MW U Ii PDF

2
RF Transistor Amplifier Design

and Matching Networks
L EA R N I N G O B J E CT IV E S
After reading this chapter, the learner should be able to:
Characteristics of amplifiers.
Various amplifier power relations.
Basic of stability circle for input and output.
Know the gain calculation for amplifier.
Calculation of noise figure.
Know the types of matching networks and their frequency response.
Various types of microstrip matching networks.
2.1 Introduction
RF amplifier design is different from the conventional low-frequency

circuit and requires more special considerations. The first step in the
design process is stability analysis with gain and noise figure circles.
The above three are the basic ingredients to develop amplifier circuits.
Along with the following requirements also considered.
Gain, gain flatness, output power, bandwidth and bias conditions.
Smith chart is used to obtain constant gain, VSWR and stability circle
which is super imposed over the reflection coefficient and impedance
representation. Even a noise analysis can also be conducted by convert-
ing the noise figure of an amplifier into circles which are displayed in
the smith chart.
“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 51 — #1

52 Microwave Engineering
2.1.1 Characteristics of Amplifiers

In analog circuit theory, amplification of an input signal through either
a single or multi-stage transistor circuit is a important and complex task.
A general single stage amplifier configuration embedded between input
and output matching networks is shown in Figure 2.1.
Input and output matching networks are used to reduce undesirable
reflections and thus power flow capabilities are improved. In Figure 2.1
the amplifier is characterized through its S-matrix at a particular DC bias
point.
The following are the various set of amplifier parameters.
• Gain and gain flatness (in dB)
• Operating frequency and bandwidth (in Hz)
• Output power (in dBm)
• Power supply requirements (in V and A)
• Input and output reflection coefficients (VSWR)
• Noise figure (in dB)
• Inter modular distortion (IMD) products
• Harmonics
• Feedback and heating effects
The above all parameters affect the amplifier performance.
For the systematic amplifier design.
• Various power relation definitions are established.
• Analysis tools are required to define stability, gain, noise and VSWR
performance.
The common denominator of above four topics (stability, gain, noise,
VSWR) can be expressed as circle equations and displayed in the smith
chart.
⌫S ⌫L
Input Output
RF Matching Matching PL
[S] Load
Source Network Network
(IMN) (OMN)
⌫out
⌫in
DC bias
Figure 2.1 General amplifier system.

RF Transistor Amplifier Design and Matching Networks 53
2.2 Amplifier Power Relations
The following are the various power relations available for amplifier.
They are
1. Available power (PA )
2. Transducer power gain (GT )
3. Unilateral power gain (GTU )
4. Available power gain (GA )
5. Operating power gain (G)
The power gain definitions are very critical to understand that how an RF
amplifier functions. In order to get the power flow relations Figure 2.1
is modified under some assumption that the two matching networks are
included in the source and load impedances.
The simplified diagram is shown in Figure 2.2(a). the starting point
of our power analysis is the RF source connected to the amplifier
network. The source voltage is written by,
√
ZO
bs = Vs
ZS + ZO
= b1 − a1 s
⌫S ⌫L ⌫S
a⬘2
b⬘1 a1 b2 b⬘1
Pinc PL
ZS ZS
[S] ZL
⇒
~ Zin
VS VS ~
a⬘1 b⬘2 a⬘1
b1 a2
⌫in
⌫in ⌫out
bS b⬘1 a1 S21 b2 1 a⬘2
b1‘
bS
⌫S S11 S22 ⌫L ⇒ ⌫S
⌫in
1 1
b⬘2 a⬘1
a⬘1 b1 S12 a2
Figure 2.2 Source and load connected to a single-stage amplifier network. (a)
Simplified schematics of a single-stage amplifier. (b) Signal flow graph.


a
bs = b1 1 − 1 s
b1
bs = b1 [1 − in s ] (2.1)
The incident power associated with b1 is given as,
|b1 |2
Pinc = (2.2)
2
substitute b1 value from equation (2.1) in (2.2), that is
bs
b1 =
1 − in s
therefore
1 |bs |2
Pinc = (2.3)
2 |1 − in s |2
Which is the power launched toward the amplifier. The actual input
power (Pin ) observed at the input terminal of the amplifier is composed
of the incident and reflected power waves.
Pin = Pinc (1 − |in |2 ) (2.4)
substitute equation (2.3) in (2.4),
1 |bs |2
Pin = (1 − |in |2 ) (2.5)
2 |1 − in s |2
The maximum power transfer of the amplifier from the source is
achieved if the input impedance is complex conjugate matched i.e.,
(Zin = ZS∗ ) or with respect to the reflection coefficients (in = s∗ ).
2.2.1 Available Power

Under the maximum power transfer condition, the available power PA
is defined as,

PA = Pin
in =s∗
substitute equation (2.5) in PA ,

1 |bs |2 (1 − |in |2 )
PA =
2 |1 − in s |2 in =s∗

1 |bs |2 (1 − |in |2 )
PA =
2 |1 − s∗ s |2
1 |bs |2 (1 − |in |2 )
PA =
2 |1 − |s |2 |2
1 |bs |2 (1 − |in |2 )
= [∵ |Z|2 = Z · Z ∗ ]
2 (1 − |s |2 )(1 − |s∗ |2 )
1 |bs |2 (1 − |in |2 )
= [∵ s∗ = in ]
2 (1 − |s |2 )(1 − |in |2 )
1 |bs |2
PA = (2.6)
2 (1 − |s |2 )
If in = 0, then S = 0, then Pinc is obtained as (from equation (2.3)),

1 |bs |2
Pinc =
2 |1 − in s |2 in =0
|bs |2
Pinc =
2
2.2.2 Transducer Power Gain

Transducer power gain (GT ) is nothing but the gain of the amplifier
placed between source and load.
Power delivered to the load

GT =
Available power from the source
PL
GT =
PA
1
PL = |b2 |2 (1 − |L |2 )
2
substitute PL , PA value in GT ,
PL
∴ GT =
PA
1 2 2
2 |b2 | (1 − |L | )
=
1 |bs |2
2 1−|s |2
|b2 |2
GT = (1 − |L |2 )(1 − |s |2 ) (2.7)
|bs |2

b2
From equation (2.7) bs is unknown. Based on equation (2.2), b2 , bs is
obtained as,
S21 a1
b2 = (2.9a)
1 − S22 L

S12 S21 L
bs = 1 − S11 + s a1 (2.9b)
1 − S22 L
divide the equation (2.9(a)) and (2.9(b))
S21 a1
b2 1 − S22 L
=
bs a1 [(1 − S22 L ) − s S11 (1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L s ]
1 − S22 L
b2 S21
= (2.10)
bs (1 − S22 L )(1 − S11 s ) − S12 S21 L S
substitute equation (2.10) in equation (2.7),
|S21 |2 (1 − |L |2 )(1 − |s |2 )

GT = (2.11)
|(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L S |2
Let us define the input and output reflection coefficients as,
S12 S21 L
in = S11 + (2.12a)
1 − S22 L
S12 S21 L
out = S22 + (2.12b)
1 − S11 S
With this two definitions, two transducer power gain can be derived.
Transduce Power Gain I
Substitute equation (2.12(a)) in (2.9(b)),
bS = (1 − in S )a1
Now find,

b2 2 a
S21
1
= 2 2
bs (1 − S22 L ) (1 − in S ) a1
b2 |S21 |2
= (2.12c)
bs (|1 − S22 L )|2 |1 − in S |2

substitute equation (2.12(c)) in (2.7),
(1 − |L |2 )(1 − |S |2 )|S21 |2

GT = (2.13)
|1 − S22 L |2 |1 − in S |2
Transducer Power Gain II
It is obtained by substituting equation (2.12(b)) in equation (2.11),
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )

GT =
|(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L S |2
Denominator = 1 − L Fout

S12 S21 S
= 1 − L S22 +
1 − S11 S

L (S22 (1 − S11 S ) + S12 S21 S L )
=1−
1 − S11 S
(1 − S11 S ) − S22 L (1 − S11 S ) − S12 S21 S L
=
1 − S11 S
(1 − S11 S )[(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 S L ]
=
1 − S11 S
|(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L S |2
|1 − L out |2 =
|1 − S11 S |2
therefore
|1 − L out |2 |1 − S11 S |2 = |(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L S |2
Therefore, the denominator of equation (2.11) is replaced by,
(1 − |L |2 )(|S21 |2 )(1 − |S |2 )

GT = (2.14)
|1 − L out |2 |1 − S11 S |2
2.2.3 Unilateral Power Gain

In the transducer power gain, the feedback effect of the amplifier is
neglected i.e., S12 = 0, then it is called unilateral power gain (GTU ).
Therefore, equation (2.11) is replaced as,
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )

GTU =
|(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L )|2
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )
GTU = (2.15)
|1 − S S11 ||1 − S22 L |2

The above equation is often used as a basis to develop approximate

designs for an amplifier and its input and output matching networks.
2.2.4 Additional Power Relations

A transducer power gain is a fundamental expression which is used to
derive other additional power relations.
2.2.4.1 Available Power Gain

∗ ) the available power gain is defined
For load side matching (L = out
as,

GA = GT
∗
L =out
Power available from the amplifier
=
Power available from the source
∗ in equation (2.14),
substitute L = out
∗ |2 )
|S21 |2 (1 − |s |2 )(1 − |out
GA = ∗ )2 |1 − S |2
(1 − out out 11 s
∗ )
|S21 |2 (1 − |s |2 )(1 − out out
= ∗ 2
(1 − out out ) |1 − S11 s |2
|S21 |2 (1 − |s |2 )
= ∗ )2 |1 − S |2
(1 − out out 11 s
|S21 |2 (1 − |s |2 )
GA = [|Z|2 = Z · Z ∗ ] (2.16)
(1 − |out |2 )|1 − S11 s |2
2.2.5 Operating Power Gain

It is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the power
supplied to the amplifier. It is denoted as G.
Power delivered to the load

G=
Power supplied to the amplifier
PL
=
Pin

PL P A
G= ·
PA Pin
PA
= GT ·
Pin
By combining equations (2.5), (2.6) and (2.7).
1 |bS |2
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |s |2 ) 2 1−|s |2
G= ·
|1 − s in |2 |1 − S22 L |2 1 |bs |2 (1−|in |2 )
2 |1−in s |2
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2
G= (2.17)
(1 − |in |2 )|1 − S22 L |2
P r o b l e m 2.1
An RF amplifier has the following S parameter: S11 = 0.3∠−70◦ ,
S21 = 3.5∠85◦ , S12 = 0.2∠−10◦ and S22 = 0.4∠−45◦ . Furthermore
the input side of the amplifier is connected to a voltage source with
VS = 5V ∠0◦ and source impedance ZS = 40. The output is utilized
to derive an antenna which has an impedance of ZL = 73. Assuming
that the S-parameter of the amplifier are measured with reference to a
ZO = 50 characteristic impedance, find the following quantities:
(a) Transducer gain GT , unilateral transducer gain GTU , available gain

GA , operating power gain G; and
(b) Power delivered to the load PL , available power PA , and incident
power to the amplifier Pinc .
Solution: Given
S11 = 0.3∠−70◦
S22 = 0.4∠−45◦
S21 = 3.5∠85◦
S12 = 0.2∠−10◦
VS = 5V ∠0◦
ZS = 40
ZL = 73
ZO = 50

Source reflection coefficient

Z S − ZO
S =
ZS + ZO
40 − 50
=
40 + 50
−10
=
90
−1
=
9
= −0.111
Load reflection coefficient

Z L − ZO
L =
ZL + ZO
73 − 50
=
73 + 50
23
=
123
= 0.187
The input impedance
S12 S21 L
in = S11 +
1 − S22 L
in = 0.3∠−70◦
0.2 × 3.5∠85◦ ∠−10◦ × 0.187
+
1 − 0.4∠−45◦ × 0.187
= 0.146 − j0.151
S12 S21 S
out = S22 +
1 − S11 S
= 0.265 − j0.358
(1 − |L |2 )|S12 |2 (1 − |S |2 )
Transducer gain, GT =
|1 − L out |2 ||1 − S11 S |2
= 12.56 or 10.99 dB
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )
Unilateral Transducer gain, GTU =
|1 − L S22 |2 ||1 − S11 S |2
= 12.67 or 11.03 dB

|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )
Available gain, GA =
|1 − |out |2 ||1 − S11 S |2
= 14.74 or 11.68 dB
(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2
Operating power gain, G =
|1 − L in |2 ||1 − S22 L |2
= 13.74 or 11.38 dB
2.3 Stability Considerations

