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Article
China Progress on Renewable Energy Vehicles:
Fuel Cells, Hydrogen and Battery Hybrid Vehicles
Zhixiang Liu 1,2,3, *, Kevin Kendall 4 and Xieqiang Yan 1,2,3
1 Guangdong Key Lab for Hydrogen Energy Technologies, Foshan University, Foshan 528000, China;
liu-zhixiang@sinosynergypower.com
2 Foshan (Yunfu) Research Institute for Hydrogen Energy & New Material Development, Yunfu 527300, China
3 Guangdong Nation-Synergy Hydrogen Power Technologies Co. Ltd., Yunfu 527300, China
4 School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK;
kevin.kendall@adelan.co.uk
* Correspondence: liu-zhixiang@sinosynergypower.com; Tel.: +86-766-8931-687

Received: 13 November 2018; Accepted: 18 December 2018; Published: 25 December 2018 

Abstract: Clean, renewable energy for Chinese cities is a priority in air quality improvement.
This paper describes the recent Chinese advances in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)
hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery vehicles, including buses and trucks. Following the 2016 Chinese
government plan for new energy vehicles, bus production in Foshan has now overtaken that in
the EU, USA and Japan combined. Hydrogen infrastructure requires much advance to catch up
but numbers of filling stations are now increasing rapidly in the large cities. A particular benefit
in China is the large number of battery manufacturing companies which fit well into the energy
storage plan for hybrid fuel cell buses. The first city to manufacture thousands of PEM-battery hybrid
buses is Foshan where the Feichi (Allenbus) company has built a new factory next to a novel fuel cell
production line capable of producing 500 MW of fuel cell units per year. Hundreds of these buses
are running on local Foshan routes this year, while production of city delivery trucks has also been
substantial. Results for energy consumption of these vehicles are presented and fitted to the Coulomb
theory previously delineated.

Keywords: hydrogen energy; hybrid-fuel-cell-battery-buses; zero-emission; energy consumption


versus weight

1. Introduction
Chinese cities are increasingly polluted with vehicle emissions which may be ameliorated by
introduction of zero emission cars, trucks and buses. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) have been
heavily supported by government over the last 5 years but the present driving range of pure BEVs is
inadequate to compete with diesel buses which require at least 300 km range, driving for 18 hours on
city routes. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery hybrids described in this paper can achieve that specification.
Although several small bus projects have demonstrated prototypes satisfying these demands, there
has been no large city project to prove the concept until now.
Fuel cell bus fleets have been demonstrated in Europe and Australia from 2001 to 2006 in 11 cities
with 3 buses each, under projects Clean Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) [1], Ecological City
Transport System (ECTOS) [2] and Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth (STEP) [3]. In Japan,
8 FCHV-BUSes carried one million visitors and traveled about 130,000 km during 6 months of Expo
2005 Aichi and Toyota plans to introduce over 100 FC buses ahead of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and
Paralympic Games in Tokyo [4]. In North America, a fleet of 20 fuel cell buses were demonstrated
in Whistler town of Canada from the 2010 Winter Olympics and halted in 2015 [5]. And 21 fuel cell

Energies 2019, 12, 54; doi:10.3390/en12010054 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies


Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11
Energies 2019, 12, 54 2 of 10
months of Expo 2005 Aichi and Toyota plans to introduce over 100 FC buses ahead of the Tokyo 2020
Olympic and Paralympic Games in Tokyo [4]. In North America, a fleet of 20 fuel cell buses were
transit buses areininWhistler
demonstrated service in 7 cities
town of US under
of Canada from the fuel2010
cell electric
Winter bus evaluation
Olympics projects
and halted in supported
2015 [5].
byAnd
U.S.21Department
fuel cell transit buses are in service in 7 cities of US under fuel cell electric bus evaluationin
of Transportation (DOT) [6]. In China, fuel cell buses have been demonstrated
Beijing and
projects Shanghaiby
supported during 2008 Beijingof
U.S. Department Olympics and Expo
Transportation (DOT)2010[6].
Shanghai.
In China, fuel cell buses have
This paper describes the present status in May 2018
been demonstrated in Beijing and Shanghai during 2008 Beijing Olympics and of the largest scale hydrogen
Expo 2010fuelShanghai.
cell battery
bus project in the world, located at Yunfu Industry site close to Foshan in Guangdong
This paper describes the present status in May 2018 of the largest scale hydrogen fuel cell battery Province of South
China. Since in
bus project 2016,
the when
world,the Chinese
located Government
at Yunfu Industrypublished
site close its to plan
Foshan forinfuture development
Guangdong Province of this
of
zero-emission-technology
South China. Since 2016, when [7], thethe
company
Chineseoriginally
Government named Guangdong
published its plan Nation Synergy
for future Hydrogen
development
Power
of thisTechnology Co and now renamed
zero-emission-technology [7], theGuangdong SinoSynergy
company originally namedHydrogen
GuangdongPower Nation
Development
Synergy Co
(hereafter
Hydrogen Synergy), has been investing
Power Technology Co and heavily
now renamedin new Guangdong
factories on the Yunfu siteHydrogen
SinoSynergy and, withPowerseveral
Development
partners, has now Co made
(hereafter
moreSynergy),
than 300has been investing
hydrogen powered heavily in new factories
fuel cell-battery hybridonbusesthe Yunfu
whichsite will
and, passengers
carry with severalinpartners, has now
all 5 Districts ofmade
Foshan more than 300
in 2019, wherehydrogen
more thanpowered fuel cell-battery
10 hydrogen stationshybrid
are in
buses whichand
construction willwill
carry
bepassengers in all 5 Districts
put into operation soon. of Foshan in 2019, where more than 10 hydrogen
stations
A key areissue
in construction and will be
is the zero-emission put into operation
capability and the energysoon. consumption of these new vehicles.
Previously, it has not been clear how the energy consumption ofconsumption
A key issue is the zero-emission capability and the energy of these new
such hybrid vehicles vehicles.
competes with
Previously,
fossil it has not
fuel designs. Thebeen
mainclearaimhow
of thisthepaper
energy is consumption
to show that the of such
newhybrid
vehicles vehicles
tested competes
show a good withfit
tofossil fuel designs.
the Coulomb Thepreviously
theory main aim of this paper
defined is to show
[8]. Recent testthat the new
results vehicles and
are reported tested show
fitted toathe
good fit
theory,
to the Coulomb theory previously defined [8]. Recent test results are reported
showing that the city can save more than 50% of its bus energy budget through investment in these and fitted to the theory,
showingAthat
hybrids. typicalthe city
11mcan bussave more
tested than 50%
is shown of its bus
in Figure energy of
1. Eleven budget
thesethrough
were first investment
tested empty,in these
then
hybrids. A typical 11m bus tested is shown in Figure 1. Eleven
with sandbags in 2017 to simulate passengers, then with real passengers from June of 2017.of these were first tested empty, then
withInsandbags
2015, there in 2017
wereto nosimulate
hydrogen passengers,
refueling then withinreal
stations thepassengers
region. Thefrom firstJune of 2017.
station opened in 2016
In 2015, there were no hydrogen refueling stations in the region.
in Yunfu Industrial Park to support the bus line. Now, four stations are in operation to service The first station opened in 2016six
in Yunfu Industrial Park to support the bus line. Now, four stations are in operation to service six bus
bus routes and there is a plan to install many more around Foshan in the next two years. At present,
routes and there is a plan to install many more around Foshan in the next two years. At present,
renewable hydrogen is not being used but the potential for producing hydrogen from hydro, solar or
renewable hydrogen is not being used but the potential for producing hydrogen from hydro, solar or
nuclear electricity is being investigated.
nuclear electricity is being investigated.

Figure1.1.Production
Figure Productionline
lineof
of300
300 hydrogen
hydrogen fuel cell battery
battery 8.5
8.5mmbuses
busesininthe
thenew
newFeichi
Feichifactory Yunfu
factory Yunfu
in November
in November 2017.2017.

Section
Section22describes
describesthe
thebus
bus project,
project, including
including hydrogen refueling
refuelinginfrastructure.
infrastructure.Section
Section3 3shows
shows
energyconsumption
energy consumptionresults
resultsand
andfinally,
finally,Section
Section44draws
draws conclusions.
conclusions.

2.2.Fuel
FuelCell
CellBus
BusFleet
Fleetin
inFoshan
Foshan and
and Yunfu
Yunfu

2.1.
2.1.Introduction
IntroductiontotoSynergy
SynergyFuel
FuelCell
Cell Project
Project
The
TheYunfu
Yunfuproject
projectstarted
startedwith
withaavisit
visit by
by Chinese scientists to
Chinese scientists to London
Londonto toobserve
observethetheeight
eightbuses
buses
running
runningnear
nearthe
theriver
riverThames
Thameson onthe
the EU
EU CHIC
CHIC project [9]. These
project [9]. Thesevehicles
vehicleswere
werebased
basedon onthe
theBallard
Ballard
PEM
PEMfuel cell
fuel stack
cell which
stack which was proven
was over
proven a six-year
over period
a six-year to run
period for 18
to run forhour shiftsshifts
18 hour on London routes
on London
covering 300 km with 98% availability and few maintenance problems. The main drawback in the
CHIC project was the capital cost of each bus, more than 600,000 euro for prototypes made in such
Energies 2019, 12, 54 3 of 10

small numbers. Wrightbus had manufactured these prototypes but other companies in Italy, Austria,
Germany and Norway had also tested similar designs in the The Clean Hydrogen in European Cities
project (CHIC) project, so it was clear that Feichi in Foshan could build equivalent buses providing
Ballard stacks were available. Consequently, in 2015, the new company Synergy signed an agreement
with Ballard in Vancouver to assemble 30 kW, 60 kW and 90 kW fuel cell modules in Yunfu Industrial
Park licensed by Ballard. Then in 2016, after several months’ negotiation, an agreement was signed to
manufacture the 9SSL fuel cell stack, which is the latest version of fuel cell stack product for automotive
application, in a joint venture of Synergy and Ballard located in Yunfu Industrial Park. Construction
started in 2016 on the Yunfu site to build a substantial complex of factories including a new Feichi
bus manufacturing facility capable of building 5000 vehicles per year, a fuel cell stack production
line using Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEAs) from Ballard made in Canada, a fuel cell module
assembling line with fuel cell stacks produced by the Synergy-Ballard JV, a Research Institute and
a hydrogen refueling station. All these were completed in 12 months, with the fuel cell stack and
module production line opened on July 1st of 2017, allowing 8 m bus production to begin seriously
in September 2017. Several of these 8 m buses are shown on the production line in the new Feichi
factory in late 2017 (Figure 1). By end of May 2018, the 300 planned 8.5 m buses were built and were
beginning to run without passengers.

