9 Makä°ne Elemanlari English PDF

Kon-41.
2010 Machine design basics B (4 cr)
Machine elements
Strength calculation................................................................................................................ 1
Symbols and units.......................................................................................................................................... 1
Stresses .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Failure theories .............................................................................................................................................. 2
Static load ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Fatigue loads.................................................................................................................................................. 3
Stress concentration factors ........................................................................................................................... 4
Reversed stress (mean stress zero) ................................................................................................................ 5
Smith diagrams (non-alloy structural steels) ................................................................................................. 7
Engineering materials............................................................................................................. 8
Steels ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Cast irons..................................................................................................................................................... 10
Aluminium................................................................................................................................................... 11
Copper alloys............................................................................................................................................... 11
Physical properties of steels and cast irons.................................................................................................. 12
Physical properties of materials................................................................................................................... 13
Bolted joint........................................................................................................................... 14
1 Stresses of a bolt during tightening .......................................................................................................... 14
2 Torque required to tighten the bolt ........................................................................................................... 15
Welded connections ............................................................................................................. 17
Stresses in fillet weld................................................................................................................................... 17
Simple calculation method .......................................................................................................................... 17
Parallel keys ......................................................................................................................... 18
Interference fits .................................................................................................................... 19
Spring design........................................................................................................................ 20
1 Helical extension and compression springs .............................................................................................. 20
2 Belleville springs ...................................................................................................................................... 21
3 Rubber springs.......................................................................................................................................... 22
Gears..................................................................................................................................... 23
Helical gears (external gears) ...................................................................................................................... 24
Forces on gear teeth..................................................................................................................................... 25
Mechanical power transmission .................................................................................................................. 26
Narrow V-belt drives (SFS 3527) ........................................................................................ 27
Datum lengths of narrow V-belts and datum diameters of pulleys............................................................. 28
Rolling bearings ................................................................................................................... 30
Equivalent dynamic bearing load (constant) ............................................................................................... 32
Lubrication and lubricant classification ............................................................................... 33
1 Lubrication mechanisms........................................................................................................................... 33
2 Oil classification....................................................................................................................................... 34
Design of pressure vessels.................................................................................................... 36
1 Pressure equipment directive.................................................................................................................... 36
2 Nominal design stress............................................................................................................................... 36
3 Cylindrical and spherical shells ................................................................................................................ 36
4 Dished ends .............................................................................................................................................. 38
Machine Elements/SK 1
Strength calculation
Symbols and units
Quantity Symbol SI-unit Quantity Symbol SI-unit
Acceleration a m/s2 Area A m2
Modulus of elasticity E N/mm2, MPa Pressure p Pa, N/m2, bar
Force F N Density ρ kg/m3
Gravity G N Stress (tensile, com- σ N/mm2, MPa
Moment of inertia J kgm2 pression, bending)
Torque Mv, T Nm Shear stress τ N/mm2, MPa
Mass m kg Extension ∆l (δ) m, mm
Rotation speed n r/min, r/s Strain ε -
Power P W Time t s
Work W Nm, J Velocity v m/s
Angular velocity ω rad/s
Radius r m, mm Angular acceleration α rad/s2
Diameter d m, mm Efficiency η -
Length l m, mm Friction coefficient µ -
Stresses
F
Tensile stress σ=
A
♦ Hooke’s law σ = Eε
= E∆l / l
F
Shear stress τ=
A
F
Surface pressure p= F
A
projected
area
D B
M
Bending stress σ=
W
Mv
Torsion stress τ=
Wv
W Wv Cross-section area A
πd 3
Wz = Wy = πd 3 πd 2
32 ≈ 0, 2d 3 A=
≈ 0, 1d 3 16 4
π( D4 − d 4 )
π( D4 − d 4 ) π( D2 − d 2 )
Wz = Wy = 16 D A=
32D ( D4 − d 4 ) 4
≈ 0, 2
D
σ
Rm
ReH
ReL
σ = F/A tensile stress

A cross-section area
Modulus of elasticity E = tan β
δ length change (extension)
ε = δ/L strain
β
ReH upper yield strength
ReL lower yield strength
ε Rm tensile strength.
Fig. 1. Stress-strain –diagram (low carbon steel).
Failure theories
Distortion energy theory, effective stress
σ vert = σ 2 + 3τ 2 (1)
Maximum shear stress theory, effective stress
σ vert = σ 2 + 4 τ 2 (2)
Static load
A. Ductile (tough) material
Effective stress
ReL
σ vert ≤ σ sall = (3)
n
where ReL is a yield strength and n safety factor. Normally n = 1,2...2.
B. Brittle material
Effective stress
R
σ vert ≤ m (4)
n
where Rm is a tensile strength and safety factor n = 2...4.
Fatigue loads
a) Fully reversed b) Repeated
c) Fluctuating
Fig. 2. Fatigue loads.

Stress concentration factors

Bending
Torsion
Fig. 3. Stress concentration factor for a shaft shoulder.
The maximum stress (bending)
σmax = Kft σnim (5)
σnim is a nominal stress, Kft is a stress concentration factor
Kft = 1 + q(Ktt - 1) (6)
where q is a notch sensitivity of the material (steel S355: q ≈ 0,9) and Ktt geometric stress
concentration factor (fig. 3).
1
Surface roughness
Ra = 0,3
0,9
k1 0,6
0,8
0,8
1,6
3,2
0,7
6,3
0,6
Rolled, forged 25
or casted
0,5
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
Tensile strength Rm (N/mm2)
Fig. 4. Surface quality factor k1.
1
k2
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
d (mm)
Fig. 5. Size factor k2.
Reversed stress (mean stress zero)

Bending or tensile-compression load (mean stress σm = 0)
k1k2σ w
n= (7)
K ftσ nim
Torsion load (mean stress τm = 0)

k1k2τ w
n= (8)
K fvτ nim
In other cases the safety factor is calculated using Smith diagram.
Table 1. Physical properties of structural steels.

Steel S235 (Fe 37) E295 (Fe 50) S355 (Fe 52)
Tensile Re 235 295 355
(N/mm2) σw 175 230 245
Bending Rte 335 410 490
(N/mm2) σtw 195 250 265
Torsion τvs 170 205 240
(N/mm2) τvw 135 175 215
Notched specimen Shape Stress concentration factor Kf

Bending Kft Torsion Kfv
Groove 1,5...2 1,3...1,8
Retaining ring 2,5...3,5 2,5...3,5

groove
Shoulder fillet ≈ 1,5 ≈ 1,25

r/d = 0,1 r/d = 0,1
and d/D = 0,7 and d/D = 0,7
Transverse hole 1,4...1,8 1,4...1,8

d/D = 0,14 d/D = 0,14
End-milled
keyway *
2,6...3 ≈ 2,3
Sled-runner 2...2,5 2...2,5

keyway *
Shaft-hub 1,7...1,9 1,3...1,4

connection:
interference fit
Shaft-hub 2...2,4 1,5...1,6

connection: key
* Stress concentration factor depends on corner radius and material.
Fig. 6. Preliminary design values for stress concentration factors.

