See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/292980649

Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers
Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica Yavor Stefanov, Christo
Pimpirev

Article · January 2015

CITATIONS READS
0 131

1 author:

Yavor Stefanov
Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski"
18 PUBLICATIONS   17 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Yavor Stefanov on 04 February 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

BULGARIAN ANTARCTIC RESEARCH
A SYNTHESIS

Christo Pimpirev
Nesho Chipev

“St. Kliment Ohridski” University Press

SR¿D ‡ 
Cover
Geological field party on McGregor Peak, Livingston Island
Photograph
Christo Pimpirev

‹  Christo Pimpirev, Nesho Chipev, editors

‹  “St. Kliment Ohridski” University Press

,S%1 
6. DEEP-WATER FACIES AND FACIES ASSOCIATIONS
IN THE SILICICLASTIC ROCKS OF THE MIERS BLUFF
FORMATION, LIVINGSTON ISLAND, ANTARCTICA
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev
Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, 15 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 1509 Sofia]
e-mail: yavor@gea.uni-sofia.bg; polar@gea.uni-sofia.bg
Introduction
During the last decade substantial progress has been made
in understanding the stratigraphic and structural aspect
for the sedimentary sequences of the Miers Bluff Forma-
tion. The studied turbidite system outcrops along the coast
line of Livingston Island and it belongs to the Miers Bluff
Formation (Dalziel, 1972; Arche et al., 1992; Pallas et al.,
1992; Doktor et al., 1994; Smellie et al., 1995). This unit is
subdivided into South Bay, Johnson Dock, Sally Rocks, Na-
pier Peak and Moores Peak members and its detailed stra-
tigraphy is described earlier in this volume. The presence of
turbiditic sediments in the sections had long been reported
(Arche et al., 1992; Doktor et al., 1994; Smellie et al., 1995;
Pimpirev et al., 1997). Newly performed field studies reveal
a broad spectrum of deep-water facies arranged in prograd-
ing sequences. The aim of this paper is to examine the facies
and facies associations recorded in the siliciclastic rocks of
the Miers Bluff Formation and to develop the later work
into a more advanced sedimentary model.
Sedimentary facies and divisions
Turbidite facies and their inferred processes have been dealt
with in many papers among which those by Mutti & Ric-
ci Lucchi (1972, 1975), Walker & Mutti (1973), Walker
(1978), Nardin et al. (1979), Lowe (1982), Stow (1985,
1986), Pickering et al. (1986, 1989), Ghibaudo (1992),
Mutti (1992), Mutti et al. (1999) are the most widely ac-
cepted in literature. In present study two main criteria were
employed in recognizing and interpreting of sediment
gravity flow deposits preserved in the rocks of the Miers
Bluff Formation: (a) facies and facies associations, and (b)
divisions within beds. The facies were defined according
to the descriptive-interpretative scheme of Mutti & Ricci
Lucchi (1975) and following process-oriented “facies tract”
as discussed by Mutti (1992) and Mutti et al. (1999). The
internal divisions of turbidites are based both on the classic
concept of Bouma (1962) and on the model proposed by
Lowe (1982).
In the Upper Cretaceous sedimentary successions of
the Miers Bluff Formation the following facies have been
recognized:
Facies A – Sediments deposited from cohesive debris flows
Facies B – Coarse-grained sandy turbidites
Facies C – Medium-grained sandy turbidites
Facies D – Fine-grained sandy/muddy turbidites
Facies A
In this facies are included rocks deposited from cohesive
debris flows, also termed “true debris flows” (Middleton &
Hampton, 1973) and are distinguished from the rest sedi-
ment gravity flows in that the larger particles are support-
ed by the cohesiveness of a sediment-water matrix (Lowe,
1982; Shunmugam & Moiola, 1995). Cohesive debris
flows have been shown to be effective transporting agents
in both subaerial and subaqueous environments ( Johnson,
1970; Rodine & Johnson, 1976; Hampton, 1972, 1975,
1979; Mulder & Alexander, 2001). The main features of
their deposits (debrites; Stow, 1986) consist of varying
amount of gravel-sized clasts suspended in clay-silt-sand
matrix, crude stratification, lack of preferred orientation of
the particle, and rare sedimentary structures. On the basis
of fabric support, in the studied sections are recognized
two subfacies – debrites with clast-supported texture (A1)
and matrix-supported debrites (muddy debrites or pebble
mudstones, A2), respectively.
Subfacies A1
In the studied successions of the Miers Bluff Formation
subfacies A1 is represented in section “Johnson Dock”
49
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev

Figure. 1. Lithologic-
stratigraphic logs of the
studied vertical intervals
of Miers Bluff Formation
in cross sections
“Johnson Dock” (A) and
“Punta Henry” (B).

50
Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica

(fig. 1A) and in section “Punta Henry” (fig. 1B), respectively.