2.3.1 Stability Circles
One of the first requirements that an amplifier should meet is a stable
performance in the frequency range. The RF circuits which are tend
to oscillate depending on operating frequency and termination. The
oscillations can be understood in the context of a voltage wave along a
transmission line.
If |O | > 1, the return voltage increases in magnitude (positive
feedback) causes instability. If |O | < 1, causes a diminished return
voltage wave (negative feedback). Let us consider the amplifier is char-
acterized as a two-port network through its S-parameters and external
load and source termination are characterized by L and S .
Stability occur when the magnitudes of the reflection coefficients
are less than unity.
|L | < 1, |S | > 1 (2.19a)
From equation (2.12(a)),
S21 S12 L
in = S11 +
1 − S22 L
S11 − S11 S22 L + S12 S21 L
=
1 − S22 L
S11 − (S11 S22 − S12 S21 )L
in =
1 − S22 L
S11 − L
in = [∴ S11 S12 − S12 S21 = ]
1 − S22 L

S11 − L
∴ in = <1 (2.19b)
1−S
22 L
From equation (2.12(b)),
S12 S21 S
out = S22 +
1 − S11 S

S22 − S11 S22 S + S12 S21 S

out =
1 − S11 S
S22 − (S11 S22 − S12 S21 )S
=
1 − S11 S
S22 − S
= [∴ S11 S12 − S12 S21 = ]
1 − S11 S

S22 − S
|out | = <1 (2.19c)
1− S S 11
Since for a particular frequency S-parameters are fixed, the only factor
affects the stability are L and S . Let us consider the complex quantities
as
R I
S11 = S11 + jS11
R I
S22 = S22 + jS22
= R + jI
L = LR + jLI (2.20)
Sub equation (2.20) in equation (2.19(b)),

S R + jS I − ( R + j I )(R + jI )
11 11 L L
|in | = R I R I (2.21)
1 − (S22 + jS22 )(L + jL )
After simplification, the output stability circle equation is,
(LR − Cout
R 2
) + (LI − Cout
I 2 2
) = γout (2.22)
where the circle radius is given by,

|S12 S21 |
γout = (2.23)
||S22 |2 − ||2 |
and the centre of the circle is located at,
R I
Cout = Cout + jCout
(S22 − S11∗ )∗
= (2.24)
|S22 |2 − ||2
which is shown in Figure 2.3(a).
Substitute equation (2.20) in equation (2.19(c)) gives the input
stability circle equation.
(SR − Cin
R 2
) + (SI − Cin
I 2
) = γin2 (2.25)

⌫out =1
I ⌫in =1
Y in
⌫L ⌫⬘S ⌫S =1
Yout C
in
⌫L =1 Cout
C
C in
out R
⌫L
R
⌫S
Figure 2.3 Stability circle |in = 1| in the complex L plane and stability circle
|out | = 1 in the complex S plane. (a) Output stability circle. (b) Input stability
circle.
where radius of the circle,

|S12 S21 |
γin = (2.26)
||S11 |2 | − ||2
Centre of the circle located at,
R I
Cin = Cin + Cin
(S11 − S22∗ )∗
= (2.27)
|S11 |2 − ||2
which is shown in Figure 2.3(b).
2.3.1.1 For Output Stability Circle

If L = 0, then |in | = |S11 |, there are two cases possible depends on
|S11 | < 1 or |S11 | > 1.
Case (i): For |S11 | < 1, the origin (|L = 0) is part of the stable region
shown in Figure 2.4(a).
Case (ii): For |S11 | > 1, the matching condition L = 0 results in
in = |S11 | > 1, i.e., the origin is part of the unstable region.
In this case only stable region is shaded which is shown in
Figure 2.4(b).
2.3.1.2 For Input Stability Circle

Figure 2.5 shows the two stability domains for the input stability circle.
From the thumb rule, if |S22 | < 1, which leads to the conclusion that the
center (S = 0) must be stable; otherwise the center becomes unstable
for |S22 | > 1.

For stability circles, the circle radius is larger than |Cin | or |Cout |.
Figure 2.6 shows the input stability circles for |S22 | < 1 and two stability
domains are possible depends on γin < |Cin | or γin > |Cin |.
2.3.2 Unconditional Stability

Unconditional stability is nothing but the situation where the amplifier
remains stable throughout the entire domain of the Smith chart at the
selected frequency and bias conditions. This applies to both the input
and output ports. For |S11 | < 1, |S22 | < 1, it is stated as,
||Cin | − γin | > 1 (2.28a)

||Cout | − γout | > 1 (2.28b)
The stability circles have to reside completely outside the |S | = 1 and
|L | = 1 circles. Figure 2.7(a) shows |S | = 1 circle.
2.3.2.1 Derivation of Stability Factor (or) Rollelt Factor (K)

Substitute the equation (2.26), (2.27) and (2.28(a)),
||Cin | − in | > 1

∗ )∗
(S11 − S22 |S12 S21 |

|S |2 − ||2 − ||S |2 − ||2 | > 1
11 11
∗
|S11 − S22 | − |S12 S21 |
>1 (2.29a)
|S11 |2 − ||2
Squaring and rearranging equation (2.29(a)),

∗ |2 + |S S |2 − 2|S − S ∗ ||S S |
|S11 − S22 12 21 11 22 12 21
>1
||S11 |2 − ||2 |2
∗
|(S11 − S22 )|2 + |S12 S21 |2 − 2|S11 − S22
∗
||S12 S21 |
> ||S11 |2 − ||2 |2
∗
|(S11 − S22 )|2 + |S12 S21 |2 − ||S11 |2 − ||2 |2
∗
> 2|S11 − S22 ||S12 S21 | (2.29b)
∗ |2 is rewritten as,

|S11 − S22
∗
|(S11 − S22 )|2 = |S12 S21 |2 + (1 − |S22 |2 )|S11 |2 − ||2 (2.29c)

Replacing equation (2.29(c)) in (2.29(b)) and squaring equation

(2.29(b)),
(|S11 |2 − |2 |)2 [(1 − |S22 |2 ) − (|S11 |2 − |2 |)]2 − 4|S12 S21 |2 > 0

Desired stability factor. (2.29d)
[1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |2 |]2 − 4|S12 S21 |2 = 0
(1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |2 |)2 = 4|S12 ||S21 |2
Taking square root on both sides,
(1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |2 |) = 2(|S12 ||S21 |)
That is,
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |2 |
K= >1 (2.29e)
2|S12 ||S21 |
The stability factor k applies for both input and output ports.
Analytical Solution of Stability Criteria
Let define the determinant of the S matrix and factors k and B1 as,
= S11 S22 − S12 S21 (2.30)
|2
1 − |S11 − |S22 |2 + ||2
K= (2.31)
2|S12 S21 |
B1 = 1 + |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 − ||2 (2.32)
Based on these definitions, a two port network will be unconditionally
stable if, and only if, either one of the following criteria are satisfied.
Case (i): Three-parameter test criterion:
K >1 (2.33)
1 − |S11 |2
>1 (2.34)
|S12 S21 |
1 − |S22 |2
>1 (2.35)
|S12 S21 |
Case (ii): Two-parameter test criterion (K- test)
K >1 (2.36)
|| < 1 (2.37)
This is called K- Test.

Case (iii): Two-parameter test criterion (K-B1 test)

K >1
B1 > 0 (2.38)
This is called as “K-B1 test”.
The above three criteria are mathematically equivalent. If a device sat-
isfies any one of the three criteria, then the other two are automatically
satisfied. Thus, a two port network will be unconditionally stable if and
only if any one of these three criteria are satisfied.
Note 1: The two parameter criteria (2 and 3) are more popular,
more often used then criteria 1, due to simplicity and easy
calculation.
Note 2: For a unilateral transistor,
S12 = 0, K = ∞ > 1 (2.39)
|| = |S11 S22 | (2.40)
K > 1 is already satisfied, in order to satisfy the condition for
unconditional stability || < 1 is desired,
S11 < 1 (2.41)
S22 < 1 (2.42)
For all passive values of ZS and ZL .
Single Parameter (or µ-Parameter) Test
The two parameter test cannot be used to show the degree of stability
of one device to other. In order to check whether the device is stable
or not and degree of stability, a new parameter test is possible i.e.,
“µ-parameter test”.
The µ parameter is defined as,
1 − |S11 |2
µ= ∗ | + |S S | (2.43)
|S22 − S11 21 12
For unconditional stability, µ > 1 is satisfied. If device A has a

parameter µA that is greater than µB to device B i.e.,
µA > µB (2.44)
Then the device A is said to be more stable than device B.

Note: If any device which has higher value of µ, then the device has
greater degree of stability.

2.3.3 Potentially Unstable

If S and L are chosen as,
|in > 1| |out > 1| (2.45)
then the amplifier circuit is said to be potentially unstable. The device

can be made unconditionally stable if the total input and output loop
resistance is made to be positive.
Re (ZS + Zin ) > 0 (2.46)

Re (ZL + Zout ) > 0 (2.47)
2.3.3.1 Methods to Change Potentially Unstable

to Conditionally Stable
There are two methods are possible to achieve a positive loop resistance
and thus make a potentially unstable transistor into a conditionally stable
one.
1. Resistively loading the transistor
2. Adding negative feedback
The above two methods provides,
1. Reduction in gain
2. Increase in the noise figure
3. Degradation of amplifier power output
Both the above two methods are useful in broadband amplifiers.
The resistive loading is used to stabilize the transistor and then
negative feedback is used to provide a relatively constant gain with a
low input and output VSWR. In narrow band amplifier, these techniques
are not used.
P r o b l e m 2.2
Determine the stability of a GaAs FET that has the following S-
parameters at 2 GHz in a 50 system both graphically and mathematically.
S11 = 0.89∠−60◦
S21 = 3.1∠123◦
S12 = 0.02∠62◦
S22 = 0.78∠−27◦

Solution: Graphically method:
S11 = 0.89∠−60◦ = 0.445 − 0.77j

|S11 | = (0.445)2 + (0.77)2 = 0.889

S21 = 3.1∠123◦ = −1.688 + 2.599j

|S21 | = (−1.688)2 + (2.599)2 = 3.099

S12 = 0.02∠62◦ = (9.389 × 10−3 ) + 0.017j

|S12 | = (9.389 × 10−3 )2 + (0.017)2 = 0.019

S22 = 0.78∠−27◦ = 0.694 − 0.35j

|S22 | = (0.694)2 + (0.35)2 = 0.777
We calculate the following values,
CL = 1.36∠47◦
RL = 0.5
CS = 1.13∠68◦
RS = 0.2
= S11 S22 − S21 S12
= 0.03933 − 0.69j + 0.06 + (4.29 × 10−3 j)
= 0.099 − 0.68j
= 0.687∠−81.7◦

|| = (0.099)2 + (0.68)2

|| = 0.687
DL = |S22 |2 − ||2
DL = 0.604 − 0.472
DL = 0.132
DS = |S11 |2 − ||2
DS = |0.889|2 − |0.687|2
DS = 0.318

S12 S21

RL =
DL
0.019 × 3.099
=
0.13176

RL = 0.44

S12 S21
RS =
DS
3.099 × 0.019
= = 0.18
0.318
RS = 0.2
|in | = |S11 | = 0.89 < 1
|out | = |S22 | = 0.78 < 1
Mathematical method: We calculate the following values,
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + ||2

