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The 23rd International Conference

The Knowledge-Based Organization
ISSN 1843-682X
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 1
MANAGEMENT AND MILITARY

SCIENCES
ISBN 978-973-153-273-8
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The 23rd International Conference

The Knowledge-Based Organization
MANAGEMENT AND MILITARY SCIENCES
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 1
15-17 June 2017
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COL Prof. Robert STąNCIULESCU, PhD
COL Prof. Elena FLORIûTEANU, PhD
COL Prof. Leontin STANCIU, PhD
COL Prof. Toma PLEЭANU, PhD
Prof.Eng. Rudolf URBAN, PhD
Prof. Tomasz BAK, PhD
Prof. Ion POPA, PhD
Prof. Gheorghe UDEANU, PhD
Prof.Eng. Mihail Aurel ЯÎЯU, PhD
Prof. Mihai Marcel NEAG, PhD
LTC Assoc.Prof. Aurelian RAĥIU, PhD
LTC Assoc.Prof. Lucian ISPAS, PhD
LTC. Assoc.Prof. Dumitru IANCU, PhD
LTC Assoc.Prof. Nicolae MORO, PhD
Assoc.Prof. Anca DINICU, PhD
MAJ Krastyu Ivanov KRASTEV, PhD
MAJ Assist.Prof. Dorel BADEA, PhD
MAJ Assist.Prof. Laviniu BOJOR, PhD
CPT Assist.Prof. Alexandru BABOû, PhD
CPT Assist.Prof. Marius PRICOPI, PhD
CPT TA Alin CÎRDEI, PhD
Exp. Victor VELTER, PhD
© 2017 Ńicolae BĄlcescu” Land Forces Academy
Copyright: out of charge, all reproductions are authorized provided that specific
references are made.
Ńicolae BĄlcescu” Land Forces Academy

Address: 3-5 Revoluġiei Street, Sibiu
Tel.: 0269/432990, Fax: 0269/215554
E-mail: office@armyacademy.ro
E-mail: editura@armyacademy.ro
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web: www.armyacademy.ro/editura
The authors take full responsibility of the content of their articles.
ISSN 1843-682X
ISBN 978-973-153-273-8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MILITARY SCIENCES. SECURITY AND DEFENCE
Role of Women in Security and Defense: Bulgarian National Policies and Experience,
Nevena ATANASOVA-KRASTEVA, “Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko
Tarnovo, Bulgaria ...................................................................................................................... 9
Distribution of Combat Capabilities on Objectives by Using a Transport Problem,

Alexandru %$%2ù, Alina %$%2ù ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ 6LELX
5RPDQLD ................................................................................................................................... 15
Creation of a Model for Social Defense in Case of Disasters for the Citizens of the
Republic of Bulgaria, Georgi BAEV, Miroslav DIMITROV, Ivan DIMITROV, “Vasil
Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ........................................... 21
Manners of Performing Terrorist Attacks, Tomasz %Ą. 8QLYHUVLW\ RI ,QIRUPDWLRQ

7HFKQRORJ\DQG0DQDJHPHQW5]HV]yZ3RODQG..................................................................... 25
WICS Model’s Impact Upon Successful Military Leaders, 0ăGăOLQD-Ioana %Ă',/Ă,

³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD .................................................. 32
The Forest Offences and the National Security of Romania, Anca Elena %(1‫܉‬$,
³$OH[DQGUX,RDQ&X]D´3ROLFH$FDGHP\%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD .............................................. 38
Security and Privacy in Smart Devices Era, Laviniu BOJOR, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG

)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ............................................................................................ 44
Complex Challenges, Complex Responses and the State, Gábor BOLDIZSÁR,

1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\RI3XEOLF6HUYLFH%XGDSHVW+XQJDU\ ..................................................... 53
Military Education and Training Supported by Blended Simulation, Pavel %8ý.$,

Vladimír ANDRASSY, $UPHG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ RI *HQHUDO 0LODQ 5DVWLVODY âWHIiQLN
/LSWRYVNê0LNXOiã6ORYDNLD.................................................................................................... 61
Perspectives and Options for the Development of Virtual Teams for Command of Units
in Operations, Jiri CERNY, Jaromir PITAS, 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'HIHQFH %UQR 7KH &]HFK
5HSXEOLF .................................................................................................................................. 66
3
The Hybrid Warfare in the 21st Century: an Old Concept with a New Face, ,RQXĠ Alin
CÎRDEI, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD .................................. 74
Constellation of Cubesats to Monitor the Environment for the Benefit of Europe, Ivan
DIMITROV, Miroslav DIMITROV, Georgi BAEV, “Vasil Levski” National Military
University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ...................................................................................... 79
Challenges of the Security Environment Before the Correlation “Resources-

Capabilities – Effects”, Sevdalina DIMITROVA, “Vasil Levski” National Military
University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ...................................................................................... 89
Using Geopolitics in the Comparative Analysis of Two International Systems Based on

Factors Considered Relevant, Anca DINICU, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\
6LELX5RPDQLD ......................................................................................................................... 94
Towed Anti-Tank Guns Renaissance of Almost Forgotten Weapons in Ukrainian

Conflict, Lukáš '<ý.$, 8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF .................... 100
Revolution in Military Affairs and Outer Space, Jakub )8ýË., &HQWUHIRU6HFXULW\DQG