The subfacies comprises either thick channeled lenticular
bodies of clast-supported breccia or occur as couplets of
gravels overlain by granule-bearing coarse- to very coarse-
grained sandstones. In the former case, the beds typically
consist of gravels that range from granules to cobbles, set
in a muddy to muddy sand matrix. In the couplets upward
transitions are sharp, but more gradual transitions are
common as well. The thicknesses of the individual layers
of the subfacies reaches up to 5 m, often are amalgamated
and manifesting lenticular geometry with marked lateral
thickness variations. The lower boundaries are planar or
slightly scoured erosional, whereas the top surfaces are planar
to slightly convex (fig. 2A). The most common internal
structure is crude normal grading developed in both gravelly
and sandy division of a bed (fig. 2A). The gravelly division
may locally show inverse grading at the base passing upwards
into crude normal grading. The clast fabrics occur either
chaotic or relatively well ordered, with an alignment of
elongate clasts parallel to the bedding. The individual gravel-
sand couplets comprise 1–2 m thick lens-shaped coarse-
grained bodies. Each layer begins with division of a pebble
conglomerate showing crude inverse and normal grading (cf.
R2 and R3 division of Lowe, 1982) covered by trough cross-
bedded granule conglomerates and sandstones (S1).
This subfacies is thought to result from deposition
both by cohesive debris flows and by gravelly high-density
turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982), mega-turbidity currents
( Johns et al., 1981; Fergusson, 1985) or by bipartite cur-
rents (Mutti et al., 1999). The vertical arrangement of divi-
sions suggests different mechanisms of transportation. The
presence or absence of lateral or vertical clast-size segrega-
tion depends mainly on the flow concentration and dis-
tance travelled by the flow before final deposition (Davies
& Walker, 1974; Walker, 1975, 1977; Mulder & Alexan-
der, 2001). Thus, flow transformation processes related to
deceleration (Postma et al., 1988) cause the flow to sepa-
rate into a basal, highly concentrated, non-turbulent grav-
elly portion and an upper, less concentrated sandy-gravelly
turbulent portion. The basal units have resulted from rapid
en masse sedimentation by frictional or cohesive freezing
from highly concentrated gravel clast dispersion. The R2
division within gravel-sand couplets represents highly con- Figure. 2. (A) Normally graded conglomerates (subfacies
centrated traction carpet material (Walker, 1975, 1977; A1) with abundant mud clasts showing slightly scoured
Aalto, 1976; Lowe, 1982), while the following R3 interval lower surfaces. Cross section “Johnson Dock”. (B) Lateral
pinch-out geometry of the muddy debrites (subfacies A2)
has been deposited from turbulent suspension. The upper- and slumped mudstone units. Cross section “Johnson
most unit S1 within the couplets originated from residual Dock”. (C) Sandstone-mudstone couplets of facies C
high-density turbidity currents and reflecting downslope prograding into channelized sandstones of facies B.
flow deceleration. Note an apparent thickening-upward trend (arrow). Cross
The clast-supported debrites of the subfacies A1 were section “Punta Henry”.
probably formed by subaqueous debris flow (Middleton
& Hampton, 1973; Walker, 1978; Lowe, 1982) in the can-

51
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev
yons or in large submarine erosional conduits (Mutti et al.,
1999). The lens-shaped geometry of the amalgamated bod-
ies, the scoured base of each layer and internal structures
of gravel-sand couplets suggest accumulations within a sub-
marine braided channel-bar system (Winn & Dott, 1979;
Hein & Walker, 1982).
Subfacies A2
The subfacies comprise gravelly beds consist of matrix-
supported, poorly sorted granule to boulder clasts
scattered in an abundant muddy sand matrix (10–50%).
The thicknesses of the layers vary from 1m to several
meters and have an irregular geometry, with planar to
slightly scoured bases (fig. 2B). In some cases, the muddy
debrites (or pebble mudstones) are vertically stacked
without any interstratified turbidites and distinguishing
of the individual beds is impossible. Commonly, some
strata occur with basal clast-supported parts (subfacies A1)
which passing upward into matrix-supported parts. A very
important feature of the muddy debrites is the presence of
large boulders from mudstones (olistoliths) at the bases of
some very thick units that overlie fine-grained deposits (fig.
2B). Internally, the gravel beds of the subfacies are mostly
structureless and occasionally display crude inverse grading
(at the base or throughout) as well as poorly developed
normal grading.
The studied massive muddy debrites of subfacies A2
can be compared to disorganized-bed model proposed
by Walker (1975) for resedimented conglomerates, while
internally graded units correspond to inverse-to-normally
graded model. The former were probably formed by
subaqueous debris flow in which the larger clasts were
supported by the buoyancy and cohesiveness of the clay-
water matrix. The absence of grading, stratification,
and preferred clast fabric suggest rapid deposition on
relatively steep slopes within feeder channels or canyons
(Walker, 1975) in the transfer zone of the basin (Mutti
et al. 1999). The crudely graded units of the subfacies A2
are considered as products of the lower part of the flows
in which the clasts were supported by dispersive pressure
(Middleton, 1967; Walker, 1975; Lowe, 1979, 1982) and
were deposited downstream within channels of the inner
fan (Walker, 1975).
Facies B
Facies B is widespread in the studied section of Miers Bluff
Formation (fig. 1). It is composed of medium to – very
coarse-grained sandstones and granule conglomerates and
52
usually occurs as lens-shaped amalgamated layers ranging
in thickness from 0,5m to 3m, while thin mudstone
interbeds are occasional. Commonly, the beds show a
relatively well-developed normal and inverse grading with
concentration of small pebbles and muddy intraclasts along
the basal surfaces. The lower bed boundaries are erosional
and irregular (fig. 2C), whereas the upper surfaces are flat
to slightly convex upward. In some cases in the sandstones
of the facies B is represented parallel lamination, trough
cross-bedding and ripple cross-lamination, as the latter is
manifested at the top of the layers. A relatively common
feature on the bedding planes of non-amalgamated units
are large flute casts having various length and morphology.
In the upper parts of some layers occur dish and pillar
structures which completely obliterate the primary internal
bedding structures.
The sandstone beds of this facies either correspond to
T(a), T(ab) and T(abc) turbidite divisions of Bouma (1962) or
could be recognized the vertical sequence of sedimentary
divisions of Lowe (1982) resulted from deposition by san-
dy high-density turbidity currents or bipartite and turbu-
lent flows (Mutti, 1992). Thus, over a marked erosional sur-
face developed on a fine-grained substrate is represented S1
division composed of coarse-grained sandstones to granule
conglomerates. This division shows normal grading, as well
as traction structures generally plane lamination and trough
cross-stratification. The overlaying S2 division contains thin
horizontal layers with inversely graded sandstones (traction
carpet deposits). The uppermost division (S3), deposited
by suspension sedimentation, consists of structureless or
normally graded sandstones and it commonly contains wa-
ter-escape structures. In cases of presence of fine-grained
units capping high-density turbidites is developed division
Tt which is composed of fine-grained sandstones with de-
formed flat-lamination and ripple-cross lamination. The
latter were deposited under lower flow regime ripple con-
ditions (Sanders, 1965; Walker, 1965; Ghibaudo, 1992) by
residual turbidity currents remained after sedimentation of
coarse high-density load (Lowe, 1982; Mutti, 1992; Mutti
et al., 1999).
The lenticular geometry in both individual layers
and amalgamated sedimentary bodies suggests that
the turbidites of facies B were deposited in extended
channelized areas with strong vertical accretion (Spalletti
et al., 1989). In particular, the coarse-grained siliciclastic
rocks are linked to proximal lobes and channel-lobe
transition zone or to very proximal channelized lobe
(Mutti & Normark, 1987; Shanmugam & Moiola, 1988;
Mutti, 1992; Hurst et al., 1999; Satur et al., 2000; Mattern,
2002). This interpretation is also sustained by very high
sand/mud ratio and by the presence of abundant scours and
amalgamations, irregular bedding, and cross-lamination,
Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica

which characterize transitional and bypassing facies (cf. F5

and F6 of Mutti, 1992; Mutti et al., 1999). These deposits
are developed mainly at the transition between high
gradient slope with channelized flows and in the more
regular, open morphologies with non-channelized flows
(Mutti & Normark 1987; 1991).

Facies C

Facies C assemblages in the studied section of the Miers Bluff

Formation are represented as repetitive successions more than
20 m thick (fig. 1A, B) and occur both in discrete packages
or alternating with rocks of facies B (fig. 2C) and facies
D. It appears as sandstone-mudstone couplets (bipartite
beds, Ghibaudo, 1992) that are comprised of a lower sandy
division and an upper muddy division and can be considered
in terms of complete (Ta-e; S3TtTcde; classical turbidites)
and either top- or base-cut out turbidites of Bouma (1962)
(fig. 3A). In the former case, the beds range in thickness
from 0,5m to 1 m and are characterized by sharp, planar
or slightly irregular lower boundaries and less commonly
with amalgamation, while the upper surfaces are planar. The
individual layers display well-developed grading (from fine-
to medium sand at base to mud at top) and consist of lower
graded interval (Ta; S3) overlain by parallel laminated and
ripple cross-laminated divisions (Tb and Tc; Tt), followed by
mud interval (Tde). Sole marks are very frequent, especially
flute casts, but water-escape structures were not observed in
the outcrops studied, though they are considered one of the
typical features of S3 division of Lowe (1982).
The top-cut-out turbidites are represented subordi-
nately in the sections by thick-bedded, graded sandstones
sharply overlain by thinner turbiditic mud cap (Tae; S3Te).
Less commonly, the facies appear as homogenous, amal-
gamated strata consist of massive or normally graded sand-
stones (S3) associated with cross bedded interval (Tt). Beds
of facies C corresponding to base-cut-out turbidites (fig.
3A) are composed of parallel and ripple cross-laminated
sandstone divisions gradationally passing into mudstone
unit (Tbcde, Tcde; TtTde).
All the sequences of facies C are interpreted as
deposited from sandy high- to low-density turbidity
currents. Therefore, the recorded layer divisions in the Figure 3. (A) Base-cut-out turbidite beds (bipartite
siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation reflect the beds) showing well-developed parallel- and ripple
cross-laminated sandstone divisions grading into
changes in flow mechanics (from concentrated density
overlying mudstone units. Cross section “Punta Henry”.
flows into turbidity flows) that were related to progressive (B) Bedding pattern in the turbidite deposits of facies
fluid entrainment and dilution, and to the proportion of D characterized by tabular geometry and low sand/mud
particle support by fluid turbulence increased through ratio. Note the thickening-upward cycles (arrows). Cross
the transformation, respectively. The product of sandy section “Johnson Dock”. (C) Thin, rippled sandstone bed
high-density turbidity currents in the studied sequence with undulating lower surface. Cross section “Johnson
is the lowermost S3 (Ta) division which was deposited by Dock”.