K=
2|S12 S21 |
1 − |0.889|2 − |0.777|2 + |0.687|2
=
2|0.019 × 3.099|
K = 0.66
= S11 S22 − S12 S21

= 0.03933 − 0.69j + 0.06 + (4.29 × 10−3 j)
= 0.099 − 0.68j
= 0.687∠−81.7◦
(S22 − S11 )∗
CL =
DL
[(0.694 − 0.35j) − (0.099 − 0.68j)∗ (0.445 + 0.773)]∗
=
0.132
0.126345 + 0.12363j
=
0.132
= 0.957 + 0.936j
CL = 1.338∠44.3◦
(S11 − S22∗ )∗
CS =
DS
((0.445 − 0.77j) − (0.099 − 0.68j)∗ (0.694 + 0.35j))∗
=
0.318
◦
CS = 1.13∠68

P r o b l e m 2.3
A BJT has the following S-parameters:
S11 = 0.65∠−95◦
S21 = 5.0∠115◦
S12 = 0.035∠40◦
S22 = 0.8∠−35◦
In this transistor unconditionally stable? If not, use resistive loading to
make the transistor conditionally stable. What are the resistor values?
Solution:
S11 = 0.65∠−95◦
= −0.05665 − 0.647j
|S11 | = 0.649
S21 = 5.0∠−115◦
= −2.113 + 4.53j
|S21 | = 4.998
S12 = 0.035∠40◦
= 0.0268 + 0.022j
|S12 | = 0.034
S22 = 0.8∠−35◦
= 0.655 − 0.458j
|S22 | = 0.799
= S11 S22 − S12 S21
= ((0.65∠−95◦ )(0.8∠−35◦ )) − ((0.035∠40◦ )(5.0∠115◦ ))
= −0.175 − 0.472j
= 0.503∠−110.34◦
|| = 0.503
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + ||2
K=
2|S12 S21 |
1 − |0.649|2 − |0.799|2 + |0.503|2
=
214.998 × 0.034|
K = 0.56

DL = |S22 |2 − ||2
= 0.385392

S12 S21
RL =
DL
0.034 × 4.998
=
0.385392
RL = 0.44
DS = |S11 |2 − ||2 = 0.6492 − 0.5032
DS = 0.168192

S12 S21
RS =
D
S
0.034 × 4.998
RS =
0.168192
RS = 1.01
CL = 1.3∠48◦
CS = 1.79∠122◦
∗ )∗
(S22 − S11
CL =
DL
[(0.655 − 0.458j) − ((−0.175 − 0.472j)(−0.05665 + 0.647j))]∗
=
0.385392
0.25 + 0.61j
=
0.385392
= 0.64 + 1.58j
CL = 1.7∠67.9◦
∗ )∗
(S11 − S22
CS =
DS
[−0.05665 − 0.647j − ((−0.175 − 0.472j × 0.665 + 0.458j))]∗
=
0.168192
−0.158201 − 0.25769j
=
0.168192
= −0.94 − 1.532j
CS = 1.797∠121.5◦

2.3.4 Resistive Loading

To improve the stability, four types of resistive loading is used. Figure
2.4 shows the four types of resistive loading.
(a) (b)
R1=9Ω
R2=71Ω
(c) (d)
R3=43Ω
R4=500Ω
Figure 2.4 Four types of resistive loading.
Using the input stability circle, a series resistor of R1 = 9 (shown

in Figure 2.4(a)) or a shunt resistor of R2 = 71 (shown in Figure
2.4(b)), at the input of the transistor will restore the stability.
Using the output stability circle, a series resistor of R3 = 43
(shown in Figure 2.4(c)) or a shunt resistor of R4 = 500 (shown in
Figure 2.4(d)) at the output of the transistor will ensure stability. Any
one of the four types of resistive loading should be sufficient to create
a stable amplifier.
Note:
• Use of resistive loading at the input of the transistor (see Figures
2.4(a) and (b)) is not recommended due to an increase in the input
loss, which translates into a higher noise figure at the output of the
amplifier.
• Any resistive loading is preferred to take place at the output of the
amplifier to minimize the increase in the amplifier’s noise figure.
2.4 Gain Considerations
2.4.1 Introduction
Gain consideration in an amplifier plays a major role in design pro-
cess. In an amplifier after the stability, the power gain is an important
parameter.

2.4.2 Power Gain Concepts

Let us consider the single stage microwave transistor amplifier with the
transistor straddled by two matching networks on either side as shown in
Figure 2.5. In the amplifier design process, several power gain concepts
are used and each has its own definition. Let us define the various power
levels existing in the circuit, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Pin ≡ Power input to the transistor or to the input matching network.

PAVS ≡ Power available from the source under matched condition.
This is a special case of Pin when in = S∗ .
PL ≡ Power delivered to the load or the output matching network.
PAVN ≡ Power available from the transistor under matched condition.
∗ .
It is a special case of PL when L = out
Various definitions of power gain are
PL
Transducer power gain, GT ≡ (2.48)
PAVS
PL
Operating power gain (also called power gain), GP ≡ (2.49)
Pin
PAVN
Available power gain, GA ≡ (2.50)
PAVS
(a) Transducer gain (GT):
1 − |S |2 2 1 − |L |
2
GT = |S21 | (2.51)
|1 − in · S |2 |1 − S22 L |2
Equation (2.51) can be written as,
GT = GS · GO · GL (2.52)
⌫S ⌫in ⌫out ⌫L
Zo
Input Output
+ Microwave
matching matching
E ~ Transistor
network network
− [S] M0
M1 M2
Figure 2.5 A general block diagram for a transistor amplifier.

⌫a ⌫in ⌫L ⌫out ⌫L ⌫b
Lossless Lossless
Transistor PL PL
Source Pin network Pin network Load
(BJT or FET)
M1 M2
Figure 2.6 A transistor amplifier.
where
1 − |S |2
GS = (2.53)
|1 − in · S |2
GO = |S21 |2 (2.54)
1 − |L |2
GL = (2.55)
|1 − S22 L |2
From equation (2.52),
GO ⇒ Gain of the transistor.
GS ⇒ Effective gain of the input matching networks.
GL ⇒ Effective gain of the output matching networks.
Equation (2.51) can be rewritten in terms of out as,
1 − |S |2 2 1 − |L |
2
GT = |S21 | (2.56)
|1 − S11 S |2 |1 − out L |2
(b) Operating power gain (GP ),
1 2
2 1 − |L |
GP = |S21 | (2.57)
|1 − in |2 |1 − S22 L |2
(c) Available power gain (GA ),
1 − |S |2 1
GA = 2
|S21 |2 (2.58)
|1 − S11 S | |1 − out |2
where
S12 S21 L
in = S11 + (2.59)
1 − S22 L
S12 S21 S
out = S22 + (2.60)
1 − S11 S

Note: From equation (2.52) GS and GL are input and output

matching networks degree of matching to the transistor at its input
or its output.
The matching networks are made up of passive components and have no
inherent gain; i.e., they are incapable of generating power. The equation
(2.52) can be written in dB as follows,
GT (dB) = GS (dB) + GO (dB) + GL (dB) (2.61)
2.4.3 Unilateral Transistor

If the transistor is unilateral, i.e., S12 = 0, then GS and GL are changed
as GSU and GLU respectively. Equations (2.52) is modified as, i.e.,
GTU = GSU · GO · GLU (2.62)
where
in = S11 (2.63)

out = S22 (2.64)
1 − |S |2
GSU = (2.65)
|1 − S11 S |2
1 − |L |2
GLU = (2.66)
|1 − S22 L |2
GSU ⇒ Input matching network transducer power gain for unilateral
transistor.
GLU ⇒ Output matching network power gain for unilateral transistor.
GTU ⇒ Transducer power gain for unilateral transistor case.
2.5 The Mismatch Factor
The source mismatch factor (MS ) can be defined as,

Pin
MS ≡ (2.67)
PAVS
Pin ≤ PAVS
therefore MS ≤ 1
GT
MS = (2.68)
GP

substitute equations (2.56) and (2.57) in (2.68),
1 − |S |2 2 1 − |L |
2
· |S 21 |
|1 − S11 S |2 |1 − out L |2
MS =
1 2
1 − |L |2
· |S 21 |
|1 − in |2 |1 − S22 L |2
(1 − |S |2 )(1 − |L |2 )
MS = [∴ in = S11 ; out = S22 ] (2.69)
|1 − S in |2
The source mismatch factor (MS ) is used to quantify the portion of PAVS
that is delivered to the input of the transistor.
If the input part is matched (i.e., in = s∗ ) then Pin = PAVS
i.e., MS = 1. It means that all the available power from the source is
delivered to the transistor and no mismatch exists at the input port.

Pin = PAVS
in =S∗
MS = 1 (2.70)
2.5.1 Load Mismatch Factor

The load mismatch factor (ML ) can be defined as
PL
ML = (2.71)
PAVN
i.e., PL ≤ PAVN so ML ≤ 1. ML is obtained by
GT
ML = (2.72)
GA
substitute equation (2.56) and (2.58) in equation (2.72)
1 − |S |2 2 1 − |L |
2
· |S 21 |
|1 − S11 S |2 |1 − S22 L |2
ML = 2
1 − S | 1
· |S21 |2
|1 − S11 S | 1 − |out |2
(1 − |L |2 )(1 − |out |2 )
ML = (2.73)
|1 − out L |2
The load mismatch factor (ML ) is used to quantify the portion of PAVN
that is delivered to the load. If the output port is matched (i.e., out = L∗ )
then PL = PAVN i.e., ML = 1.

It means that all of the available power from the transistor is

delivered to the load and no mismatch exists at the output port, i.e.,

Pout = PAVN
Pout =L∗
ML = 1 (2.74)
Note: The “mismatch factor” is also called “mismatch loss” which (in
dB ) signifies the amount of power loss due to mismatch. From equation
(2.62) and (2.66), ML and MS can be written as,
MS (dB ) = Pin (dBm ) − PAVS (dBm ), MS < 0 (2.75)

ML (dB ) = PL (dBm ) − PAVN (dBm ), ML < 0 (2.76)
2.5.2 Constancy of the Mismatch Factor

For a “loss less network” the output power equals to the input power,
it is mathematically shows that the mismatch factor always remains
constant. For example, the mismatch factor (MS ) at the input of the
lossless matching network (M1 ), where the source is connected has the
same value as its output where the transistor input is connected i.e.
At input of M1 : Pin = MS PAVS (power into M1 )

= MP
At output of M1 : Pin S AVS (power into the transistor)
= P ⇒ M = M
Loss less Network : Pin in S S
The mismatch factor (ML ) remains unchanged at the input and output
of the loss less matching network (M2 ) i.e.
At output of M2 : PL = ML PAVN (power into the load)

At input of M2 : Pout = ML PAVN (power into M2 )
Loss less Network: Pout = PL ⇒ ML = ML
For a loss less network, the mismatch factor is an “invariant quantity”.
2.6 Input and Output VSWR
In some cases, the microwave amplifier’s specification is in terms of

the input VSWR and the output VSWR. Therefore, it is important to
obtain a relationship between the mismatch factor and VSWR.

2.6.1 Input-Port VSWR

From Figure 2.6, the input power (Pin ) entering the input port of the
matching network (M1 ) is expressed in terms of the input reflection
coefficient (a ), as follows.
Pin = PAVS (1 − |a |2 ) (cf ., Pin = MS PAVS ) (2.77a)

Pin
MS = = (1 − |a |2 ) (2.77b)
PAVS
where
Z a − ZO
a = (2.78)
Za + ZO
From 2.77(a), we can write,

|a | = 1 − MS (2.79)
Therefore, at input of the losses matching network (M1 ), the input

VSWR is given by,
√
1 + |a | 1 + 1 − MS
(VSWR)in = = √ (2.80)
1 − |a | 1 − 1 − MS
2.6.2 Output Port VSWR

From Figure 2.6, the output power (PL ) exiting the output port of the
matching network (M2 ). This power can be expressed in terms of the
output reflection coefficient (b ) as follows:
PL = PAVN (1 − |b |2 ) (cf ., PL = ML PAVN ) (2.81a)
Thus
ML = 1 − |b |2 (2.81b)
where
Z b − ZO
Rb = (2.82)
Zb + ZO
From equation (2.81(b)), we can write,

|b | = 1 − ML (2.83)

Therefore, at the output of the lossless matching network (M2 ), the

output VSWR is given by,
√
1 + |b | 1 + 1 − ML
(VSWR)out = = √ (2.84)
1 − |b | 1 − 1 − ML
Thus, (VSWR)out can be calculated simply by knowing the load
mismatch factor (ML ).
2.7 Maximum Gain Design
From equation (2.54), we can observe that because GO is fixed for any
given transistor, the overall gain of the amplifier is controlled by the
gain blocks GS and GL corresponding to the input and output matching
networks respectively.
Therefore, in order to obtain the maximum possible gain from the
amplifier circuit, we must maximize GS , GL values which effectively
implies that the input and output matching sections must provide a
conjugate match at the transistor’s input and output port. Furthermore,
under this conjugate matched condition at the input and the output of
the transistor, maximum power will be transferred into the input port
and out of the output port as shown in Figure 2.7.
Based on the conjugate impedance matching concept, maximum
power transfer from the input matching network to the transistor and
from the transistor to the output matching network will occur when,
in =L∗ (2.84a)

out =L∗ (2.84b)
(PIN)max
(Pout)max
ZO
+ Input Output
E ~ Matching Matching ZO
− Network Network
ZS ZS Z*L ZL
Figure 2.7 Maximum gain under conjugate matched conditions.

