WHAT ARE THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH?

The Crust
The Earth's Crust is like the skin of an apple. It is very thin in comparison to the other three layers.
The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans(oceanic crust) and about
25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents (continental crust). The temperatures of the
crust vary from air temperature on top to about 1600 degrees Fahrenheit (870 degrees Celcius) in
the deepest parts of the crust. You can bake a loaf of bread in your oven at 350 degrees Fahrenheit
, at 1600 degrees F. rocks begin to melt.
The Mantle
The mantle is the layer located directly under the sima. It is the largest layer of the Earth, 1800
miles thick. The mantle is composed of very hot, dense rock. This layer of rock even flows like
asphalt under a heavy weight. This flow is due to great temperature differences from the bottom
to the top of the mantle. The movement of the mantle is the reason that the plates of the Earth
move! The temperature of the mantle varies from 1600 degrees Fahrenheit at the top to about 4000
degrees Fahrenheit near the bottom!
Outer Core
The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals. (4000 degrees F. to 9000 degrees F.) The
outer core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. The outer core is located about
1800 milesbeneath the crust and is about 1400 miles thick. The outer core is composed of the
melted metals nickel and iron.
Inner Core
The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed
together and are not able to move about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid.
The inner core begins about 4000 miles beneath the crust and is about 800 miles thick. The
temperatures may reach 9000 dgrees F. and the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square inch.
This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you at sea level!
WHAT IS EARTHQUAKE?
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those
violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity,
of an area is the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The
word tremor is also used for non-earthquake seismic rumbling.
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and displacing or disrupting
the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be
displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally
volcanic activity.

WHAT IS VOLCANO
A volcano is an opening in the earth’s crust through which lava, volcanic ash, and gases escape.
Volcanic eruptions are partly driven by pressure from dissolved gas, much as escaping gases force
the cork out of a bottle of champagne. Beneath a volcano, liquid magma containing dissolved gases
rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust. As the magma rises, pressure decreases, allowing the
gases to form bubbles. How the magma (lava) behaves when it reaches the surface depends on
both its gas content and chemical composition. Lavas with low silica contents have low viscosities
and flow freely, allowing any gas bubbles to escape readily, while lavas with high silica contents
are more viscous (resistant to flow), so that any trapped gases cannot escape gradually.
WHAT ARE THE PARTS OF VOLCANO
Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.
Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through which volcanic materials escape.
Flank - The side of a volcano.
Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that solidifies as it cools.
Crater - Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic vent.
Conduit - An underground passage magma travels through.
Summit - Highest point; apex
Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the conduit that ejects lava and volcanic ash.
Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm in size that are blasted into the air by
volcanic explosions.
Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Hydrothermal eruption
An eruption driven by the heat in a hydrothermal systems. Hydrothermal eruptions pulverise
surrounding rocks and can produce ash, but do not include magma. These are typically very small
eruptions
Phreatic eruption
An eruption driven by the heat from magma interacting with water. The water can be from
groundwater, hydrothermal systems, surface runoff, a lake or the sea. Phreatic eruptions pulverise
surrounding rocks and can produce ash, but do not include new magma.
Phreatomagmatic eruption
An eruption resulting from the interaction of new magma or lava with water and can be very
explosive. The water can be from groundwater, hydrothermal systems, surface runoff, a lake or
the sea.
Lava
Lava is molten rock erupted at the ground surface. When molten rock is beneath the ground, it is
called magma.
Lava flows are the effusive (non-explosive) outpourings of lava, and usually flow slower than
walking pace. Lava flow types include a’a, blocky and pahoehoe.
Lava fountains are a fountain of runny lava fragments from a vent or line of vents (a fissure). They
can form spatter piles, and if the fragments accumulate fast enough, they can form lava flows.
Lava domes are mounds that form when viscous lava is erupted slowly and piles up over the vent,
rather than moving away as a lava flow. They are generally caused by viscous, thick, sticky lava
that has lost most of its gas. They can range in volume from a few cubic metres to cubic kilometres.
Strombolian and Hawaiian eruptions
These are the least violent types of explosive eruptions. Hawaiian eruptions have fire fountains
and lava flows, whereas Strombolian eruptions have explosions causing a shower of lava
fragments.
Vulcanian eruptions
Vulcanian eruptions are small to moderate explosive eruptions, lasting seconds to minutes. Ash
columns can be up to 20 km in height, and lava blocks and bombs may be ejected from the vent.
Subplinian and Plinian eruptions
Eruptions with a high rate of magma discharge, sustained for minutes to hours. They form a tall,
convective eruption column of a mixture of gas and rock particles, and can cause wide dispersion
of ash. Subplinian eruption columns are up to 20 km high, and are relatively unsteady, whereas
Plinian eruptions have 20 to 35 km tall columns which may collapse to form pyroclastic density
currents (PDC’s). Very rare Ultraplinian eruptions are even larger and have a higher magma
discharge rate than Plinian eruptions.

