla

...0 0000000000 OOOO)c:nO)CDcnc:nc:n
0') 0')00 0000
wolCDO)c:nc:ncnQ)O')CDc:nC)
0000 00
0000000000
0000000000
000";"';"';"';"';"';"'; 0>.,.;~.,.;0>.,.;.,.;.,.;c>.,.;.,.; ~~~
== ?'"'t ......... .-tf"""l"""" ........... .-t.,....
::::::;:;c:nCDO)Q')c:nc:nc:n 0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>0>
CN.'-=QO:::~=::;~ ON. CDO'.:lOC'l. c,cOO ON~~OOON~U'OOO laOlac.l

~
I I ~~~
NNN NNM~C'f:)""C' ""'''''''''''"'1'"'1'lQlQlQlQlQ~

-301-
OOOll:>
t-:::;~~
I
QN~~Q()QC'1""~r:I) =N~tt:>OOOIN~C:>OO ON"'I!1lc.oetJOC"~c.oOOO
~ .-t .... ..-I_ ...... ~NNINCNMC'?C'I:lC'?~ 'ot:f'''''d'l'll$ll~~~'nlt:)~l.0~
"I
C'l~C'l00..,00..,00..".'" ~CD'"d"Oll:lOl.ClOt.O....4 ~.....-4(J:> ..... C'OC'1r-C'1r-e--lt- ~..,'"

t:
QI
Q)cnOO.-;~C'JC'J~C'O
-:"";C'iC'iC'iC'iC'ic-iC'iN
~'"d"l.Q~('c)l-l'-OOOOo)
C'i C'i C'i C'l
~OO,....j_C'lC'lC'l?C'?~~
C'i C'i C'i N eN C'i ~ C'i~t:.~et':iC'l'5~Cf5C'Ocr,;c.-5~
~C'!"!
C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l
~ >
0
..-4
C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l
..,r-- .....
~ 0
~""'CDt.O-.::tl..... c:n(,O~~
'" '" 00 00 00 00 l- r-- L- ~
OO~C'OOOOlOC'lOt-~
t.O~~t.Ol.OLQlOLO.qi~
~....;~....;....;~~....;....;....;
e-.1o)U:>
oo:::I"C'OC"?~C'QC'JC'1C'JC'1~"'"
...~"""OOl:.CC"':)Ot-..o
....;....;....;~~...;....;....;....;~....;
t--:~~
~.;.~~~.;...;.....;....;....;
== "'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' "'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' "'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
----
u>C'lt-
~
~C'lr--..,OO"'OO"""''''' O')lf:)Olt::>Oc'o....-ll:.C ..... l':'"'C'I
t!
~C')~Ol.ClOt.O
C"-'C'O"I:2"lQlQtOtOt-r:-OO
..... t.O ......
OOQ:lQ)OO ..... ~C\lC'JC':l
~:;:55:~~~55::; -:~~
QI 0060000000 000-:"";"':"':-:"':""; C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l
0
> C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l C'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'lC'l
.... ~
N
OOLO~"""OOt.O~ ..... o)t.O ~""'O':lc.o~C'1O':1t-~C'l O)r-~C'lCDr-'"d"C'JC':lt-~ ",OOC'l
"IId4~C'r?C"OC'QC'OC'.JC'JC'JC'J ....................OOOOC';lQ:lC)
~o:~
.
t.O(,ClWWLQLt:LQl.O"d4"14
.= u.;~tOu.;LC.r;;lO"'Ou-;)...;
mCD~c:n~a.Q)(J)CDcn
lo~lt5..oaa"OlL-5..ou:;~
c:n<:Hc:n~Q)0')c:nc:nc:n(j;l
..o..o..o..ou-;;lt:itOU-;~"";";
0>"'''''''''''''0>''''''''''''
--_. _._--~._-_.-----_. --- -_._---_.-
o to .....t.~ C'l t-C'l 00 C'O 00 ~ 0001.0
~OO~C')lOOLO (,O ......
..... ~C'lOO"'OO"""''''''OOO ooooa:.c:nOO .......... C'JC'lC'O ""':C'!~
t:
Cll
t-t-ooooC')oO
oooOoooooo",cicicici
.....~C'J C'lC'Qcv:.'l~'"d"LOlQ(,CIt-t-
~~~aic:nmcia)cici
...... ............................................ ,...-t
c)~oi~oocooc-)o
......
'I""'"'l~'I""'"'lC\lC\JC\JC'JC"JC'Jc..J
>
....................................................
0
~
..-4
to ~ C"l 0':1 r-LO C'Q....-4 00 ~ ""'C'I",r--1.O..,OOOU>.., ....-4o,)~~C"JO':Ir-LOe-lOOO C'Q 00 C"1
~
0
C'OC"':lC"':lC'JC"JC'lC'lC'l'l"'""'i'l""'"'l
r.i ~ tD ~ ~
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-303-
. .
In general, stadia wires are set so that the horizontal distance with
the line of sight level will be 100 times the red reading. In this case the
horizontal distance at any. observed angle will be the Hor. tabular number
multiplied by the rod reading, to which must be added the value for c for
.that angle as shown at bottom of table. The vertical height will be the
Vert. tabular number for the given angle multiplied by the rod reading with
the value for c added. If the wires are set for a different proportion. the
result must be modified in like proportion before adding c which will not
be affected.
Example: Rod reading=5.27 at 7 37'; c=1.00.-0
Tabular numbers are 98.25 and 13.14

5 27 5 27
~775- "-9198
19650 2628
49125 6570
. 517.7-775 -69.2478
c .99 .13
Hor. Dist. = 518.8 69.4 = Vert. Ht.
The use of the oldinary slide rule in connection with this table will
allow results to be reached with little labor to the nearest foot in distance
or tenth in elevation. which will be sufficiently close for many purposes.
640. Table II.
110 1120 130 140 150 160

D~ 90 1100 1 1 1 1
i Mils
80 I M.21 M~l MAl MAl M.51 M.51 M.61 M.6jM!i1~~-.M-.9~I-M-.9-'I-M-1-.0
.-!.QQI_,.41 _.51_.61 __ .71_.91_1.01~~11_1.21~.31-h41~51~1~
129_1 _.'l:>L~_1 _.~1~01~11_1~21_!.-.41_1.d>l~.:..61-.!.-81~.91_2.01_2~
.-l4~L!:Q1 :...-1.11 1.31 1.5j 1.71 1.91_2~1~1_21>1_2~'71_2-,-91~
nl"~_~1 1.?~~~1_2.21 2.41 2.ril 2.91 3.21.3.4\ 3.7U-:9
_ !gOI 1.3.fL.1.61 1.91 2.~1 2.51 .2404.3.11 3.~1 3.71 4.01 4.3! 4.~1 4.9
20U 1.51 2.0 2.31 2.' I 3.01. 3.ul 3.81 4.21 4.41 4.91 5.31 5.' I 6.1
1
_~?OI1.-81-2.31-2_&I-=-3.2J -3.71- 4.21- 4.61-5.01-5.51-6,0H6.5\-6.91-7A •

2401 2~2.71 3.3\ 3.81 4.4 4.9 5.41 6.01 6.51 7.1 7.61 8.21 8.7
-2"6012.61 3.2 3.81 4.4\ 5.11 5.8 6.4\ 7.01 7.6rs:s1-8~919])1 10.2
~28013.01 3.11 4.6\ 5.1u.:m..-!>".~1 7.2\ 7.9\ 8.61 9.31 10])1 10.71 11.~
3001 3.4 4.21 5.1 5.91 6.71 7.61 8.41 9.3 10.11 10.91 11.81 12.71 13.5
20 ~.8 4.8 [I:, 6.7 76"I"K6 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.4 13.4 14.3 j1).3
Example: The distance read off on the stadia rod is 120 meters. The slope
is 112 mils. What is the horizontal distance? At the intersec-
tion of line 100 ar.d column 120 the correction read is 1.3 meters.
1.6-1.3 .3X 12
Variation for + 12 mils: --20 X 12= 20 = .18=.2
Total correction=1.3+.2=1.5 meters ..
The desired distance is 120--1.5=118.5 meters.

.-304-
. 2037.
641. Table. III. D Meters = a. mils
, Mils I 0 I 1 .I 2 I. 3 . I 4 I 5 I 6 7 I ~_!L
'0 co 2037 1018-1679 '509 L!07 I 339 291 255 226
10 204 185 169 156 1~5_LJ:~6-U~7 119" 113 fO.'I
20 102 97 92 88 84 81 78 7~73 70
30 68 66 64 62 60 I 58 56 5m3 52
40
50
1=11 -.r9
41 40-'-39
48 47 46145~44
3'8-' 38r37
-43-y42
36 361-3-S-'-34
41
_~,O_I_34_,_I._?~ I. 33 . '~2_J-.-?2' '-?l -=31_. ~~=F-r0 J__ ~~

~~-H~
-I ~~-HH~
.-90,23
~}--~.~I~~+~~
'~~~-'Hi~t-~}-1-
I 2'W22 22 21-' -21121 21 20120
Example: The angle intercepted b)' the two meter stadia rod, standing per-
pendicular to the line of sight, is 64 mils. What is the distance
from the instrument to the stadia rod? The desired distance is
read at the intersection of line 60 and column 4. It is equal
to 32 meters.