Smith diagrams (non-alloy structural steels)

Raaka-ainekäsikirja 1. Muokatut teräkset. 3. uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus
Oy 2001. 361 s. ISBN 951-817-751-1.
N/mm2
400 ReH =
S355
355
300 E295
295
245
S235
230 235
200
175
σw
100
0
100 200 300 400
σm (N/mm2)
-σw -100
-175
-200
-230
-245
Tensile - compression
-300
a)
N/mm2 S355 Rte=

500
490
E295
400 410
S235 N/mm2
335
300 300
S355 τvs =
265
215 240
250 E295 205
200 200
175 S235
195 170
σtw 135
100 τvw 100
0 0
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300
τm (N/mm2)
σm (N/mm2) -τvw
-σtw -100 -100
-135
-195 -175
-200 -200 Torsion
-215
-250
-265 Bending
-300
b) c)
Fig. 7.
Engineering materials
Steels
According to SFS-EN 10027-1
1 Steels designated according to their application and mechanical or physical properties
Principal symbols:
• S structural steel
• P steels for pressure purposes
• L steels for pipelines
• E engineering steel
followed by a number being the specified minimum yield strength (N/mm2), e.g. S235, E295
for steel casting the name shall be preceded by the letter G
additional symbols for impact strength etc, e.g. S355J2G3
Table 1. Structural steels.

SFS-EN Yield Tensile Impact SFS-EN SFS 200
10025 strength 1) strength 2) strength 10025
v. 1994 ReH (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2) KV (J) / t (°C) v. 1991 v. 1986
S235JR 235 360...510 27 / 20 Fe 360 B -
S235JRG2 235 360...510 27 / 20 Fe 360 B FN Fe 37 B
S235J0 235 360...510 27 / 0 Fe 360 C -
S235J2G3 235 360...510 27 / -20 Fe 360 D1 Fe 37 D
S235J2G4 235 360...510 27 / -20 Fe 360 D2 -
S275JR 275 430...580 27 / 20 Fe 430 B Fe 44 B
S275J0 275 430...580 27 / 0 Fe 430 C -
S275J2G3 275 430...580 27 / -20 Fe 430 D1 Fe 44 D
S275J2G4 275 430...580 27 / -20 Fe 430 D2 -
S355JR 355 510...680 27 / 20 Fe 510 B -
S355J0 355 510...680 27 / 0 Fe 510 C Fe 52 C
S355J2G3 355 510...680 27 / -20 Fe 510 D1 Fe 52 D
S355J2G4 355 510...680 27 / -20 Fe 510 D2 -
S355K2G3 355 510...680 40 / -20 Fe 510 DD1 -
S355K2G4 355 510...680 40 / -20 Fe 510 DD2 -
S185 185 310...540 -/- Fe 310-0 Fe 33
E295 3) 295 490...660 -/- Fe 490-2 Fe 50
E335 3) 335 590...770 Fe 590-2 Fe 60
E360 3) 360 690...900 Fe 690-2 Fe 70
1) Nominal thickness ≤ 16 mm. 2) Nominal thickness < 3 mm. 3) Engineering steels.
Classification by impact strength

Test temperature Impact strength (J)
°C 27 J 40 J 60 J
20 JR KR LR
0 JO KO LO
-20 J2 K2 L2
-30 J3 K3 L3
-40 J4 K4 L4
-50 J5 K5 L5
-60 J6 K6 L6
2 Steels designated according to chemical composition

(Examples in tables 2…4)
Non-alloy steels
• letter C and the carbon content % multiplied by 100
Non-alloy steels (with Mn ≥ 1 %), non-alloy free-cutting steels and alloy steels (except
high speed steels) where the content, by weight, of every alloying element is < 5 %
• carbon content % multiplied by 100
• chemical symbols indicating the alloy elements (in decreasing order)
• numbers indicating the values of contents of alloy elements
Alloy steels (except high speed steels)
• letter X
• carbon content % multiplied by 100
• chemical symbols indicating the alloy elements (in decreasing order)
• numbers indicating the values of contents of alloy elements
Table 2. Quenched and tempered steels (SFS-EN 10083).
Material Re (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2)

2 C 45 370 630...780
25 CrMo 4 450 700...850
42 CrMo 4 650 900...1100
34 CrNiMo 6 800 1000...1200
(40 mm < d < 100 mm)
heat treatment including hardening and annealing in relative high temperature (500…700 °C)
shafts, couplings, gears, bolts and nuts.
Table 3. Case hardening steels.
SFS-EN 10084 Re (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2) Hardness HB

20NiCrMo2-2 490 740...1030 265
16MnCr5 590 790...1080 285
20NiCrMo5 690 1030...1370 345
18CrNiMo7-6 780 1080...1330 370
higher carbon content in thin surface layer
high wear resistance and fatigue strength and bending strength
gears and shafts.
Table 4. Stainless steels.
SFS-EN Yield strength Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity

10088-2 Rp0,2 (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2) E (N/mm2)
X2CrNi19-11 200 500...650 200 000
X2CrNi18-9 200 500...650 200 000
X5CrNi18-10 210 520...720 200 000
X2CrNiMo17-12-2 220 520...670 200 000
X3CrNiMo17-13-3 220 530...730 200 000
corrosion resistant
ductile at low temperatures
pipes, vessels, valves, machinery in process industry, containers and tanks.
Cast irons
Table 5. Grey cast irons.
SFS-EN 1561 Rm (N/mm2) Rp0,1 (N/mm2) Elongation (%)

EN-GJL-150 150…250 98…165 0,8…0,3
EN-GJL-200 200…300 130…195 0,8…0,3
EN-GJL-250 250…350 165…228 0,8…0,3
EN-GJL-300 300…400 195…260 0,8…0,3
EN-GJL-350 350…450 228…285 0,8…0,3
low cost, good for casting and easy machining, absorption of vibration
machine beds, valves, pipes, cylinders and lining, brake drums and disks.
Table 6. Spheroidal graphite cast irons (ductile irons).
SFS-EN 1563 Rm (N/mm2) Rp0,2 (N/mm2) Elongation (%)

EN-GJS-350-22 350 220 22
EN-GJS-400-18 400 240 18
EN-GJS-400-15 400 250 15
EN-GJS-450-10 450 310 10
EN-GJS-500-7 500 320 7
EN-GJS-600-3 600 370 3
EN-GJS-700-2 700 420 2
EN-GJS-800-2 800 480 2
EN-GJS-900-2 900 600 2
high strength compared to grey cast iron, heat treating possible
gears, bodies and frames, power transmission, combustion engine and paper machine
components.
Table 7. Austempered Ductile Irons (ADI).
Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation Hardness

EN 1564 (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (%) (HB)
800-8 500 800 8 260...320
1000-5 700 1000 5 300...360
1200-2 850 1200 2 340...440
1400-1 1100 1400 1 380...480
Aluminium
low weight
corrosion resistant
good heat and electricity conductivity
special alloys with high strength
aluminium profiles
• economical manufacturing
• material extruded trough profile tool
aluminium casting
• low weight
• ductile
• easy to machine
Table 8. Aluminium profile alloys.
Alloy Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation Hardness

SFS 2554 (N/mm2) (N/mm2) A5 (%) (HB)
Al 99,5 20 70 23 18...25
AlMg2,5 80 180 14 35...45
E-AlMgSi 180 220 10 65...75
AlSi1Mg 260 300 8 95...115
AlSi1MgPb 180 280 8 85...95
AlZn5Mg1 280 330 10 115...125
Modulus of elasticity E ≈ 70 000 N/mm2
Copper alloys
journal bearings are most important applications
Table 9. Common copper alloys.
Alloy Yield Tensile Elongation Hardness

SFS 2900/2188 Products strength strength A5 (%) (HB)
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
CuZn39Pb3 Bolts, nuts, valves, con- 250... 430... 15...30 115...
Lead brass nectors 430 520 155
CuZn35Mn2AlFe Shafts, piston rods, 270... 470... 15...30 135...
Special brass gears, bolts, nuts, valves 440 590 170
CuSn6 Springs, valve and 390... 470... 15...40 -
Tin bronze pump components 490 550
GK-CuZn40Pb Components of devices,
Lead brass locks, decorative parts 120 280 15 70
GS-CuSn12 Gears and worm wheels,
Tin bronze sliding surfaces, journal 160 280 12 95
bearings
GS-CuPb10Sn10 Heavily loaded journal
Lead tin bronze bearings (edge contact) 80 180 7 65
GS-CuAl10Fe3 Crane wheels, bushings,
Aluminium bronze gears, journal bearings 180 500 13 115
Physical properties of steels and cast irons
Poisson's Linear expan- Thermal Specific heat