53
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev
suspension sedimentation (Lowe, 1982). According to
the model proposed by Mulder & Alexander (2001), the
graded sandy Ta units and associated erosional structures
such as scours and flute casts are interpreted as deposited
from concentrated density flows. The overlaying divisions
probably were deposited by the residual turbidity currents
that had been remained after sedimentation of the high-
density loads. This final depositional stage has resulted
in generation of “classical turbidites” formed in both
tractional (Tt,Tc) and suspension fall-out (Tde) conditions
from low-density turbidity currents (Lowe, 1982; Mutti,
1992) or from surge-like turbidity flows (Mulder&
Alexander, 2001).
In particular, the rocks of facies C are interpreted as
a series of lobes linked to intermediate –distal lobe envi-
ronments by the presence of thin-bedded and classical tur-
bidites, the planar geometry of the layers, the lack of chan-
nelization, the cyclic pattern and the low sand/mud ratio
(Mutti, 1977; Mutti & Normark, 1987; Shanmugam &
Moiola, 1988; Swart, 1992; Saito & Ito, 2002; Cornamusi-
ni, 2004). Additionally, sandstone/mudstone bundles
displaying broad and shallow channelized lower surfaces,
as well as base-cut-out sequences are considered likely as
products of interchannel area and were deposited by dilut-
ed turbidity currents overflowing adjacent active channels
(Mutti, 1977).
Facies D
Facies D occur in the sections of the Miers Bluff Formation
as stacks of monotonous bipartite beds comprised of a
fine sand/silty lower division and a muddy upper division
with a thickness ranging from 5 cm to 15 cm (fig. 3B).
The individual couplets of the facies exhibit lithological
similarity to those of facies C and were distinguished by
their different sand/mud ratio, whereupon facies D has
thicker muddy units. The strata are characterized by tabular
geometry, even and sharp lower surfaces (fig. 3B), whereas
the upper contacts with interbedded hemipelagic or
pelagic mud are either sharp or gradational. In the studied
sections, all the turbidite beds of facies D are represented
only by base-cut-out Bouma (1962) varieties (Tc-e; Td-e),
as Tc-e sequences are generally predominant. The latter are
composed of a basal (Tc) siltstone to fine sandstone division
consists of small-scale asymmetric ripple cross-lamination
overlain by a thin, parallel-laminated siltstone/mudstone
unit (Td) which grades transitionally into uppermost
turbiditic mudstone division (Te). Less commonly, couplets
with parallel-laminated silt division alternating with mud
laminas are also presented (Td-e). In some cases, facies
D occurs as bundles composed of discontinuous, thin,
54
thoroughly rippled sandstone beds and parallel-laminated
mudstones having even, slightly undulating surfaces (fig.
3C). These units are found associated with coarse-grained
and thick-bedded turbidite successions of facies B. On the
other hand, in the sections of Miers Bluff Formation are
represented homogenous sequences (up to 10 m thick)
of shales (Te) resembling subfacies D3 (Mutti & Ricci
Lucchi, 1975), parallel-laminated silty-mudstone facies of
Pickering (1982) and uniform mudstones of Lash (1987).
This variety of facies D commonly occurs interstratified
with hemipelagic or pelagic deposits and distinguishing of
both facies is ambiguous.
The fine-grained siliciclastic rocks of facies D are
interpreted as deposited from diluted, distal portions
of highly-concentrated sandy turbidity currents (see
Piper, 1978; Stow & Shanmugam, 1980; Stow & Piper,
1984; Stow, 1985; Piper & Stow, 1991), or either from
independent or co-existed, low-concentration currents
composed of silt and clay as a principal load (Stow &
Piper, 1984; Mulder & Alexander, 2001). Therefore, the
sedimentation has resulted from traction plus fall-out and
fall-out processes during the final depletive and waning
stages of turbidity currents (facies F9 of Mutti, 1992; Mutti
et al., 1999) or low-velocity and low-density turbidity
currents (Pickering, 1982) under lower flow regime ripple
and plane bed conditions.
On the basis of the lateral persistence of bedding and
internal structures, cyclic pattern, low sand/mud ratio and
association with hemipelagic intercalations, the siliciclastic
rocks of facies D can be referred to basin-plain turbidites as
well as to distal lobes or lobe-fan fringe environments (see
Mutti, 1977, Mutti & Normark, 1987). The recognized
discrete units composed of discontinuous, ripple and par-
allel laminated bundles are considered as channel margin
deposits (Mutti, 1977; Hesse & Dalton, 1995; Cronin et
al., 2000).
Facies associations and depositional
environments
Although the turbidites of Miers Bluff Formation are tightly
folded, the exposures are excellent and it was possible to
reconstruct vertical sequences of facies along the coast line
(fig. 1A, B). However, the lateral continuity of the studied
outcrops and obtained microfossil data were insufficient to
interpret the spatial relations of recognized depositional
environments. In the submarine fan conceptual models,
turbidite facies associations have been related to several
subenvironments (Normark, 1970, 1978; Mutti & Ricci
Lucchi, 1972, 1975; Walker & Mutti, 1973; Walker, 1978;
Busby-Spera, 1985; Stow, 1986; Mutti & Normark, 1987,
Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica
1991). On the basis of the vertical arrangement of facies,
the interpreted facies associations in the sections of Miers
Bluff Formation were assigned to outer (lower) fan and
basin plain subenvironments and to inner fan (upper-
middle) subenvironments, respectively.
Upper fan deposits
This paleoenvironment is characterized by erosional
channels filled by gravels and coarse-grained sandy tur-
bidite sediments. In the studied sections of Miers Bluff
Formation, two facies associations have been distin-
guished: (a) gravels filling main channels; and (b) debris
flow deposits.
Main channel association
This facies association consists of crudely-stratified clast-
supported gravels of subfacies A1, lesser thick-bedded,