Topography for Field Artillery.

- 30n - ~ .
APPENDIX VI.
AZIMUTH OF POLARIS.

-306-
642. The table below shows the azimuth of Polaris in different positions
with respect to the pole. Epoch 1911; polar distance 70'. Latitude 0° to
18° north. This table may be used until 1930.
Fig. 209.
,
Clock Reading of- Azim- Clock Reading of- Clock Reading of-
Azimuth
--- Azimuth
uth 5 ,
5 Z Z of 5 Z of
Cassio- Ursae of Cassio- Ursae Cassio- Ursae
Polaris .Polaris
peia Major Polaris peia Major peia Major
XII:30 VI:30 18' IV:30 X:30 049' VIII II 358059'
I VII 35 V XI 35 IX III 358 50
1:30 VII:30 49 V:30 XI:30 18 X IV 358 59
II VIII 61 VI:30 XII:30 359 42 X:30 IV:30 359 11
III IX
~-_.- 70 VII I 359 25 XI V 359 25
--- ---
IV X 61 VII:30 1:30 359 11 XI:30 V:30 -359 42
For higher latitude add to the small azimuths or subtract from the
large ones, as follows:
Lat. 19°-30°, 1/10 Lat. 51°-53°, 6/10
Lat. 31°--37°, 2/10 Lat. 56°-57°, 7/10
Lat. 38°-42°, 3/10 Lat. 58°_59°. 8/10
Lat. 43°-46°, 4/10 Lat. 60°_61°, 9/10
Lat. 47"-50°, 5/10
It is well to keep track of the position of Polaris by noting it fre-
quently and taking the corresponding clock time. Then if on a cloudy night
a glimpse of Polaris is' had, the observation m~y be taken even though the
other stars can not be seen.

;-1\ ---. "."f.
INDEX.
Abney level ................•.............•..............•. 159-161

Abbreviated coordinates - 422
Abscissae. .; , 0#' ~ 420 0 0
Accuracy
Computation of minimum range and elevation .. o. 337, 338 0" 0'0
• Dead space calculation' 358 0 • 0 •• 0 •• 0 • 0 •••• '-0' •••• 0 •• 0 • • •
Intersection 0 •••• 194 0 •••••••• 0 •••••••• 0 •••••••• 0 0 •• 0 • 0 •• 0
Road report 248 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 0 0 • • • • • •
Topography 7 0 • '.0 0 0 •••••• 0 • 0 0 ••• '. '.
Acute angle o. o. 16 0••••••••• 0 ••••••••••• 0. 0 •• 0 ••• 0...
Adjusting point 0 0 483

• 0 ••••• 0 • 0 •• 0 •••••••••• 0 0 0 •••••• 0 0 ••• 0 •
Advantage of
Orienting line .. 0 • 0 583
•••• 0 •• 0 •• 0 0 •••• 0 •• 0 ••••• 0 0 •• 0 ••••• 0 • • •
Aerial photographs ... 0 403

•••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••• ; • •
Aiming
Circle 0 139, 576-582, 586-595
• 0 0 ••••• 0 ••••• 0 • • • • • • • • • •
Direction 0 0 552-558
•••••• 0 • 0 0 •••••••••••••••••• 0 • 0 • • • •
Point ' 0 484, 552-558

••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••• , •••••• : .;.~
4.1idade .", ,. 0 ••• , .•••••••••• 0.. . . • . . • . 54, 150-153

French 0 0 ••••• 152 0 •••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••• 00 ••• ' ••• ,
Leveling"~ •............. , . . . .. . 152 o ••• 0 • • •
'Sighting ."'" , .. ,., 151 0 •• 0 •• , • 0 ••• '
Telescopic ,., .. , 0 , , , 153 • , , .' •• , ••• , •••• , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••
Tests of 59 0 ••••••• , ••••• , •••••••••••••••• 0 • • • • • • •
Triangular , , 150 0 ••• , ••••••• , •••••• 0 •••••••••••• '
Altitude ..... , 0 ••• 000 ••••••• 84 0 • , 0 •••• , ••• , 0 •• • , ••••• 0 •••••• 0 ••• , ,
Ammunition record o. 0 0 •• 540 0 •••• " •• , • , ••••• , •••••••••••• , • 0 • 0 • , • •
Angle
Acute .. ,........ . .... 16 0 ••••••••••• , • ~ ••••• , , ••••••• 0 , , • , • •
Base : 0 • ~ ••••••• 0 0 •• 485, 585

0 •••••••••••• , ••• 0 • , ...... , • • • • • • • • •
:',",Definition .. 0 •• 0 ••• 0 15 ••••••• , •••••• , •••••• , •••• , , , ••••• 0 ••• ,
Expression of-, by tangents 32-45', 0 •• '....................
'Firing . 0' •••••••••••••••• 499 , ••••••••• , ••••• , •• , 0 ••••••• '. • • • •
-of divergence .• , , , , ,.. 427-429

-of fall ..••......•• ,."., ,., ..• " .. ~ ,',...... 383
-of observer displacement , •... ,."" ,... 507
..--of site 0 0 •••••••••••••••••••••• 313, 318, 319 , ••• , ',' , , , • , • • • • •
Reflex ... 0000 •• 0 ••••••••••••• 16 , ••••• , •• 0 ••• ,.. • • • •• •• • •••• ,
Right ..•. 0 •• 0 •••••••••• 72-74 0 ••••••••••••• 0 •••• "."., •••• ~.
Round 0 •• 0 •• ' •• 0 16 0 •••• , •••• , ••• 0 ••••• ,0' ••••
Straight 000 ••••••• 16 o •• 0,. • • • • •• 0 •••••••••• , •••••••••• ~. ,

-308-
To plot-using gradient ........•........................... 47
To plot-using percent •.................. '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
To plot-using tangent ......•.................•............ 35
-traverse .........................•....•....... 185
Angular measure ................•.••...................•.... 15-29
Base equivalents 30
Conversions in- 30, 31 .
Definition .......................•.•......... 16
SYstems ...................•............. ...•............. 17
Annual variation .......................•...................... ,457
Arcs of circle . ,
Solution of triangles of error 206
Area sketches ...........•.......•....•.................... 230-239
Border ........•..•..... ...•.............•.......•....... 238
Conventional signs .......•....... ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234-236
Information ...........•......•• .•...•..•..••.•........... 233
Lettering .....•..•..........•...............••.......••... 239
Title •..........................•........ :................. 237
Artillery information service •....••.....•......•••........• 402-404
Artillery sector •..........................• ' 483-523 ,524-543, 559-561
Auxiliary position
Chart of •..............•....•.....•.•...•.....•.. ~•.... ~. 530
Azimuth ....••...............................•...••. 451, 452, 454
Back-, resection by '........ 207, 469
of Polaris •.................•.••..•......•..•..•..••...... 642
Used to determine compass declination ......•..•.••........ 463
y.:....- ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 430, 451, 454
B.
Back azimuth, resection by •....••.•..•.........•.......•... 207, 469
Band, elastic, visibility by means of 312
Base
Angle ..........................•........•.....•...... 485, 585
Deflection .................•..•..............• .•......... 486
Direction ..•............•.•.••..•..•...................... 487
Equivalents .....•...........•... '.' . . . . . . . .. . .. . . ... .. . . 10, 30
Line ••...............•.....•..............••......... 487, 510
Point .....•......... ; ..........•...•....... ~. . . . . 488, 550, 551
Battalion commander; Duties of 618, 621-623
Battery commander ,
Data book .....••.•..•... "....•............ '................ 539
Duties of ........•............................... 618, 624. 6.25 ,
Records .......................•.....•...•• ............... 543
Reports ..•....•.••.•.......•.......•••..•..•..•.......... 542
Battle maps .....•.......••.•...•......••....•. :. '.' . . . 411-415, ,489
Bearing 451, 453
Determination of compass declination by means of....... 463-465
Of target ...............•.....•..•........•........... 470-472
To find a bearing with a protractor ...•.................... 468
,"opography for Field Artillery
-30~
Belgian maps 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 :!:. 0 0 • 0 0 0 416
0
Bench mark . 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •••••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••• 0 0 131, 132

Bisectors, perpendicular 0 0 0 0 • 0 ~ •••••• 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 204. 213
Board
Firing ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •••••• 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 5000 0 0 0
Slope •.. 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 ~ 0 0 0 : 0 0 00 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 -0. 0 0 00 0 0 • 0 • 0 •• 000 00 0 • 164, 165

Bonne projection 0 0 •••• 0 •• 0 0 •••••••••••••• ~ ••• 0 ••••••••• 0 • 0 3950 • • •
Book, B. C. data . 0 0 •••• : ••••• 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 •••• 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 539• 0 • •
Border, position and area sketches . 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 000000 •• 0 •••••• 238 0 •
Brigade commander; Duties of 0 0.............. 618, 619

British maps ......•.•......•.•..•..••.....••• ~.••.•. 0 Appendix II
British resection o. 0 •• 0 0 0 • 0 0 •••••••••••••• 0 ••••••• 0 ~ • 0 0 0 •• 0 213•• 0.'
c.