Material
E ratio Density ρ sion coefficient conductivity capacity c
(GN/m2) ν (kg/m3) α (1/K) λ (W/(m K)) (kJ/(kg K))
Structural steels 206 0,3 7850 12⋅10-6 52…63 0,50
Quenched and tempered steels 206 0,3 7850 12⋅10-6 42…59 0,50
Case hardening steels 206 0,3 7850 12⋅10-6 42…59 0,50
Stainless steels:
X4CrNi 18 9 200 0,3 7900 17⋅10-6 15 0,44
X4CrNiMo 17 12 3 200 0,3 8000 16,5⋅10-6 13,5 0,44
Grey cast irons 1)
GJL-150 (GRS 150) 78…103 0,26 7100 11,7⋅10-6 52,5 0,46
GJL-200 (GRS 200) 88…113 0,26 7150 11,7⋅10-6 50,0 0,46
GJL-250 (GRS 250) 103…118 0,26 7200 11,7⋅10-6 48,5 0,46
GJL-300 (GRS 300) 108…137 0,26 7250 11,7⋅10-6 47,5 0,46
GJL-350 (GRS 350) 123…143 0,26 7300 11,7⋅10-6 45,5 0,46
Spheroidal graphite cast irons 2)
GJS-350 169 0,275 7100 12,5⋅10-6 36,2 0,515
GJS-400 (GRP 400) 169 0,275 7100 12,5⋅10-6 36,2 0,515
GJS-450 169 0,275 7100 12,5⋅10-6 36,2 0,515
GJS-500 (GRP 500) 169 0,275 7100 12,5⋅10-6 35,2 0,515
GJS-600 (GRP 600) 174 0,275 7200 12,5⋅10-6 32,5 0,515
GJS-700 (GRP 700) 176 0,275 7200 12,5⋅10-6 31,1 0,515
GJS-800 (GRP 800) 176 0,275 7200 12,5⋅10-6 31,1 0,515
GJS-900 176 0,275 7200 12,5⋅10-6 31,1 0,515
ADI - Austempered ductile
cast irons
GJS-800-8 170 0,27 7100 14,6⋅10-6 22,1
GJS-1000-5 168 0,27 7100 14,3⋅10-6 21,8
GJS-1200-2 167 0,27 7100 14,0⋅10-6 21,5
GJS-1400-1 165 0,27 7100 13,8⋅10-6 21,2
1) t = 100 °C
2) t = 300 °C
References
Raaka-ainekäsikirja 1. Muokatut teräkset. 3. uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus Oy
2001. 361 s. ISBN 951-817-751-1.
Raaka-ainekäsikirja 2. Valuraudat ja valuteräkset. 2. uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus

Oy 2001. 196 s. ISBN 951-817-757-0.
Raaka-ainekäsikirja 1. Muokatut teräkset. 2. tarkistettu ja uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kus-

tannus Oy 1993. 353 s. ISBN 951-817-564-0.
SFS-Käsikirja 138. Valurauta. Yleis- ja ainestandardit. Suomen Standardisoimisliitto 1999. 176 s.

ISBN 952-5143-38-4.
Physical properties of materials
Poisson's Linear expan- Thermal Specific heat

Material
E ratio Density ρ sion coeffi- conductivity capacity c
(GN/m2) ν (kg/m3) cient α (1/K) λ (W/(m K)) (kJ/(kg K))
Aluminium alloy 70 0,33 2700 24⋅10-6 146 (cast) 4) 0,900
Copper 124 0,33 8900 18⋅10-6 170 0,380
Brass 100 0,33 8600 19⋅10-6 120 4) 0,390
Aluminium bronze 117 0,33 7500 18⋅10-6 50 4) 0,380
Lead bronze 97 0,33 8900 18⋅10-6 47 0,380
Magnesium alloy 41 0,33 1800 27⋅10-6 110 1,000
Babbitt (lead) 29 10100 20⋅10-6 24 0,150
Babbitt (tin) 52 7400 23⋅10-6 56 0,210
Zinc alloy 50 0,27 6700 27⋅10-6 110 0,400
Nickel alloy 207 0,30 11,9⋅10-6
Steel 200 0,30 7800 11⋅10-6 35 0,450
Stainless steel 193 0,30 7800 17⋅10-6 15 0,450
Titanium 110 0,33 10,3⋅10-6
Grey cast iron1) 76...176 0,2...0,3 7100...7300 10…13⋅10-6 31...53 0,46...0,54
Diamond (natural)2) 965 0,20 3515 1,34⋅10-6 800 0,510
Synthetic diamond2) 1000 0,20 3515 1,34⋅10-6 2000 0,510
Aluminium oxide
(polycrystal)3) 345 0,23 3900 7⋅10-6 30 0,752
Silicon carbide 3) 400 0,15 3200 4⋅10-6 50 0,670
Silicon nitride3) 310 0,27 3200 1,26⋅10-6 30,7 0,710
Titanium carbide3) 393 0,21 6000 9⋅10-6 55 0,543
Tungsten carbide3) 655 0,24 15100 5⋅10-6 102 0,205
Graphite3) 14 0,30 1900 3⋅10-6 178 0,710
Nylon3) 2,6...3,3 0,32...0,36 1140 81⋅10-6 0,25 1,670
Reinforced nylon3) 9,6...14 0,32...0,36 1420 (25…38)⋅10-6 0,22…0,48 -
Polyimide3) 3,2...5,2 0,41 1430 (45…50)⋅10-6 0,36…0,98 1,13…1,30
Teflon3) 0,26...0,45 0,45 2200 (135…151)⋅10-6 0,24 1,050
Silicon oxide (glass) 68 0,16 2200 0,6⋅10-6 1,25 0,800
1) Values are representative. Exact values vary with composition and processing.
2) Materials are anisotropic. Values vary with crystallographic orientation.
3) Typical properties of bearing quality materials. Ceramics are hot pressed or equivalent sintered. These prop-
erties are representative and depend on detailed composition and processing.
4) t = 100 °C
References
Hamrock B. J. Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication. McGraw-Hill, New York 1994. 690 s. ISBN
0-07-025956-9.
Wear Control Handbook (Ed. Peterson & Winer). New York 1980. 1358 p.
Bolted joint
1 Stresses of a bolt during tightening
A flange joint is a typical bolted joint (fig. 1-1).
Fig. 1-1. Flange joint.
When the bolt is tightened, a tensile stress and torsional stress is developed in the bolt. For
ISO metric threads (thread angle 60°) the friction torque in threads is /1/
⎛ P ⎞
M G = 12 d 2 FM ⎜⎜1,155µG + ⎟ (1-1)
⎝ πd 2 ⎟⎠
where FM is the preload (from tightening)
d2 the pitch diameter (table 1-1)
µG the friction coefficient in threads
P the pitch.
The torsional stress in a round section (diameter dS) is

M G 8d 2 FM ⎛ P ⎞
τ= = ⎜⎜1,155µG + ⎟⎟ (1-2)
Wv πdS3 ⎝ π d 2⎠
The equation for the diameter dS of the thread is /1, 2/

d + d3
dS = 2 (1-3)
2
where d3 is the root diameter of the thread. If the bolt has a reduced diameter (< dS), use the
minimum diameter dT. The tensile stress in the cross-section due to the preload force is
4 FM
σS = (1-4)
πd S2
The effective stress is (theory of constant energy of distortion)

σ vert = σ 2S + 3 τ 2 (1-5)
The effective stress should not be more than 90 % of the yield stress (0,9Rp0,2 or 0,9ReL). The
maximum tensile stress during tightening is /1, 3/
0,9 Rp0,2
σS = (1-6)
2
⎛ d P ⎞
1 + 3⎜⎜ 2 2 (1,155µG + )⎟
⎝ dS πd 2 ⎟⎠
The friction coefficient in threads depends on the material, surface treatment and lubrication.
(table 1-2). For bolts M6...M16 σS ≈ 0,7ReL, when the friction coefficient in threads is µG =
0,15. The maximum axial force (in assembled state) is
FSP = σS AS (1-7)
where AS is the tensile stress area of the bolt (table 1-1). Property classes of bolts are in the
table 1-3 (SFS-ISO 898-1).
Table 1-1. Selected dimensions of ISO metric threads.