2.2. Fuel Cell Bus Fleet in Foshan and Yunfu


From the beginning of the Yunfu Industrial Park being constructed, steps of developing hydrogen
energy industry were confirmed. The first step was to assemble fuel cell modules and manufacture
fuel cell buses in the industrial park; the second step was to operate fuel cell bus fleets and investigate
technical and economic feasibility of applying fuel cell buses in large scale; and the third step was to
build production capacity of key components and products of hydrogen vehicles in the industrial park.
In September of 2016, assembling and testing of the first batch of 11m fuel cell buses was finished
in the Feichi Bus facility and the fuel cell bus demonstration line was open on September. 28th in
Sanshui District of Foshan City [10]. Twelve buses were put in trial operation without passengers.
Then on November 18th, the second demonstration line was open in Yuncheng District of Yunfu
City from the Industrial Park to Downtown of Yunfu with another twelve buses in trial operation.
From June of 2017, the two demonstration lines went into commercial operation with 6 fuel cell buses
in Sanshui and 5 in Yunfu [11,12]. The accumulated mileages of all the fuel cell buses till September of
2018 are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Accumulated mileage of the fuel cell buses.

Sanshui Buses Yunfu Buses


Plate number Bus ID Mileage Plate number Bus ID Mileage
W02995 FCG15012 4914 km E06600F FCG15008 53,400 km
W00979 FCG15014 4909 km E02121F FCG15009 79,650 km
W10836 FCG16007 42,703 km E08668F FCG15010 41,760 km
W05236 FCG16009 42,703 km E07766F FCG15011 48,780 km
W10830 FCG16013 45,677 km E07700F FCG16001 57,210 km
E06606F FCG16002 46,245 km

2.3. Fuel Cell Buses


The 11m bus is shown in Figure 2 and the specifications of the bus are shown in Table 2.
Specifications of the fuel cell module are shown in Table 3. Eight composite cylinders contained
27.2 kg of the 350 bar hydrogen in the roof space and could be refilled in less than ten minutes. An HD7
fuel cell module together with the air delivery unit and coolant recirculation unit were installed in the
engine bay in the back of the bus and the heat radiators were installed on the roof behind the hydrogen
cylinders. The HD7 fuel cell module, assembled by Synergy licensed by Ballard, could provide 85 kW
2.3. Fuel Cell Buses
The 11m bus is shown in Figure 2 and the specifications of the bus are shown in Table 2.
Specifications of the fuel cell module are shown in Table 3. Eight composite cylinders contained 27.2
kg of the 350 bar hydrogen in the roof space and could be refilled in less than ten minutes. An HD7
Energies 2019, 12, 54 4 of 10
fuel cell module together with the air delivery unit and coolant recirculation unit were installed in
the engine bay in the back of the bus and the heat radiators were installed on the roof behind the
hydrogen cylinders. The HD7 fuel cell module, assembled by Synergy licensed by Ballard, could
net power for the electric motor on the chassis to drive the bus, hybridized together with the 36 kWh
provide 85 kW net power for the electric motor on the chassis to drive the bus, hybridized together
Li-ionwith
battery which provided the main accelerating power.
the 36 kWh Li-ion battery which provided the main accelerating power.

Figure
Figure 2. The
2. The 11 m11Hydrogen
m Hydrogen fuelcell
fuel cellbattery
battery hybrid
hybrid bus
busbuilt
builtbyby
Feichi (Allenbus)
Feichi in the
(Allenbus) in new Yunfu
the new Yunfu
factory. 11 of these were tested to provide the results given here.
factory. 11 of these were tested to provide the results given here.
Table
Table 2. 2.Specifications
Specifications of
of the
the 11m
11mfuel
fuelcell
cellbus.
bus.
Parameter Value Parameter Value
Parameter Value Parameter Value
Vehicle type 100% low floor city bus Mileage at refueling (km) ≥300
Vehicle type (mm)
Dimensions 100% low floor× 2490
10960 city bus
× 3500 Mileage at refueling
Power (km)
of FC (kW) ≥85
300
Dimensions (mm)
Net weight /Max weight (kg) 10960 × 2490 × 3500
12700/18000 Power of FC
Capacity (kW) (kWh)
of battery 85
36
Net weight/Max weight (kg)
Passengers 12700/18000 80 Capacity of battery
Hydrogen (kWh)
stored (kg) 36
27.2
Passengers
Limited speed (km/h) 80 69 Hydrogen
Numberstored
of H2 (kg)
cylinders 27.2
8
Limited speed (km/h) 69 Number of H2 cylinders 8
Table 3. Specifications of the fuel cell system.