amalgamated turbidites of facies B and discrete units of
facies D. These deposits fill large, deep and relatively steep
erosional surfaces incised in the fine-grained sediments.
Most commonly, the inferred channel-fill sediments
of Miers Bluff Formation display a distinct fining and
thinning upward trend. Thus generally, the lower part of
these successions is composed of crudely-stratified gravels,
passing upward into thick-bedded pebbly sandstones
overlaid by thin sandstone-mudstone couplets. However,
in the most of cases, the uppermost unit is missing likely
owing to subsequent erosion and channel migration. The
erosional surfaces at the base of the individual gravel deposits
are considered as true turbiditic channels (in the sense of
Mutti & Normark, 1987; Mutti et al. 1999), rather than
mega-scours, despite their unknown downpaleocurrent
lengths. The rhythmic alternation of debrites and coarse-
grained turbidites in the section of Miers Bluff Formation
suggests for flow transformations from cohesive debris
flow into high-density turbidity currents that occurred
in the more proximal areas of submarine fan system. The
thinning and fining upward sequences are interpreted as
a result of channel aggradation and abandonment, either
by simple channel filling or by the development of bars
(Walker, 1977; Hein & Walker, 1982). On the other hand,
irregularly represented and laterally discontinuous fine-
grained units of facies D were deposited at the channel-
margins of the upper fan (Mutti, 1977) or within the
channel axial area (Shanmugam et al., 1985). However,
synsedimentary erosion caused by the lateral and vertical
displacements of successive channel bodies has reduced or
completely eroded the mudstone dominated intervals.
Debris flow facies association
The architecture of this facies association is comparatively
simple, being composed of vertically stacked muddy
debrites (subfacies A2). The latter appear either
interstratified with siliciclastic rocks of subfacies A1 or
deeply-incised in the fine-grained sediments. Typically,
these chaotic, structureless debrite bodies contain large
mudstone intraclasts and slumped masses. This facies
association records deposition on the upper part of a
muddy slope with frequent mass flow and slumping
processes. On the basis of the geometry and sedimentary
features, the muddy debrites in the section of Miers Bluff
Formation are interpreted as the infill of depressions
(gullies, canyons) that dissected the upper slope. The
presence of resedimented mudstones suggest that the
conduits were mostly filled up with material derived from
the slope and/or from the adjacent shelf.
Middle fan deposits
The recognized middle fan deposits in the sections
of Miers Bluff Formation are arranged in vertically
stacked fining and thinning upward sequences. The
lower parts of the successions consist of amalgamated,
coarse-grained turbidites of facies B passing upward into
sandstone/mudstone couplets of facies C and occasional
intercalations of facies D also occur. The abundant erosive
surfaces and amalgamation testify for frequent bypassing
episodes of very turbulent, high-concentration gravity
flows. The mud clasts at the bottom of the channel bodies
suggest basal plucking of semiconsolidated interbedded
fine-grained sediments by highly erosive gravity flows
( Johansson & Stow, 1995; Savary, 2005). After the
sediment-transfer conduits were created, the subsequent
flows were confined within them and settled the coarse
high-density loads. The progressive infilling of the scours
favoured the lateral expansion of remaining flows and
led to the formation of vertical fining-up sequences.
The presence of thin, fine-grained units within channel
bodies is interpreted as a result of residual low-density
turbidity clouds developed above more concentrated
bypassing gravity flows (Lowe, 1982; Mutti et al., 1999;
Payros et al., 2007). Therefore, the coarse-grained
sediments of facies B and facies C were deposited in
braided axes of submarine channel system, whereas thin
and discontinuous units of facies D were accumulated at
the channel-margins.
The thick sandstone/mudstone couplets that
constitute the dominant deposits of facies C were formed
from turbidity currents that expanded over a broad zone
55
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev
and are considered as indicative of intermediate-distal
lobe environments. On the other hand, the finer-grained
intervals (facies C) capping and separating successive
channel-fill deposits are product of less energetic
conditions and probably record the abandonment of
scours after shifting of high-density turbidity flows during
periods of low sediment input (Payros et al., 2007). On the
basis of internal structures, grain size and geometry, these
fine-grained turbidites are interpreted as deposited in the
interchannel areas of the middle fan.
Outer fan and basin plain deposits
In contrast with inner and middle parts of the turbidite
system, the outer fan has no channelized deposits and
it shows well developed and laterally continuous plane
parallel sandstone beds (Shanmugam & Moiola, 1985;
Mutti et al., 1999). In the sections of Miers Bluff Formation,
the recognized outer fan deposits consist of fine-grained
sediments of Facies D and facies C having low sandstone/
mudstone ratio. The sequences are occasionally organized
in clear coarsening and thickening vertical trends being
in thickness up to 30 m, and likely are attributed to sandy
lobe aggradations and progradations (see Shanmugam &
Moiola, 1988). Thus, the multistory, non-channelized
sandstone bodies which characterize facies C are referred
to as outer fan lobe deposits (Mutti et al., 1978) or suprafan
lobe deposits (Larue & Speed, 1983). The intervals
composed of fine-grained base-cut-out turbidites of facies
D associated with thin hemipelagites are interpreted as
accumulated in lobe-fringe and fan-fringe environments.
Their close relation to sandstones of facies C suggests that
they were distal equivalents of lobe deposits in downcurrent
directions (see Mutti, 1977; Mutti & Normark, 1987).
