Nuclear Engineering and Design 139 (1993) 327-332 327

North-Holland

Determination of internal state variables and constitutive

modeling for Type 316 stainless steel
Ko s ei T a g u c h i a a n d T e t s u r o U n o b
a Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, Toshiba Corporation, Yokohama, Japan
b Applied Metallurgy and Chemistry Department, Toshiba Corporation, Yokohama, Japan

Received 31 August 1992

The purpose of this study is to develop an approach for unified constitutive modeling based on experimentally determined
back stress and overstress. Back stress and overstress were experimentally determined for Type 316 stainless steel at 600°C,
by analyzing the unloading curve for the stress-strain response of cyclic strain tests. The result has indicated that the cyclic
strain hardening behavior is mainly caused by hardening in the back stress. A phenomenological unified constitutive model
in which the back stress and drag stress are taken as the internal state variables is proposed, and has been shown that this
model is able to simulate the cyclic inelastic behavior.

1. Introduction strain rate on the stress-strain relation. A unified

Creep-fatigue life prediction for components used
at elevated temperatures is one of the most important
issues in structural design, and this requires the evalua-
tion of the inelastic stress-strain response. A number
of unified constitutive models which do not require the
separation of creep and plastic deformation have been
developed for predicting the inelastic behavior of engi-
neering steels under creep-plasticity interaction condi-
tion [1-4]. Some of these unified models are based on
the overstress concept, and utilize a back stress as an
internal state variable. However, the material constants
are conventionally determined by trial and error, be-
cause the determination of back stress has been usually
difficult. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to
develop an approach for unified constitutive modeling
based on experimentally determined back stress and
overstress.
In a previous study [5], the authors applied an
experimental approach to determine back stress, pro-
posed by Asada and his co-workers [6,7], for Modified
9 C r - l M o steel which showed a typical cyclic strain
softening behavior and a strong dependence of the
constitutive model in which the back stress was taken
as the internal state variable was proposed and proved
the capability of simulating the inelastic behavior.
In this paper, an experimental approach to deter-
mine the back stress and overstress and a constitutive
modeling based on these experimentally determined
back stress and overstress are discussed for Type 316
stainless steel which exhibits a typical cyclic strain
hardening behavior.
2. Experimental procedure
The tested Type 316 stainless steel is a 22 mm thick
hot-rolled plate. The material was solution-treated at
1050°C for half an hour. The chemical composition is
0.016% C, 0.48% Si, 0.95% Mn, 0.022% P, 0.0023% S,
10.65% Ni, 16.54% Cr, 2.15% Mo, and 0.1004% N.
Push-pull strain-controlled continuous cycle tests
were carried out at 600°C. The applied strain wave-
forms included a symmetric continuous cycle and a
tensile strain hold cycle.

3. Determination of internal state variables

Correspondence to: Dr. Kosei Taguchi, Nuclear Engineering
Laboratory, Toshiba Corporation, 8, Shinsugita, Isogo-ku, A smooth bowing-out shape was usually observed in
Yokohama, 235, Japan. the unloading part of the stress-strain hysteresis loop

0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 / 9 3 / $ 0 6 . 0 0 © 1993 - E l s e v i e r S c i e n c e Publishers B.V. A l l rights r e s e r v e d

328 K. Taguchi, 72 Uno / Determination o f internal state uariables

O" 400r o
Continuous cycling AEt=QOI,Et=IO'~-I,600 C
O" mox
3°°t o
~ ~ o m ox I O0 0
2oo ° o o Z&~_~,~_~___~_,>,~_~_~$o~
o A AA-- -- D max
O_ lOOz ao Boo ~u ~r~'[~--6-°c%E°o

o I I I ----
// ~ ~,
0 _ 100 ~ [] [] 0 li] rain

/# -200 c o o
~ ~ 2-~o--c~--o~-~__~
z~z~
.... "z~'~-E"~"~ "a'~L~- % '"
o

Oo O
Fig. 1. Stress-strain response during unloading and determi- -300 o o ~¢.~__o~_o~o_e_ ~,.
nation of back stress and overstress.
Nf/2 ~f
-400 , , ~,
316 Stainless steel , 600"C 10 0 101 10 2 10 5 10 4
Continuous cycling Quadratic Number of cycles
300 ~Et= OOl DoO~ Fig. 3. Cyclic strain hardening behavior for peak stress, back
I~t : 10-3 S"1 00000
stress and overstress.
Nf/2 cycle /L~iinear