No. Table 3. Specifications


Parameters of the Unit
fuel cell system.
Value
1 Number of cells 480
No. Parameters Unit Value
2 Voltage V 320~440
1 3 Number of cells
Current A 0~320 480
2 4 Voltage
Net power kW V 85 320~440
3 5 Current
Air pressure bar A 1.0 0~320
4 6 Net power
Hydrogen pressure barkW 8~10 85
5 Air pressure bar 1.0
6 Hydrogen pressure bar 8~10

The topological structure of the power system is shown in Figure 3. The fuel cell output was
connected to the DC cable with a DC/DC converter, hybridized with the battery pack to drive the
DC/AC inverter of the traction motor connected to the DC bus. A vehicle control unit (VCU) sends
a message to the fuel cell converter to determine how much power can be drawn from the fuel cell
to fulfill the power requirement of the traction inverter and the auxiliary inverter. Power of the fuel
cell is controlled to follow power requirement of the bus according to its dynamic capability. Because
the dynamic response of the fuel cell system is slower than that of the battery pack, the battery pack
is used as a power buffer to fulfill the dynamic power requirement. The state of charge (SOC) of the
battery is set to change between 50% to 80%. The fuel cell system will not be switched until the SOC
DC/AC inverter of the traction motor connected to the DC bus. A vehicle control unit (VCU) sends a
message to the fuel cell converter to determine how much power can be drawn from the fuel cell to
fulfill the power requirement of the traction inverter and the auxiliary inverter. Power of the fuel cell
is controlled to follow power requirement of the bus according to its dynamic capability. Because the
dynamic response of the fuel cell system is slower than that of the battery pack, the battery pack is
Energies 2019, 12, 54 5 of 10
used as a power buffer to fulfill the dynamic power requirement. The state of charge (SOC) of the
battery is set to change between 50% to 80%. The fuel cell system will not be switched until the SOC
drops to aa value
value smaller
smallerthan
than60%
60%during
duringstart-up.
start-up.This
Thiscontrol
controlstrategy
strategyis is helpful
helpful to to extend
extend thethe
lifelife
of
of
thethe fuel
fuel cellcell system.
system.
Because thesethese buses
buses give
give zero emissions,
emissions, thethe smog
smog level
level around
around Foshan
Foshan will
will be lowered by
replacing existing diesel buses. In In addition,
addition, the
the energy
energy expenditure
expenditure of of the
the fuel
fuel cell hydrogen
hydrogen battery
battery
hybrids is is shown
shown later
laterto
tobe
beabout
abouthalf
halfthat
thatused
usedby byfossil
fossilfuel
fuelbuses
busessosothat
thatthe city
the energy
city budget
energy budget is
reduced.
is reduced.

Figure 3.
Figure Thetopological
3. The topological structure
structure of the
of the power
power system
system of theof11the
m 11 m hydrogen
hydrogen fuel
fuel cell cell battery
battery hybrid
hybrid bus.
bus.
2.4. Refueling Stations
2.4. Refueling Stations
A serious problem in Foshan & Yunfu was the lack of any hydrogen infrastructure to 2015.
A serious problem in Foshan & Yunfu was the lack of any hydrogen infrastructure to 2015.
Therefore, a plan had to be devised for building the first working refueling station in Foshan and
Therefore, a plan had to be devised for building the first working refueling station in Foshan and
Yunfu, then building ten more around the city as the bus fleets came into service. The first station
Yunfu, then building ten more around the city as the bus fleets came into service. The first station
(Figure 4) was built close to the bus factory, near the new Hydrogen Hotel and buses began to be filled
(Figure 4) was built close to the bus factory, near the new Hydrogen Hotel and buses began to be
for the Yunfu bus route from September of 2016. For the Sanshui fuel cell bus route, a temporary
filled for the Yunfu bus route from September of 2016. For the Sanshui fuel cell bus route, a temporary
refueling station with hydrogen compressor and tube trailer was built for hydrogen filling of the buses.
refueling station
Energies 2018, with
11, x FOR hydrogen
PEER REVIEW compressor and tube trailer was built for hydrogen filling of the
6 of 11
buses.

Figure 4. The first hydrogen refueling station running


running in
in Yunfu
Yunfu in
in 2016.
2016.

