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∂y ⎛ A ⎞ ∂V ∂y
+⎜ ⎟ +V =0 ( 40.1)
∂t ⎝ T ⎠ ∂t ∂x
∂V ∂V ∂y
+V +g = g ( S0 − S f ) ( 40.2 )
∂t ∂x ∂x
Equations (40.1) and (40.2) represent the continuity and dynamic equation, in non-
depth, V = Velocity, g = acceleration due to gravity, S0= bed slope, Sf = friction slope, x
= distance and t = time. These are a set of coupled non-linear partial differential
equations of hyperbolic type. There are no analytical solutions for these equations , and
they are usually solved by numerical methods. Here in we explain the "method of
characteristics is seldom used these days for solving the unsteady open-channel flow
equations, this concept helps one to understand (i) the propagation of waves and (ii) the
terms to obtain
⎡ ∂V ⎛ λ A ⎞ ∂V ⎤ ⎡ ∂y ⎛ g ⎞ ∂y ⎤
⎢ ∂t + ⎜ V + T ⎟ ∂x ⎥ + λ ⎢ ∂t + ⎜ λ + V ⎟ ∂x ⎥ = g ( S0 − S f ) ( 40.3)
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
dV ∂V ∂V dx
= + ( 40.4 )
dt ∂t ∂x dt
and
dy ∂y ∂y dx
= + ( 40.5)
dt ∂t ∂x dt
λA g dx
V+ = +V = ( 40.6 )
T λ dt
= g ( S0 − S f )
dV dy
+λ ( 40.7 )
dt dt
and
gT
λ=± ( 40.8)
A
Therefore,
g gA
=± ( 40.9 )
λ T
g dx
It can be seen that represents the celerity and represents the absolute wave
λ dt
velocity. Thus
= g ( S0 − S f )
dV g dy
+ ( 40.10 )
dt C dt
dx
=V +C ( 40.11)
dt
While
= g ( S0 − S f )
dV g dy
− ( 40.12 )
dt C dt
dx
=V −C ( 40.13)
dt
is valid along the curve. Equation (40.10) is called the Positive Characteristic Equation
and Eq. (40.12) is called the Negative Characteristic Equation. Plots of Eqs. (40.11) and
(40.13) in the x-t plane are shown in the Figure below. In this figure, line LP.
C+ C-
t
L R
xL xR
represents the Eq. (40.11) and is known as the Positive Characteristic Line, C + .
Equation (40.10) is valid along this line. It may be noted that discretized form of original
partial differential equations can be written between any pair of points, arbitrarily taken
in the x-t plane. On the other hand, Eq. (40.10), which is simpler than original P.D.E s
can be written between any two points in the x-t plane, L and P, only when they satisfy
the condition given by Eq. (40.10). Points L and P indicate that a wave travelling in the
downstream direction takes ∆t time to travel a distance ∆xL . In a similar manner, Eq.
(40.13) plots as line RP, C − in the x-t plane. This line is known as the negative
characteristic line Eq. (40.12) is valid along the line RP. Points R and P indicate that a
wave travelling in the upstream direction takes ∆t time to travel a distance of ∆xR .
⎛g⎞
P P P
∫L dV + ∫L ⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ dy =g ∫L ( S0 − S f ) dt ( 40.14 )
Note that the celerity, C depends upon the flow cross-sectional area, A and top width, T,
both of which are functions of time and distance. Therefore, C is not a constant along
the line LP in the x-t plane. In a similar manner, Sf is also not a constant along LP.
However, for the sake of simplification, assuming that C and Sf are constant along the
line LP, and are equal to values of C and Sf at point L, Eq. (40.14) can be shown to give
⎛g⎞
VP − VL + ⎜ ⎟ ⎡⎣ y p − yL ⎤⎦ = g ⎡ S0 − ( S f ) ⎤ ⎡⎣t p − t L ⎤⎦ ( 40.15 )
⎝ C ⎠L ⎣ L⎦
Similarly, Eq. (40.12) can be integrated along the line RP. The result is
⎛g⎞
VP − VR − ⎜ ⎟ ⎡⎣ y p − yR ⎤⎦ = g ⎡ S0 − ( S f ) ⎤ ⎡⎣t p − t R ⎤⎦ ( 40.16 )
⎝ C ⎠R ⎣ R⎦
In Eqs. (40.15) and (40.16), subscripts P, R and L refer to the values at the points L, P
and R, respectively. If the values V, y etc. are known at points L and R, values of V and
t p − t L = t p − t R = ∆t ,
⎛g⎞ ⎛g⎞
⎜ ⎟ = CL and ⎜ ⎟ = CR
⎝ C ⎠L ⎝ C ⎠R
(
VP + CL y p = VL + CL yL + g S0 − S f L ∆t ) ( 40.17 )
VP − CR y p = VR − CR yR + g (S 0 − Sf R ) ∆t ( 40.18)
Right hand sides of Eqs. (40.17) and (40.18) can be evaluated using the values at
points R and L. Therefore, Vp and yp can be obtained by solving Eqs. (40.17) and
(40.18).