Nominal Pitch Pitch Root Tensile Width across
Thread diameter P/mm diameter diameter stress area flats s/mm
d/mm d2/mm d3/mm AS/mm2 SFS-ISO 272
M6 6 1,0 5,350 4,773 20,1 10
M8 8 1,25 7,188 6,466 36,6 13
M 10 10 1,5 9,026 8,160 58,0 16
M 12 12 1,75 10,863 9,853 84,3 18
M 16 16 2,0 14,701 13,546 157 24
M 20 20 2,5 18,376 16,933 245 30
Table 1-2. Friction coefficient µG in threads /4/.
Surface treatment Dry Oiled MoS2

Untreated 0,20...0,35 0,16...0,23 0,13...0,19
Phosphated 0,28...0,40 0,16...0,33 0,13...0,19
Phosphated black 0,26...0,37 0,24...0,27 0,14...0,21
Zinc electroplated 0,14...0,20 0,14...0,19 0,10...0,17
Cadmium electropl. 0,10...0,19 0,10...0,17 0,13...0,19
Table 1-3. Property classes (strength grades) of bolts.

Property class 5.6 6.8 8.8 10.9 12.9
Rm / N/mm2 (nominal) 500 600 800 1000 1200
ReL or Rp0,2 / N/mm2 (nominal) 300 480 640 900 1080
Rm tensile strength, ReL or Rp0,2 yield strength.
2 Torque required to tighten the bolt

The total torque required to tighten the bolt is a sum of the friction torque in threads and
torque between the head or nut and the surface (fig. 2-1). The friction torque MK between the
nut and the surface is
M K = 12 µ K Dkm FM (2-1)
where µK is the friction coefficient between the nut (or head) and the surface
Dkm = (dK+DK)/2 the mean diameter (location of friction force)
dK the outside diameter of the nut (or head) ≈ width across flats s (wrench opening)
DK the diameter of the hole.
The friction coefficient between the nut (or head) and the surface is µK ≈ 0,08...0,22 depend-
ing on the material, surface treatment and lubrication. The friction coefficient of stainless
steels (between the nut (or head) and the surface or in threads) can be even 0,5.
The total torque required to tighten the bolt is

1 ⎛ P⎞
MA = MG + MK = FM ⎜1,155µG d 2 + µ K Dkm + ⎟ (2-2)
2 ⎝ π⎠
Fig. 2-1. Bolt tightening using wrench.
The preload FM depends on friction coefficients and torque. With hand tools only bolts M10
(10.9) and M12 (8.8) are tightened properly (preload of small bolts is usually too high and
preload of big bolts is too small) /1/.
References
1. Verho A. Ruuviliitokset ja liikeruuvit. Julkaisussa: Airila M. et al. Koneenosien suunnittelu, 2. painos.
Porvoo: WSOY 1997. S. 161...243. ISBN 951-0-20172-3.
2. Decker K-H. Maschinenelemente. Gestaltung und Berechnung. 12. Auflage. München: Carl Hanser
Verlag 1995. 677 s. ISBN 3-446-17966-6.
3. VDI Richtlinie 2230 Blatt 1. Systematische Berechnung hochbeanspruchter Schraubenverbindungen.
Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag 1986. (Systematic calculation of high duty bolted joints)
4. Haberhauer H. & Bodenstein F. Maschinenelemente. Gestaltung, Berechnung, Anwendung. 10. Auflage.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag 1996. 626 s. ISBN 3-540-60619-X.
Welded connections
Stresses in fillet weld
The stresses of the fillet weld are calculated for the minimum cross section A = al (a is the
throat thickness (height of the cross section area) and l is the length of the weld). The mini-
mum cross section area is located at 45° to the legs. The stresses of the area are divided into
three components (fig. 1).
a τ⊥
σ⊥
Fig. 1. Stresses on the throat section of a fillet weld.
Simple calculation method

In the simple calculation method the equation for the stress of the weld σw is regardless of the
direction of the load
F
σw = (1)
al
The resistance of the weld is sufficient if (SFS 2373)

ReL σ
σ w ≤ σ wsall (SFS 2373: σ sall = , σ wsall = sall ) (2)
n β 3
The calculation method is valid when 3 mm ≤ a ≤ 15 mm (SFS 2373). The length of the weld
has also limitations.
Mechanical properties of structural steels are in the table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of structural steels.
Steel Thickness t / mm ReL / N/mm2 σsall / N/mm2 σwsall / N/mm2 Factor β

S 235 (Fe 37) ...16 220 147 120
17...40 210 140 115 0,7
41... 200 133 110
S 355 (Fe 52) ...16 340 227 145
17...30 330 220 140 0,9
31... 320 213 135
Parallel keys
The torque that can be transmitted (the bearing action between the side of the key and the hub
material) (fig. 1)
Mvn = pn l t2 (d + t2)/2 (1)
where pn is the compressive stress of the hub

l is the length of the key
t2 the depth of the keyway in the hub
d the diameter of the shaft.
The torque that can be transmitted (the bearing action between the side of the key and the
shaft material)
Mva = pa l t1 (d - t1)/2 (2)
where pa is the compressive stress of the hub and t1 the depth of the keyway in the shaft.
The compressive stress po is: pn pa

◊ the steel 150 N/mm2
◊ grey cast iron 90 N/mm2
◊ spheroidal graphite cast iron 110 N/mm2. Mv
The load factor is in the table 2.
Fig. 1. Parallel key (SFS 2636).
Table 1. Dimensions of keys (SFS 2636). Key length is in the standard.

Width b (tol. h9) 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 25 28 32 36 40 45 50
Height h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 14 14 16 18 20 22 25 28
Diameter of shaft d > 6 8 10 12 17 22 30 38 44 50 58 65 75 85 95 110 130 150 170 200
≤ 8 10 12 17 22 30 38 44 50 58 65 75 85 95 110 130 150 170 200 230
Depth of keyway (shaft) t1 1,2 1,8 2,5 3 3,5 4 5 5 5,5 6 7 7,5 9 9 10 11 12 13 15 17
Depth (hub) t2 1 1,4 1,8 2,3 2,8 3,3 3,3 3,3 3,8 4,3 4,4 4,9 5,4 5,4 6,4 7,4 8,4 9,4 10,4 11,4
Table 2. The design compressive stress psall = Cpo.