Basin plain deposits mainly consist of tabular beds of
parallel laminated mudstones and siltstones alternating
with hemipelagic sediments.
The existence of some isolated channel cuts (facies
B) into the lobe and lobe-fringe deposits reveals for
prograditional processes toward the boundary between
outer fan and midfan subenvironments (see Gökçen
& Kelling, 1983; Busby-Spera, 1985; Spalletti et al.,
1989). Furthermore, these sharp transitions in the
sections of Miers Bluff Formation might be interpreted
as a rejuvenation sequence (Larue, 1985). It was probably
controlled not only by autocyclic factors and by external
(allocyclic) factors, such as sudden fall in sea level or
tectonic reactivation in the source area. The latter exerted
the main control in the accumulation of large volumes
of predominantly coarse-grained turbidite sediments
(Mutti, 1985).
56
Conclusions
1. The Upper Cretaceous siliciclastic successions of Miers
Bluff Formation are formed in deep-water slope complex
composed of vertically stacked deposits which reflect
progradition/retrogradation of the fan systems. The latter
are comprised of three depositional subenvironments
or facies belts, each typified by a characteristic facies
association.
2. Four main facies have been distinguished within
the studied turbidite system: (1) clast-supported and
mud-supported debrites (facies A), (2) coarse-grained
turbidites (facies B), (3) medium-grained turbidites (facies
C), (4) fine-grained turbidites (facies D) and associating
hemipelagic deposits.
3. The inner system consists of multistory channel
and canyon fills of debrites, coarse-grained turbidites
and minor mudstones. The midfan system composed
of gravel and sandy braided channel fills, as well as fine-
grained overbank deposits. The braided axis was a site for
both sediment transfer and accumulation of high-density
loads. The outer system is characterized by tabular, thin-
bedded and fine-grained turbidites related to lobes and
fan fringe areas with unconfined low-concentration
turbidity deposition.
4. At least three valley channel fills of the inner system
had an allocyclical origin, and likely, the uppermost
debritic bodies coincided both with a relative sea level
fall and reflect tectonic events occurred in the source
areas. Therefore, tectonic uplift and eustatic fall appear to
be basic factors in controlling the accumulation of large
volumes of predominantly coarse-grained turbidite facies
(Mutti, 1985).
5. Active siliciclastic sedimentation occurred
during phases of tectonic activity and resulted in the
progradation and migration of the entire turbidite
system. Conversely, stages of tectonic quiescence led
to a rapid switching off of the gravity flows and the
deposition of thick muddy blankets separating successive
fan systems.
6. Despite of heterogeneous section of Miers Bluff
Formation and local hydrothermal alterations of the rocks,
some of the deposits may form potentially important and
attractive reservoirs for hydrocarbons. The reservoir facies
correspond both to coarse-grained bodies in the braided
axis of the midfan channel system and to proximal parts
of the lobe depozones. Thus, lateral switching of the
channels and lobe units results in offset stacking of the
sandstones and make up laterally well-connected, broad
reservoir facies.
Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica
References
Aalto, K. R. 1976. Sedimentology of a mélange; Franciscan of
Trinidad, California. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 46, 913–929.
Arche, A., López-Martinez, J., Martinez de Pison, E. 1992. Sed-
imentology of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Is-
land, South Shetland Islands. – In: Recent Progress in Ant-
arctic Earth Science (ed. by Yoshida, Y., K. Kaminuma & K.
Shiraishi). Terra Scientific Publishing, Tokyo, 357–362.
Bouma, A. H. 1962. Sedimentology of some flysch deposits. A
graphic approach to facies interpretation. ‒ Elsevier, Am-
sterdam, 168 pp.
Busby-Spera, C. J. 1985. A sand-rich submarine fan in the Lower
Mesozoic Mineral King Caldera Complex, Sierra Nevada,
California. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 55, 376–391.
Cornamusini, G. 2004. Sand-rich turbidite system of the Late
Oligocene Northern Apennines foredeep: physical stratig-
raphy and architecture of the “Macigno costiero” (coastal
Tuscany, Italy). – In: Confined turbidite systems (ed. by
Lomas, S. A. & P. Joseph). Geol. Soc., Spec. Publ., 222,
261–283.
Cronin, B. T., A. Hurst, H. Celik, I. Türkmen. 2000. Superb
exposure of a channel, levee and overbank complex in an
ancient deep-water slope environment. – Sed. Geol., 132,
205–216.
Dalziel, I. W. D. 1972. Large-scale folding in the Scotia arc. – In:
Antarctic Geology and Geophysics (ed. by Adie, R. D.).
Universitetsforlaget, Oslo, 47–55.
Davies, L. C., R. G. Walker. 1974. Transport and deposition of
resedimented conglomerates: the Cap Enragé Formation,
Gaspé Québec. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 44, 1200–1216.
Doktor, M., Swierczewska, A., Tokarski, A. K. 1994. Lithostratig-
raphy and tectonics of the Miers Bluff Formation at Hurd
Peninsula, Livingston Island (West Antarctca). – Studia
Geol. Polonica, 104, 41–104.
Fergusson, C. L. 1985. Trench-floor sedimentary sequence in a
Paleozoic subduction complex, Eastern Australia. – Sed.
Geol., 42, 181–200.
Ghibaudo, G. 1992. Subaqueous sediment gravity flow deposits:
practical criteria for their field description and classifica-
tion. – Sedimentology, 39, 423–454.
Gökçen, S. L., G. Kelling. 1983. The Paleogene Yamak sand-rich
submarine fan complex, Haymana Basin, Turkey. – Sed.
Geol., 34, 219–243.
Hampton, M. A. 1972. The role of subaqueous debris flow in gen-
erating of turbidity currents. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 42, 775–793.
Hampton, M. A. 1975. Competence of fine-grained debris flows.
– Jour. Sed. Petr., 45, 834–844.
Hampton, M. A. 1979. Buoyancy in debris flows. – Jour. Sed.
Petr., 49, 753–758.
Hein, F. J., R. G. Walker. 1982. The Cambro-Ordovician Cap En-
rage Formation, Québec, Canada: conglomeratic deposits