in the continuous cycle tests, as illustrated in fig. 1. An

2 200 inelastic strain developed just after unloading in the
~; crb direction of prior loading. Thereafter, the inelastic
b" strain reached an extreme value and then a reversal of
its direction took place. This behavior is the same as
reported by Asada et al. [6,7] who have explained that
the p h e n o m e n o n occurs as the applied stress coincides
with the back stress at the moment when the inelastic
strain takes an extremity based on the overstress con-
dala cept [1].
According to this approach, the value of the back
stress can be determined by analyzing the value of the
0.3 0.4 0.5 xlO -2 stress corresponding to this extreme. A quadratic
Strain Et curve-fitting technique was applied to the stress-strain
Fig. 2. An example of stress-strain response during unloading response during unloading, as shown in fig. 2, in order
and quadratic fitting curve. to determine this value of the stress.

(b) 5 o o
(a) Monotonic stress-strain relation Cyclic stress-strain relation
600% Ao"
2oo 600°C
G
~o 4 0 0
. / 2 --
~ /o
..=,~3 0 0 /o o ~ AGb
E / o I ~ - 2
O A~
lOO 200 /o IA/k~
(/3 &0"^
,~.rn_._m_.-U . . . . . D - - ~'-~"
100

012 014 016 018 ~00_~ 0 012 0'.4 016 018 G~o-~
Inelastic strain Ein Inelastic strain amplitude A ~ i n / 2
Fig. 4. (a) Monotonic and (b) cyclic stress-, back stress-and overstress-ine]astic strain relations.
 K. Taguchi, T. Uno / Determination of internal state variables
All unloading curves in the symmetric continuous
cycles with a strain rate of 10 -3 s -1 and strain ranges
of 0.005 through 0.02 were analyzed to generate values
for the back stress O-b and overstress % defined as
follows.
O-peak = {7"peak _ O - p e a k ,
where the superscript "peak" means "maximum" at a
tensile peak or "minimum" at a compressive peak.
It was reported t h a t (Topeak increased when the un-
loading strain rate decreased, because of the recovery
of the back stress during the unloading period. It has
been found that the recovery effect is negligible when
the unloading strain rate is higher than about 10 3 s - ]
[5-7]. Hence, the stress-strain data obtained at an
unloading strain rate of 10 -3 s -1 were used in this
determination approach.
The tested steel showed a typical cyclic strain hard-
ening behavior, as indicated in fig. 3. It is seen in fig. 3
that both the back stress and the overstress show a
cyclic strain hardening behavior in their early cycles
and become constant during almost all cycles until
failure. The monotonic and cyclic stress-, back stress-,
and overstress-inelastic strain relations are shown in
figs. 4(a) and (b), respectively. It is seen in figs. 4(a)
and (b) that the back stress is strongly dependent on
the inelastic strain range.
If the back stress is assumed to be held constant
during a short hoidtime period, the relationship be-
tween the overstress ratio and the inelastic strain rate
is given in fig. 5, where the overstress ratio was defined
as the overstress during the holdtime divided by that at
the beginning of the strain hold. A unique relationship
i0 "3
600"C
t H= 36C0s
.E 10.4 A ~ t =0.01 : A
.k0
0.007 : v . ~
10-5
E 10-6
fs}-f
v v
.o
•~ 10.7
I I L 1
iO-e
05 0.6 0.7 08 0.9
Overstress ratio
Fig. 5. Dependence of overstress on inelastic strain rate
during holdtime. (The overstress ratio is defined as the over-
stress during the holdtime divided by that at the beginning of
the strain hold. Solid line values were calculated by eq. (13).)
329
is observed and is independent of the strain range,
though the scatter in the data points is fairly large. The
same relationship was also seen in early cycles. The
inelastic strain rate was very sensitive to the overstress
for inelastic strain rates exceeding about 10 -5 s-1, and
the overstress dependence of the inelastic strain rate
gradually fell when the inelastic strain rate was lower.
4. Unified constitutive modeling
Modeling of unified constitutive equations with the
experimentally determined back stress and overstress
was carried out. Typical constitutive equations were
applied, because the purpose of this study was to
develop an approach to modeling on the basis of the
properties of the back stress and overstress but not to
propose a new type of constitutive model.
The proposed constitutive equations are expressed
in the following form under uniaxial stress conditions:
d" = E ( ~ I - Ein), (1)
Ein = F[o- - O ' b , D[q 1] ] sgn(o- - O ' b ) , (2)
~b = ,~, + ,~2, (3)
/~1 = c ] ( n ] e i n - R , I ~ , I ) , (4)
l~2=C2(B[q2]~in-R2]~-inl) -C31R21h2-1R2, (5)
where or, O-b, O---O-b, et, ein and E denote stress, back
stress, overstress, total strain, inelastic strain, and
Young's modulus, respectively, and ( . ) represents the
partial derivative with respect to time. [2"] signifies a
function of 2', and B1, C], C 2, C 3 and h 2 are material
constants.
Based on the overstress concept, it is assumed that
an inelastic strain rate is a function of overstress,
(a - O-b), and drag stress, D. The drag stress is applied
as a variable for describing the cycle dependence of
overstress. Cyclic strain hardening is caused by the
hardening of drag stress and back stress. Back stress is
divided into two terms, R] and R 2 in order to describe
the stress-strain hysteresis relation. Cyclic hardening is
caused by the hardening of R 2. Evolution equations
for R] and R 2 are of the Bailey-Orwan type. The last
term of eq. (5) is the thermal recovery term. For
1.0 describing the cyclic hardening behavior, drag stress,
D, is a function of a hardening parameter, ql, and the
cyclic hardening function, B, is that of q2-
The cyclic nonhardening region concept [8] was
applied to the hardening parameters of q] and q2,
because the back stress was strongly dependent on the
330 K. Taguchi, 7". Uno / Determination of internal state variables