One-way load, One-way load, One-way load, Reverse load, Reverse load,
static light shocks heavy shocks light shocks heavy shocks
0,8po 0,7po 0,6po 0,45po 0,25po
Interference fits
A press fit is obtained by machining the hole in the hub to a slightly smaller diameter than
that of the shaft. Only relative small parts can be press-fitted. For large parts a shrink fit can
be made by heating the hub to expand its inside diameter.
a) b) c) σvn
σt
σtn
σr
da di Di Da p
DF
σrn
p
σra σva
ua un
σta
compression
Fig. 1. An interference fit and stresses in interference fits.
Nominal
Table 1. Interference fits (sizes mm). sizes H7 s6 t6 u6 v6
Devia- Devia- Devia- Devia- Devia-
> ≤ tions tions tions tions tions
+0,010 +0,020 +0,024
3 0 +0,014 +0,018
+0,012 +0,027 +0,031
3 6 0 +0,019 +0,023
+0,015 +0,032 +0,037
6 10 0 +0,023 +0,028
10 14 +0,018 +0,039 +0,044

0 +0,028 +0,033 +0,050
14 18 +0,039
+0,054 +0,060
18 24 +0,021 +0,048 +0,041 +0,047
0 +0,035 +0,054 +0,061 +0,068
24 30 +0,041 +0,048 +0,055
+0,064 +0,076 +0,084
30 40 +0,025 +0,059 +0,048 +0,060 +0,068
0 +0,043 +0,070 +0,086 +0,097
40 50 +0,054 +0,070 +0,081
+0,072 +0,085 +0,106 +0,121
50 65 +0,030 +0,053 +0,066 +0,087 +0,102
0 +0,078 +0,094 +0,121 +0,139
65 80 +0,059 +0,075 +0,102 +0,120
+0,093 +0,113 +0,146 +0,168
80 100 +0,035 +0,071 +0,091 +0,124 +0,146
0 +0,101 +0,126 +0,166 +0,194
100 120 +0,079 +0,104 +0,144 +0,172
+0,117 +0,147 +0,195 +0,227
120 140 +0,092 +0,122 +0,170 +0,202
+0,040 +0,125 +0,159 +0,215 +0,253
140 160 0 +0,100 +0,134 +0,190 +0,228
+0,133 +0,171 +0,235 +0,277
160 180 +0,108 +0,146 +0,210 +0,252
+0,151 +0,195 +0,265 +0,313
180 200 +0,122 +0,166 +0,236 +0,284
Spring design
1 Helical extension and compression springs
Common forms of helical springs are in fig. 1. For springs with end treatments the total num-
ber of coils nt is bigger than the number of active coils n. Other forms are possible such as
conical helical compression springs. If the place for a spring is small it is possible to put sev-
eral helical springs within each other.
Fig. 1. Helical compression springs (a) and extension spring (b).
The force of a helical spring is

Gd 4
F= f (1)
8 D3 n
where G is the shear modulus of elasticity

d the wire diameter
D the mean coil diameter
n the number of active coils
f the deflection.
The spring rate (spring constant) for a helical spring is (F = kf)

Gd 4
k= (2)
8 D3 n
The nominal shear stress of the wire’s cross-section is

8DF Gd
τ= 3
= f (3)
πd πnD2
The maximum shear stress is

τtod = kτ (4)
where k is the stress concentration factor. The stress concentration factor kw for the dynamic
load (the Wahl factor) is as a function of the spring index C = D/d in fig. 2.
The stress concentration factor for the static load is

1
ks = 1 + (5)
2C
4 C − 1 0,615
kw = +
4C − 4 C
Fig. 2. Stress concentration factor or Wahl factor.
2 Belleville springs
Groups 1 and 2 φ De
t
Class De/t h0/t
l0 h0 A 18 0,4
φDi B 28 0,75
C 40 1,3
Group 3 φ De
OM I
l0 IV
II h0
t' III φDi
Fig. 3. Forms of Belleville springs, the top and bottom of springs in group 3 are cham-
fered. Belleville springs have three dimension classes A, B and C (DIN 2093).
The force-deflection relationship is nonlinear. The allowed deflection f ≤ 0,75h0.

Fig. 4. Deflection of Belleville spring.
3 Rubber springs
The modulus of elasticity E and G (in shear) for rubber depends on the durometer hardness
number (e.g. IRHD). Dynamically loaded rubber springs have higher stiffness than statically
loaded. A cylindrical rubber spring is frequently used as a compression spring (fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Cylindrical rubber spring with compression loading.
Fig. 6. Simple rubber shear spring. Fig. 7. Cylindrical rubber spring

(torsion loading).
Gears
Gears are used to transmit torque and angular velocity in many applications. There is a wide
variety of gear types to choose from.
Spur gears Helical gears Spur gears, internal set
Rack and pinion
Crossed helical gears Bevel gears Worm and worm gear

Helical gears (external gears)

Normal module mn, pressure angle αn = 20°, helix angle β, number of teeth z, facewidth b and
addendum modification coefficient x (SFS 3390).
Equation
Tranverse module mn
mt = (1)
cos β
Transverse pressure angle tan α n
α t = arctan (2)
cos β
Tranverse pitch pt = mtπ (3)
Tranverse base pitch pbt = pt cos α t (4)
Reference diameter d = mt z (5)
Base diameter d b = d cos α t (6)
Addendum of gear tooth ha = mn (1 + x ) − ∆ha (7)
Correction of addendum ⎛ z +z ⎞
∆ha = mn ⎜⎜ 1 2 + x1 + x2 ⎟⎟ − aw (8)
⎝ 2 cos β ⎠
If ∆ha < 0 , then ∆ha = 0
Dedendum hf = mn (1,25 − x ) (9)
Tip diameter (outside diameter) d a = d + 2ha (10)
Root diameter d f = d − 2hf (11)
Base centre distance mt ( z1 + z2 )
a= (12)
(no profile- shift) 2
Centre distance cosα t
aw = a (13)
cosα wt
Working pressure angle a cosα t
cosα wt = (14)
aw
2( x1 + x2 ) tan α n
invα wt = invα t +
z1 + z2
Involute function invα = tan α − α (15)
Transverse contact ratio ⎛ d2 − d2 d a22 − d b22 ⎞
1 ⎜ ⎟
εα = ⋅ ⎜ a1 b1
+ − a w sin α wt ⎟ (16)
p bt ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Overlap ratio b tan β
εβ = (17)
pt
Total contact ratio ε γ = εα + ε β (18)
Fig. 1. Involute gear (a), bottom clearance c and backlash j (b).

Forces on gear teeth

Transmitted load (tangential load)
M v1 M v 2 P P
Ft = = = = (19)
r1 r2 πd1n1 πd 2 n 2
Mv1,2 is a torque on a gear, n1,2 rotational speed, P power and d1,2 pitch diameter (1 pinion, 2
gear).
Radial force Fr = Ft tan α t = Ft tan α n / cos β (20)
Axial force Fa = Ft tan β (21)
On spur gears the teeth are straight and aligned with the axis of the gear, the helix angle β = 0.
Fn
Fr
α
β
FN
Ft b
β Fa
Fn
Fig. 2. Forces on gear teeth: Ft tangential force, Fr radial force and Fa axial force.
Gear ratio
n1 ω1 d 2 z2
i= = = = (22)
n2 ω2 d1 z1
where index 1 is for the driving gear (pinion) and index 2 for the driven gear.
Driving Driven
r1
r2
pitch point
n1 n2
Fig. 3. Two gears in mesh.

Mechanical power transmission
P2 Coupling
Motor Gear n2
P1
n1
Coupling
Driven
machine
Gear ratio i = n1/n2
Fig. 4. Mechanical power transmission.
Fig. 5. Gear coupling.
a) b)
flexible part
Fig. 6. Flexible couplings (KUMERA).

