Lakshitha Senarathne

BSc (Hons), AMIE(SL)

 SSD are sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert
drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary
circumstances.
 May be inadequate when drives must make complex or
instantaneous decision, when information is difficult to
perceive or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are
required.
 When situation is unexpected or drive must make unusual
maneuvers or under difficult-to-perceive situation.

3
 Depends on type of maneuver made and roadway setting
(Urban vs. rural)
 Critical Locations where there is a likelihood for error in
either information reception, decision-making, or control
actions.
 Desirable locations: Interchange & intersection locations,
Change in cross sections (toll plazas and lane drops) and
areas of visual noise

4
Decision
(controlled stop, speed/path/route change) – DSD (Table 3-3)

Source: A
Policy on
Geometric
Design of
Highways and
Streets (The
Green Book).
Washington,
DC. American
Association of
State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials, 2001
4th Ed.
Assumptions :
1. Vehicle being passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and
velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph greater than that of the
passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming
vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
Source: A
Policy on
Geometric
Design of
Highways and
Streets (The
Green Book).
Washington,
DC. American
Association of
State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials, 2001
4th Ed.
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where

vehicle just enters the right lane

d1 = t1 (u – m + at1)
3.6 2
where
t1 = time for initial maneuver (sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (kmph)
a = acceleration (km/h/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed
vehicle
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane
d2 = ut2 / 3.6
where:
u = speed of passing vehicle (kmph)
t2 = time spent passing in left lane (sec)
d3 = clearance distance varies from 33 to 90 m
d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing
maneuver
d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2
 The horizontal and vertical curvature
 The cross- section elements
 High way gradients
 Layout of intersections
 Generally 20 years after completion of the road
 In some cases design period is considered as 10 years so
that the initial cost of the construction can be minimized
 3 groups; Flat, Rolling and Mountainous
Corridor slope
Terrain type Code
%
Flat F 10
Rolling R 10-25
mountainous M >25

 The minimum length of the said section should not less than
3 km
 Speed can be defined as the highest continuous speed with
favorable weather condition, low traffic volume and the
vehicle speeds are governed by the design features of the
road.
 Primary factors that influence to the design speed
1. Type of road facility
2. Terrain through which the road will pass.

 Secondary factors to be considered

1. Traffic characteristics speed capabilities of vehicles
2. Cost of land.
 DESIGN SPEED

 A suitable range of design speeds for different types of roads and

different terrains is from 40km/h to 100km/h.
 The upper limit is suitable for the design of expressways in Sri
Lanka.
 This will be influence on the design of horizontal and vertical
curvature, road gradients and sight distances to be provided.
 The actual running speed is of vehicles is based on the terrain
and the actual road curvature conditions and not on the design
speed of vehicles.
 It is observed that roads with low design speeds in flat terrain
experience much higher running speeds.
General procedure of traffic forecasting
1. Study the development plan for the area.
2. Establish the survey area in the basis of the road network
to be developed. Then the survey area is divided into
zones. This division is based on the density of the road
network land use administrative division etc.
3. Carry out an economic and land use survey. The economic
survey includes population income levels etc
 DESIGN YEAR TRAFFIC VOLUME

4. A traffic survey is carried out to establish the travel desires.

The survey includes origin-destination surveys and manual
classification traffic counts at selected locations.
5. The data is analyzed to obtain inter-zonal travel desires. An
origin- destination trip matrix is developed using inter -
zonal travel patterns obtained in analyzing traffic survey
data. A model is developed to give the co-relation between
trips generated and the population economic indices
(GDP) land use etc,
 DESIGN YEAR TRAFFIC VOLUME

6. Forecasting of future population, economic indices, land

use etc.
7. Forecasting of future traffic using the model.
 Estimation of current traffic and just after completion
 Improve the existing traffic
 Attracted or diverted traffic from other roads

 Traffic increase through working life of the road

 Normal traffic growth due to increase in the number and usage of motor
vehicle.
 Generated traffic which consists of vehicle trips that would not have been
made if the new facility had not been provided.
 Developed traffic consists of the traffic generated due to improvements an
adjacent land over and above the development which would have taken
place without the improvement or new construction.
 DESIGN YEAR TRAFFIC VOLUME

Existing traffic
Diverted traffic
Design Year Traffic
= Normal traffic growth
Volume
generated traffic
Development traffic
 Capacity is defined as the ability of a road to accommodate
traffic under ideal road and traffic conditions.
 The ideal road and traffic conditions
1. Uninterrupted flow free from side interferences of vehicles and
pedestrian.
2. Passenger cars only in the traffic stream.
3. Traffic lanes 12 feet (3.66m) wide with adequate shoulder and no
lateral obstructions within 6 feet of the edge of the carriage way.
4. Satisfactory horizontal and vertical alignment with no restricted
passing sight distances.
 CAPACITY