2.8 Unilateral Case (Maximum Gain)
When the transistor is unilateral (S12 = 0), then as stated earlier,

in =S11 (2.84c)
out =S22 (2.84d)
GTU =GS − GO − GL (2.84e)
where
1 − |S |2
GS = (2.85)
|1 − in S |2
GO = |S21 |2 (2.86)
1 − |L |2
GL = (2.87)
|1 − S22 L |2
Under conjugate matched (maximum gain) conditions,
∗
S = S11 (2.88)
∗
L = S22 (2.89)
GTU ·max = GS·max Go GL·max (2.90)
where
1
GS·max = (2.91)
1 − |S11 |2
Go = |S21 |2 (2.92)
1
GL·max = (2.93)
1 − |S22 |2
Substitute the equation (2.91) to (2.93) into equation (2.90). Thus
equation (2.90) can be written as,
GTU ·max = GS·max Go GL·max
1 1
= 2
|S21 |2
1 − |S11 | 1 − |S22 |2
0 ≤ GS ≤ GS·max (2.94)
0 ≤ GL ≤ GL·max (2.95)
We can normalize these two equations to obtain,
0 ≤ gs ≤ 1 (2.96)
0 ≤ gL ≤ 1 (2.97)

where the normalized gain factors (gs , gL ) are defined as,
GS 1 − |S |2
gS = = (1 − |S11 |2 ) (2.98)
GS·max |1 − S11 S |2
GL 1 − |L |2
gL = = (1 − |S22 |2 ) (2.99)
GL·max |1 − S22 L |2
2.9 Constant Gain Circles (Unilateral Case)
From equation (2.85) and (2.87), the values of S and L that produce
a constant gain (or normalized gain) lie in a circle in Smith chart. These
circles are called constant GS and GL circles respectively. To obtain
the equations for these circles, we start with equation (2.98) and (2.99).
It is shown that the values of S or L that produce a constant value of
gS or gL lie in a circle described by the following equations:
|S − CgS | = RgS (2.100a)

|L − CgL | = RgL (2.100b)
where the center and radius (CS , RS ) and (CL , RL ) for each of the two
circles are given by,
gS S11∗
Cgs = (2.101a)
1 − |S11 |2 (1 − gS )

(1 − gS )(1 − |S11 |2 )
Rgs = (2.101b)
1 − |S11 |2 (1 − gS )
and
gL S22∗
CgL = (2.102a)
1 − |S22 |2 (1 − gL )

(1 − gL )(1 − |S22 |2 )
RgL = (2.102b)
1 − |S22 |2 (1 − gL )
The two equations in equation (2.100) represents equations of two fam-

ilies of circles where the centers of each family of circles lie along the
∗ and S ∗ as shown in Figures 2.8(a)
straight line given by the angle of S11 22
and (b).

(a) (b)
Im ( ⌫L ) Im ( ⌫L )
GL
RgL
S11∗
S22∗ Cgs
CgL Rgs
α2 α1
Re (⌫L ) Re (⌫L )
Figure 2.8 Families of constant gain circles.
2.9.1 Observations
(a) From equations (2.101) and (2.102), we note that when gS or gL = 1
(i.e., maximum gain condition), we have
RgS = 0 (2.103a)
RgL = 0 (2.103b)
∗
CgS = S11 (2.103c)
and
∗
CgL = S22 (2.103d)
This indicates that the maximum gain occurs only at one point
∗ and S ∗ in the or plane respectively. This
located at S11 22 S L
observations is in agreement with our earlier results as expressed
by the equations (2.88) and (2.89).
(b) The 0 dB circles (i.e., GS = 1, GL = 1) will always pass through
the origin (i.e., S = 0, L = 0 points). This can be shown by
noting that gS from equation (2.98) can be written as,
GS = 1 when S = 0
gS = 1 − |S11 |2
|CgS | = RgS
S11
= (2.104a)
1 + |S11 |2

Similarly for GL ,
GL = 1 when L = 0
gL = 1 − |S22 |2
|CgL | = RgL
S22
= (2.104b)
1 + |S22 |2
which shows that the radius and distance from the origin to the
center of the 0 dB constant GS or GL circle are identical and proves
our observation.
(c) At the outer stage of Smith chart.
|S | = 1 ⇒ GS = 0 = −∞ dB
|L | = 1 ⇒ GL = 0 = −∞ dB
Because this gain value is impossible to achieve, the gain circles
never intersect the outer edge of Smith chart.
(d) For particular gain value, there are an infinite number of points on
the constant gain circle that provide the same gain. Thus the choices
of S and L along the constant gain circles are not unique, but in
order to minimize mismatch loss and maximum bandwidth it is best
to choose points close to the center of Smith chart. This is true only
for cases where noise is not of importance. In fact, for low noise
amplifier design we need to use mismatch at the input matching
networks in order to obtain minimum noise from the amplifier.
2.10 Unilateral Figure of Merit
We already noticed that under the unilateral assumption, power gain

analysis greatly simplifies. In most case S12 = 0. If we still wish to
use the unilateral assumption and then the simplified unilateral gain
equations for the amplifier design (S12 = 0), we need to determine the
error involved in our analysis.
The error involved lies in the magnitude ratio of GGUT , which is
obtained by dividing equation (2.52) by (2.62).
GT 1
= (2.105)
GTU |1 − X |2
where
S12 S21 S L
X = (2.106)
(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L )

GT
It can be shown that the ratio of GTU is bounded by,
1 GT 1
2
< < (2.107)
(1 + |X | ) GTU (1 − |X |2 )
when S = S11∗ and = S ∗ achieves its maximum value, G
L 22 TU ·max .
The maximum error introduced using the unilateral assumption (i.e.,)
using GTU instead of GT is bounded by,
1 GT 1
2
< < (2.108)
|1 + U | GTU ·max |1 − U |2
where
|S12 ||S21 ||S11 ||S22 |
U= (2.109)
(1 − |S11 |2 )(1 − |S22 |2 )
U is defined to be the unilateral figure of merit which varies with the
frequency due to its S-parameter dependence. Thus U needs to be calcu-
lated at each frequency in order to obtain the limits of the error involved
due to the unilateral assumption. From the Table 2.1 which lists various
values of U versus GGTUT
, we can determine if the calculated value of U
gives a tolerable error value for GGUT .
Usually an error of a few tenths of a dB in the GTUGT·max ratio is
justifiable when using the unilateral assumption.
GT
Table 2.1 Tabulation of values of ‘U ’ versus GTU ·max .
U R = GT /GU
(Ratio) (dB) (Ratio) (dB)
0.010 −20.0 0.980 < R < 1.020 −0.086 < R < 0.087
0.020 −17.0 0.961 < R < 1.041 −0.170 < R < 0.180
0.030 −15.2 0.943 < R < 1.063 −0.26 < R < 0.26
0.040 −14.0 0.925 < R < 1.085 −0.34 < R < 0.36
0.050 −13.0 0.907 < R < 1.108 −0.42 < R < 0.45
0.060 −12.2 0.890 < R < 1.132 −0.51 < R < 0.59
0.070 −11.5 0.873 < R < 1.156 −0.59 < R < 0.63
0.080 −11.0 0.857 < R < 1.181 −0.67 < R < 0.72
0.090 −10.5 0.842 < R < 1.208 −0.75 < R < 0.82
0.10 −10.0 0.826 < R < 1.235 −0.83 < R < 0.92
0.11 −9.6 0.812 < R < 1.262 −0.91 < R < 1.01
0.12 −9.2 0.797 < R < 1.291 −0.98 < R < 1.11
0.13 −8.9 0.783 < R < 1.321 −1.06 < R < 1.21
0.14 −8.5 0.769 < R < 1.352 −1.13 < R < 1.31
0.15 −8.2 0.756 < R < 1.384 −1.25 < R < 1.41

2.11 Bilateral Case
When S12 = 0 and the unilateral figure of merit causes an unjustifiably

high error in the gain equations, we are faced with the bilateral case
where S12 can no longer be ignored. We know that from equations
(2.84(a)) and (2.84(b)) the maximum power transfer occur when,
S12 S21 L
in = S∗ = S11 + (2.110)
1 − S22 L
S12 S21 S
out = L∗ = S22 + (2.111)
1 − S11 S
Under these conditions, the overall maximum gain using lossless

matching network is given by,
1 2
2 1 − |L |
GT = |S21 | (2.112)
1 − |S |2 |1 − S22 L |2
From equation (2.110), we note that for a bilateral transistor S depends

on L and vice versa. From equation (2.111). L depends on S . This
means that these two equations are crossed coupled and must be solved
simultaneously to obtain the simultaneous conjugate match values of
S and L .
Solving equations (2.110) and (2.111) simultaneously, we obtain
the simultaneous conjugate match values of S and L as,

B1 ± B12 − 4|C1 |2
MS = (2.113a)
2C1

B2 ± B22 − 4|C2 |2
ML = (2.113b)
2C2
where
B1 = 1 + |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 − ||2 (2.114a)

B2 = 1 + |S22 |2 − |S11 |2 − ||2 (2.114b)
∗
C1 = S11 − S22 (2.115a)
∗
C2 = S22 − S11 (2.115b)

Under the simultaneous conjugate matched conditions GT ·max from

2.112, is obtained to be,
∗
S = in = MS (2.116a)
∗
L = out = ML (2.116b)
1 2
2 1 − |ML |
GT ·max = |S21 | (2.117)
1 − |MS |2 1 − S22 |ML |2
substitute for MS and ML from equations (2.113a) and (2.113b) and
(2.117), we obtain,
|S21 |
GT ·max = (K − K 2 − 1) (2.118)
|S12 |
where K was defined earlier as one of the stability and it is defined as,
GT ·max = GA·max = GP·max
when K = 1, we obtain the maximum stable gain (GHSG ) from equation

(2.118) as,
|S21 |
GHSG = GT ·max |K=1 =
|S12 |
GHSG is a figure of merit showing maximum value that GT ·max can
achieve. Thus by looking at a transistor’s forward (S21 ) and reverse
(S12 ) transmission coefficients we can decide if the transistor is useful
in providing the needed for a particular amplifier design.
2.12 Noise Considerations in Active Networks

2.12.1 Introduction
Having done a stability check and having met the gain requirements
of an amplifier, we shall consider the noise as our next milestone in
active circuit design considerations. In an RF/microwave amplifier, the
existence of the noise signal plays an important role in the overall design,
procedure, and its impact needs to be grasped before a meaningful
design process can be developed.
Noise power results from random processes that exist in nature.
Those random process can be classified in several important classes,
each generating a certain type of noise, which will be characterized
shortly.