inelastic strain range. Hence, the functions D and B as Table 1

well as the hardening parameters ql and q2 are ex- Material constants for Type 316 stainless steel at 600°C
pressed in the following form. A] 10 -3 A2 1.19×10 4 B1 63.0 (MPa)
(s 1) (s l)
D[q,] =D,(1 + L,q]/(m,D])) m', (6) C1 5×103 C2 673 C3 7.20×10 15
(MPa)l -h2
B[q2] = B2{(1 + L 2 q : / ( m 2 B 2 ) ) ' y : - 1}, (7)
D1 69.6 (MPa) h2 5.45 Lt 1280(MPa)
0 =rA ,ol, (k=1,2), (8) Le 3430 mI 0.138 me 0.358
nI 36.9 n2 19.9 r1 0.0111
gk = l ein - % I - P k < 0, (9) re 0.0231

pk =/'~rkl~,°l, (10)
&~ = F k ( 1 - rk)~in, (11)

{ Fk=l;
Fk
gk=0
0; gk < 0
and
or
(Ogk/a~=in)i~in>O ,
(c3gk/OEin)~-in < 0 '
(12) cyclic stress-strain relation at a constant strain range.
Hence, the material constants for eqs. (6) through (12)
can be determined from the relationships given in figs.
where gk represents the cyclic nonhardening region, 4(a) and (b).
and a k and Pk denote the center and size of the The back stress term R l is assumed to become
region, respectively. B2, D~, L 1, L 2, m l, m 2, r], and r e constant rapidly when an inelastic strain develops. The
are material constants. strain hardening behavior of the stress-strain hystere-
The determination procedures for the material con- sis relation is simulated by giving R z the saturated
stants are described as follows. value of B. Hence, the material constants C l and C 2
The function F [ ~ r - o - b , D] was determined as eq. can be determined from the monotonic stress-strain
(13) from the relationship of overstress to the inelastic relation and the steady-state stress-strain hysteresis
strain rate, indicated in fig. 5. relation, respectively. An example of the back stress
behavior simulated by the proposed constitutive equa-
F[q--~b, D ] = A I ( I o - o " b I / D ) ~' tions is indicated in fig. 6.
+A2( I o"- O-b I / D ) n2 , (13) The material constants C 3 and h e for the thermal
recovery term can be determined from the results of
where the material constants A 1, A 2, n 1, and n 2 are creep tests, because the back stress becomes constant
shown in table 1. (d b = 0) in the steady creep region.
The hardening parameter, qk (k = 1, 2), is equal to Consequently, all material constants were deter-
the inelastic strain in the monotonic stress-strain rela- mined as listed in table 1 without any iterative alter-
tion, and is approximately equal to ( A E i . / ( 2 rk)) in the ation.