This
This station was modest in capacity and stored 165 kg of hydrogen at 450 bar, sufficient to fill 6
buses
buses from empty.
empty. But, because the Yunfu route was
was short,
short, only 118 km compared to 300 km for a
standard
standard route,
route, the
the daily
daily hydrogen
hydrogen usage
usage was
was typically
typically 10
10 kg
kg per
per bus
bus so
so that
that 11 buses could
could easily
easily be
handled. Delivery of gaseous hydrogen was from a chemical plant using tube trailers, so the process
was expensive. Improvements are needed in future, especially by moving to renewable electricity
and on-site electrolysis with grid balancing.
By May 2018, three more hydrogen stations had been installed in Foshan to service the 5 routes
running with the newly constructed 8.5 m buses. As shown in Figure 5, the rate of increase of Foshan
Energies 2019, 12, 54 6 of 10

handled. Delivery of gaseous hydrogen was from a chemical plant using tube trailers, so the process
Figure 4. The first hydrogen refueling station running in Yunfu in 2016.
was expensive. Improvements are needed in future, especially by moving to renewable electricity and
on-site electrolysisThiswith
stationgrid
was balancing.
modest in capacity and stored 165 kg of hydrogen at 450 bar, sufficient to fill 6
By May buses
2018,fromthree empty.
moreBut,hydrogen
because the Yunfu
stationsroutehad
was been
short, only 118 km in
installed compared
Foshan to to
300service
km for a the 5 routes
standard route, the daily hydrogen usage was typically 10 kg per bus so that 11 buses could easily be
running withhandled.
the newly constructed 8.5 m buses. As shown in Figure 5, the rate of increase of Foshan
Delivery of gaseous hydrogen was from a chemical plant using tube trailers, so the process
buses and stations is remarkable,
was expensive. Improvementswithareplans
needed for
in 10 operating
future, especiallystations
by moving byto2019, thuselectricity
renewable overtaking the UK
which has tenand on-site electrolysis
operating stations with
at grid balancing.
present. The EU is operating almost 100 hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery
By May 2018, three more hydrogen stations had been installed in Foshan to service the 5 routes
buses in 2018,running
so it iswith
clear that Foshan city overtook EU in 2017 and will have ten times more capacity
the newly constructed 8.5 m buses. As shown in Figure 5, the rate of increase of Foshan
by 2019. From zero
buses andbuses
stationsand stations with
is remarkable, in 2016, Foshan
plans for has planned
10 operating stations by and
2019, delivered a substantial
thus overtaking the bus
and hydrogen UKstation
which has ten operating stations
deployment with the at present. The EU
objective ofisreducing
operating almost
both100 hydrogen-fuel-cell-
emissions and energy usage.
battery buses in 2018, so it is clear that Foshan city overtook EU in 2017 and will have ten times more
The number capacity
of hydrogen stations operating in the EU is around 50 in 2018 but these are currently
by 2019. From zero buses and stations in 2016, Foshan has planned and delivered a
underutilizedsubstantial
becausebusthe andvehicle
hydrogencompanies
station deploymenthavewithnotthe
manufactured sufficient
objective of reducing vehicles
both emissions and to fill with
hydrogen. Itenergy
is clearusage.
thatTheplanning
number of hydrogen
both vehiclesstations operating
and fuelin provision
the EU is around 50 in 2018 but these
is coordinated better in China
are currently underutilized because the vehicle companies have not manufactured sufficient vehicles
than EU. to fill with hydrogen. It is clear that planning both vehicles and fuel provision is coordinated better
To date, in
there
Chinaare
thanalready
EU. 20 hydrogen stations operating in China, including standard stations,
To date, there are
container stations and temporary stations,already 20 hydrogenTablestations operating
4 gives in China, including
a summary of these standard stations,
stations. Also there are
container stations and temporary stations, Table 4 gives a summary of these stations. Also there are
about 30 stations in construction. To the end of 2019, 50 hydrogen stations are
about 30 stations in construction. To the end of 2019, 50 hydrogen stations are planned for service in
planned for service
in China. China.

Figure 5. Deployment
Figure 5. Deployment of Foshan
of Foshan hydrogen
hydrogen stations (o);
stations (o);also, hydrogen
also, fuel cell
hydrogen battery
fuel cellbuses (x) in buses (x) in
battery
Foshan compared to EU.
Foshan compared to EU.

Table 4. Hydrogen refueling stations in China.

H2 storage
Finish Filling
No. City Name Category Capacity and Filling Capacity State
Year Pressure
Pressure
1 Beijing Yongfeng Stationary 2006 165 kg, 45 MPa 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use
2 Shanghai Anting Stationary 2007 165 kg, 45 MPa 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use
3 Zhengzhou Yutong Stationary 2015 165 kg, 45 MPa 250 + 1000 kg/day 35 MPa In use
4 Yunfu Synergy Stationary 2016 165 kg, 45 MPa 300 kg/day 35 MPa In use
5 Dalian Tongji-Sunrise Stationary 2016 90 MPa 20 kg/day 70 MPa In use
6 Foshan Nanhai Ruihui Stationary 2017 234 kg, 45 MPa 350 kg/day 35 MPa In use
Shanghai
7 Shanghai Container 2017 165 kg, 45 MPa 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use
Edrive
8 Zhongshan Broadocean Container 2017 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use
9 Changshu Toyota Stationary 2017 90 MPa 70 MPa In use
10 Nantong Bing Energy Temporary 2017 150 kg, 45 MPa 60 kg/day 35 MPa In use
11 Shanghai Godpower Temporary 2017 35 MPa In use
12 Jiaxing Aideman Temporary 2017 35 MPa In use
13 Foshan Sanshui Temporary 2017 100 kg/day 35 MPa In use
14 Shiyan Dongfeng Container 2018 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use
15 Chengdu Jinxing Container 2018 234 kg, 45 MPa 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use
16 Shanghai Jiangqiao Container 2018 464 kg, 45 MPa 750 kg/day 35 MPa In use
17 Wuhan Zhongji Stationary 2018 200 kg/day 35 MPa In use
18 Xinbin Muhai Container 2018 450 kg/day 35 MPa In use
19 Zhangjiakou Haiboer Stationary 2018 1350 kg/day 35 MPa In use
20 Yunfu Luoding Stationary 2018 500 kg/day 35 MPa In use
Energies 2019, 12, 54 7 of 10