Calculation
Angular values above limits ....•..• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 ••••• 0 ••• 0 0 •• 0 0 0 • • 44
Mental- in -conversions . 0 • 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••• 0 0 o. 13, 30
Using tangent .. 0 0 • 0 0 ••••• 0 0 •••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••• ~ 0 0 • 0 43
Chains' .. 0 •• 0 0 • • • ... • •••• 0 0 ••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••• 0 •• 0 57
Chaining .... 0.00 •••• 0 •••••••• 0 .. 0.0 •••••••• 0000 •.• 0000.0.0 ••• 0 188
Chart
Auxiliary position . 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 530 • 0 • 0 0
Combined . 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 ••••••••••••• 0 535, 536, 538

Dead space 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 • 0 •••• 0 ••• 0 •••••••• 0 • • • • • • • 347, 533, 534
.Firing ... 0 ••• 0 0 0 ••• 0 • 0 ••••••••• 0 • 0 ••••• 0 ••••••• : •• _" 501, 526, 527
General system of communication ....•.......••... 0 0 •• 531 0 • • • •
Invisible areas .... 0 0 • 0 ••• 0 ••• 0 0 •• 0 0 ••••••••••• 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 532, 538•
Isogonic-i_o_ 0 • 0 0 •• 0000000. 00' 0 •• 0 ••••••••• 0 •• 0 • • • • • • 456, 458, 459'

Position 0 • 0 ••• 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 0 •••••••• 0 ••••••••• 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 529
0 • 0 0 •
. Slope of fall 0 0 •••••••••• 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 38~ 3840 • 0
Special- for dead space calculations 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 ••••• 0 386-389

0 0
Visible areas .... 0 • 0 •• 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 ••••••••• 0 •• 0 0 • 0 • 0 •••••• 532, 538

0
Visibility . oI. 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • ~ 0 • 00 •••• 0 o. 0 • 0 • 315, 316

0
Circle •............. 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 • ~ 0 0 0 •
Aiming; See aiming circle

Circular measure 000000;.000000000.0 •• 0.00.00 ••• 0.0..... 16
Table for conversion 00' 0 0 0 0" 0.000000. 0 0 •• 000 •• o. Appendix IV
Clinometers
Abney ... 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 • 0 •• 000 •• 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0000. 0 0.0.0 •• 0 •• 159-161 0 I
Gravity ..•. 0 •••••••• 0 ••• 0 •••• 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 ••••• 0 •• 0 •• 0. 162 0 0 •
Combined charts .. 0 0 • 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 • 0 •• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 • 0 0 •• 0 ••• 0 • 535, 536. 538

Command
Observation post 0 •••• 0 •• 0 •••• 0 0 ••• 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 :0 0 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 ••• 601 ~.
Post o. 0 0 • 0 • 0 ••• 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 •••• 0 • 0 • • • • • • 490•
Communication of information •••...•..... ; ... 0 ••• 0 • • • • • • • • 403, 404

System of general-- 0 ••• 0 • 0 •••••••• 0 ••• 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • • 531•
Comparison ..
Of map and panoramic sketch •......... 0 0 •••• 0 • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • 308
Of methods of panoramic sketching 0 0 • 0 0 •• 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • •• .- 295-298
Of tangent and mil calculation ....................•. ".. ,;'. : : . . 36 ."
Of tangent ratio and tangent ; ' ' . ' 37
Of warfare methods r ••• '" : 3'
Compass r
Declination ,460-467
Determination of ' 461-465
. Error " . '.' . . . .. 457
. North ::.r ,. 451-454
Peigne : 143;.i47~-
Prismatic- 142
Used as aiming point .••. ; ;;......... 475-482.
Used to lay guns 470-482
Used in magnetic resection............................ 469
Concentration fire, plans of ::........................... 537
Conic projection :''': 393,
Constant ",
Declination. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 466, 578, 579
Deflection 496
Contingent zone' ...................•... '....•........... ,........ 491.
Construction of
Mounted timing scale 119~12i
Profiles 314
Protractors ,'; ' '. . . 64-71
Reading scale .. ;...................................... 10S:111
Right angles 72-74
Slope board............................................... 164
Slope of fall chart ~' 384
Slope scale 225-227
Special, chart for dead space 387
Tangent slope scale 353
Visibility chart '..,' 316
Working scale ;........ 113-117
Working scale graph 123-130
'Contours 131, 134, 135, 231
-Contouring, logical 138
Control
Horizontal 290-292
Point -... 492
Point of general- 516
Sheet . , '.. . . . • .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Vertical 293, . 294 "
'Conventional signs
Definition :........................................... 4
For panoramic sketches "\......... 279-282
For position and area sketches ..............•.......... 234-236
Use, of 4
'Convergence of 'meridian 427-429'
Conversion
Angular measure ' ' '.' . 30;~31
'Topography for Field Artillery
-311-
:'Circular measure 30, 31, Appendix IV.
? Gradients ;.;; ; •.. ;;:............... 46, 52
t ..
Linear
,
measure' '.. '.. '. ' '.. '.'. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12-14
' .. Mental calculations in- 13, 30
Of degrees and minutes to decimals 20
Of angles above prescribed limits ~. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Per cent :......................................... 48, 52
Table of slope .-..................................... Appendix I
,. Tangents ..............•............................ 36, 52, 53
True mil equivalents . .- ~. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Cbbrdinates #-
Abbreviated '.-............................... 422

Complete ................................•........ 421
.Definition :.......... 419
,.,Geographic '. 419
H'ectometric : ;....... 422
Lambert grid '. . . . . . . . . . . . 419
.. Location of point on ground by means of 448, 449
Method .of reading ...........................•.... 421, 434-437
Method of plotting points by 425, 426, 432, 433
Of . origin '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Range, determination by 445
Reduced hectometric 422
To measure :; :.... 434-437
To plot a direction by ..............................•... -' 439, 440
Use of -.........................•........ ;... 432-449
Y-azimuth, determination by means of .. '............... 446, 447
Correction 'i-l.._ •
Errors of closure .....................................•... 191
, Of inaccurate protractor :.... 62
Crest lines '. . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 272, 273
Critical .points .............................................•... 137
Determination of ........................•............. 232
D.
Daily variation .457
Data book, B. C. . :............................... 539
Datum' point ;........... 494
Dead 'space '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326-328, 345-389
Accuracy of determination '. 358
_.. Chart h" • • • •• • • • • • • • 347.'
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • 533, 534
Limits of 346, 356, 357
Methods of determining ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348-389
Calculation ..................... 359-374
Comparison of angles of fall and ground............. 349-351
Graphical 375-389
Slope of fall chart ,............................. 383-385
Special charts 386-389
Tangent slope scale ..................•............ 352~355
. Topography for Field Artillery
-312-
Problems ...................•........... 360-374

Decagrade ..............•...........•..•• ...•.......•....•.... 22
Decigrade ..................•..•....•..•..•..•••..•..•.. ....• . 22
Declinated plane table; Orientation by •................ :..... 173, 174
Declinating point ..........•.................................. 495
I)eclination
Compass ........... 460-467" •
Constant r. 466, 578, 579
Magnetic 455, ,456
y- 467
Declinator ............................•..... , '...... 149
Used in resection ...........•......................... 202, 203
Defilade
Definition ........... 309
Kinds of •..... ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309, 321
Method of determining :...... 317-320
Angle of site 318, 319
Profiles .............................•....... '. . . . . . . . . 320
Similar triangles 322-325
Table of ~. . . . . . . . 321
Type problems 322-32!i
Deflection
Base :................................... 486
Constant .•.....................•..•...... 496
Fan •.................•........................•..... '.. 518, 528
To measure, by sito-goniometer 169
Degrees
Conversion for use .••......................................• 20
Limit of calculation by tangent ratio 29, 39-42
Sixteenth of ..•.....•....................•................• 19
System ...........•..•... . ;......... 18-20
Twentieth of ,................... 19
Used to express slope .....................................• 218
Designation of targets '................ . 301-305
Devices
Measuring .....•.. •......................................• 63
Technical, in panoramic sketching ......•............... 267-282
Diary, gun ...........•..............•.....•..............•.•• . 540
Directeur, plan ..•.••.•.•..•.......................... 489, 515, 525
Directing piece ........•...................................•.. 497
Direction .......••........ '. .. .....•........................•• . 83
Base ........•.................... . . . .. ..•...........•..• 487
From grid north .............•...•........ '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
From magnetic north ..•................................... 453
FrQm true north •.••.•..•..... ~........•........ :- ;. 452
On road report •........................................... 248
Plotting- ...•••..•................... 438-444
Director in laying gun ....•........................ 576-582, 586-595
Displacement, angle of observer .............................••. 507
-3~3-
Distance •.•.••.....•......... . ..•..................• ": . . . . . . . . 82
Expression on map: ............•..........•.............. 87 0 • 0
Horizontal ..•.....................•. .•................... 156

Map- •...........•.•.•....•.••... "0 ••••••••••••••••••••• --- 87
On road report ........................•........... 249 0 • • • • • •
Drawing
On p'anoramic sketches 0 0 •• 0 0 265-282
0 0 0 • 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0
Duties of -
Battalion commander o. o. o. o. o. 621-623
0 0 0" O. 00000 •• 0 0 0 0 ••• 000
Battery commander o. 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 624, 625

0 0 • 0 0 ••••• 0 0 0 0 0 •••••• 0 • 0 0 •
Brigade commander .....•.....•..•..•.•.. ~.....•... 619 0 .f....