The physical significance of characteristic lines is explained here. Consider the point P
NCL R PCL
tQ Q
x
P
x = xp x = xq
Disturbance moving in the upstream direction is indicated by the line NCL. Wave
moving in the downstream direction moves along the line PCL in the figure. Any point R,
located in the shaded region of the figure is affected by the disturbance at P. A point Q
located outside the shaded region is not affected by the disturbance at P. What this
means is, arrival time for the wave from P(x = xp) to Q (x = xq) is more than tQ, or
conditions at x = xq would not have changed at the time tQ due to a wave from P.
The shaded region is referred to as the "zone of influence". Now, consider the point p in
PCL NCL
R
x
L R
The positive characteristic line (PCL) and the negative characteristic line (NCL) passing
through the point P are shown in this figure. These lines are drawn backwards in time.
Here, the shaded region is referred to as the "zone of dependence". What this means is,
any disturbance orginating at point R, located within the shaded region, would affect the
conditions at P.
Subcritical Flow
For a subcritical flow, the PCL lies to the right of point P (in the x-t plane), while the NCL
lies to the left of point P as shown in the figure below. This means the disturbance
NCL PCL
x
P
Critical Flow
For a critical flow, the PCL lies to the right of point P while the NCL is a line
NCL
PCL
x
P
Critical Flow
Supercritical Flow
For a supercritical flow, both the PCL and NCL lie to the right of point P in the x-t plane
NCL
PCL
x
P
Supercritical Flow
This means that the disturbances can travel only in the downstream direction, if the flow
is supercritical. That is why it is often said that the supercritical flow knows only what
point P gets swept further downstream. They cannot travel upstream and reach point P.
The above discussion on physical significance of characteristic lines can be also used
Numerical solution of governing partial differential equations (Eqs. (40.1) and (40.2)
start with calculations at a specified time. At this time, the flow conditions i.e. the flow
depth, y and the flow velocity, V should be known. These flow conditions at the initial
upstream Downstream
boundary boundary
P
R
NCL NCL Q
t= t PCL
PCL
x
x=0 x=L
xR Initial Condtions
Any physical system has finite boundaries. For a one-dimensional flow, there will be a
The boundary at x=0 is termed as upstream boundary and the boundary at x=L is
termed as the downstream boundary. In the solution of governing equations, one has to
specify one or more conditions at the boundaries of the system. These are known as
Consider a point R in the interior of domain as shown in the figure above. This point
indicates that we are interested in finding the flow conditions at a point x = xR at time
t = ∆t . Two characteristic lines, PCL and NCL, passing through this point (for subcritical
flow) carry the information from t=0 to t = ∆t . There are two flows variables, y and V,
characteristic lines at this point R in the x-t plane indicates that two characteristic
equations will be available for this purpose. Now, consider a point P as shown in the
figure. Point P indicates that values of y and V, at the upstream end, at time t = ∆t ,
and from within the domain, is passing through this point P because P falls on the
upstream boundary. Thus only NCL is existent for this point. This indicates that only one
equation (negative characteristic equation) is available for solving for two unknowns at
point P. Therefore, a boundary condition needs to be specified for closing the problem.
This boundary condtion can be a specified flow depth or a specified flow velocity or a
relationship between the depth and the velocity. Now, consider a point Q on the
downstream boundary as shown in the figure. Point Q indicates that we are interested in
determining the values of y and v at x=L, at time t = ∆t . As in the case of point P, only
one characteristic line (positive characteristic line, PCL) is existent here. Therefore, one
Above discussion is valid for the case of subcritical flow. The characteristic lines in the
case of supercritical flow are shown in the figure below. As can be seen from this figure,
no characteristic equations will be available for solving for the two flow variables at point
upstream Downstream
boundary boundary
R Q
P
NCL NCL
PCL PCL
t=0 x
x=0 x=L
Boundary Condtions - Supercritical Flow
Therefore, two boundary conditions need to be specified at the upstream boundary, in
available for solving for the two unknown flow variables at point Q on the downstream
Consider the Eqs. (40.10) and (40.12). Consider a rectangular channel. The wave
C = gy (40.19)
or
dc g dy
=
dt 2 y dt
or
dc 2 y dc
= (40.20)
dt g dt
Substitution of Eqs (40.19) and (40.20) in Eqs. (40.10) and (40.12) results in the
following.
dv
dt
+2
dc
dt
(
= g S0 − S f ) (40.21)
and
dv
dt
−2
dc
dt
(
= g S0 − S f ) (40.22)
or
d
dt
(
(V + 2 c ) = g S0 − S f ) (40.23)
and
d
dt
(
(V − 2 c ) = g S0 − S f ) (40.24)
d
(V + 2c ) = 0 ( 40.25 )
dt
d
and (V − 2c ) = 0 ( 40.26 )
dt
or V + 2 c=J+ =Constant along PCL
and V − 2 c=J - =Constant along NCL
The constants J+ and J-are called "Riemann invariants" since they remain constant
along the characteristic lines. An important point to be noted with regard to the
boundary conditions is that they should be independent of the governing equations and
of the Riemann invariants. For example, one should not specify the value of V-2C as an