Narrow V-belt drives (SFS 3527)

1. If the diameter of the small pulley dp is known, calculate the diameter of the large pulley
Dp using the speed ratio i
n1
i= (1)
n2
Dp = idp (2)
2. If the required centre distance of a V-belt system E and diameters Dp and dp are known, the
length of the V-belt is
( Dp − dp )2
L ≈ 2 E + 2 π ( Dp + dp ) +
1 (3)
4E
If the length L differs from the standard datum length Lp (SFS-ISO 4184), the new centre
distance of a V-belt system is
Lp − L
Ep = E + (4)
2
The recommended centre distance of a V-belt system is E = 0,75...1,0(dp + Dp).
3. Initial tension
The initial tension of the belt is critical because it ensures that the belt will not slip under
the design load. The too high tension can damage the belts and bearings. The proper belt-
tensioning can be calculated according to the standard.
4. Adjustment for the centre distance
The adjustable length for the mounting is y = 20...30 mm depending on the belt profile.
The adjustable length for the tension is x = 0,03Lp. (SFS-ISO 155)
Lj
Dp
n1 β
v
dp
E
x y
Fig. 1. Adjustable lengths of the centre distance between the pulley shafts.
Datum lengths of narrow V-belts and datum diameters of pulleys

Standard datum lengths Ld of narrow V-belts are in the table 1. Datum diameters dd of pulleys
are in the table 2. Grooves of pulleys are in the figure 1. The datum width wd is characterizing
the groove profile. The groove angle α of the pulley is 34 or 38° (SFS-ISO 4183).
Table 1. Standard datum lengths of narrow V-belts and distribution according to the sec-
tions, dimensions in millimeters (SFS-ISO 4184).
Nominal Section Tolerances Max. difference

datum SPZ SPA SPB SPC between the lengths of
length Ld (= Lp) the belts of the same set
630 + ±6 2
710 + ±8
800 + + ±8
900 + + ± 10
1000 + + ± 10
1120 + + ± 13
1250 + + + ± 13
1400 + + + ± 16
1600 + + + ± 16
1800 + + + ± 20
2000 + + + + ± 20
2240 + + + + ± 25 4
2500 + + + + ± 25
2800 + + + + ± 32
3150 + + + + ± 32
3550 + + + + ± 40 6
4000 + + + ± 40
4500 + + + ± 50
5000 + + ± 50
5600 + + ± 63 10
6300 + + ± 63
7100 + + ± 80
8000 + + ± 80
9000 + ± 100 16
10000 + ± 100
11200 + ± 125
12500 + ± 125
Section SPZ SPA SPB SPC

wd 8,5 11 14 19
b (min.) 2 2,75 3,5 4,8
h (min.) 9 11 14 19
e 12 15 19 25,5
f (min.) 7 9 11,5 16
α = 34°, dd: ≤80 ≤118 ≤190 ≤315
α = 38°, dd: >80 >118 >190 >315
Fig. 1. Grooves of the pulleys (mm) (SFS-ISO 4183).

Table 2. Datum diameter dd (SFS-ISO 4183).
Datum diameter Recommendation 1) Radial and

dd (= dp) axial runout
Nominal Tol. Z A B C D E mm
diam. mm SPZ SPA SPB SPC
50 ±0,8 % + 0,2
53
56 +
60
63 ∗
67
71 ∗
75 ∗ +
80 ∗ +
85 +
90 ∗ ∗
95 ∗
100 ∗ ∗
106 ±0,8 % ∗ 0,3
112 ∗ ∗
118 ∗
125 ∗ ∗ +
132 ∗ ∗ +
140 ∗ ∗ ∗
150 ∗ ∗ ∗
160 ∗ ∗ ∗
170 ±0,8 % ∗ 0,4
180 ∗ ∗ ∗
190
200 ∗ ∗ ∗ +
212 +
224 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
236 ∗
250 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
265 ±0,8 % ∗ 0,5
280 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
300 ∗
315 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
335 ∗
355 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ +
375 +
400 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ +
425 ±0,8 % + 0,6
450 ∗ ∗ ∗ +
475 +
500 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ + +
530 +
560 ∗ ∗ ∗ + +
600 ∗ ∗ + +
630 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ + +
1) + only classical V-belts (Z, A...E)
∗ narrow and classical V-belts
Rolling bearings
Fig. 1. a) deep groove ball bearing, b) self-aligning ball bearing, c) angular contact ball bear-
ing, d) cylindrical roller bearing, e) needle roller bearing, f) spherical roller bearing,
g) taper roller bearing, h) thrust ball bearing, i) cylindrical roller thrust bearing, j)
spherical roller thrust bearing (SKF).
Fig. 2. Bearing housing (SKF), rolling bearing and adapter sleeve with nut and locking de-
vice.
Locating bearing Non-locating Locating bearing Non-locating
Fig. 3. Bearing arrangement.

Basic rating life equation

C p
L10 = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (1)
⎝ P⎠
where L10 is the basic rating life (millions of revolutions)

C the basic dynamic load (N)
P the equivalent dynamic bearing load (N)
p = 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller bearings.
For bearings operating at constant speed the basic rating life (operating hours) is
1000000 ⎛ C ⎞ p
L10 h = ⎜ ⎟ (2)
60 n ⎝ P ⎠
where n is the rotational speed (r/min).
Adjusted rating life (million of revolutions)

⎛ C⎞ p
Lna = a1a23 ⎜ ⎟ (3)
⎝ P⎠
where a1 is the life adjustment factor for reliability

a23 the combined factor for material and lubrication
The index n represents the difference between the requisite reliability and 100 %.
Table 1. Values for life adjustment factor a1.
Reliability % 90 95 96 97 98 99
a1 1 0,62 0,53 0,44 0,33 0,21
Fig. 4. The viscosity ν1 required at the operating temperature to ensure adequate lubrication.
Fig. 5. Factor a23 as a function of the viscosity ratio κ = ν/ν1. ν is the actual viscosity of the
lubricant. If the lubricant contains EP-additives, higher values may be obtained
(shaded area).
Equivalent dynamic bearing load (constant)

P = XFr + YFa (4)
where Fr is the radial bearing load (N)

Fa the axial bearing load (N)
X the radial load factor for the bearing
Y the axial load factor for the bearing.
Table 2. Load factors for deep groove ball bearings (normal clearance).
Fa/Fr ≤ e Fa/Fr > e

Fa/C0 e X Y X Y
0,025 0,22 1 0 0,56 2
0,04 0,24 1 0 0,56 1,8
0,07 0,27 1 0 0,56 1,6
0,13 0,31 1 0 0,56 1,4
0,25 0,37 1 0 0,56 1,2
0,5 0,44 1 0 0,56 1
C0 is a basic static load rating (a total permanent deformation of rolling element

and raceway is approximately 0,0001 of the rolling element diameter).
Lubrication and lubricant classification

1 Lubrication mechanisms
In fluid film lubrication the rubbing surfaces are completely separated by a thick film of lubri-
cant. Fluid films are formed in three ways: hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic or hydrostatic
film (fig. 1). In elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHD) the viscosity of lubricant increases, as
the pressure on an oil increases and elastic deformation of two surfaces occurs due to the
pressure of lubricant.
1. Film and pressure is formed by motion of lubricated surfaces

Hydrodynamic lubrication EHD-lubrication
p
pEHD
u1
hc
u u2 hmin
2. Film is formed by pumping fluid under pressure