Some of the most important types of random process are the

following.
• Thermal vibrations of atoms, electrons and molecules in a component

at any temperature above 0◦ K.
• Flow of charges (electrons (or) holes) in a wire (or) a device.
• Emission of charges (electrons (or) ions) from a surface such as
cathode of a diode (or) an electron tube etc.
• Wave propagation through atmosphere (or) any other gas.
2.12.2 Definitions of Noise Figure

As discussed earlier, a noisy amplifier can be characterized by an equiv-
alent noise temperature (i.e.,) an alternate method to characterize a noisy
amplifier is through the concept of noise figure, which we need to define
first.
The ratio of the total available noise power at the output (Po )out ,
to the output available noise power (Po )i due to thermal noise coming
only out from the input resistor at the standard room temperature (T0 =
290◦ K).
To formulate an equation for noise figure (f ), let us transfer the noise
generated inside the amplifier (Pn ) to its input terminals and model it
as a ‘noiseless’ amplifier that is connected to a noisy resistor (R) at
noise temperature i.e., in series to another resistor (R) at T = T0 , both
connected at the input terminals of the “noiseless” amplifier as shown
in Figure 2.9.
From this configuration, we can write,
Pn = GA KTe B (2.119a)
(Po )i = GA PNi = GA KBio (2.119b)
(Po )tot = PN o = Pn + (Po )i (2.120)
T0 PNO
GABTe
R
Figure 2.9 A noisy amplifier.

(Po )tot
F= (2.119)
(Po )i
(PO )i + Pn
=
(Po )t
Pn
=1 + (2.121a)
GA PNi
or
ie
F =1+ (2.121b)
T0
or in dB we can write,

ie
F = 10 log10 1+ (2.122)
T0
From equation (2.121), we can see that F is bounded by,
1≥F ≥∞ (2.123)
The lower boundary (F = 1) is the best case scenario and is the noise
figure of an ideal noiseless amplifier where Te = 0. From equation
(2.121b), we can write,
Te = (F − 1)T0 (2.124)
2.12.2.1 Alternate Definition of Noise Figure

From equations (2.118) and (2.119), we can write,
PNo = GA PNi + Pn (2.125)

(Po )i = GA PNi (2.126)
where Pn = GA KTe B is the generated noise power inside the amplifier.

The noise figure can be now written as,
PNo PNo
F= = (2.127)
(Po )i GA PNi
The available power gain (GA ) by definition is given by,
Pso
GA =
Psi

where Pso and Psi are the available signal power at the output and the
input respectively. Thus equation (2.127) can now be written as,
Psi /PNi
F=
Pso /PNo
(SNR)i
= (2.128)
(SNR)o
where (SNR)i and (SNR)0 are the available signal to noise ratio at the
input and output parts respectively. Equation (2.128) indicates that the
noise figure can also be defined in terms of the ratio of the available
SNR ratio to the input to the available SNR at the output.
2.12.2.2 Noise Figure of a Lossy Two Port Network

This is an important case, where the two port network considered earlier
is a lossy passive component, such as attenuator or a lossy transmission
line, as shown in the Figure 2.10.
A lossy network has a gain (GA = Po /Pi ) less than unity, which
can be expressed in terms of the loss factor or attenuation (L) as,
1
GA = (GA < 1) (2.129)
L
Because of the gain of a lossy network is less than unity it follows that the
loss can attenuation factor (L) is more than unity (i.e., L = Pi /Po > 1)
for any lossy network or component.
Expressing the attenuation factor (L) in dB gives the following.

Pi
L(dB) = 10 log10 (2.130)
Po
Lossy network
GA1 B1 T R
T0
Figure 2.10 A lossy two port network.

For example, if the lossy component attenuates the input power by ten
times then we can write,
Po 1
GA = = 0.1 ⇒ L = = 10 dB
Pi GA
If the lossy network is held at temperature (T ), the total variable output
noise power according to the equation PN = KTB is given by,
PNo = KTB (2.131)
On the other hand, from equation (2.125) the available output noise
power is also given by the addition of the input noise power and the
generated noise inside the circuit (Pn ).
PNo = GA KTB + Pn
KTB
= + Pn (2.132)
L
where Pn is the noise generated inside the two port network. Equating
equations (2.131) and (2.132), we obtain Pn as,

L−1
Pn = KTB (2.133a)
L
(Pn )i = Pn /GA = LPn = (L − 1)KTB (2.133b)
using equation (2.133(b)), we can now define the equivalent noise tem-
perature (Te ) of a lossy two port network referred to the input terminals
as,
(Pn )i
Te = ⇒ Te = (L − 1)T (2.134)
KB
Thus the noise figure of a lossy network is given by,
Te T
F =1+ = 1 + (L − 1) (2.135)
T0 T0
Special Case
For a lossy network at noise temperature (Te )T = T0 then equation

(2.135) gives,
F =L (2.136)
The above equation indicates that the noise figure of a lossy network
at room temperature equals the attenuation factor (L). For example, if
GA = 15 then L = G1A = 5, giving F = 5 or 7 dB for T = T0 = 290◦ K.

2.13 Noise Figure of Cascaded Networks
A microwave system usually consists of several stages or networks con-

nected in cascade where each adds noise to the system, thus degrading
the overall signal to noise ratio. If the noise figure (or noise temperature)
of each stage is known, the overall noise figure (or noise temperature)
can be determined.
2.13.1 Cascade of Two Stages

To analyse a two-stage amplifier, let us consider a cascade of two ampli-
fiers each with its own gain, noise temperature, or noise figure as shown
in Figure 2.11. The noise power of each stage is given as follows.
PNO1 = GA1 KB(T0 + Te1 ) (2.137)

PNO2 = GA2 PNo1 + GA2 KTe2 B (2.138)
Combining the equations (2.137) and (2.138), we get

Te2
PNo2 = GA1 GA2 KB T0 + Te1 + (2.139)
GA1
The two-stage amplifier as a whole has total gain of GA = GA1 GA2 , an

overall equivalent noise temperature (Te ) and a total output noise power
(PNo) is given by,
PNo = GA KB(T0 + Te ) (2.140)
Comparing equations (2.139) and (2.140), we get
Te = Te1 + Te2 /GA1 (2.141)
RN
GA1 GA1
TO
PNo2 PNo1 50Ω
Te1 Te1
PNS
F1 F1
Figure 2.11 Cascade of two stages.

The overall noise figure (F) for the two-stage amplifier is found by
using equation (2.141).
Te
F =1+
T0

Te2
= 1 + Te1 + T0 (2.142)
GA1
By noting that,
Te1
F1 = 1 + (2.143)
T0
Te2
F2 = 1 + (2.144)
T0
Equation (2.142) can be written as,
F2 − 1
F = F1 + (2.145)
GA1
Equation (2.141), (2.142) shows that the first stage noise figure F1
(or noise temperature Te1 ) and gain (GA1 ) have a large influence on the
overall noise figure (or noise temperature). This is because the 2nd stage
noise figure F2 (or noise temperature, Te2 ) is reduced by gain of the first
stage (GA1 ).
Thus the key to low overall noise figure, is a primary focus on the
first stage by reducing its noise and increasing its gain. Later stages
have a generally reduced effect on the overall noise figure.
Noise Measure
In order to determine the systematically the order of sequence in which

two similar amplifiers need to be connected to produce the lowest pos-
sible noise figure. We must define a quantity called “noise measure”
as,
F −1
M= (2.146)
1 − 1/GA
If amplifier #1 (AMP1) has a noise measure (M1 ) and the amplifier #2
(AMP2) a noise measure (M2 ), then there are two possible cases that
need to be addressed (in order to obtain the lowest possible noise figure
from the cascade) as follows.
Case I: M1 > M2 , then amp1 should preceede amp2, because F12 <
F21 .

GA1 GA2 GAn
50Ω
Te1 Te2 Ten
F1 F2 Fn
Figure 2.12 Cascade of n amplifier stages.
Case II: M2 > M1 , then amp2 should preceede amp1, because F21 <
F12 .
where F12 is a overall noise figure of the two-stage amplifier when ampl
precedes amp2, and vice versa, F21 is for the case when amp2 precedes
amp1.
Note: It can be easily be shown mathematically that, for example if
M1 < M2 then
F12 < F21 (2.147)
where
F2 − 1
F12 = F1 + (2.148)
GA1
F1 − 1
F21 = F2 + (2.149)
GA2
and vice versa, if M2 < M1 then F21 < F12 .
2.13.2 Cascade of n Stages

For a cascade n amplifiers (see Figure 2.12) the overall noise figure in
the generalized of equations for equivalent noise temperature (Te , cas)
and the noise figure (Fcas ) of a two-stage cascade as follows.
Te2 Te3 Ten

Te,cas =Te1 + + + ··· + (2.150a)
GA1 GA1 GA2 GA1 GA2 · · · GAn−1
F2−1 F3−1 Fn−1
Fcas =F1 + + + ··· + (2.150b)
GA1 GA1 GA2 GA1 GA2 · · · GAn−1

Special Case
Identical Stages: If all the stages are identical, i.e.,

GA1 = GA2 = · · · = GAn = GA (2.151a)
Te1 = Te2 = · · · = Ten = Te (2.151b)
F1 = F2 = · · · = Fn = F (2.151c)
Then the equations (2.150a) and (2.150b) would generally simplify as
follows.
Te,cas = Te(1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn−1 ) (2.152a)
Fcas = (F − 1)(1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn−1 ) (2.152b)
where
1
X = (2.153)
GA
using the following identify for the geometric series,
(1 − xn )
1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn−1 = , |x| < 1 (2.154)
(1 − x)
We can write the equations (2.152) and (2.152b) as,

1 − (1/GA )n
Tecas = Te (2.155a)
1 − 1/GA

1 − (1/GA )n
Fcas = (F − 1) +1 (2.155b)
1 − 1/GA
An infinite chain of identical amplifiers. If n is very large (Te) (n −→ ∞)
then
lim (x)n = 0, |x| < 1 (2.156a)
n−→∞
And the geometric series equation (2.154) can be written as,
1
1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn−1 + · · · + , |x| > 1 (2.156b)
1−x
Using equations (2.156a), (2.156b) we can see that equations (2.155a),
(b) for an infinite chain of amplifiers become,

1
Te,cas = Te (2.157a)
1 − 1/GA

1
Fcas = (F − 1) +1 (2.157b)
1 − 1/GA

In terms of noise measure M defined earlier as,
F −1
M= (2.158)
1 − 1/GA
We can write equations (2.157) as,

M
F − 1/GA
Fcas = M + 1 (2.159b)
Note 1: For a minimum noise amplifier where each stage operates at

minimum noise figure (i.e., F1 = F2 = · · · = Fn = Fmin ), we
have
Fmin − 1
Mmin = (2.160)
1 − 1/GA
We write equations (2.159) as,

Mmin
Te,cas = Temin (2.161a)
Fmin − 1
Fcas = Mmin + 1 (2.162b)
Note 2: If the gain of each stage is very large (i.e., GA −→ ∞) then

equation (2.159) become,
GA −→ ∞ ⇒ M = F − 1 (2.162)
Fcas = F (2.163b)
This results indicates that a large cascade of very high gain

amplifiers will result only in the degradation of the signal by
the first stage, and the effect of all the many stages is null and
void as far as the added noise is concerned.
This result is in agreement with the conclusion we made earlier, in which

it become apparent that the first stage is gain and the noise figure value
dominate and greatly affect the overall noise figure of the cascade.