of a braided submarine channel with terraces. – Sedimen-
tology, 29, 309–329.
Hesse, R., E. Dalton 1995. Turbidite channel/overbank depo-
sition in a Lower Devonian orogenic shale basin, Fortin
Group of Gaspe Peninsula, Northern Appalachians, Cana-
da. – Jour. Sed. Res., 65, 44–60.
Hurst, A., I. Verstralen, B. Cronin, A. Hartley. 1999. Sand-rich
fairways in deep-water clastic reservoirs: genetic units, cap-
turing uncertainty, and a new approach to reservoir mod-
eling. – Am. Assoc. Petrol. Bull., 83, 1096–1118.
Johansson, M., D. A. V. Stow. 1995. A classification scheme for
shale clasts in deep water sandstones. – In: Characterization
of Deep Marine Clastic Systems (ed. by Hartley, A. J. & D. J.
Prosser.). Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ., 94, 221–241.
Johns, D. R., E. Mutti, J. Rosell, M. Seguret. 1981. Origin of a
thick, redeposited carbonate bed in Eocene turbidites of
the Hecho Group, South-Central Pyrenees, Spain. – Ge-
ology, 9, 161–164.
Johnson, A. M. 1970. Physical processes in geology. – Freeman
Cooper, San Francisco, 577 pp.
Larue, D.K. 1985. Quartose turbidites of the accretionary com-
plex of Barbados, II. Variations of bedding styles, facies and
sequences. – Sed. Geol., 42, 217–253.
Larue, D. K., R. C. Speed. 1983. Quartzose turbidites of the ac-
cretionary complex of Barbados, I. Chalky Mount Succes-
sion. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 53, 1337–1352.
Lash, G. G. 1987. Sedimentology and possible paleoceanograph-
ic significance of mudstone turbidites and associated de-
posits of the Pen Argyl Member, Martinsburg Formation
(Upper Ordovician), Eastern Pennsylvania. – Sed. Geol.,
54, 113–135.
Lowe, D. R. 1979. Sediment gravity flows: their classification and
some problems of application to natural flows and depos-
its. – In: Geology of continental slopes (ed. by Doyle, L.J.
& O.H. Pilkey Jr.). Soc. Econ. Paleont. Miner., Spec. Publ.,
27, 75–82.
Lowe, D. R. 1982. Sediment gravity flows: II. Depositional mod-
els with special reference to the deposits of high-density
turbidity currents. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 52, 279–297.
Mattern, F. 2002. Amalgamation surfaces, bed thicknesses, and
dish structures in sand-rich submarine fans: numeric dif-
ferences in channelized and unchannelized deposits and
their diagnostic value. – Sed. Geol., 150, 203–228.
Middleton, G.V. 1967. Experiments on density and turbidity cur-
rents. III. Deposition of sediment. – Can. Jour. Earth Sci.,
4, 475–505.
Middleton, G. V., M. A. Hampton. 1973. Sediment gravity flow:
mechanics of flow and deposition. – In: Turbidites and
deep water sedimentation (ed. by Middleton, G. V. & A.
H. Bouma), SEPM Short Course Notes, Pacific Section,
Tulsa, 1–38.
Mulder, T., J. Alexander. 2001. The physical character of subaque-
ous sedimentary density flows and their deposits. – Sedi-
mentology, 48, 269–299.
Mutti, E. 1977. Distinctive thin-bedded turbidite facies and re-
lated depositional environments in the Eocene Hecho
57
Yavor Stefanov, Christo Pimpirev
Group (south-central Pyrenees, Spain). – Sedimentology,
24, 107–131.
Mutti, E. 1985. Turbidite systems and their relations to deposi-
tional sequences. – In: Provenance of Arenites (ed. by Zuf-
fa, G. G.). Riedel, Dordrecht, 65–93.
Mutti, E. 1992. Turbidite sandstones. – Instituto di Geologia,
Universitá di Parma, San Donato Milanese, 275 pp.
Mutti, E., F. Ricci Lucchi. 1972. Le torbiditi dell’ Appennino set-
tentrionale: Introduzione all’analisi di facies. – Mem. Soc.
Geol. It., 11, 161–199.
Mutti, E., F. Ricci Lucchi. 1975. Turbidite facies and facies associ-
ation. – In: Examples of turbidite facies associations from
selected formation of Northern Apennines (ed. by Mutti,
E., G.C. Papea, F. Ricci Lucchi, M. Sagri, G. Zanzucchi,
G. Ghibaudo, S. Iaccarino), IX Int. Cong. IAS, Field Trip,
AIL, Nice, France, 21–36.
Mutti, E., W. R. Normark. 1987. Comparing examples of modern
and ancient turbidite systems: Problems and Concepts. –
In: Marine clastic sedimentology: Concept and case stud-
ies (ed. by Legget, J. K., G. G. Zuffa), Graham & Trotman,
London, 1–38.
Mutti, E., W. R. Normark. 1991. An integrated approach to the
study of turbidite systems. – In: Seismic facies and sedi-
mentary processes of submarine fans and turbidite systems
(ed. by Weimer, P., H. Link), Ann Arbor, 75–106.
Mutti, E., T. H. Nilsen, F. Ricci Lucchi. 1978. Outer fan deposi-
tional lobes of the Laga Formation (Upper Miocene and
Lower Pliocene), east-central Italy. – In: Sedimentation in
submarine canyons, fans and trenches (ed. by Stanley, D. J.
& G. Kelling) Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 210–223.
Mutti, E., R. Tinterri, E. Remacha, N. Mavilla, S. Angella, L. Fava.
1999. An introduction to the analysis of ancient turbidite
basins from an outcrop perspective. – Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Geol., Course Notes, 39, 93 pp.
Nardin, T. R., F. J. Hein, D. S. Gorsline, B. D. Edwards. 1979. A
review of mass movement processes, sediment and acoustic
characteristics and contrasts in slope and base-of-slope sys-
tems versus canyon-fanbasin floor systems. – In: Geology
of continental slopes (ed. by Doyle, L.J. & O. H. Pilkey Jr.).
Soc. Econ. Paleont. Miner., Spec. Publ., 27, 61–73.
Normark, W. R. 1970. Growth pattern of deep-sea fans. – Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Bull., 54, 2170–2195.
Normark, W.R. 1978. Fan valleys, channels and depositional
lobes on modern submarine fans: characters for recogni-
tion of sandy turbidite environments. – Am. Assoc. Petrol.
Bull., 62, 912–931.
Pallas, R., Muñoz, J. A., Sabot, F. 1992. Estratigrafía de la For-
mación Miers Bluff Isla Livingston, Islas Shetland del Sur.
– In: Geología de la Antártida Occidental (ed. by López-
Martínez, H.), Simposios, 3, III Congr. Geol Espana y
VIII Congreso Latinoamer. Geol., Salamanca, 105–115.
Payros, A., V. Pujalte, X. Orue-Etxebarria. 2007. A point-sourced
calciclastic submarine fan complex (Eocene Anotz Forma-
tion, western Pyrenees): facies architecture, evolution and
controlling factors. – Sedimentology, 54, 137–168.
58