Hydrostatic lubrication
F pressure
u velocity
h film thickness
pT h p pressure
F load
pP
Fig. 1. Fluid film lubrication.
Boundary Mixed Fluid film

lubrication lubrication lubrication
Friction coefficient µ
Hydrodynamic bearing
Hydrostatic bearing
Speed
Fig. 2. Effect of speed on bearing friction.
The relationship between the roughnesses of the surfaces and the film thickness is important.
The film thickness increases as the speed is increased, the lubricant viscosity is increased, the
load is decreased, or the geometric conformity of the mating surfaces is improved. Boundary
lubrication occurs when speeds are low or applied loads are very high. For this type of lubri-
cation EP-additives are required to prevent welding of the contact and adhesive wear.
Role of lubricant
reduce friction and power loss

reduce wear
cooling
prevent corrosion
eliminate harmful particles
• wear particles
• deposits
Fig 3. Internal combustion engine.
Additives of lubricants
pour point depressants

• lower the temperature at which a mineral oil is immobilized by wax
viscosity index improvers
• reduce the effect of temperature on viscosity
foam inhibitors
oxidation inhibitors
rust inhibitors
detergents and dispersants
• reduce deposits of sludge in internal combustion engines
antiwear and extreme pressure (EP) agents.
2 Oil classification
SAE viscosity classification for engine and automotive gear oils is given in tables 1 and 3.
ISO viscosity classification for industrial oils is given in table 5.
Performance classification for engine and automotive gear oils is given in tables 2 and 4.
Table 1. SAE viscosity grades for engine oils.

SAE Visc. cP Pumping Viscosity
grade max. temp. max. mm2/s (100 °C)
min. max.
0W 6200/-35 °C -40 °C 3,8 -
5W 6600/-30 °C -35 °C 3,8 -
10W 7000/-25 °C -30 °C 4,1 -
15W 7000/-20 °C -25 °C 5,6 -
20W 9500/-15 °C -20 °C 5,6 -
25W 13000/-10 °C -15 °C 9,3 -
20 - - 5,6 < 9,3
30 - - 9,3 < 12,5
40 - - 12,5 < 16,3
50 - - 16,3 < 21,9
60 - - 21,9 < 26,1
Table 2. API engine oil classification.

Gasoline engine oil categories Diesel engine oil categories
(SA …SH), SJ, SL, SM (CA…CE), CF, CG, CH, CI
-better performance → -better performance →
The performance requirements for each classification are defined in terms of performance
in engine tests (protection against wear, oxidation, deposits and corrosion).
Table 3. SAE viscosity grades for axle and manual transmission oils.
SAE Max. temperature Viscosity
grade for a viscosity mm2/s (100 °C)
150000 cP min. max.
75W -40 °C 4,1
80W -26 °C 7,0
85W -12 °C 11,0
90 13,5 24,0
140 24,0 41,0
250 41,0
Table 4. API gear oil classification.

API-type Service conditions
GL-1 Gear oils without EP additives
GL-2 Mildly fortified gear oils for worm wheels
GL-3 Lubricant with light EP for non-hypoid gears and bevel wheels
GL-4 Medium EP effect lubricant for moderate load hypoid gears
GL-5 High EP effect lubricant for hypoid gear drives
GL-1, GL-4 and GL-5 are in common use.
Table 5. ISO viscosity classes.

ISO VG (ISO 3448)
2 3 5 7 10 15
22 32 46 68 100 150
220 320 460 680 1000 1500
ISO viscosity class (ISO VG) is a kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at temperature +40 °C,
allowed variation ±10 %.
Design of pressure vessels

1 Pressure equipment directive
Directive 97/23/EC applies to the design, manufacture and conformity assessment of pressure
equipment and assemblies with a maximum allowable pressure PS greater than 0,5 bar.
Pressure equipment means vessels, piping, safety accessories and pressure accessories. Where
applicable, pressure equipment includes elements attached to pressurized parts, such as
flanges, nozzles, couplings, supports, lifting lugs, etc.
Vessel means a housing designed and built to contain fluids under pressure including its direct
attachments up to the coupling point connecting it to other equipment.
Piping means piping components intended for the transport of fluids, when connected to-
gether for integration into a pressure system. Piping includes in particular a pipe or system of
pipes, tubing, fittings, expansion joints, hoses, or other pressure-bearing components as ap-
propriate.
The pressure equipment must satisfy the essential requirements. Pressure equipment must be
designed, manufactured and checked, and if applicable equipped and installed, in such a way
as to ensure its safety when put into service in accordance with the manufacturer's instruc-
tions, or in reasonably foreseeable conditions.
2 Nominal design stress

The maximum allowed value of the nominal design stress is (other than austenitic steels, A <
30 %)
⎛ Rp0,2 / t Rm / 20 ⎞
f d = min⎜⎜ ; ⎟ (1)
⎝ 1,5 2,4 ⎟⎠
where Rp0,2/t is the 0,2 % proof strength at temperature t (yield strength ReH may be used in
lieu of Rp0,2) and Rm/20 is the tensile strength at temperature 20 °C. For testing category 4 the
nominal stress shall be multiplied by 0,9. Numbers 1,5 and 2,4 are safety factors. Equations
for austenitic steels are in standard SFS-EN 13445-3.
Mechanical properties of steels for pressure purposes at elevated temperatures is given in table 2.
3 Cylindrical and spherical shells

The required thickness of cylindrical shells shall be calculated from the equation (SFS-EN
13445-3 /3/)
pDi
e= (2)
2 fz − p
where p is the calculation pressure, Di the inside diameter of the pressure vessel, the design
stress f ≤ fd and z the weld joint coefficient. The weld joint coefficient is related to the testing
group (z = 1; 0,85 or 0,7).
Table 1. Mechanical properties of steels for pressure purposes.

Rm ReH (N/mm2)
Steel Standard (N/mm2) > 16 > 40 > 60
t ≤ 100 mm1) t ≤ 16 mm ≤ 40 mm ≤ 60 mm ≤ 100 mm1)
P235GH SFS-EN 10028-2 360...480 235 225 215 200
P265GH SFS-EN 10028-2 410...530 265 255 245 215
P295GH SFS-EN 10028-2 460...580 295 290 285 260
P355GH SFS-EN 10028-2 510...650 2) 355 345 335 315
Fine grain (N/mm2) > 16 > 35 > 50
steels Standard t ≤ 70 mm1) t ≤ 16 mm ≤ 35 mm ≤ 50 mm ≤ 70 mm1)
P275N SFS-EN 10028-3 390...510 275 275 265 255
P355N SFS-EN 10028-3 490...630 355 355 345 325
P460N SFS-EN 10028-3 570...720 460 450 440 420
1) In standards mechanical properties for product thickness up to t = 150 mm.
2) Product thickness ≤ 60 mm.
Table 2. 0,2 % proof stress at elevated temperatures.