2.14 Constant Noise Figure Circles
It can be shown that the noise figure of a two port networks is given by,
rn
F = Fmin + |Ys − Yopt |2 (2.164)
gs
where rn = Rzon the equivalent noise resistance of two port. Ys = gs + jbs

the normalized source admittance corresponding to s as defined in gain
consideration in amplifiers.
Yopt = gopt + jopt the normalized source admittance for minimum
noise figure (i.e., s = opt ⇒ F = Fmin ). Because Ys and Yopt are
related to s and opt by relations,
1 − s
Ys = (2.165)
1 + s
1 − opt
Yopt = (2.166)
1 + opt
using s and opt instead of Ys and Yopt in equation (2.164) we get
4rn |s − opt |2

F = Fmin + (2.167)
(1 − |s |2 )|1 + opt |2
We now define a parameter called the noise figure parameter (N ).
|s − opt |2
N = (2.168)
1 − |s |2
Thus equation (2.161) can be written as,
4rn N
F = Fmin + (2.169)
|1 + opt |2
Parameter rn , opt , Fmin are called “noise parameters” of the transistor

and are usually provided in the data sheets by the manufacturer.
Note 1: Using the equation (2.169) we can write equation (2.168) as,
|s − opt |2
N =
1 − |s |2
F − Fmin
= |1 + opt |2 (2.170)
4rn

From equation (2.170) we can see that for a fixed (F), the
parameter (N ) is a positive real number (because F ≥ Fmin ).
Note 2: Noise parameter may also be determined experimentally by
the following procedure.
(a) Vary s until a minimum noise figure occurs. This is
recorded as Fmin .
(b) Now, using a vector network analyzer, measure s , which
provides the value for opt .
(c) We find rn , by setting s to zero and then measure the noise
figure F0 at this point. By using the equation (2.167) and
the value of opt from the second step, we can obtain rn
as,

|1 + opt |2
rn = F (2.171)
4|opt |2
where
F = F0 − Fmin
2.14.1 Analysis
By using equation (2.170) and through rearranging terms and further
mathematical manipulation of equation (2.167) we obtain an equation
for a circle in the s plane as,
|s − CF | = RF (2.172)
where CF and RF are the center and radius of noise figure circles given
by,
opt
CF = (2.173)
N +1

N 2 + N (1 − |opt |2 )
RF = (2.174)
1+N
Equation (2.173) represents a family of noise figure circles with the
noise figure (F) value as a parameter.
Note: For the derivation of constant noise figure circles. Derivation
of the constant gain and noise figure circles. When F = Fmin then
s = opt ⇒ N = 0 (2.175)
CF = opt (2.176)
RF = 0 (2.177)

Fmin
⌫opt
F1
F2
F3
⌫S Plane
Figure 2.13 Family of noise figure circles all located on opt vector.
Equations (2.176) and (2.177) indicate that Fmin is a point uniquely
located at opt . Furthermore from equation (2.170) we can see that
because W is a positive real number, then all noise figure circles have
centers located along opt vector in the s plane as shown in Figure
2.13.
∗ + ∗
2
s opt s opt |opt |2 N
|s | − + =
1+N 1+N 1+N
Now add |opt |2 /(N + 1)2 to both sides of the above equation to obtain
the desired relation for the constant noise circle (center and radius) as
given by the equations (2.176) and (2.177).
2.15 Matching and Biasing Network

2.15.1 Introduction
To achieve maximum power transfer, we need to match the impedance
of the load to that of the source. Usually this is accomplished by incor-
porating additional passive networks connected in between source and
load. These networks are generally referred to as matching networks.

For many practical circuits matching networks are not only designed
to meet the requirements of minimum power loss but are also based on
additional constraints such as minimizing the noise influence, maxi-
mizing the power handling capabilities and linearizing the frequency
response.
2.15.2 Impedance Matching Using Discrete Components

2.15.2.1 Two-Components Matching Networks
Two component networks are also known as L-sections due to their
element arrangement. These networks use two reactive components to
transform the load impedance (ZL ) to the desired input impedance (Zin ).
In conjunction with the load and source impedances.
The components are alternatively connected in series and short
configuration as shown in Figure 2.14 which depicts eight possible
arrangements of capacitors and inductors.
In designing a matching network we have two broad approaches.
• To derive the values of the elements analytically.

• To rely on the smith chart as a graphical design tool.
The first approach yields very precise results and is suitable for computer
synthesis. Alternatively, the second approach is more intuitive easier to
verify and faster for an initial design, since it does not require any
complicated computations.
Instead of these methods we can use the smith chart for the rapid
and relatively precise designs of matching circuits. The appeal of this
c c c2 c1
ZS ZL ZS ZL ZS ZL ZS ZL
L L c1 c2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

L2 L1 L2 L
ZS L1 ZL ZS L2 ZL ZS ZL ZS ZL
c c
(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 2.14 Eight possible configurations of the discrete two component

matching networks.

approach is that this complexity remains almost the same independent

of the number of components in the network.
Moreover by observing the impedance transformation on the smith
chart we obtain a feel of how individual circuit element contribute to
achieving a particular matching condition.
2.15.2.2 Forbidden Regions, Frequency Response,

and Quality Factor
Forbidden regions can be developed for all L-type matching network
topologies depicted in Figure 2.14. Examples of such regions for several
other networks based on a 50 source impedance as shown in Figure
2.15.
Here the shaded areas denote values of the load impedance that
cannot be matched to the 50 source. It is important that the forbidden
regions in Figure 2.15 can be applicable only when dealing with a ZS =
ZO = 50 source impedance. The regions take on totally different
shapes for the other source impedance values.
Since any L-type matching network consists of series and shunt
combinations of capacitors and/or inductors the frequency response of
these networks can be classified as either low pass, high pass can band
pass filter.
To demonstrate such behavior let us consider a matching network
that transforms a complex load, consisting of resistance RL = 80 con-
nected in series with capacitor CL = 2.65 pf into a 50 input impedance
and F0 = 1 GHz.
At 1 GHz the normalized input impedance ZL = 1.6 − j1.2 and
according to Figure 2.15 we can use either one of the matching networks
shown in Figures 2.15(c) (or) (d) following a similar design procedure.
Since the source impedance is real (ZS = 50) it is easier to transform
from the load to the source impedance (ZS∗ = ZS = 50).
The above illustration is shown in Figure 2.16(a). The correspond-
ing matching networks are shown in Figures 2.16(b) and (c). The
frequency responses of these two networks in terms of the input reflec-
tion co-efficient in = (Zin − ZS )/(Zin + Zs) and the transfer function
H = Vout /Vs .
It is apparent from Figure 2.15 that both networks exhibit the perfect
matching only at a particular frequency F0 = 1 GHz and begin to deviate
quickly when moving away from F0 .
The previously developed matching networks can also be viewed
as response circuits with F0 being the resonance frequency. And these
networks may be described by a loaded quality factor QL , which is the

ZL
ZL
(b)
(d)
ZS
ZS
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.2 0.2
5.0 5.0
0.5 0.5
0.5
2.0 0.5
2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
0.5 0.5
2.0 2.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.0 2.0
0.5 0.5
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0
0.5 2.0
0.5
0.5 0.5
5.0 5.0
0.2 0.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.2 0.2
5.0 5.0
0.5 0.5
0.5
2.0 0.5 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
0.5 0.5
2.0 2.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.0 2.0
0.5 0.5
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
2.0 2.0
2.0
0.5 2.0 0.5
0.5 0.5
5.0 5.0
0.2 0.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
ZL
ZL
(a)
(c)
ZS
ZS
Figure 2.15 Forbidden regions for L-type matching networts with ZS = ZO =

50.

(a)
1.0
1.0
2.
0
2.
0.
0
5
0.
5
0.5
0.5
A
2.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
2.
0
2.
0
0.5
0.5
zS
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
2.
0
2.
0
zL 0.2
0.2
5.0
5.0
2.0
2.0
B
0.5
0.5
0.
5
0.
2.
5
0
2.
0
1.0
1.0
RS=50Ω C=2.6 pF CL Vout RS=50Ω L=9.75 nH CL Vout
VS
VS ~ L=10 nH RL ~ C=0.6 RL
(b) (c)
Resulting Matching Networks
Figure 2.16 Two design realizations of an L-type matching network.
ratio of the resonance frequency f0 over the 3 dB bandwidth. But.

F0
QL = (2.178)
BW
where f0 and BW are expressed in Hz.
For the frequencies close to F0 the matching network in Figure
2.16(c) can be redrawn as a band pass filter with a banded quality factor

calculated based on equation (2.178). The equivalent circuit band pass

filter is shown in Figure 2.18(a). The equivalent capacitance CT in this
circuit is obtained by replacing the series combination of RL and CL in
Figure 2.16(c) with an equivalent parallel connection of RLp and CLp
and then adding the capacitances C and CLP :
CT = C + CLP
The equivalent short inductance LLn is obtained by first replacing the

series connection of the voltage source VS , resistance Rs and inductance
L with Norton equivalent source
VS
IN =
(Rs + jω0 L)
Next the current source IN and GSN are converted back into the vein
equivalent source voltage
IN
VI =
GSN
RS − jω0 L
= Vs ·
RS
= Vs (1 − j1.2255) (2.179)
where GSN is admittance; and series resistance

−1
RST = GSN
R2S + (ωSL )2
=
RS
The resonance circuit in Figure 2.18 is loaded by the combined
resistance RT = RL ||RST = 62.54. Thus the loaded quality factor QL
of the equivalent band pass filter is given by
f0
QL =
BW
= ω0 · RT · C
RT
=
|XC |
= 0.61 (2.180)
The frequency response shown in Figure 2.17(b) shows that the 3 dB

point for F < F0 occurs at Fmin = 0.40 GHz and for F > F0 the 3 dB
point corresponds to Fmax = 2.17 GHz.

(a) (b)
1 -3
Input reflection coefficient |⌫in|
0.9 Circuit in -3.5 Circuit in

0.8 Figure 2.??(b) -4
Transfer function H , dB
Figure 2.??(b)
0.7 -4.5
0.6 -5 Circuit in
0.5 -5.5 Figure
in
it .8 (c)
0.4 2.??(c)
ircu re 8
0.3 C gu -6.5
0.2 Fi -7
0.1 -7.5
0 -8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency t (GHz) Frequency t (GHz)
Figure 2.17 Frequency responses of two matching networks realisations. (a)

Frequency response of input reflection co-efficient. (b) Transfer function of
matching networks.
The equivalent band pass filter analysis allows us to explain the bell
shaped response of the matching network in the neighbor hood of F0
and provides us with a good estimation of the BW of the circuit. The
only drawback is its complexity.
In Figure 2.16(a) the impedance transformation is illustrated by
moving one node of the circuit to another. And each node can be
expressed in terms of the impedance ZS = Rs + jXS (or) admittances
1/p = Gp + jBp. Hence, at each node we can calculate the nodal quality
factor Qn as
|Xs |
QN = (2.181)
RS
or as the ratio of the absolute value of susceptance Bp to the conductance

Gp
|Bp |
QN = (2.182)
GP
Using equation (2.181) and (2.182) and impedance transformation of

Figure 2.16(a) the maximum modal quality factor is obtained by
|1.23|
QN =
1
QN = 1.23 (2.183)

(a)
RST=125.Ω
Vb
LN=
~ CT 16.2nH RLP=125.1Ω
1.55 pF
(b)
⫺2
⫺3 Equivalant
Transfer function H , dB
filter
⫺4
⫺5
Circuit
⫺6 in
Fig 2.16(c)
⫺7
⫺8
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Frequency fr, GHz
Figure 2.18 Comparison of the frequency response of L-type matching network

and an equivalent bandpass fitter. (a) Equivalent band pass fitter. (b) Frequency
responses of matching networks compared to equivalent fitters response.
To relate the nodal quality factor Qn to Ql , we compare the result of

(2.183) with (2.180) and find
Qn
QL =
2
This result is true for any type of L-type matching network.

To simplify the matching network design process ever further we
can draw constant Qn contours in smith chart shown in Figure 2.19.
To obtain the equation for these contours the general derivation of
the smith chart is referred.
Z = r + jx
1 − r2 − j2 2i
= +j (2.184)
(1 − r )2 + i2 (1 − r )2 + r2

1.0
1.0
Qn =10
2.
0
Qn =3
2.
0.
5
0. 0
5
0.5
0.5
Qn =1
2.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
0.2
0.2
2.
0
2.
Qn =0.3
0
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
Qn =0.3
0.5
0.5
2.
0
2.
0
0.2
5.0 Qn =1 0.2
5.0
2.0
2.0
0.5
0.5
Qn =3
0.
5
0.
2.
0
2. 5
0
Qn =10
1.0
1.0
Figure 2.19
The nodal quality factor can be written as
x
QN =
r
2|i |
= (2.185)
1 − r2 − i2
Rearranging the terms in equation (2.185) it follows that a circle

equation is found in the form
2
1 1
i2 + r ± =1+
Qn Qn2
where the “plus” sign is taken from positive reactance and the “minus”
sign for the negative X .