(a) 40C (b) 400

600% 600"c N f/2 cycte
~llcycle
~.~t = 001 ~Et = 001
~t ~ IO'Ss "l _~t :I0-3 U ~ .~
20£ 200
g_ g_
b" o

q3
-200
_J
-- O" -200 ..... " O-
O-t) O'D
--'--: RI
: Rz :R 2
-400 -4OO
-06 -04 -62 0 0.2 0~4 0.6 -o -d4-d2 o o12 o'4 06
xIO-Z xlO-z
Inelostic stroin Gin Inelastic strain Gin

Fig. 6. Back stress behavior simulated by proposed constitutive model: (a) for first cycle, (b) for half-life cycle.
 K. Taguchi, T. Uno /Determination of internal state variables 331

5 Comparison of the model with the experimental 4001 600"C o-- E~q~erimem
results ~Et -OO07 a--- Slmul~o.
tH • 3 600S
The proposed constitutive equations were used to
simulate the uniaxial cyclic inelastic behavior.

(a)4oo
I ~ I cycle
/ n a'E~aa a a n 600°C /
n ..IHJ--• n--• / ~100 ........
n'7 / I "1 l
300 B/ 0 O'O 0--0-0-0 d)-
._. / 0
0
I
600
I
1200
l I I
11300 2400 3 0 0 0 3 6 0 0
200 Hold lime t,s
o ~ ~~ - Exper~ent
Fig. 8. Comparison between simulated and experimental stress
p_ ~oo _~ : o. 02 relaxation curves during holdtime at first and half-life cycles.
: 0,014
e.J
~[ 0 / ~ 0 : 0AEt
.01 I
k- --:Simulation • : 0,007
: O-005
12 3 4
I 10 10 I0 10

Number of cycles A comparison between the simulated and experi-

mental results of symmetric continuous cycle tests are
(c)4OO shown in fig. 7. The model was found to be able to
600% . '. . . . . . .
accurately simulate the cyclic strain hardening behav-
// ,
ior, as indicated in figs. 7(a) and (b). The shape change
o 200 //
in the stress-strain hysteresis loops between those at
first and at half-life cycles was also able to be simu-
b" o lated, as indicated in fig. 7(c).
The constitutive model was applied to simulate the
stress relaxation behavior under cyclic loading. A com-
-20(
parison between the simulated and experimental stress
relaxation curves during holdtime at first and at half-life
- 40( cycles are shown in fig. 8. The model was found to be
-1 -05 0 05 1 able to accurately simulate cyclic stress relaxation be-
xlO -2
Total stroin Et havior during cyclic strain hardening.

(a)4oo
600%
N f / 2 cycle
~t = IO'3s-~
6. Conclusions
200
g_

b" o
,/ An experimental approach to determine back stress
and a constitutive modeling has been discussed for
Type 316 stainless steel at 600°C.
Back stress and overstress were experimentally de-
o~ -200
J Ex erl termined by analyzing the unloading curve for the
I --- -- : Simulation stress-strain response of cyclic strain tests. It has been
-400 found that the cyclic strain hardening behavior was
-ds o d.s ×'°-J mainly caused by the hardening in the back stress.
Total strain E t A phenomenological unified constitutive model in
Fig. 7. Comparison between simulated and experimental re- which the back stress and drag stress are taken as the
sults of symmetric continuous cycle tests: (a) tensile peak internal state variables has been proposed. The mate-
stress-number of cycles relation, (b) stress-strain curves for rial constants were able to be determined without any
several strain ranges at half-life cycle, (c) stress-strain curves iterative alteration. The model has been proved capa-
for 0.01 strain range at first and half-life cycles. ble of simulating the cyclic inelastic behavior.
332 K. Taguchi, 72 Uno /Determination of internal state L,ariables

References [5] K. Taguchi, E. Kanno, S. Ozaki and T. Uno, Int. J. Pres.

Ves. & Piping 44 (1990) 99.
[1] E. Krempl, Acta Mech. 69 (1987) 25. [6] Y. Asada, T. Asayama, M. Morishita and K. Taguchi,
[2] E. Krempl and D. Yao, Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto- ASME PVP-129 (1987) 93.
Plastic Behaviour of Materials (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987) [7] M. Morishita, K. Taguchi, T. Asayama, A. Ishikawa and
137. Y. Asada, ASTM STP 942 (1988) 487.
[3] J.L. Chaboche and G. Rousselier, ASME J. PVT 105 [8] N. Ohno and Y. Kachi, ASME J. Appl, Mech. 53 (1986)
(1983) 153. 395.
[4] A.K. Miller, Unified Constitutive Equations for Creep and
Plasticity (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987) 139.