BENEFITS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

I guess the main good effect that volcanoes have on the environment is to provide nutrients to the
surrounding soil. Volcanic ash often contains minerals that are beneficial to plants, and if it is very
fine ash it is able to break down quickly and get mixed into the soil.
Perhaps the best place to look for more information about this would be to look up references about
some of the countries where lots of people live in close proximity to volcanoes and make use of
the rich soils on volcanic flanks. These would include Indonesia, The Philippines, Japan, Italy, etc.
I suppose another benefit might be the fact that volcanic slopes are often rather inaccessible,
especially if they are steep. Thus they can provide refuges for rare plants and animals from the
ravages of humans and livestock.
Finally, on a very fundamental scale, volcanic gases are the source of all the water (and most of
the atmosphere) that we have today. The process of adding to the water and atmosphere is pretty
slow, but if it hadn’t been going on for the past 4.5 billion years or so we’d be pretty miserable.
DANGERS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Volcanism triggers earthquakes and tsunamis which endanger hundreds of thousands of human
lives.
Gas that is released from volcanic eruptions is extremely poisonous and can lead to fatalities if
inhaled.
Lava flows can destroy cities and towns that may lmerapi-volcanoie in its path.
Ash causes major travel predicaments. Airplanes cannot travel through ash clouds because of risk
of engine failure from the thick smoggy ash that acts as thousands of particles of glass penetrating
the jets’ engines.
Pyroclastic flows are also a negative part of volcanism that is deadly to humans and animals that
may live nearby.
Ash can cause global cooling by blocking out the energy and rays from the sun. Vegetation
becomes contaminated and unsuitable to be eaten.
Lahar’s are an effect of Volcanoes and are also deadly. Its important to note however that lahar’s
can occur without an eruption.

WHAT IS THE SEASON IN THE PHILIPPINES

Sunny season
Sunny season starts in late November and ends in May. The sort of weather where the skies are
blue, the grass is bright, and there is lots of sunlight! It is generally warmer when the sun is out,
so people in colder climates find it quite pleasant. People located in hotter climates may not be so
fond of it.
Rainy Season
The rainy seasons starts in June and lasts till October one of the natural periods into which the
year is divided by the equinoxes and solstices or atmospheric conditions; "the regular sequence of
the seasons"

WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF WEATHER CHANGES

The Atmosphere And Its General Circulation
Air is compressed by its own weight, so that about half the bulk of the atmosphere is squeezed into
the bottom 3.5 miles (5.6 kilometers). The bottom layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, is the
site of almost all the world’s weather. Above its turbulence and storminess is the calmer
stratosphere, which has little moisture and few clouds. (See also Earth, “Atmosphere.”)
Underlying the great variety of atmospheric motions is a pattern of large-scale air
Weather Elements
The are several primary conditions of the atmosphere, or weather elements. They include wind,
temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, and precipitation.
Air Masses And Weather Fronts
Air that has acquired a fairly uniform temperature and humidity over a large area of Earth’s surface
is called an air mass. Air masses are of four main types depending on where they originate. The
types are Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), polar (P), tropical (T), and equatorial (E). Air masses are
also of either maritime (m) or continental (c) origin. In general, a maritime air mass is relatively
moist and has a moderate.
WHAT IS THE FACTOR AFFECTING WEATHER PATTERN IN THE PHILIPPINES?
Relative humidity is high in the Philippines. A high amount of moisture or vapor in the air makes
hot temperatures feel hotter. This quantity of moisture is due to different factors – the extraordinary
evaporation from the seas that surrounds the country on all sides, to the different prevailing winds
in the different seasons of the year, and finally, to the abundant rains so common in a tropical
country. The first may be considered as general causes of the great humidity, which is generally
observed in all the islands throughout the year. The last two may influence the different degree of
humidity for the different months of the year and for the different regions of the archipelago.
What is the Solar System
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound planetary system of the Sun and the objects that
orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of the objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest are the
eight planets, with the remainder being smaller objects, such as the five dwarf planets and small
Solar System bodies
What is Solar System?
The Solar System is the gravitationally bound planetary system of the Sun and the objects that
orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of the objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest are the
eight planets, with the remainder being smaller objects, such as the five dwarf planets and small
Solar System bodies. Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly—the moons—two are larger than
the smallest planet, Mercury.

What are the members of Solar System

Sun
The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900
Earth masses), which comprises 99.86% of all the mass in the Solar System, produces temperatures
and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it
a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as
electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.

Inner planets

The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring
systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates—which form their
crusts and mantles—and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four
inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather;
all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term
inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are
closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).
Outer planets

The outer planets (in the background) Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, compared to the inner
planets Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury (in the foreground).
Orrery showing the motions of the outer four planets. The small spheres represent the position of
each planet on every 100 Julian days, beginning January 21 2023 (Jovian perihelion) and ending
December 2 2034 (Jovian perihelion).
The four outer planets, or giant planets (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up
99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun.[g] Jupiter and Saturn are together more than 400 times
the mass of Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune are
far less massive—less than 20 Earth masses (M⊕) each—and are composed primarily of ices. For
these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, ice giants.[95] All
four giant planets have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth.
The term superior planet designates planets outside Earth's orbit and thus includes both the outer
planets and Mars.

Trans-Neptunian region
Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the "trans-Neptunian region", with the doughnut-
shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of
scattered objects, which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further
out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist
overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds—the largest having a diameter only a fifth
that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon—composed mainly of rock and ice. This
region is sometimes described as the "third zone of the Solar System", enclosing the inner and the
outer Solar System.
 Guinobatan East Central School

Project in
Science

Submitted By:
Maureen B. Iglesia

Submitted By:
Mrs. Terrisita Notario