Regimental com.mander ....•.............•••.•• ~.•.. 620 0 • • • • • •
E
Elevation
How shown ...................•....••.•.•....•.......... 131 0 •
Minimum- ....................•.....•..•............. ~ 326-344

Engineer's level ..............•........•........•...•......... 163
Engineer's scale .......................•........•............ 55 0 • •
Equipment
Panoramic sketching .. 0 •••••••••••••• 284 ~ •••••••••••••••• 0 • • •
Road sketching : ........•............. ;. 242

Equivalent .
Base •........... 0 • -. 0 • 0 • • • • • 10, 30
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
. Horizontal ....•.•..............•...•..•...•... 87
True mil •...•.••.•............................ :: ',-~'. 31 0 •• : • • •
Error
Allowable in resection 197 0 •••••••••• 0 •• 0 •••• 0 •
Compass"'.-. . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . .. . 457 0 • 0 •• 0
Explanation of, in tangent calculation .•.•.•...............•. 40

In closure ...•......•.. '................................... 191
In traverse ..........•.•...•..•••......•.............. 191 0 • 0 •
Maximum, by using reduced hectometric coordinates 423

Triangle of ......•...............•....••.......•....... 204-206 .
Essentials of
Military map............ . .........•........•... -..... 86 0 • • • • •
Panoramic sketch .••..•...........•.....•............•... ~ 261

Exaggeration in vertical control . '. . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 294, 314
Explanation of error in tangent calculation 40 0 0 0 • • •
Expression of
Angles by tangents ........................•.•...... :.... 32-45
Application ....................•....... ~.. .•. .. .. 33 0 •••• -
Comparison of tangent and mil calculation ..•..•.. 36 0 • • • • • • -
Comparison of tangent ratio and tangent ••....... 37 0 0 • • • • •
Mil relation ......•.•.......••••.•...............•......... 28
F.
Fall, slope of, chart .................................... ' .. 383, 384
Fan, range deflection -518, 528
Topography for Field Artille'.')O
-314-
Field of the observer 498
Fire .
Concentration, plans of ; .. ;....... 537
Limits of ......•........ : o. • • • • • . • • • • •• • •••••••••••. -. • 502
.' Possibilities of 534
Firing
Angle ' 499.
Board ' 500
Chart 501, 526, 527
'Observation post ;...... 602
Fords ' _. . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Foresight-backsight traverse ~ '0' • • • • • • • • • • 183
Forms, ground. See ground forms
French maps '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405-415
Functions, table of natural Appendix III
G.
Geodetic point; Use of '492,547
Geographic coordinates 419,
German maps 417
Goniometer, sito 166-16,9
Grade system 21, 22
Tangent method applied to .. ;............................... 29
Gradients 46, 47
Conversion 46, 52
Limit of use 51
To measure 152
To plot an angle using 47
Used to express slope 221
Graph, dead space :.. 386-389
Working scale '. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 123-130
Graph,ical method; Visibility 314
Dead space ....•...................................... 375-389
Graphical 'scale 91-94
Interchange of- ' 122
Types of 107
Gravity clinometer _............................................ 162
Grid, British ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632, 633
"Lambert. See Lambert grid.,
Ground ,forms .
Effect on minimum range and elevation ,.......... 332-344
'. : Methods of indicating :. ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85; 131, 275, 276
Ground relations 81
'Altitude . ~ ' 84
Direction . -. 83
Distance '. .. . ,............ 82
'Use' of- ,.......................................... 85
Ground 'slopes; Panoramic sketches : ' , : . .. . . 275, 276
Topography for Field Artillel'y
"-315-
Gun'
Diary . . 540
Position, location of .. '...............•.............. ,. ~ . 545-549
H.
Hachures ~ ; . ; . ~~. ~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131, 133
Hectometric coordinates ~ : '. . . . . 422 .
Horizontal control .....• ;. ~ :....................... 290-292
Horizontal equivalent ' ' 87
.l.
Ice' ........................•••..•• ~....• ; '; ~~•. ~............. 628
Identification; Panoramic sketch ~ ~ ; . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 262
. Information
Area sketch 233
Comm,unication' of 403, 404
On map ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
On panoramic sketch 263, .264
On road report "........................ 247
'On road sketch 245
Service of- 402-404 :
Source of- ' , 404
Title of sketch ..•..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 237
Instruments
Declinated ~'.':~:. . . 171
l\Ieasuring " '; ~ ; .. 54-62
Oriented : .. ;............ 171
Used in traversing ...............................•........ '182
Intelligence observation post 600
Intersecting arcs in solution of triangle of error ;.. 205
In'tersection 192-195
:,',Accuracy .'........... 194
Definition 192
Location of targets by 611
Operation 195
Purpose 193
Interval, vertical 136
Irregular variation ...........................•................ 457
Isogonic chart,....................................... 456, 4,58, 459
J.
K.
Known'line
I ,
Orientation by 175, 176
~, Use. ~<?f,~n two point' resection . 201
L.
Lambert grid .•....................•...................... 418-430
:; ,Convergerlce of, meridian •................•.••........• 427-429
-316-
Coordinates 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 419-424
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 •
Description 0 0 0 •• 0 •• 418
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0
• ,
Divergence.o 0 0 0 0 00000000 427-429 .. 0.0.000000000.0 •• 0 •• 000.000.
Origin .. 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 • 0 418
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 • • •• 0 ••••••• 0 • 0 ••• 0 0 ••• 0
Use of 00. o. 0000 •••• 431-449 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 00.0 •••••• 0 000000.
Y-azimuth ... 0 0 • 0 0 0 430 • 0 0 0 0 0 •••••• 0 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0
Lambert north 000 •••• 86, 451,454

000 •• 00000.0 •••• 00.0 ••• 0000 •• :.0.
Lambert projection 0 0 0 •396-397

0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 ••• 0 •• 0 0 0
Lateral limits
Fire •. 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 •• 5U2 0 0 0 • 0 •• 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • •
Road report •.....•........•..•.....••..•.•........• 244 0 • • • • •
Sector . .. 522 0.0 •• 0 •••••• 0 •
Latitude 0 • 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 391, 396, 405, 418

0 •• 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 0 •••••••••••••• 0 •
Laying guns
Compass as an aiming point o. 475-482 0 0 • 0 • 0 ••• 0 ••••• 0 0 • 0 • 0 • • • •
Declinated instrument ......•..•........•...•••••... o. . 470-482

Lining in ..... 0 •• 0 474 •••• 0 •••••••••••• ' • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Prismatic compass ..... 470-482 0 ••• 0 •••••• 0 ••••• 0" • • • ••• • • • • •
Lettering
Position and area sketches 239 0 ••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••
Level
Abney ................•. 159-161 0 0 • • • • •• • ••••••••••••••••••••
Engineer's 163 0 •••••• '. • • • • • • •• • ••••••••••••••••
Limits
. Calculation of mils by tangent method . 29, 39-42 0 • 0 • • •• • • • • • •• •
Dead space 346 0 •••••••••••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••• 0 • • • •
Fire 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••• 502 : ••••••• ' •••• 0 • • • • • • • •
Gradient form of expression 51 0 0 •••••••••••• 0 • • • • • •• • • ••
Line ,
Base .. 0 •• 0 ••••••••••••• .487, 510 0 •••••• 0 0 •••••• 0 •••••••. ' • • • • •
Broken 0 • • •• 274 • ••••• : ••••• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Crest . 0 •••• 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 272, 273

••••••••• 0 •••• 0 0 ••• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Observing o. . ..•. 0 •••• 508 0 •• 0 • 0 •• 0 • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Orienting 0. 0 0 511, 553-558

•••••••••••••••••• 0 0 • • • • • • •
Origin .0.0 ••••••••• 513 00 ••••••• 0 .0 ••• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •• 0..