Basic capacity for roads in the U.S.A and Japan

Highway Type U.S.A Japan
Multi-lane 2000 per lane 2500 per lane
Two-lane, two way 2000 total both directions 2500 total both directions
Three-lane two way 4000 total both directions 2500 per lane

Capacity Reduction (% of 12 ft lane capacity)

Lane width(ft) 2- lane highways Multi – lane highways
12 100 100
11 88 97
10 81 91
9 76 81
 CAPACITY

 In Sri Lankan standards of geometric design the capacity is

defined as the maximum hourly flow rate at which vehicle
can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform
section of a lane for LOS, E.
 According to the Sri Lankan standards, the ideal design
capacity for two lane road is 2800 pcph (passenger cars per
hour) for 50/50 directional distribution at LOS, E. For
uninterrupted flow segment the ideal design capacity is
2000 pcphpl (passenger cars per hour per lane)
 Road capacity is expressed in passenger cars or equivalent
passenger cars.
 “Equivalent passenger car unit” is used to convert vehicles in a
traffic flow into passenger cars in terms of capacity
considerations.
 The PCU factor depend on
1. Type of vehicle

2. Type of terrain

3. Type of the carriage way

4. The level of service

5. Speed
 EQUIVALENT PASSENGER CAR UNIT

Equivalent P.C.U. values recommended for use in Sri Lanka

For roads For intersections

Type of vehicle
Urban Rural Roundabouts Traffic signals
Private car, Taxi,
motor cycle
combination
1 1 1 1
light goods
vehicle (<1.5
tons)
Motor cycle
0.75 1 0.75 0.33
scooter moped
Medium or
heavy goods
2 3 2.8 1.75
vehicle (>1.5
tons)
Bus coach trolley
3 3 2.8 2.25
bus
Pedal cycle 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.2
 EQUIVALENT PASSENGER CAR UNIT

Equivalent P.C.U. values for Two-way two-Lane Road

PCU Factor
Type of vehicle
Flat Rolling Mountainous

Passenger Car 1.0 1.0 1.0

Small bus 2.0 3.4 6.0

Bus 2.2 5.0 10.0

Light Truck 2.0 4.0 7.0

Medium Truck 2.2 5.0 10.0

Heavy Truck 2.2 5.0 10.0

Motor Cycles 0.5 0.5 0.5

Bicycle 1.0 1.0 1.0

Carts 4.0 10.0 24.0

(Source: Traffic and planning division RDA)

 EQUIVALENT PASSENGER CAR UNIT
Equivalent P.C.U. values for for multi lane Road
PCU Factor
Type of vehicle
Flat Rolling Mountainous

Passenger Car 1.0 1.0 1.0

Small bus 1.5 3.0 5.0

Bus 1.7 4.0 8.0

Light Truck 1.7 4.0 8.0

Medium Truck 1.7 4.0 8.0

Heavy Truck 1.7 4.0 8.0

Motor Cycles 0.5 0.5 0.5

Bicycle 1.0 1.0 1.0

Carts 4.0 10.0 24.0

(Source: Traffic and planning division RDA)

 Service flow (SF) is the flow adjusted to the given
freeway condition from ideal condition
SF = q*Nfwfhv veh/h
• q* = ideal flow in personal cars per hour per lane (pcphpl)
• N = number of freeway lanes
• fw = adjustment for the combined effect of lane widths less
than 3.66m and lateral clearance less than 1.8 m
• fhv = adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles
and non level roads

27
 SERVICE FLOW

Adjustment factors fw
Lane width in m
Lateral
With obstructions on one side With obstructions on both
Clearanc
of the roadway sides of the roadway
e LC
3.66 3.35 3.05 2.74 3.66 3.35 3.05 2.74
4 Lane freeway (2 lanes per direction)
≥1.8 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.81 1.00 0.97 0.91 0.81
1.52 0.99 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.99 0.96 0.90 0.80
1.22 0.99 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.98 0.95 0.89 0.79
0.91 0.98 0.95 0.89 0.79 0.96 0.93 0.87 0.77
0.61 0.97 0.94 0.88 0.79 0.94 0.91 0.86 0.76
0.30 0.93 0.90 0.85 0.76 0.87 0.85 0.80 0.71
0.00 0.90 0.87 0.82 0.73 0.81 0.79 0.74 0.66
6 or 8 Lane freeway (3 or 4 lanes per direction)
≥1.8 1.00 0.96 0.89 0.78 1.00 0.96 0.89 0.78
1.52 0.99 0.95 0.88 0.77 0.99 0.95 0.88 0.77
1.22 0.99 0.95 0.88 0.77 0.98 0.94 0.87 0.77
0.91 0.98 0.94 0.87 0.76 0.97 0.93 0.86 0.76
0.61 0.97 0.93 0.87 0.76 0.96 0.92 0.85 0.75
0.30 0.95 0.92 0.86 0.75 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.72
0.00 0.94 0.91 0.85 0.74 0.91 0.87 0.81 0.70
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 SERVICE FLOW