Temperature °C
Steel 20 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Standard
t / mm 0,2 % proof stress / N/mm2
P235GH ≤ 60 206 190 180 170 150 130 120 110 SFS-EN 10028-2
P265GH ≤ 60 234 215 205 195 175 155 140 130 SFS-EN 10028-2
P295GH ≤ 60 272 250 235 225 205 185 170 155 SFS-EN 10028-2
P355GH ≤ 60 318 290 270 255 235 215 200 180 SFS-EN 10028-2
P275NH ≤ 35 264 245 226 196 177 147 127 108 SFS-EN 10028-3
P355NH ≤ 35 336 304 284 245 226 216 196 167 SFS-EN 10028-3
P460NH ≤ 35 - 402 373 333 314 294 265 235 SFS-EN 10028-3
If the outside diameter De is known, the required thickness shall be calculated from the equa-
tion
pDe
e= (3)
2 fz + p
The equations are valid for e/De not greater than 0,16. Tolerances and fabrication allowances
shall be additional (fig. 1).
e the minimum required thickness without allowances

c2 c2
c0 the corrosion allowance
c1 c1 c1 the absolute value of possible negative tolerance on
c0 c0 nominal thickness (from material standards)
c2 the allowance for possible thinning during manufac-
turing process
er the required thickness with allowances
e er eord en ea ε the additional thickness resulting from the selection
of the ordered thickness
eord the ordered thickness
en the nominal thickness (on drawings)
ε ea the analysis thickness, used for the check of the
strength
Fig. 1. Wall thickness.
The required thickness of spherical shells shall be calculated from one of he following two
equations
pDi
e= (4)
4 fz − p
pDe
e= (5)
4 fz + p
4 Dished ends
The following requirements are limited in application to ends for which all following condi-
tions are met (see fig. 2):
• r ≤ 0,2Di • e ≤ 0,08De
• r ≥ 0,06 Di • ea ≥ 0,001De
• r ≥ 2e • R ≤ De
a) h ≥ 3,5e H b) h ≥ 3,5e H
r r
De De
R = De R = 0,8De
e e
r = 0,1De r = 0,154De
H = 0,193De-0,445e H = 0,225De-0,635e
V ≈ 0,1(De-2e)3 V ≈ 0,1298(De-2e)3
Fig. 2. Dished ends: a) Klöpper-end, b) korbbogen-end.
The required thickness e shall be greatest of es, ey and eb

e = max( es , ey , eb ) (6)
pR
es = (7)
2 fz − 0,5 p
βp(0,75R + 0,2 Di )
ey = (8)
f
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎡ p ⎛ D ⎞0,825 ⎤ ⎝ 1,5 ⎠
eb = (0,75R + 0,2 Di ) ⎢ ⎜ i⎟ ⎥ (9)
⎢⎣ 111 f b⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
where
Rp0,2 / t
fb = (10)
1,5
1,6 Rp0,2 / t
fb = (for cold spun seamless austenitic stainless steel) (11)
1,5
Formulae for calculation of factor β
⎛e ⎞ ⎛1⎞ r
Y = min⎜ ;0,04 ⎟ Z = log10 ⎜ ⎟ X =
⎝R ⎠ ⎝Y ⎠ Di
1
N = 1,006 −
[6,2 + (90Y )4 ]
♦ X = 0,06: β 0,06 = N ( −0,3635Z 3 + 2,2124 Z 2 − 3,2937 Z + 1,8873)
♦ 0,06 < X < 0,1: β = 25[(0,1 − X ) β 0,06 + ( X − 0,06) β 0,1 ]
♦ X = 0,1: β 0,1 = N ( −0,1833Z 3 + 1,0383Z 2 − 1,2943Z + 0,837)
♦ 0,1 < X < 0,2: β = 10[(0,2 − X ) β 0,1 + ( X − 0,1) β 0,2 ]
♦ X = 0,2: [
β 0,2 = max 0,95(0,56 − 1,94Y − 82,5Y 2 );0,5 ]
The calculation method for β is iterative. Computer procedure is recommended.
References
1. Painelaitteet. Turvatekniikan keskus (TUKES). http://www.tukes.fi/painelaitteet/esitteet_
ja_oppaat/ painelaiteopas.pdf. 2.12.2004. 16 s.
2. Heikkilä E. & Huhdankoski E. Rautaruukin paineastiakäsikirja 1999, 4. painos. Raahe:
Rautaruukki Oy 1999. 176 s. ISBN 952-5010-27-9.
3. SFS-EN 13445-3. Lämmittämättömät painesäiliöt. Osa 3: Suunnittelu. Unfired pressure
vessels. Part 3. Design. Suomen Standardisoimisliitto 2002. 708 s.
4. Teollisuusputkistot ja painelaitesäädäntö. Kunnossapitokoulu n:o 71. Kunnossapito 10
2001. 9 s.
5. Hovi K. Paineastiat, putkistot ja niiden koneenosat. Julkaisussa: Airila M. et al. (toim.)
Koneenosien suunnittelu 4, WSOY 1985. S. 13...165. ISBN 951-0-13223-3.
6. SFS-EN 13445-2. Lämmittämättömät painesäiliöt. Osa 2: Materiaalit. Unfired pressure
vessels. Part 2. Materials. Suomen Standardisoimisliitto 2002. 101 s.
Other standards:
SFS-EN 13480 Parts 1…5 Metalliset teollisuusputkistot. Metallic industrial piping
SFS-EN 12952 Osat 1…8 Vesiputkikattilat. Water-tube boilers
SFS-EN 12953 Osat 1…8 Tulitorvikattilat. Shell boilers

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Kon-41.

2010 Machine design basics B (4 cr)

σ = F/A tensile stress

Fig. 1. Stress-strain –diagram (low carbon steel).

Distortion energy theory, effective stress

Maximum shear stress theory, effective stress

A. Ductile (tough) material

where ReL is a yield strength and n safety factor. Normally n = 1,2...2.

where Rm is a tensile strength and safety factor n = 2...4.

a) Fully reversed b) Repeated

Fig. 2. Fatigue loads.

Stress concentration factors

Fig. 3. Stress concentration factor for a shaft shoulder.

The maximum stress (bending)

σmax = Kft σnim (5)

σnim is a nominal stress, Kft is a stress concentration factor

Kft = 1 + q(Ktt - 1) (6)

Fig. 5. Size factor k2.

Reversed stress (mean stress zero)

Torsion load (mean stress τm = 0)

In other cases the safety factor is calculated using Smith diagram.

Table 1. Physical properties of structural steels.

Notched specimen Shape Stress concentration factor Kf

Groove 1,5...2 1,3...1,8

Retaining ring 2,5...3,5 2,5...3,5

Shoulder fillet ≈ 1,5 ≈ 1,25

Transverse hole 1,4...1,8 1,4...1,8

Sled-runner 2...2,5 2...2,5

Shaft-hub 1,7...1,9 1,3...1,4

Shaft-hub 2...2,4 1,5...1,6

* Stress concentration factor depends on corner radius and material.

Fig. 6. Preliminary design values for stress concentration factors.

Smith diagrams (non-alloy structural steels)

N/mm2 S355 Rte=

Table 1. Structural steels.

Classification by impact strength

2 Steels designated according to chemical composition

Table 2. Quenched and tempered steels (SFS-EN 10083).

Material Re (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2)

Table 3. Case hardening steels.

SFS-EN 10084 Re (N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2) Hardness HB

Table 4. Stainless steels.

SFS-EN Yield strength Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity

Table 5. Grey cast irons.

SFS-EN 1561 Rm (N/mm2) Rp0,1 (N/mm2) Elongation (%)

Table 6. Spheroidal graphite cast irons (ductile irons).

SFS-EN 1563 Rm (N/mm2) Rp0,2 (N/mm2) Elongation (%)

Table 7. Austempered Ductile Irons (ADI).

Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation Hardness

Table 8. Aluminium profile alloys.

Alloy Yield strength Tensile strength Elongation Hardness

Alloy Yield Tensile Elongation Hardness

Physical properties of steels and cast irons

Poisson's Linear expan- Thermal Specific heat

Raaka-ainekäsikirja 2. Valuraudat ja valuteräkset. 2. uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kustannus

Raaka-ainekäsikirja 1. Muokatut teräkset. 2. tarkistettu ja uudistettu painos. Metalliteollisuuden Kus-

SFS-Käsikirja 138. Valurauta. Yleis- ja ainestandardit. Suomen Standardisoimisliitto 1999. 176 s.

Physical properties of materials

Poisson's Linear expan- Thermal Specific heat

A flange joint is a typical bolted joint (fig. 1-1).

Fig. 1-1. Flange joint.

The torsional stress in a round section (diameter dS) is

The equation for the diameter dS of the thread is /1, 2/