Parallel . 0 0 •• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••• 268-271 0 •••• 0 •• 0 • • • • • • •• •
Linear measure
Conversions in 0 0 10, 12, 13, 14
•••••••••• 0 0 •• 0 : • 0 0 ••• 0 • • • • • • • • • •
Lining in o. . .•.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

Location of unknown points. by
Computation of angles ..••............. 610-617 0 ••••••• 0 • • • • • • •
Intersection 0 ••••• 00 192-195 ••••• 0.. • •••••• 0..................
Resection . 0 •••• 0.0 196-214

•••••••••• 0 • •••••• • •• •• •• •• • • • • • • • • •
Traverse ..•.......................•...•............•.. 181-191

Logical contouring • 0 138
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• : • • • • • • • • •
Longitude 391, 396, 405, 418 0 0 • • •
Lunar variation ....•....... 457 0 ••••••••• 0. 0 0 ••• 0. • • • • • •• • • • • • • ••
M.
Magic number ~.. 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• 467. 578, 579
• upography for Field Artillery
.-317- .
Magnetic
Bearing •...............•............................ 451, 453
Bearing from map with protractor .......................•. 468
Declination ..•.•..............•...................•.. 455, 456
Resection ..........•...... . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . 469
Variation ~.. 457
~ Maps
Artillery sector, of the 524-543
Battle ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411-415
Belgian 416
British (see Appendix II). . .'
Classes of ............................•...... ~.........•.. 77
Definition .. -. . . . . .. . ..• . ..........................•....... 76
Distance ~. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 87
Essentials ........•..•••............. . .....•.........•.... 86
French (see French maps).
German .....................••.... .•........•........•.. 417
Information •........•................. .....•... •. . •.. . •. . 86
Knowledge required ..•.........•...........•.•.•........... 78
Oriented ........•..•.......•.......••••......•.••.•...•..• 171
Preparation of .....•..•..•..•...•.•......•...••.•.•..• 398-404
Projections .........•..••..••....•.•••..•. 390-397
Reading ...........•.... ~. . . • . . • . . . • • . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Revision ............................• 401
Scales ..•.............•.......•.......•....••.....••.•.. _~.87, 88-91
Slope scales .........................•..•........•..... 224-229
Mark
Place ,........................................ 5'14, 54S
Registration ':-: ....•.................... ~• . . . . . • . • • • • . . 521, 607
Marker ...........•.. ~. . . . • • . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . • • • . . • . . • • . • • 503
Mask; Amount to be raised to secure defilade. .. •. •..•• . •• •.••••. • 324
Measuring instruments ........••..•..••••..•••..•...•.....•. 54-62
Alidades ........•.....•.........•....•.•......•. -• • . . . • • . . . . 54
Test ..........•............•..•.•...•.....•............ 59
Chains ..................•.••.•..•..........•••......•••. ~. 57
Metric measuring scale ...........•..•.......•....•....•..• 55
Test ............•.•................................•... 56
Protractor .........•....••...•....••••..••••.. 60, 61, 62, 64-71
Construction .........•.......•...............•...•.• 64-71
Correction ......................•.............•..•..... • 62
Test ...............•.•.....•..... ~ , 61
Specifications .....•.•.........................•..••...•.... 54
Tapes ._...............•..•.•..••...•••...•.•.•• '" • . . . . • . . . . 57
Tests •................•....•••.......•...•••.....•...•..... 54
Triangular scales ..........•...•........•.. -.• . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . 55
Test .......................•........................... 56
Measurement
Of sector •.............•. : .........•..•.•............... ~. 284
Of. traverse ........•..•..•..••••....•...•.••.•.......• 186-189
Topography'for Field Artiller,.
-318-
Measurement of distance
~"Chaining .... ' ........................................• ,... 188
',.. Pacing ............................•. ;................... 187
: Stadia readings 189
~"When first station cannot b~ occupied 190
Mental calculations
Angular conversion 30
."'Linear conversion 13
Mercator's projection 391
Meridian
Convergence of the ..............................••.... 427-429
Meter : ,., , : '>11
Methods; Comparison of warfare .............•.................. 3
Methods of
Determining compass declination 461-465
Determining dead space ..........................•.... ". 348-389
Determining defilade 0 L • • • • • • • • • • • 317-320
• • • • • • • • • • •
Determining minimum elevation and range 329-344

Determining visibility ..... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.310-314
Laying guns on the base line........................... 562-597
Locating gun position 545-549
Locating targets......................................... 611-617
.Making road report ...•.............................. 250, 251
Orientation 172
Panoramic sketching ,.............................. 295-298
Plotting points by coordinates .........•............... .. 425, 426
Preparing combined chart 536
Preparing firing chart ! ••••••• ( ••••••••• 527 '", • • • • • •
Preparing plan of fire concentration, 537

Procedure, panoramic. sketching, ................. 283-307
Reading. points by coordinates ...................•.. 421, 434-437
~,Resection •.•............ !............................. 198-214
'.: Road sketching....................................... 242, 243
~'Traverse 183-185
Metric maps; Slope scales for 226,227
M~t;l'ic measuring scale ," ! • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. ,55
'~; Test '. . . . 56
Metric system; Length of meter, . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Mil ' .
......Advantage of :.. 26
.~;Conversion :.................................. 36,52
.:', Conversion, table 30
Definition and discussion ;.. 24
?' .. Expression of. mil relation ..........•......................• '28
;j'; Rimailho mil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 25
System "...................... 17, 23-29 :
1\'''; pse ..of ..••• ~1 '17
~;": ~., Used to express. ~lope '" . ..• 219
-319-
Minimum elevation 326, .327, .328, '.
Accuracy 337, 338 .
Determination .329-344
Effect of ground forms ..................•.............. 332-344
Problems ...............................•....•......... 339-344
,Steps of calculation ..•.•...•..... :.......................... 331
Minimum range '....... 168, 326, 327, 328
Accuracy 337,338
Determination 329-344
Effect of ground forms ..................•..•......... ~ 332-344
Problems . .. .. 339-344
Steps of calculation 331
Minutes
, . Centesimal .........................•...................... .21
Sexagesimal " .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
MQunted timing scale _ 118
Construction of 119-121
N.
Needle traverse ..................•............................ 184
Normal, zone .............................................••... 504
North ."...................... 86, 451-454
Grid ' ,... 86, 451, 454
.Lamoert 86, 451, 454
Magnetic -.",-~.86, 451, 453
On British maps 634
. True 86; 451, 452
Number;' Magi~ 467, 578, 579
O.
Objective zone 505
Observation
Of enemy's movement :...... 255, 256
Of hostile terrain ..•.....................•............ 255, 256
Plan of : '..................... 609
Terrestrial .........................................•.. 610-617
Observation post ..................•......•............... 506, 598
Classes of •............................................... 599
Command •.•.•............ : '...................... 601
Determination of origin line "...........•......... ,.......... 605
Determination of registration mark or target 607
Firing ...................................•.......... '. . . . . . . 602
Intelligence •.•............................................ 600
Plan of observation , ....•.............. '..... 609 '
Reconnaissance '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Records of •.................................... ~. . . . . . . . . . 608
Special orders for 606
,. Topographical operations ...•.............................• ~ 604
: Visibility charts ............................•........... 315,' 316
Topography for Field ArtiIlery
-320-
Observation tower, height of 325
Observer
Angle ~f-displacement 507
Field of the 498
Observing
Line ~ ;............................. 508
Sector 509 $
Obtuse angle .................................•................ 16

Occupation of position ',,' 255
Of sector '.......... 559-561
Operations. topog~aphical: See topographical operations.