3. Hydrogen Energy Consumption Results


The benefit of this huge investment in hydrogen vehicles and infrastructure is that better data on
the energy consumption of these improved vehicles can be fitted to the Coulomb theory presented
previously [13]. Figure 6 shows the results comparing gasoline vehicles with hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery
cars (HFCB cars) which have been investigated over the past twenty years and are now being
manufactured at low volume, around 2000 per year for sale or lease in areas where hydrogen stations
are operational.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11

Figure
Figure 6. The
6. The energyconsumption
energy consumption ininMJ/km
MJ/kmof 3800 typestypes
of 3800 of gasoline combustion
of gasoline car in China
combustion caragainst
in China
against vehicle weight in kN showing the Coulomb friction law fit, for comparison with 4 in
vehicle weight in kN showing the Coulomb friction law fit, for comparison with 4 HFCB cars pre- cars
HFCB
production.
in pre-production.

FromFrom Figure Figure 6 it is clear that HFCB cars use less than half the energy required by gasoline
6 it is clear that HFCB cars use less than half the energy required by gasoline vehicles
vehicles but the weight is most important, with a linear increase in energy required as car weight
but the weight is most important, with a linear increase in energy required as car weight rises. Previous
rises. Previous papers [13,14] have studied the reason for this graph, which resembles Coulomb’s
papers [13,14] have studied the reason for this graph, which resembles Coulomb’s friction law but
friction law but must be more complex because a typical car is a complex system with thousands of
must components
be more complex giving manybecause a typical
mechanisms car is dissipation
of energy a complexincluding
system with thousands
cab heating, of components
tire friction, brake
giving many mechanisms of energy dissipation including cab heating, tire friction,
friction, air resistance, lubricant viscosity, electrical resistance losses and so forth. The theoretical brake friction, air
resistance, lubricant
postulate was thatviscosity, electrical
the total energy resistanceoflosses
consumption the carandwasso theforth.
sum ofThe theoretical
several postulate was
loss mechanisms.
Each
that the mechanism
total is a different function
energy consumption of the carof was
weightthebutsum when many random
of several functions are
loss mechanisms. Eachadded, the
mechanism
resultant is a straight line as shown in Figure 6. Tests on the Microcab HFCB
is a different function of weight but when many random functions are added, the resultant is a straight city car showed that this
line asmodel
shown gave reasonable
in Figure fit toon
6. Tests experimental
the Microcab results,
HFCB wherecitycutting the loss
car showed in each
that vehiclegave
this model component
reasonable
improved the gradient of the Coulomb line.
fit to experimental results, where cutting the loss in each vehicle component improved the gradient of
Of course, critics will say that the pure battery electric vehicle (BEV) is better. Such a statement
the Coulomb line.
is partly true because the line plotted for a number of BEVs falls a few per cent below the HFCB line
Of course, critics will say that the pure battery electric vehicle (BEV) is better. Such a statement is
in Figure 6, mainly because the battery electrode catalysts are slightly better than the fuel cell
partlycatalysts.
true because
However,the line
whileplotted for abeen
BEVs have number
enhanced of BEVs falls a since
immensely few per2010,cent
the below
lithiumthe HFCBare
batteries line in
Figure 6, storing
still mainly50because
times less the battery
energy perelectrode catalystsRange
kg than gasoline. are slightly better
is therefore thanand
limited thecharging
fuel celltimes
catalysts.
However,
remain while
high,BEVs
even have
when been enhanced
expensive immensely
high-power chargerssinceare2010, the lithium
installed. China is batteries
now leading areonstill
BEVstoring
manufacture with a million such cars sold in 2018, around 5% of total
50 times less energy per kg than gasoline. Range is therefore limited and charging times remain high,China car sales. China also
even leads
whenonexpensive
battery buses with manychargers
high-power thousandsare sold each year.China
installed. However,
is nowonlyleading
hydrogen onfuel
BEV cell battery
manufacture
(HFCB) buses can compete with existing diesel buses at the present time.
with a million such cars sold in 2018, around 5% of total China car sales. China also leads on battery
Consider the BYD battery bus Type KD9 which has been selling 6000 units per annum at a price
buses with many thousands sold each year. However, only hydrogen fuel cell battery (HFCB) buses
near $400,000. This contains a 3 tons lithium battery storing 324 kWh of electrical energy, about one
can compete with existing diesel buses at the present time.
third of the energy stored in the HFCB buses shown in Figures 1 and 2. This can work on short route
of 100 km but cannot compete with the diesel bus or the fuel cell bus. Also, it takes 5 hours to recharge
its large battery using expensive 60 kW power supplies. At present the fuel cell bus price is twice that
of the battery bus but it goes almost three times further and if the Feichi bus is made in 5000/a
numbers, then both buses will have a similar price. The conclusion is that the HFCB bus can compete
on range and refilling with the diesel bus, with mass production as the main remaining barrier to
sales, providing hydrogen infrastructure is installed by local governments.
Energies 2019, 12, 54 8 of 10