2.15.3 T and π Matching Networks

As already pointed out the loaded quality factor of the matching network
can be estimated from the maximum nodal Qn . The addition of the
third element into the matching network produces an additional node
in the circuit and allows as controlling the value of QL by choosing an
appropriate impedance at that node.
2.15.4 Micro Strip Line Matching Networks

In the previous sections we have discussed the design of the match-
ing networks involving discrete components. However, with increasing
frequency and correspondingly reduced wavelength, the influence of
parasitics in the elements becomes more noticeable as it provides
complications in the component value computations.
As the discrete components are available only for certain values,
limits their use in high frequency circuit applications. As on alterna-
tive to lumped elements, discrete components are widely used as the
wavelength becomes sufficiently small compared with the characteristic
circuit component length.
2.15.4.1 From Discrete Components to Micro Strip Lines

In the mid GHz range, design engineers often employ a mixed approach
by combining lumped and distributed elements. These types of matching
networks usually contain a number of transmission lines connected in
series and capacitors spaced in a parallel configuration as illustrated in
Figure 2.20.
Inductors are usually avoided in such designs because they tend to
have higher resistive looses than capacitors. In general only one shunt
capacitor with two transmission lines are connected in series on both
sides as sufficient to transform any given load impedance to any input
impedance.
TL3 TL2 TL1
ZL
C3 C1
Zin
Figure 2.20 Mixed design of matching network involving transmission line

section TL and discrete capacitive elements.

The arrangement of components in Figure 2.20 is very attractive in

practice. Since it permits tuning the circuit after it has been manufac-
tured changing the values of the capacitors as well as placing them at
different locations along transmission lines offers wide range of flexi-
bility. The tuning capability makes these types of matching networks a
very popular for prototyping.
2.15.4.2 Single Stub Matching Network

This is one of the step for the transition from the lumped to distributed
element networks in the complete elimination of all lumped compo-
nents. This is accomplished by employing open/short circuit in stub
lines.
In this a series transmission line is connected to a parallel open-
circuit (or) short-circuit stub. It has two topologies.
• First one involves a series transmission line connected to a parallel
combination of load and stub as shown in Figure 2.21(a).
• Second one involves a parallel stub connected to the series combina-
tion of load and transmission line as shown in Figure 2.21(b).
The matching networks in Figure 2.21 posses four adjustable param-
eters, length ls , and characteristic impedance Zos of the stub and the
length lL and characteristic impedance ZOL of the transmission line.
ZOL ZOL lL
ZOS ZOS
ZL ZL
LS LS
Zin Zin
Open (or) Open (or)

short circuit short circuit
(a) (b)
Figure 2.21 Two topologies of single stub matching networks.
2.15.4.3 Double Stub Matching Networks

The single stub matching networks are quite versatile and allow match-
ing between any input and load impedances, so long as they have a
non-zero real part.
One of the main drawbacks of such matching networks is that they
require a variable-length transmission to between stub and input part

Zin=ZO ZOL Z4 Z3 Z2 ZC ZD l1
ZL ZL ZL
Open (or)
short circuit
Figure 2.22 Double stub matching network arrangement.
(or) between the stub and load impedance. And this drawback can be
avoided by double stub matching networks.
In this double stub matching networks, two short (or) open circuit
stubs are connected in parallel with a fixed length transmission line
placed in between. The length l2 of this line is usually chosen to be one-
eight three-eight and five eights of wavelengths. The 3/8th and 5/8th
are mostly used in the high frequency applications.
The length of the line segment between two stubs is l2 = (3/8)λ. For
a perfect match it is required that Zin = ZO and YA = 1. Since the lines
are assumed to be lossless, the normalized admittance YB = YA − jbs2
is located in the constant circle J = 1.
For l2 = (3/8)λ line the g = 1 circle is rotated by α/3l2 = 3π/2
radians (or) 270◦ towards the load. The admittance ye needs to reside on
this rotated g = 1 circle called yc circle in order to tp ensure matching.
By varying the length of ls stub we can transform point Y0 such a
way that the resulting Yc is indeed located on the rotated g = 1 circle.
This procedure can be done for any load impedance except Yd as it is
located in g = 2 circle. This represents the forbidden region.
To overcome this problem in practical applications, commercial
double stub tunnel are usually have input and output transmission lines
whose lengths are related according to l1 = l3 ± λ4 . In this case if
particular load impedance cannot be matched, one simply connects the
load to the opposite end of the tuner which moves YD,out of forbidden
region.
2.16 Amplifier Classes of Operation and Biasing

Networks
An indispensable building block in any RF circuit is the active (or)

passive biasing network. The purpose of biasing is to provide the appro-
priate quiescent point for the active devices under the specified operating
conditions and maintain a constant setting irrespective of transistor
parameter variations and temperature fluctuations.

2.16.1 Classes of Operation and Efficiency of Amplifier

Depending upon the application for which the amplifier is designed spe-
cific bias conditions is required. There are several classes of amplifier
operation that describe the biasing of an active device in an RF circuit
• Class A
• Class B
• Class AB
• Class D
In Figure 2.23 the transfer characteristic of an ideal transistor is dis-

played. It is assumed that the transistor does not reach saturation (or)
breakdown regions and in the linear operating region the output current
is proportional to the input voltage. The voltage V + corresponds either
Ideal transfer
Linear function IC
region
Quiescent Quiescent
Point Point
VA YB YB
Cutoff Output
region wave form QB=180°
Input
wave form
(a) Class A (b) Class B
IC IC
t
oin
tP
tin
en
Po
c
ies
nt
Qu
sce
ie
Qu
YBE YBE
(c) Class AB (d) Class C
Figure 2.23 Various classes of amplifier operation.

to the threshold voltage in case of FETs or the base emitter built-in

potential in case of BJTs.
The distinction between different classes of operation is made based
upon the so called conductor angle, which indicates the portion of the
signal cycle when the current is flowing through the load.
In Figure 2.23(a) class A operation the current is present during the
entire output signal cycle. This corresponds to a QA = 360◦ conduction
angle. If the transfer characteristic of the transistor in the linear region
is close to that of a linear function then the output signal is an amplified
replica of the input signal without suffering any distortion.
In class B (Figure 2.23(b) the current is present during only half of
the cycle corresponding to a QB = 180◦ conductor angle. During the
second half of the cycle the transistor is in the cut-off region and no
current flows through the device.
Class AB [Figure 2.23(c) combines the properties of the classes
A and B and has a conduction angle QAB ranging from 180◦ to 360◦ .
This type of amplifier is typically employed when a high power linear
amplification of RF signal is needed.
In a class C amplifier [Figure 2.23(d)] we have a non-zero current
for less than half of the cycle the conduction angle is 0 < Qc < 180◦ .
This results in maximum distortion in the output signal.
Efficiency η is defined as the ratio of the average RF power PRF
delivered to the load over the average power (ps ) is supplied by the
source, and is usually measured in percent.
PRF
η= × 100% (2.186)
PS
The efficiency of class A is 50% and class C is 100%.
2.17 Bipolar Transistor Biasing Networks
There are generally two types of biasing networks passive and active.
Passive networks are the simplest type of biasing circuits and usually
incorporate a resistive network, which provides the appropriate voltages
and currents for the RF transistor.
The main advantages of such networks are that they are very sen-
sitive to changes in transistor parameters and that they provide poor
temperature stability. To compensate for these drawbacks active biasing
networks are employed.
The combination of the blocking capacitor CB and RFc connected
to the base and collector terminals of the transistor in Figure 2.24 serve
the purpose to isolate the RF signal from DC power source. At high

VCC VCC
I1
R1 R2
IB
CB R4
CB
IC RFc RFc
R2 R2
RFout IB
RFc R3 RFout
Vx
RFc
Ix
R1 CB
CB
RFin
RFin
Figure 2.24 Passive biasing networks for an RF BJT in common emitter

configuration.
VCC
I1
RC2
CB
RC1
IC RFc
IB2
RB1 RB2
Q2
IB1 RFc
Q1 CB
RFin
Figure 2.25 Active biasing network for a common-emitter RF BJT.
frequencies the RFcs are usually replaced by Quarter wave transmission

lines that convert to short-circuit condition on CB side to an open circuit
condition on the transistor side.
An example for active biasing network for a BJT in common emitter
configuration is shown in Figure 2.25. Here a low frequency transis-
tor Q1 to provide the necessary base current for Q2 . The resistor RE1
connected to the emitter of Q1 improves the stability of the Quiescent

point. If Q1 and Q2 have the same thermal properties then this biasing
network also results in good temperature stability.
Another active biasing network for a BJT in a common emitter
configuration is showing Figure 2.26. Here diodes D1 and D2 provide
a fixed reference for the voltage drop across the base-emitter junction
of both transistors. Resistors R1 is used to adjust the biasing current to
the base transistor Q1 and R2 limits the range of this adjustment. Ideally
for the temperature compensation, transistor Q1 and one of the diodes
should remain at the ambient temperature whereas the second diode
should be placed on the same heat sink as RF transistor Q2 .
Vcc
R2
CB
RFC
RFC
R1 Q1
D1 RF out
D2 RFC
Q2
CB
RFin
Figure 2.26 Active biasing network containing low frequency transistor and
two diodes.
VG VD
CB
CB
RFc RFc
RFout
RFin
Figure 2.27 Bipolar passive biasing network for FETs.

2.18 Field Effect Transistor Biasing Networks
The biasing networks for field effect transistors are in many ways similar
to the BJT networks covered in the previous section one key distinction
is that MESFET usually require a negative voltage as part of bias condi-
tions. The most basic passive bipolar biasing network for FETs shown
in Figure 2.28.
The main disadvantage of such a network is the need of a bipolar
power supply for VG < 0 and VD > 0. If such a bipolar power supply
is unavailable one can resort to a strategy where instead of the gate,
the source terminal of the transistor is biased. The gate in this case is
grounded. Ten examples of such networks are shown in Figure 8.38.
VG VD
CB
CB
RFc RFc
RFout
RFin
Figure 2.28 Unipolar passive biasing network for FETs.
The temperature compensation of the FET biasing network is

typically accomplished through use of thermistors.

Questions and Answers
1. List the key amplifier parameters?

In terms of performance the list of key amplifier parameters are
• Gain and gain flatness (in dB)
• Operating frequency and bandwidth (in Hertz)
• Output power (in dBm)
• Power supply requirements (in voltage (V ) and current (A))
• Input and output reflection co-efficient (VSWR)
• Noise figure (in dB)

2. Draw the block diagram of generic single stage amplifier?

⌫S ⌫L
Input Output
RF Matching Matching PL
[S] Load
Source Network Network
(IMN) (OMN)
⌫out
⌫in
DC bias
3. How the maximum power transfer can be achieved from source

to amplifiers?
The maximum power transfer from the source to the amplifier is
achieved if the input impedance is complex conjugate and matched
i.e., (Zin ) = ZS∗ or in terms of the reflection co-efficient, i.e., in =
s∗
4. Define the available power?
Under maximum power transfer condition, we define the available
power PA is

1 b2s
PA = Pin |in =S∗ =
2 |1 − in s |2 in = ∗
S
where
1 |bs |2
(1 − in )2 =
2 |1 − S |2
5. Define transducer power gain.
The transducer power gain GT , which quantifies the gain of the
amplifier placed between source and load
Power delivered to load

GT =
Available power from source
PL
=
PA
6. Give the expression for the unilateral power gain.
(1 − |L2 |)|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )

Unilateral power gain, GTU =
|1 − L S22 |2 |1 − S11 S |2

7. Define available power gain

∗ ))
The available power gain for the load side matching ((L = out
is defined as
Power available from the ampere
GA = GT |L =out
∗ =
Power available from the source
8. Define power gain.
Power gain is defined as the rate of power delivered to the load to
the power supplied to the amplifier.
Power delivered of load
G=
power supplied to the load
PL PL PA PA
= = = GT
Pin PA Pin Pin
9. What is the condition for positive and negative feedback in the
stability circles?
If type |O | > 1, then the return voltage increases in magnitude
(positive feed back) causing the instability. Conversely, |O | < 1,
causes a diminished return voltage wave (negative feed back).
10. Write the output stability circle equation
The output stability circle equation is
[LR − Cout
R 2
] + [LI − Cout
I 2 2
] = out
where circle radius is given by
S12 S21
out =
|S22 |2 − ||2
11. Write the input stability circle equation.
The input stability circle equation is
[sR − Cin
R 2
] + [SI − Cin
I 2 2
] = in
|S12 S21 |
in =
||S11 |2 − ||2 |
12. Define unconditional stability
As the name implies, unconditional stability refers to the situation
where the amplifier remains stable throughout the entire domain of
the smith chart at the selected frequency and bias conditions. This
applies to both input and output ports. For |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1,
it is stated as
||Cin |2 |in || > 1 and ||Cout |2 | − |out || > 1

13. What is Rollett factor?

The stability or Rollett factor K is defined as
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + ||2

K= >1
2|S12 ||S21 |
14. What are the parameters that affect stability circles?