Ordinate .................................................•.... 420
Orientation
Methods of 172
By angle traverse ..................•...................... 177
By declinated plane table '. 173,174
By known line 175. 176
By resection 180
Panoramic sketches '....................... 285-288 '
When known point or given line cannot be occupied 178-179
Orienting line 511, 553-558
Advantages of ................................•........•.. 583
Determination of :........................ 553-558
Kinds of 554
Selection of ...•.................. '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553-558
Use of
To lay guns on base line ...........•............. 583-597
Using aiming circle 586-595
Using plane table ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Orienting point ..........•.................................... 512
""To locate gun position ' '.... 549
Origin; Lambert grid 418
,',., Coordinates of '............................................ 420
di'igin line
"Definition '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '513
Determination 605
P.
f'
Pacing " . 187

Length of pace . 639
Panoramic sketches
Characteristics . 254-257
Essentials. . ; .. 261-281
Method of procedure . 283-307
Subsketches ' . 306. 307
Types of sketches : '. : 258-260
Parallel lines . 268-271
Per cent : ....................................•.........•.... 48-51
Calculation : . 48
Common error . 50
-321-
Conversion ............•...•............................ 48, 52
To plot an angle, using 49
Used to express slope ........•..•... '. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 220
Perpendicular bisector ..•................................. . 204, 213
Solution of triangle of error ~• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Perspective ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268-270
Photographs, aerial ...................................•....... 403
Place mark
Definition ...............................................• 514 -
Determination of ...............•................•.....• '~.. 549
Plan directeur 411-415, 489, 515, 525
1/20,000 .......................................••....•... 412
1/10,000 413
1/5,000 ..•......................................•.....•.. 414
Plan of observation .....................................•...... 609
Plane table
Declinated ......................•...............•...••... : 171
Description ..........•..•............•.............••....• 148
Oriented ...............•.•..•.....• '....................... 171
To level ............•....•.•................•.....•....... 149
Use •••...................•.•.................... 148, 575, 596
Used in traverse .....•........•...•.•.••..• '. . . . .•. ..• .•. . . 182
Plotting directions
By auxiliary points ........••••••••..•.........•..• _
.'& •• • • 441
By coordinates •.......•.....•..•.. '••........... .-. : • . . . 439, 440
By reversing directions •.••.••.•.•......•.....•.••..•.•••.• 444
By similar". triangles ...•...•.•••... ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . •• • . . 442-443
By Y-azimuth 438
Plotting points by coordinates •..........•..•....... 425, 426,432, 433
Point
Adjusting 483, 521
Aiming •...•..•....•.•.••••..•..•.....•.... -....... 484, 552-558
Base •.•.....•.••...••••.••.••.•••......••.•.•... 488, 550, 551,
Control ...........•••..•••.••.•....••..•• '. • • . . • • . . • • . . • • • . 492
Critical ..•....•...............•.••.•..•..•.....•.••.. 137, 232
Datum .....•.••....••..•..••••••••.••..... . . ••. •. •. •. •••. 494 ,
Declinating .......•..•.....••.•.....•..•....••..•..•.....• 495
Geodetic •.•.••....••.•.•.••..••••..•.••..••.•...••.•. 492, 547
Important-, Designation of 301-305
Location of-,by coordinates ..•..•..••.•.....•.......... 448-449
Method of plotting' . . . . . • . . • . • . • . • • . . • . . . . . . . . . 425, 426, 432, 433
Method of reading .........•............... :...... 421, 434-437
Of general control ••......•..•.....................••.. ~. .• 516
Orienting .....................•.•.••.... ;................. 512
Reference •.......................................• 290-292, 519
Registration ...........••.......•.....................••.. 521
Referring ~'.•.......•.................... ~.. '. 520
Witness ....•...........•. ~• . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • 523
Polaris; Azimuth of .......................•..•................ 642
-322-
Pole star, used to determine compass declination 461
Polyconic projection 394
Polyhedral projection .............................•............ 392
Position
Amount of defilade, problem 323
Auxiliary-,Chart of "............................... 530
Chart ..•..•........................•..................... 529
Definition 517
, Gun - . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. • ..•.••........... ~. 545-549
Reconnaissance and occupation of ',' •.. .. . 255
Position sketches 230-239
Border 238
Conventional signs '. . . . . . . . . . 234-236 .•
Information 233
Lettering ;...... 239
Title 237
Possibilities of fire 534
Posts
Command '. . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Observation (see observation posts) 506, 598-609
Prefixes
Latin and Greek 9
Prismatic compass 142
Compass as aiming point .............................• 475-482
Compute bearing of target .:.......................... 470-472
Laying guns \vith 473-482
Lining in '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
I'
Problems
Comp~tation, minimum range and elevation 339-344
Conversion of slopes .....•......................... '. . . . . . . . 223
Dead space 360-374
Defilade 322-325
Laying guns on base line with aiming circle 592-595
Laying guns with compass as aiming point.............. 477-482
Locating targets by topographic means ..•..•........... 612-617
Map scales ....................•.....•.................. ' 94-103
Profile
Construction of .......................................•... 314
To determine defilade ....•......................•.......... 320
To, determine visibility '. • 314
Projections, map .................••.....•.•..............• 390-397
Bonne .••..................•.............................. 395
Conic ....................•..........•......•............. 393
Definition ................................•..•............ 390
Lambert ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 396, 397
Mercator's ..........................•.......•.....•..•..•. 391
Polyconic ......• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 394
Polyhedral ...............•..............•........•.. '0' ••• -. 392
Proof. Italian resection 212
. -323-'
Protractor
Construction 64-71
Corrections for inaccuracy 61, 62
Description :................... 60, 170
Test 61
Use of 170
Use of in finding magnetic bearing from map 468
Purpose of intersection 193
Q
Quadrant, circular measure ......... " . 16
R.
Range
Deflection fan 518, 528
Determination by coordinates :..... 445
Minimum
Accuracy ',' . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 337, 338
Definition ............................ 326
Determination .. .... 329-344
Effect of ground forms 332-344
. To measure, sito goniometer 168
Steps of calculation '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Triangulation detachments 400, 401
Reading of points -' 421, 434-437
Reading scales 91, 92, 108-111
Censtruction of 108-111
Use of ...•. ",~ '.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Reconnaissance of
Enemy position " . 255.
Example . 256
Observation post . 603
Position ' . 255
Records
Ammunition .............................................• 540
Artillery, sector .. " '.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524-543
Classes of 524
Elaboration of 543
l\-Iaps and charts . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .•. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 524-538
Of O. P : '. 608
Topographical .......................................... 4
Written 524, 539-543
Reduced hectometric coordinates 422
Reduction of stadia readings 155, 639
Reference point ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Desirable considerations 291
Selection of ..............•............................ ,290-292
Use of 292
Referring point ........•...................................... 520
Topo(.!."raphy for Field Artillery

-324-
. Reflex angles ......•...•........••••.....•..•.••...••....•..... 16
Regimental C. 0., Duties 618, 620
Registration mark ~••............ : .• ".......................... 521
Determination of •.••..........••.•.••.••••.•••...••......• 607
Relation of
M. D. to H. E .........................•.................. -.. 87
Tangent 'computation and true angular value •..•....•...••. 38, 42
Tangent computation and degrees •..•••••••....••..... 42 4 • • • • • •
Tangent computation and artillery mil ••••.•..•....••....• 39-42

Tangent computation and R-mil ..••.• '. • • • • • . • • . . • . • . . . • . 41, 42
V. I. to scale of the map •..........•.....•............•.•• ,136
o~~ •
Of B. C. ..•..•..•..•.•.......•.............•..•.......•.. 542
Road (see road report) :..... 246-253
Representative fraction •.....................••...•............. 89
Requirements for accurate results in resection... .. . .. . . . •• .•. • 197
Resection '. •..•..•• .•. . • . •• . . .• 196-214
Back azimuth ..........•............................. 207, 469
British ...................•......•.••..•..•............••. 213
Definition 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 196 : • • • • • • • • • •• • • • •
Italian ..•........• 0 •••• -.. • • • • 208-212

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ... • • • •
Magnetic ....•... '. 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••• 469 .' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
IVleasured angles . '0' •••••••••••••••••••••••• 214 0 •••• 0.00. • • • • •
Orientation by 0 •••••••••• 180 : 0 •••••••••••••• : • • • • • • • • • •
Requirements for accurate results ......•................... 197

.Three point method .•........................•.. 203 0 •• 0 • 0 • • • •
To locate gun positions by ..........•.............. 548 0 • • • • • • •
Transparent paper method ........•..•....•..•......... 198-200

Two point method ..•..............•....•.•... 201, 202 0 • • • • • • •
Revision,' battle maps ..•........•.......•..••.•............... 0. 401

. Right angles ...•.....••.••.......••.......••••...... :.......... 16
Construction of .. 0 72-74 :.....................
Test ..•.•.••..........•.••..•.....•...•••..••..••.....•..•. 75
Road report •.••••..•.....•..•..•....•..••••.•••••........• 246-253
Definition •.•...••.........••.•.•....•..•.....•..•..•...•.. 246
Direction .......•..•........•.••..•.•.•••..•.....•....•..• 248
Distance 249
l\lethod ..•.........•..•.•.....•.•.... 0 0... •.. . • •. . . 250, 251
Use to be made of ......•..........•.••..••..• 252, 253 0 • ; • • • •
Road sketch •...•...••.•.....•..•.....•.••••.•..•.......... 240-245

Characteristics •••..•... : ...•••.•..•..•••••.• '. . . • • . . . . . 240, 241
Information ..•..••....•.•••..•.•....•••.••.••.•..•.....••.. 245
Lateral limits ....•..•.•...•....•... '.0 ••••••••••••••• ~ • • • • • • 244
Made from road report ..........•..•.....•.....•..... "• 252-253.
l\Iet~od .....•..•.•..•..•.••.•.••.•.•.••.••..••..•...•• 242, 243
S.