Pickering, K. T. 1982. A Precambrian upper basin-slope and prodel-
ta in northeast Finmark, North Norway – a possible ancient
upper continental slope. – Jour. Sed. Petr., 52, 171–186.
Pickering, K. T., D. A. V. Stow, M. P. Watson, R. N. Hiscott.
1986. Deepwater facies, processes and models: a review
and classification scheme for modern and ancient sedi-
ments. – Earth Sci. Rev., 23, 75–174.
Pickering, K. T., R. N. Hiscott, F. J. Hein (eds). 1989. Deep ma-
rine environments: clastic sedimentation and tectonics. –
Unwin Hyman Ltd., 416 pp.
Pimpirev, C., D. Vangelov, D. Dimov. 1997. Depositional model
for the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, South
Shetland Islands, Antarctica. – Comp. Rend. de l’Acad.
Bulg. des Sci., 50, 75–78.
Piper, D. J. W. 1978. Turbidites, muds and silt on deep-sea fans
and abyssal plains. – In: Sedimentation in submarine can-
yons, fans and trenches (ed. by Stanley, D. J. & G. Kelling)
Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 163–176.
Piper, D. J. W., D. A. W. Stow. 1991. Fine-grained turbidites. – In:
Cycles and Events in Stratigraphy (ed. by Einsele, G., W.
Richen & A. Seilacher) Springer, Berlin, 360–376.
Postma, G., W. Nemec, K. L. Kleinspehn. 1988. Large floating
clasts in turbidites: a mechanism for their emplacement. –
Sed. Geol., 58, 47–61.
Rodine, J. D., A. M. Johnson. 1976. The ability of debris, heavily
freighted with coarse clastic materials, to flow on gentle
slopes. – Sedimentology, 23, 213–234.
Saito, T., M. Ito. 2002. Deposition of sheet-like turbidite packets
and migration of channel-overbank system on a sandy sub-
marine fan: an example from the Late Miocene-Early Plio-
cene forearc basin, Boso Peninsula, Japan. – Sed. Geol.,
149, 265–277.
Sanders, J. E. 1965. Primary sedimentary structures formed by
turbidity currents and related resedimentation mecha-
nisms. – In: Primary sedimentary structures and their hy-
drodynamic interpretation (ed. by Middleton, G. V.) Soc.
Econ. Paleont. Miner., Spec. Publ., 12, 192–219.
Satur, N., A. Hurst, B. T. Cronin, G. Kelling, K. Gürbüz. 2000.
Sand body geometry in a sand-rich, deep-water clastic
system, Miocene Cingöz Formation of Southern Turkey.
– Mar., and Petrol. Geol., 17, 239–252.
Savary, B. 2005. Calcareous turbidity current emplacement as
an initiation mechanism for substrate brecciation and de-
formation. – In: Submarine Slope Systems: Processes and
Products (ed. by Hodgson, D. M. & S.S. Flint). Geol. Soc.
London, Spec. Publ., 244, 207–220.
Shanmugam, G, R.J. Moiola. 1985. Submarine fan models: prob-
lems and solutions. – In: Submarine Fans and Related Tur-
bidite Systems (ed. by Bouma, A. H., W. R. Normark & N.
E. Barnes).Springer Verlag, Berlin, 29–34.
Shanmugam, G., J. E. Damuth, R. J. Moiola. 1985. Is the tur-
bidite facies association scheme valid for interpreting
ancient submarine fan environments? – Geology., 13,
234–237.
Deep-water facies and facies associations in the siliciclastic rocks of the Miers Bluff Formation, Livingston Island, Antarctica
Shanmugam, G., R. J. Moiola. 1988. Submarine fans: characteris-
tics, models, classification, and reservoir potential. – Earth
Sci. Rev., 24, 383–428.
Shanmugam, G., R. J. Moiola. 1995. Reinterpretation of dep-
ositional processes in a classic flysch sequence (Penn-
sylvanian Jackfork Group), Ouachita Mountains, Ar-
kansas and Oklahoma. – Am. Assoc. Petrol. Bull., 79,
672–695.
Smellie, J. L., Liesa, M., Muñoz, J. A., Sabot, F., Pallas, R., Willan,
R. C. R. 1995. Lithostratigraphy of volcanic and sedimen-
tary sequences in central Livingston Island,South Shetland
Islands. ‒ Antarctic Sci., 7, 99–113.
Spalletti, L. A., C. A. Cingolani, R. Varela, A. J. Cuerda. 1989.
Sediment gravity flow deposits of an Ordovician deep-
sea fan system (western Precordillera, Argentina). – Sed.
Geol., 61, 287–301.
Stow, D. A. V. 1985. Deep-sea clastics: Where are we and where
are we going? – In: Sedimentology: recent developments
and applied aspects (ed. by Brenchley, P. J. & B. J. P. Wil-
liams). Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ., 18, 67–93.
Stow, D. A. V. 1986. Deep clastic seas. – In: Sedimentary environ-
ments and facies (2nd ed.), (ed. by Reading, H.G.). Black-
well, Oxford, 399–444.
Stow, D. A. V., G. Shanmugam. 1980. Sequence of structures in
fine-grained turbidites: comparison of recent deep-sea and
ancient flysch sediments. – Sed. Geol., 25, 23–42.
Stow, D. A. V., D. J. W. Piper. 1984. Deep-water fine-grained
sediments: facies models – In: Fine-grained sediments:
Deep-water processes and facies (ed. by Stow, D. A. V. & D.
J. W. Piper), Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 15, 611–645.
Swart, R. 1992. The sedimentology of the Zerrissene turbidite
system, Damara orogen, Namibia. – Memoirs of the Geol.
Surv. Of Namibia., 13.
Walker, R. G. 1965. The origin and significance of the internal
sedimentary structures of turbidites. – Proc. Yorks. Geol.
Soc., 35, 1–32.
Walker, R. G. 1975. Generalized facies models for resedimented
conglomerates of turbidites association. – Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull., 86, 737–748.
Walker, R. G. 1977. Deposition of Late Mesozoic resedimented
conglomerates and associated turbidites in South-Western
Oregon. – Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 88, 273–285.
Walker, R. G. 1978. Deep-water sandstones facies and ancient
submarine fans: Models for exploration for stratigraphic
traps. – Am. Assoc. Petrol. Bull., 62, 932–966.
Walker, R. G., E. Mutti. 1973. Turbidite facies and facies asso-
ciation. – In: Turbidites and deep water sedimentation
(ed. by Middleton, G. V. & A. H. Bouma), SEPM Short
Course Notes, Pacific Section, Tulsa, 119–157.
Winn, R. D., R. H. Dott. 1979. Deep-water-fan-channel con-
glomerates of Late Cretaceous age, Southern Chili. – Sed-
imentology, 26, 207–228.
59
 BULGARIAN ANTARCTIC RESEARCH
A SYNTHESIS

Editors
Christo Pimpirev, Nesho Chipev

Bulgarian
First Edition

Technical Editor
Polina Kostova
Design
Maria Valkova
Corrector
Galina Videnova

Format 60x84/8

“St. Kliment Ohridski” University Press

www.press-su.com

View publication stats