Adjustment factor fhv

1
f hv 
1  PT (E T  1)  PR (E R  1)  PB (E B  1)

PT, PR, and PB are proportions of trucks, recreational

vehicles and buses.
ET, ER, and EB are passenger car equivalents of trucks,
recreational vehicles and buses.

29
 SERVICE FLOW

Passenger car equivalents on freeway segments

Type of terrain
Factor
Level Rolling Mountainous

ET 1.7 4.0 8.0

ER 1.6 3.0 4.0

EB 1.5 3.0 5.0

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 SERVICE FLOW

 Fluctuating traffic flow causes disturbance in the traffic

flow
 Peak hour factor gives the ratio of traffic flow volume V
at peak hour to maximum rate of flow qmax during peak
hour

V V
PHF  
q max 60
Nt ( )
t
Nt = Maximum number of vehicles counted during any
interval t within the peak hour

31
 The flow of vehicles counted at every five minute
intervals during the peak hour is given in the following
Table.

Period
00-05 05-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30
(min)
Flow
20 25 28 32 37 31
(veh)
Period
30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60
(min)
Flow
26 29 30 27 24 23
(veh)

32
 SERVICE FLOW

Calculate the peak hour volume, maximum rate of

flow and PHF.
Peak hour volume = 322 veh
Maximum flow rate = 37 x 60/5
= 444 veh/hr
PHF = 322/444
= 0.73
 SERVICE FLOW

 The maximum service flow at each LOS in the ideal

condition

MSFi  q pcphpl *

i is the identifier of the respective LOS

(i=A,B,C,D,E,F)

 MSFi is related to design speed, density (pcpkmpl),

operating speed and v/c ratio.

34
 SERVICE FLOW

LOSi and MSFi for basic freeway sections for Design

Speed = 113 kmph

Density Speed (v/c)

LOSi MSFi
(pcpkmpl) (kmph) ratio

A ≤8 ≥ 97 0.35 700
B ≤ 12 ≥ 92 0.54 1100
C ≤ 19 ≥ 87 0.72 1550
D ≤ 26 ≥ 74 0.93 1850
E ≤ 42 ≥ 48 1.00 2000
F >42 <48 - -

35
 SERVICE FLOW

LOSi and MSFi for basic freeway sections for Design

Speed = 97 kmph

Density Speed (v/c)

LOSi MSFi
(pcpkmpl) (kmph) ratio

A ≤8 - - -
B ≤ 12 ≥ 80 0.49 1000
C ≤ 19 ≥ 76 0.69 1400
D ≤ 26 ≥ 68 0.84 1700
E ≤ 42 ≥ 48 1.00 2000
F >42 <48 - -

36
 SERVICE FLOW

LOSi and MSFi for basic freeway sections for Design

Speed = 80 kmph

Density Speed (v/c)

LOSi MSFi
(pcpkmpl) (kmph) ratio

A ≤8 - - -
B ≤ 12 - - -
C ≤ 19 ≥ 69 0.67 1300
D ≤ 26 ≥ 64 0.83 1600
E ≤ 42 ≥ 45 1.00 1900
F >42 <45 - -

37
 SERVICE FLOW
Example
A freeway is designed to carry 3000 veh/h. The anticipated
composition of heavy vehicles is trucks – 12 % and buses – 5
%. Determine the maximum number of lanes required to
provide a LOS of C. It is given that, PHF = 0.80, terrain is rolling,
design speed = 113 km/h, Lane width = 3.66 m and there is
adequate lane clearance.

38
Answer
qmax = V/PHF
= 3000/0.80
= 3750 veh/h
Service Flow = 3750 veh/h
From table of maximum service flow ,
q* for LOS C is MSFc = 1550 pcphpl.
From table of adjustment for width and lateral clearence,
fw = 1.00

39
 1
f hv 
1  PT (E T  1)  PR (E R  1)  PB (E B  1)
1
f hv 
1  0.12(4  1)  0.00(3  1)  0.05(3  1)

fhv=0.68 SF = qmax = q*Nfwfhv

3750
N  3.56  4lanes
(1550)(1.00)(0.68)

40