Consider the BYD battery bus Type KD9 which has been selling 6000 units per annum at a price
near $400,000. This contains a 3 tons lithium battery storing 324 kWh of electrical energy, about one
third of the energy stored in the HFCB buses shown in Figures 1 and 2. This can work on short route
of 100 km but cannot compete with the diesel bus or the fuel cell bus. Also, it takes 5 hours to recharge
its large battery using expensive 60 kW power supplies. At present the fuel cell bus price is twice
that of the battery bus but it goes almost three times further and if the Feichi bus is made in 5000/a
numbers, then both buses will have a similar price. The conclusion is that the HFCB bus can compete
on range and refilling with the diesel bus, with mass production as the main remaining barrier to sales,
providing hydrogen infrastructure is installed by local governments.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 11
The objective of this paper is to populate Figure 6 with more results based on the several HFCB
vehicles made and tested
The objective inpaper
of this Foshan.is toThe new results
populate Figure 6are shown
with more as crosses
results based inonFigure 7 which
the several HFCB extends
the weight
vehiclesaxis
made toand180tested
kN and the energy
in Foshan. consumption
The new axis toas15
results are shown M J/km
crosses so that
in Figure the new
7 which Chinese
extends
fuel cell hydrogen
the weight axis vehicles
to 180 kNcan
andbetheinserted. The two right-hand
energy consumption axis to 15 Mpoints relate
J/km so that to
thethe
new11Chinese
m buses fuelshown
cell hydrogen
in Figure 2. Thesevehicles can be inserted.
were tested empty on The two
the right-hand
Yunfu routepoints relate totimes
at different the 11with
m buses shown drivers.
different in
AfterFigure 2. These
averaging overwere tested
two emptythe
months on hydrogen
the Yunfu route
usedatwas
different times with
measured to bedifferent drivers.
7.0 kg/100 kmAfter
and this
averaging
average over twomonth
was constant, monthstothe hydrogen
month, usedindividual
though was measured togave
trips be 7.0up
kg/100
to 8.5km and this
kg/100 kmaverage
and as low
was constant, month to month, though individual trips gave up to 8.5 kg/100 km and as low as 5.8
as 5.8 kg/100 km, showing the variations due to driver changes and route conditions. These results
kg/100 km, showing the variations due to driver changes and route conditions. These results compare
compare with 9 kg/100 km for the London buses.
with 9 kg/100 km for the London buses.

Figure 7. Plot
Figure of Chinese
7. Plot hydrogen
of Chinese hydrogenvehicle energyconsumption
vehicle energy consumption(x)(x) versus
versus vehicle
vehicle weight.
weight.

The The
left-hand x points
left-hand relate
x points relatetototwo
two3030 kW
kW Ballard fuelcell
Ballard fuel cellengine
engine powered
powered vehicles,
vehicles, them8.5 m
the 8.5
bus and
bus the
and delivery truck.
the delivery These
truck. Theseareareboth
bothhybrid hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery
hybrid hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery (HFCB)
(HFCB) vehicles
vehicles which which
satisfy the Chinese requirement of
satisfy the Chinese requirement of 30 kW fuel 30 kW fuel cell to qualify for the Government subsidy. More
to qualify for the Government subsidy. More resultsresults
are required
are required to obtain
to obtain datadata
onon the
the truckwith
truck withgoods
goods and
andthe
thebusbuswith
withpassengers. TheThe
passengers. truck is capable
truck is capable
of carrying
of carrying 30 kN30 of
kNgoods
of goods which
which has has a substantialeffect
a substantial effect on
on hydrogen
hydrogen usage.
usage.The
The8.58.5
mm bus, which
bus, which is
is the most popular size of city bus running through the narrow streets of urban China, can carry
the most popular size of city bus running through the narrow streets of urban China, can carry almost
almost 60 passengers and hydrogen consumption rises sharply for the full bus.
60 passengers and hydrogen consumption rises sharply for the full bus.
500 of the delivery trucks have been built by Synergy partners [15] and these are illustrated in
500 of the delivery trucks have been built by Synergy partners [15] and these are illustrated in
Figure 8, This market is likely to exceed the bus demand as web-based city deliveries increase rapidly
Figure 8, This
over market
the next is likely to exceed the bus demand as web-based city deliveries increase rapidly
decade,
over the next decade,
The full line is that for the 3800 petrol types of car in China from 2000 to 2010, shown in more
detail in Figure 6. This solid line is F= 0.156(W + 4) with F in MJ/km, W in kN. The broken line is F =
0.065(W + 5). On the left are the four triangles representing production models of HFCB cars ranging
from the Microcab which was tested at Birmingham [12–14], to the Hyundai launched in 2014 and
the Honda and Toyota launched in 2015/2016.
Energies 2019, 12, 54 9 of 10