Scales
Computations 94':103
'-325-
Conversions 104-106
Graphical 91
Map ....••••.•.......•... '. ....•.......•.........•....••. 88-91
Metric measuring ~ '. 55
Mounted timing ~ '.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118
Reading 107
Relation to V. I. 136'
Slope 224
Tangent slope scale, 25° ..•.....•....•..•....... '.' .....• ~ 352-355
Triangular 55
Types of ............•..................................... 107
Use of .....•....•.....•.................................... 92
\Vords and figures ;..... 90
Working .................................................• 107
\Vorking-graphs ~. . . . . . . .. 123-130
Seconds
Centesimal 21
Sexagesimal ...•........................................... 18
Sector .............................•........•................. 522
Analysis of .........................•....................• 289
Battery i.............................................. 483-523
Maps and records .•........................•.......... 524-543
Measurement of; Panoramic sketch _ ~. 284
Occupation of ~'. • • . . . • • . . • . • . • •• . • . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559-561
Secular variations ......•..•........................•........•. 457
Shading ...........•..............•........................ 277-278
Sheet "i_.
Control ...............•..••.....•...•....•• ......•....... 493

Target .•.•....•....•.... ~• . . . . • . . • • • . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . • .. .. 541
Signs, see conventional signs •....•.••....•....•. 4, 234-236, 279-282
Similar triangles
To determine' visibility •...••..•.•.•.••..•.••..••..•.•.••••. 311
To plot direction by 442, 443
Site
Angle of, used to determine defilade .••••.••••.•••••.•.•• 318, 319
Angle of, used to determine visibility •••.••.•.•...•....••... 313
Sito-goniometer .........•••.•..•.••.•••••••••.••••.•.•.••• 166-169
Use of .•.....•..••••.•••.••••••••••••.••••••••.•••••••. 167-169
Size of mil 24
Sketch
Panoramic, see panoramic sketch
Position and area ......................•...•..•..•..... 230-239
Border ........•..••.•..•..••.•.••.•. -................. 238
Characteristics ....••.••..•.••.••...•.•..•.......••.•.. 230
~~ Conventional signs ........................•......... 234- 236
, Critical points ..•..• ' .••.....••••.•.•.............• <... 232
Information ~.•...••.. _- 233
Lettering ..........•...............•..•..•••••.•..•• '. . 239
Method of making .........•••...••....•.....••.•.•. 231.,' 232

-326--
Title 237
Road, see road sketch
Slope
Board 164, 165
Construction 164
Conversion of slope, problem ~. . 223
Ground 275. 276
Practicability of 626
Scale 224
Construction '. . . . . 225-227
Use of ............•............................... 228-229
To measure 147, 152, 216
'Units of expression
Degrees and minutes 218
Gradient 22l
Mils 219
Per cent 220
Tangent 222
Solution
Conversion of slope, problem 223
Dead space 360-374
Defilade . 322-325
Map scale, problems 94-103
Minimum Range and elevation 339-344:
Triangle of error...................................... 204-206
Space, dead (see dead space) .
Special orders for observation posts 606
Stadia red
To measure distances..................... 154, 155, 157, 158, 189
Reduction of readings 639
Straight edge tests 58
Sun, used to determine magnetic declination 462
Systems
. Degree or sexag~sin:al : ,.... 18-20
General communIcatIOn 531
Grad or centesimal 21, 22
Map projections 390-397
l\iil ..•..•................................•............... 23-29
Tl'iangulation 398-399
T.
Tables
Azimuth of polaris 642
Conversion,- of App. IV
Defilade '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Length of stride 629
Natural functions App. III
Reduction of stadia readings '. . . . . . 639
Slope corrections ... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
-327-
Slope practicability 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 626
Tangent slope scale o. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 353
Tangents
Above' 45 degrees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 510 0 0
Addition and subtraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 45 0 0 •
Conversion 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 36. 52
Slope scale o. 0 ••••• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 352-355
Used to express slope 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 222 0 0
Tangent methods o. 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 •••• 0 '.0 •• 0 • 0 0'. . 280 0 0
Applied to degrees and grades O' 0 0 .000000000000000000.0. 00000 29

Tangent ratio, limits of calculation by .... 0 • 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 29, 39-42
Tangent values
Relation of, to actual angular yalues 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 o. 0 0 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 •• 0 38
Relation of. to artillery mil .. 0 ••• 0 • 0 0 0 ••• 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 0 39
Tapes 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 •• 00 0 0 0 • 57
Target
Bearing of ... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ••• 0470-472 • 0 0 0
Designation of ... 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 00' 00000.0: 00000. 0 0 0301-305• 0 0 0
Location of o. 0 0 0 •••••••• 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 o. 0 0 0 550, 551, 610-617

Registration .. 0. 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0,0 0 0 0 • 000000000000000000.00.00. 521 0 0 0
Sheet .. 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 '0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 o. 0 541 •• 0 0 0
Witness 0000000000000. 0 • 0 • 0 00000000.0000.0000000. 0000000.0 523

Telescope, battery commander's 0 0 0 00 00 ••• 0 0 0 •• 0 0 00 0 0 0 ••••• 140 ~ 0 ••• 0 0
Telescopic alidade :. 0 0 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 00 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 153

0 • 0 0 • 0 • • •
Terrestrial observation .... 0 • 0 •• 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 •••• 610 0 •• 0 00
Tests ~ ...
Edges .. 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 58 0
Line of sight of alidade 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 •• 0 0 • 59 0
J\![easuring instruments 0 0 '0 ••• 0 0 •• 00 00 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o. 0 00 : 0 54 0
Protractors . 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 :0 0 0 0 0 0 61
0
Right angles 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o. 0 00 75
Scales 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56
0
Three point method, resection by 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 203

Title, position and area sketch 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 237
To lay guns on base line 0 0 559-597
Aiming circle method 0000000000000000.00000.00000000000 576-582
Aiming point method 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 564
Errors 0 '0 0 0 0 0 0 ••• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O' 568-571
Method of checking 0 .. 00 .. 0" 0000000 •• 0 .. 0 .. 0 .. 00000000 572-574
Orienting line method 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 583-589
Plane table method 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 '0 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 575
Staking out method 0 0 0 0 0 •• ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 563
To level plane table .00. 0 0 00. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0000 o' 0 • 000000000: 0 0 0 0 0 00 149
To locate
Aiming point or direction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 • 0 552-558
Base point or target 0 0 0' •• 0 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 :
550, 551
Gun position . 0 0 ••• 0 0 • 0 • 0 : •• 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 0 545-549
To measure
Angles and deflection. sito-goniometer 0 0 .0 0 ••• 0 • 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 0 •• 0
169
-328-
Distance, telescopic alidade 154
Minimum range, sito-goniometer 168
Slope
, Leveling alidade ~ 152
..:.Peigne compass 147
Sito-goniometer 167
To plot
Coordinates . 425, 426, 432, 433
Direction
Coordinates ..................•...........•.. :..... 438-444
Piegne compass ....................................•.. 145
Protractor 0. • • . . • . • • . • . . • . • . • • . . 146
Topography
Advantages .................................••...•.........• 2
,Definition ;........... 1
Uses of ..........................•.............•............ 1
Topographical information, how recorded .....•.....•...... "....... 4
Topographical methods .• ~.•••.••.•....•.•..•..• : •. . . •. . . . . . . . . . . 5
Topographical operations ..•..................•.•..•••.. ........ 544
Laying guns on base line ............•..•.•.•...•••..... 559-597
Locating aiming direction ............•••...••.......... 552-558
Locating base point ...•.••.....•.....••••..••.........• 550-551
Locating gun position ....•..•..•••..••.....•..••. ~• . . • 545-549
Topographical records ..•.•.•••..•••••••.•.•.••.•.•••.•••..•..•.. 4
Essentials ....•.•.•••...••.••••.•..••••.•••••••..•.•...••... 4
Transit ...........•....•..•••..•...••••.•.•••••.•...•.••••...• 141
Traverse ..••...•..•...•.•....••••..••.•••.•••••..••••.•.•• 181-191
Angle ...................••.••.•••••••.•••.••••••••••••... 185
Orientation by ..•••••.•••••..••.••.•••••••••••..•.•.... 177
Closed ... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . • • • • • • • . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • 181
Definition .......•.••..••.••.••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••. 181
Errors in .....•.•••••.•••.•••••.•••••••••••••••.•••••••..• 191
Foresight-backsight ••••••••••••.•••.••••••••••••••••••••.. 183
Instruments used .••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 182
Measurement of distance :................................. 186
M.ethods ..•..•.••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••• 183-185
Needle ..••.....•.•.•..••••••••••••••••..•••••.•••••••••.• 184
Open .......•..•••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••.
o 181
Triangle of error ..•.....•••• :............................. 203-206.
Solution of .....•....•.••.•••.••.•.••••••••.••.••.•••• 204-206
Arcs of circles ........••.••.•.••..••..••.•••••••••••.• 206
Intersecting arcs 205
. Perpendicular bisectors •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••. 204
Triangles, similar
To plot direction by ..•..•..••.•....••..•••••••..•.•.•• 442, 443
Visibility by 311
Triangulation
Range detachments ............•...•..•••.••.••.•..•.. 400, 401
System ............................•.•.•..••...•.....• 398, S99
-329-
Twentieth of a degree 19
Two point method, resection by 201, 202
U.