The stability circles are not only affected by frequency but also by
the bias condition. The entire stability analysis must be repeated if
biasing or even temperature changes.
15. What is the need for stabilization methods?
If the operation of a FET or BJT is found to be unstable in the
desired frequency range, an attempt can be made to stabilize the
transistor. The expression for |in | and out can be written as

Zin − ZO
in = >1
Zin + ZO

Zout − ZO
out = >1
Zout + ZO
16. What are the demerits of adding resistors in stabilization?

Stabilization through the addition of resistors comes at a prize the
impedance matching can suffer, there may be a loss in power flow
and the noise figure typically concern due to the additional thermal
noise source that the resistors present.
17. Give the expression for unilateral power gain in terms of
unilateral design
1 − |S |2 2 1 − |L |2
GTU = × |S 21 | ×
|1 − S11 2 | |1 − L S22 |2
GTU = GS × G0 × GL
18. Give the expression of unilateral power gain in dB.

Most of the gain calculation are done in dB, is frequently expressed
as
GT 0 (dB) = GS (dB) + G0 (dB) + GL (dB)
19. What is the use of G0 and GL in unilateral design?

The use of Gs and Gl is to reduce the inherent loss, which is
considered as gain.

20. When does the maximum unilateral power gain results?

If |S11 | and |S22 | are less than unity. The maximal unilateral power
gain GTU max results when both the input and output are matched
(S = S11 ∗ and = S ∗ ). It results as
L 22
1 1
Gs max = and GL max =
1 − |S11 |2 1 − |S22 |2
21. What are the contributions from Gs and GL ?
The contributions from Gs and Gl can be normalized with respect
to their maximum values such that
Gs 1 − |S |2 |
gs = = (1 − |S11 |2 )
Gs max 1 − S11 S |2
GL 1 − |L |2 |
gL = = (1 − |S22 |2 )
GL max 1 − S22 L |2
22. Give the circle equation for constant gain?
The circle equations are
∗
gi S11
λgi =
1 − |S11 |2 (1 − gi )
where radii of size

√
1 − gi (1 − |S11 |2 )
rgi =
1 − |S11 |2 (1 − gi )
23. What are the observations from constant gain circle equations?
The observations that can be made from constant gain circle
equations are
• The maximum gain Gi max = (1−|S1 |2 ) is obtained for i = Sii∗
11
which coincides with gain circle where centre is at λgi = S11∗ and
radius rgi = 0.
• The constant gain circles all have their centers on a line connect-
∗ . The smaller the gain values, closer to the
ing the origin to S11
centre λgi moves to origin and the larger the radius rgi .
• For a special case type i = 0 the normalized gain becomes as
gi = 1 − |S11 |2 and both λgi and rgi have the same value.
24. What is the advantage of unilateral approximation?
The unilateral approximation neglects the reverse gain so that the
gain associated with the matched input port is not affected by the
output port.

25. When will be the amplifier becomes unstable?

−1
When i = S11 then the real component of the impedance associ-
ated with i is equal in magnitude to the negative resistance related
to Sii and thus two resistances cancel each other and oscillations.
Thus the amplifier becomes unstable.
26. How the unstability of the amplifier can be avoided?
The problem of unstable can be avoided by plotting the constant
gain circles for |Sii | > 1 and the corresponding stability circle and
i should be chosen in such a way that it is located on desired gain
circle but also resides inside the stable region.
27. Define unilateral figure of merit?
The unilateral design approach involves the approximation that the
feedback effect or the reverse gain of the amplifier is negligible
(S12 = 0).
|S12 ||S21 ||S22 ||S11 |
U=
(1 − |S11 |2 )(1 − |S22 |2 )
28. What are the demerits of unilateral design?
For many practical situations the unilateral approach may not be
appropriate because the error eliminated by setting S12 = 0 could
result in an intolerably imprecise design.
29. What is bilateral design?
The bilateral design have been developed to overcome the draw-
backs of the unilateral design, it deals with the complete equations
for both the input and output reflection coefficients i.e., s∗ = S11 ;
L∗ = S22 .
30. Give the equation for matched source reflection coefficient.

2 ∗
B1 1 B1 C1
ms = − −4
2C1 2 C1 C1
31. Give the equation for matched load reflection coefficient.

2 ∗
B2 1 B2 C2
ml = − −4
2C2 2 C2 C2
32. When the discrepancies between unilateral and bilateral will

occurs?
The discrepancy between the unilateral and bilateral gain is best
∗ and
seen in large differences in phase between S11 ms as well as
∗
S22 and TmL .

33. What is the first method to develop amplifiers with specified

gain?
The first method is based on the use of the operating power gain G
given by operating power gain. Here to find the load reflection coef-
ficient L , assuming that the source is complex conjugate matched
to the input reflection coefficient [S = in ] where this method
yields an input voltage standing wave ratio VSWR= 1.
34. What is the second method to develop amplifiers with specified
gain?
The second method uses the available power gain GA . In this case
∗ and the
the perfect match of the output side of amplifier L = out
load is chosen in such a way to satisfy the gain requirement. It also
yields a unity VSWR i.e., VSWR = 1.
35. What are the drawbacks of perfect L ?
The complexity of the input matching network is directly affected
by the appropriate choice of L because of the requirement
∗
S = in
where in is a function of L .

36. What is the need of available power gain?
In certain situations, where the perfect matching on the output side
of the amplifier is required (i.e., VSWR = 1). The available power
gain approach is used.
37. What is the purpose of noise figure circles?
The purpose of noise figure circles is to display the influence of
noise as a part of smith chart to conduct comparisons and observe
tradeoff between gain and stability.
38. Give the equations for impedance and admittance of noise
figure?
Admittance form:
RN
F = Fmin + |YS − Yopt |2
GS
Impedance form:
GN
F = Fmin + |ZS − Zopt |2
RS

39. What are noise parameters?

The noise parameters are
• The minimum (also called optimum) noise figure Fmin whose
behavior depends on biasing condition and operating frequency.
• Equivalent noise resistance RN = 1/GN of the device.
40. What are the conclusions of noise figure circles?
The minimum noise figure is obtained for Fk = Fmin , which coin-
cides with the location dFk = opt and radius YFk = 0. All constant
noise circles have their centers located along a line drawn from the
origin to point opt . The larger noise figure, closer centre dFk moves
to the origin and larger than radius kk .
41. What is meant by two port networks?
Two component networks also known as L-section due to their ele-
ment arrangement. These networks use two reactive components to
transform the load impendence (ZL ) to the desired input impedance
(Zin ).
42. What are the two approaches of two component matching net-
works?
In designing a matching network we have two broad approaches.
• To derive the values of the elements analytically.
• To rely on the smith chart as a graphical design tool. The first
approach yields very precise results and is suitable for the com-
puter synthesis and second approach is more initiative, easier to
verify and faster for an initial design.
43. Define quality factor?
Quality factor is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency F0
over the 3 dB bandwidth (BW)
F0
QL =
BW
44. What is meant by nodal quality factor?

The simplest method of estimating the quality factor of the matching
network without having first to develop an equivalent band pass
filter or even computing the frequency response of the network.
This is known as nodal quality factor.
45. Give the equation for nodal quality factor?
The nodal quality factor Qn is related to Ql as
Qn
QL =
2

46. What is the effect of adding an additional circuit element in the

T and Pi network?
The extra degree of freedom to adjust the quality factor (bandwidth)
of a matching network comes at the expense of an additional circuit
element.
47. Why inductors are avoided in micro strip line matching net-
works?
Inductors are usually avoided in the micro strip line matching net-
works because they tend to have higher resistive losses than the
capacitors.
48. Draw the two topologies of single stub matching networks?
ZOL lL ZOL lL
ZOS ZL
ZOS
ZL lS
Zin lS
Open
Open
(or)
(or)
Short circuit
Short circuit
49. What will be the responsibilities of an circuit designer?

A circuit designer has to minimize the size of the circuit board and
therefore must be concerned about employing the shortest possi-
ble transmission line segments. Depending upon the impedance
requirements, this can be either open or short circuit stub section.
50. Draw the double stub matching network arrangement.
Zin⫽Zo ZA ZB ZC ZO
I3 I2 I1
lS2 lS1 ZL
University Question Papers

Sixteen Marks
1. Derive the expression for various gain relation.
2. Explain in detail about RF transistor amplifier design.

3. Write short notes on:

(i) Operating power gain.
(ii) Unilateral power gain.
4. With neat diagram and explain briefly about the input, outpur
stability circle with relevant equation.
5. Define noise figure and explain in detail.
6. Why impedance matching is necessary?
7. Write short note on:
(i) Single stub matching network.
(ii) Double stub matching network.
8. Explain in detail about pi and T matching networks.


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2

RF Transistor Ampliﬁer Design

RF amplifier design is different from the conventional low-frequency

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 51 — #1

2.1.1 Characteristics of Ampliﬁers

Figure 2.1 General amplifier system.

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 52 — #2

2.2 Ampliﬁer Power Relations

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 53 — #3

The incident power associated with b1 is given as,

Pin = Pinc (1 − |in |2 ) (2.4)

substitute equation (2.3) in (2.4),

2.2.1 Available Power

substitute equation (2.5) in PA ,

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 54 — #4

If in = 0, then S = 0, then Pinc is obtained as (from equation (2.3)),

2.2.2 Transducer Power Gain

Power delivered to the load

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 55 — #5

|S21 |2 (1 − |L |2 )(1 − |s |2 )

Transduce Power Gain I

Substitute equation (2.12(a)) in (2.9(b)),

“MicroWave: ch-02” — 2011/7/10 — 12:42 — page 56 — #6

substitute equation (2.12(c)) in (2.7),

(1 − |L |2 )(1 − |S |2 )|S21 |2

It is obtained by substituting equation (2.12(b)) in equation (2.11),

(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )

|1 − L out |2 |1 − S11 S |2 = |(1 − S11 S )(1 − S22 L ) − S12 S21 L S |2

Therefore, the denominator of equation (2.11) is replaced by,

(1 − |L |2 )(|S21 |2 )(1 − |S |2 )

2.2.3 Unilateral Power Gain

(1 − |L |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |S |2 )

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The above equation is often used as a basis to develop approximate

2.2.4 Additional Power Relations

2.2.4.1 Available Power Gain

2.2.5 Operating Power Gain

Power delivered to the load

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By combining equations (2.5), (2.6) and (2.7).

(a) Transducer gain GT , unilateral transducer gain GTU , available gain

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Source reflection coefficient

Load reflection coefficient

The input impedance

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2.3 Stability Considerations

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S22 − S11 S22 S + S12 S21 S

Sub equation (2.20) in equation (2.19(b)),

After simplification, the output stability circle equation is,

where the circle radius is given by,

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where radius of the circle,

2.3.1.1 For Output Stability Circle

2.3.1.2 For Input Stability Circle

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2.3.2 Unconditional Stability

||Cin | − γin | > 1 (2.28a)

2.3.2.1 Derivation of Stability Factor (or) Rollelt Factor (K)

||Cin | − in | > 1

Squaring and rearranging equation (2.29(a)),

∗ |2 is rewritten as,

The incident power associated with b1 is given as,

∗ |2 is rewritten as,

|| = (0.099)2 + (0.68)2

1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + ||2

= S11 S22 − S12 S21