The full line is that for the 3800 petrol types of car in China from 2000 to 2010, shown in more
detail in Figure 6. This solid line is F = 0.156(W + 4) with F in MJ/km, W in kN. The broken line is
F = 0.065(W + 5). On the left are the four triangles representing production models of HFCB cars
ranging from the Microcab which was tested at Birmingham [12–14], to the Hyundai launched in 2014
and the Honda and Toyota launched in 2015/2016.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 11

Figure 8. Hydrogen-Fuel Cell-battery


Cell-battery delivery
delivery trucks
trucksbuilt
builtin
inChina
Chinain
in 2017
2017 to
to 2018
2018 with
with 30
30kW
kW Ballard
engines manufactured in Yunfu
Yunfu [15].
[15].

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The
The largest
largest hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery
hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery hybrid hybrid bus project is
bus project is progressing
progressing in in Foshan,
Foshan, Guangdong
Guangdong
province of Southern China. Three hundred 8.5 m buses have
province of Southern China. Three hundred 8.5 m buses have been manufactured by Feichibeen manufactured by Feichi bus
bus
company
company (Allenbus) in the new Yunfu factory, using 30 kW Ballard engines made in the adjoining
(Allenbus) in the new Yunfu factory, using 30 kW Ballard engines made in the adjoining
Synergy
Synergy production
production facility.
facility. In
In 2017,
2017, this
this Yunfu
Yunfu project
project overtook
overtook the the EUEU hydrogen
hydrogen busbus program,
program, thethe
former leading HFCB demonstration with about
former leading HFCB demonstration with about 100 buses. 100 buses.
The
The first
first hydrogen
hydrogen station
station inin Foshan
Foshan waswas running
running in in 2016,
2016, allowing
allowing testtest runs
runs of
of the
the buses
buses on the
on the
Yunfu route. Now five more bus routes are beginning to run as new hydrogen
Yunfu route. Now five more bus routes are beginning to run as new hydrogen stations are opened stations are opened
across
across Foshan.
Foshan. The The bus
bus range
range can
can compete
compete with
with existing
existing diesel
diesel and
and methane
methane buses,
buses, while
while filling
filling time
time
is
is less
less than ten minutes
than ten minutes per per bus.
bus. Battery
Batterybuses
busescannot
cannotachieve
achieve these
these targets.
targets. Of
Of course,
course, the
the hybrid
hybrid
bus
bus uses a lithium battery to provide braking energy storage and high-power acceleration but the
uses a lithium battery to provide braking energy storage and high-power acceleration but the
HFCB
HFCB vehicle
vehicle energy
energy storage
storage isis supplied
supplied by by the
the hydrogen
hydrogen fuelfuel cell
cell keeping
keeping the
the batteries charged up
batteries charged up
continuously. The Foshan HFCB bus lithium battery is typically ten times smaller
continuously. The Foshan HFCB bus lithium battery is typically ten times smaller than the 3ton unit than the 3 ton unit
required
required for
for aa typical
typical battery
battery bus
bus like
like the
the BYD
BYD battery
battery bus
bus KD9.
KD9. ButBut this
this smaller
smaller Li
Li battery
battery is
is sufficient
sufficient
to
to provide
providepower
powerforfor good
goodacceleration, highhigh
acceleration, speed running
speed and also
running andelectromagnetic braking braking
also electromagnetic storage.
Hence the HFCB bus separates the power demand for the bus from
storage. Hence the HFCB bus separates the power demand for the bus from the energy storagethe energy storage requirement.
The battery gives
requirement. The pulse
battery power
giveswhile
pulsethe fuel while
power cell gives continuous
the fuel cell gives energy.
continuous energy.
By 2020, it is anticipated that 20 stations will be installed in Foshan, with more than 1000 buses
running to reduce emissions and lower the city energy budget. Although the original Vancouver
hydrogen bus program was terminated due to high costs [16], reviews show that the hydrogen bus
worldwide is being investigated at an increasing scale [17].
The energy consumption results indicate that these heavy vehicles fit on the Coulomb curve
Energies 2019, 12, 54 10 of 10

By 2020, it is anticipated that 20 stations will be installed in Foshan, with more than 1000 buses
running to reduce emissions and lower the city energy budget. Although the original Vancouver
hydrogen bus program was terminated due to high costs [16], reviews show that the hydrogen bus
worldwide is being investigated at an increasing scale [17].
The energy consumption results indicate that these heavy vehicles fit on the Coulomb curve
originally defined for hydrogen-fuel-cell-battery cars. More data are needed to populate this plot,
indicating how the system losses can be further lowered to enhance performance.

Author Contributions: Investigation, ZX Liu and XQ Yan; Methodology, K. Kendall.


Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Fundation of China (NSFC) grant number 51677157.
Acknowledgments: Administrative support from Foshan (Yunfu) Industrial Transfer Park and technical support
from Feichi Bus are acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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