Unknown points
Location by
Computation of angles ......•.... ' . 610-617
1'.
In tersection ...•........................... ' . 192-195
Resection .....•.................................. 196-214
Traverse ....••............. ; ~ 181-191
Use of
Abney level ....•.•.................................... 160, 1'61
Aiming circle ..•.............................. 576-582, 586-595
Declinator .....•.............•........................ 202, 203
Elastic band 312
Engineer's level ~ ' 163
Gradient ..............................................• 47,' 221
Graphical scale . 92
Gravity clinometer 162
Grid 431-449
Ground relations 86
Isogonic chart r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .458, 459
• !{no,vn line 175, 176, 201
Orienting line 585-597
Origin line ; :: ~-:".. 513, 605
Panoramic sketch ........•................................ 257
Panoramic sketch pads 260, 287
Peigne compass 144, 145, 147
Plane table '. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 148, 575, 596
Prismatic compass .....•............................... 470-482
Profiles ...........•................................... 314, 320
Right angled rule •..........•............................ ".. 437
Similar triangles ..............•........... 311, 323-325, 343, 344
Sito-goniometer ...•....•...........•.................. 167-169
Slope board .•.....................•..•.................... 165
Slope scale •.•..•.....•................................... 229
Special chart, dead space ••..•..•....•...•..........•.. 388, 389
Stadia .....•..•............................ '.' .• 155, 157, 158, 189
Tangent slope scale ....•.............................. 354; 355
Telescopic alidade •....•..............•............... :.... 154
Visibility chart ..•.•......•.....•.......................... 316
v.
Variation, magnetic ..•.••...........••...• ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Vertical control ;.......................... 293, 294
Exaggeration 294, 314
Vertical interval ; ,..... 136
Visibility •................... ;............................. 309-316 \
Charts 532, 538, 315, 316
-330-
Construction' 0 •• o •• 0 • • • • • • • • 316
Definitions and limitations 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 0 ••••• 0 ••••••• 0 • • • 309 ..
Methods of determining 0" 0 •• 0 •• 0 0 ••• 0 •••••••• 0 ••••• ; • • 310-314
Angle of site o' 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 •• 0 0 0 • 0 0 0 • 0 ••••••• 0 • • • • • • • • • 313'
Elastic band .. o ••••• 0 ••••••••••• o •• o •• 0.0 •••• 0 '0' ••••• 312 -
Graphic method 0' ••• 0.0.0.00000 •••• 00 •• 0 o. 0 0.0......... 314

. Similar triangles .00 •• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 •••••••• 0 ••• 0 • • • • • 311
Wo
Whole to part method 0 •• 0 •••••••••••••••
231,
Wind direction 0 •••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••• 0 0 0 ••••••••••• ' ••••••••••
22
Witness
Point 0 ••• 0 .00 •• 0 •••• 0 •• 0 •••••• 0 •••••••• ~ • • • • • • • 523
Target 0 •• 0 •• 0 • • • • • • • • • • 523
Word and figure scale .. 0 0 ••••••••••••• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 ••••• 0 •• 0 0 • • • • 90•
Wol'king scales 0 ••••• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •••• 0 •••••• 0 • '.' •••• 0 ••• 0 • • • • • 107

Construction of 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 0 ••• o ••• 0 • • • • 113-117
Graph 0 0 ••••••••••••• 0 0 ••• 0 .00 ••••• 0 ••••••••••• 0 • • • • • • 123-130
l\1ounted ~ 0 • 0 0 •••••••••••• 0 ••••• 0 •• 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 • • • • • • 118
Stride 0 ••• 0 ••••• 0 ••••• 0 ••••• 0 •••• 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 112
Xo
"x., line ...................................................... 419
Yo
"Y" azimuth ..... 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 0 • 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 • • 430, 451, 454
Determination by coordinates 0 •• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •446, 447 •
Plotting direction by 0 •••• '. 0 • 0 ••• 0 •• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 0 •• 0 • • • • • • •• 438

"Y" declin3.tion 467 .
"Y" line 0 •••••••••••• 0 •• 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 •••••••• 0 ••• 0 • • • • • 419•
"Y" north 0. o •• o' •••• o. • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • 451, 454
Zo
Zones
Contingent .. 0 ••••• 0 •••••••• o ••••• 0 •••• 0 0 0 0 ••• o. 0 •••• 0 • • • • 491
Normal 0 •••• 0.0 ••• o. 0 •••• 0 ••••••• 0. 00000. 0 o. 00 •• 0" 0... 504
Objective 0 ••• 0 0 0 •• 0 0 • 0 •• 0 • 0 0 •• 0 •• 0 •• 00 ••• 0 ••••••• 0 505
"tj

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ERRATA SHE}<~T.

Page 7, par. 20, 4th line. Change 13° to read 12".

for. Field Artillery

THE CHIEF OF FIELD ARTILLERY

SCHOOL of FIRE for FIELD ARTILLERY

While there are innumerable works on topograph~r extant. there are

Topography for Field Artillery

Topography for Field Artillery

I PREFACE. Page iii-h.

CHAPTER I. Introduction. Par. 1-5

CHAPTElt III ~hps And Scales 76-130

r. Topography for Field Artillerv

CHAPTER VII. Traverses. 181-191-

CHAPTER IX. Resection. 196-214

CHAPTER X. Measurement Of Slopes And Elevations 215-229

G. Filling in ............•....••...... ,." •. """"", 299-300

CHAPTER XVI Map Projections. 390-397

CHAPTER XVII l\Iaps. 398-417

CHAPTER XX. The Compass. 450-469

CHAPTER XXII. Typical Battery Sector. 483-523

Base point or target 550-551

Tovography for Field Artillery

TOpOgraphy for Field Artillery

MEASUREMENT AND SYSTEMS OF MEASURE.

*Meter -= 1, Base -Unit. M.(orm.)

B.CONVERSION BETWEEN ENGLISH AND METRIC SYSTEMS.

Topography for Field Artillel')'

'Topography for Field Artillery

90° =1 quadrant or right angle

Thus: 13::13' 48" = 12.+ ~~ + 3:~0 = 12 + .217 +'.013 = 12.23°.

Or: 12° 13.8' = 12 + 1: 8 0 = 12.23°.

To re-convert to the regular notation:

Topography for Field Artillery

6~~~;8 X.001=.0009817 of the radius.

Topography for Field Artillery

D. CONVERSIONS IN ANGULAR MEASURE.

Minutes to mils 1'=.296,/1.

TOpOgrllPhy for Field Artillery

E. EXPRESSION OF ANGLES BY TANGENTS.

To illustrate the tangent graphically, fig. 6, construct a right tri-

(1) ". BC Vertical

::::11.46°(57.3 X the tangent); in grades, 1/63.~~~'800 -12.73g (63.66X the tan-

II Tan. II Tia~Fo~n:f~:~I:-Il Actual Angular ValueII Error in Tangent Calculation

II II 0' I Mils 1\ 0' \ 1w: I ~~t~I :iis II , I True

For example, 2°=572.3=~:.6' gradient. Or 2°X.0175=.035=1.~~O=2;.ti

(a) (b) (c)

.'Topography for Field Artillery

MAPS AND SCALES.

C. MAP MAKING AND MAP READING.

TOpOgraphy for Field Artillery

95. When & map,1,>~w.rsIiQ ',~c~le,"9f!"~n~''kind:':'4t~ ~c~le may be determined

A. CLASSES OF PROBLEMS. '

UnIts of H. E. In either case the' calculation is a simple 'one of converting

B. SIMPLE"RULES FOR MAP'SCAiE'CALCULATIONS.

':7:,: ',t'a) , n~ ihe IL Ii.' ' (~~):~~:i~i;~~:b:~i~

-1 nllle, R. F. = 2il2O ' the' M~D.'!rom, .point', 4,

;:i ~.;: :Solution: ;'(1) ~'5..,08X~I.120t~10?.!2~9.~6'cni~'.~.;~.(1,~;"(,' . 'I "

dJ, :-': :: ',;,; :,(,(2>,; .~9'7,289:,6c~'.:T;'2.~4~12,~~ m ...ii;,,;,";: ;' ." I

The above example might be worked through in inches instead of cen-

Topography for Field Artillery

10,560 inches+39.37=268.2 meters.

~ a map the R. F. of which is 20,~00' 1 em. M. D.=20,OOO'em. H. E.

r 104. The M. D. length of a graphical scale reading in certain units, as

':7:,: ',t'a) , n~ ihe IL Ii.' ' ()::i~i;~~:b:~i~