0LOLWDU\6WUDWHJLF6WXGLHV8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF..................... 106
The Operational Environment Influence on the Development Level of Military

Structures, Constantin *5,*25$ù, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ 6LELX
5RPDQLD ................................................................................................................................ 112
Emergence and Development of Civil-Military Cooperation, Grigor GRIGOROV,

“Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria .............................. 119
Improving Coordination, Interaction and Cooperation in Humanitarian Aid Operations,

Grigor GRIGOROV, “Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo,
Bulgaria .................................................................................................................................. 124
EU Policy Initiatives in the Mediterranean Region, Mariya HADZHIPETROVA-

LACHOVA, ³1HRILW5LOVNL´6RXWK-West Universit\%ODJRHYJUDG%XOJDULD ..................... 130
Hybrid Warfare – a Form of Asymmetric Conflict, Laura-Maria +(5‫܉‬$, ³%DEH‫܈‬-

%RO\DL´8QLYHUVLW\&OXM-1DSRFD5RPDQLD ........................................................................... 135
Wargaming and Challenges in the Experimentation Domain, Jan HODICKY, &HQWUH

IRUWKH6HFXULW\DQG0LOLWDU\6WUDWHJLF6WXGLHVDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK
5HSXEOLF ................................................................................................................................. 144
Keystones of Irregular Warfare, Michal +51ý,$5, $UPHG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ RI

*HQHUDO0LODQ5DVWLVODYâWHIiQLN/LSWRYVNê0LNXOiã6ORYDNLD .......................................... 150
Cyberwarfare, Petr HRUZA, Jiri CERNY, 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'HIHQFH %UQR 7KH &]HFK
5HSXEOLF ................................................................................................................................. 155
Cultural Interoperability – Prerequisite for the Response to Hybrid Threats, Lucian

ISPAS*, Paul TUDORACHE**, *³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ 6LELX
5RPDQLD 1DWLRQDO'HIHQFH8QLYHUVLW\%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ........................................... 161
4
Hungarian Security Policy and the Migrant Crisis (2015-2017), Diana IVANOVA,
³1HRILW5LOVNL´6RXWK-:HVW8QLYHUVLW\%ODJRHYJUDG%XOJDULD............................................ 166
Modern Approaches in the Training of Military Police Cadets at “Vasil Levski”

National Military University, Krastyu KRASTEV, “Vasil Levski” National Military
University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria .................................................................................... 172
The Importance of Developing Security Culture Among Military Personnel as a Way to

Mitigate the Terrorist Threat, /DXUHQ‫܊‬LX-Leonard /Ă=Ă52,8, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG
)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD .......................................................................................... 179
Security, Defence and Armed Forces – Public View, Frank LIBOR, University of
'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ...................................................................................... 184
Commander’s Managerial Competences in the Czech Armed Forces, Pavla

0$&+Èý.29È, -LĜt HODNÝ, Jan ZEZULA, 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'HIHQFH %UQR 7KH &]HFK
5HSXEOLF ................................................................................................................................. 189
Deployability of Armed Forces in the Current Armed Conflicts, Ivan MAJCHÚT,

$UPHG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ RI *HQHUDO 0LODQ 5DVWLVODY âWHIiQLN /LSWRYVNê 0LNXOiã
6ORYDNLD ........................................................................................................................ 195
Military Terminology – Meanings and Grammar Approach, Ileana-Gentilia METEA,

³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ................................................ 200
Competence to the Leadership and Its Concept in the Army of Czech Republic, =GHQČN
MIKULKA, Ivana NEKVAPILOVÁ, Roman 3263Ëâ,/, University of Defence, Brno,
7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ............................................................................................................... 205
Defending the Truth and Counter Information Warfare in Europe, Silviu NATE*,
Aurelian 5$ğ,8 ³/XFLDQ %ODJD´ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6LELX 6LELX 5RPDQLD ³1LFRODH
%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD................................................................ 213
Physiognomy of the Operations Against Terrorism, Mihai-Marcel NEAG, “Nicolae

%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD................................................................ 220
Criteria Determination for Obstacle Effectiveness Evaluation, Tibor PALASIEWICZ,

Jan KYJOVSKÝ, 8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ................................ 227
Comparative Analysis of National Approaches to Military Capability Planning, Zdenek

PETRAS, &HQWUH IRU 6HFXULW\ DQG 0LOLWDU\ 6WUDWHJ\ 6WXGLHV 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'Hfence, Brno,
7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ............................................................................................................... 233
Leadership in the Process of Command and Control, Place and Role of Commander-
Manager, Milan PODHOREC, Pavel +5,1Ë., Gustav /$.2â, University of Defence,
%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ..................................................................................................... 241
Prevention and Crisis Management, ùWHIDQ POP, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV
$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ...................................................................................................... 246
Diplomacy and Security, ùWHIDQ POP, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\
6LELX5RPDQLD ....................................................................................................................... 251
5
Some Considerations on SEEDRO (South Eastern Europe Disaster Relief Operations)
Concept, Ioan-Dan POPA³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ...... 256
Brexit – Major Consequences on the Process of European Military Integration?,

Marius PRICOPI, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ................ 260
Civil Preparation of the Battlespace – Necessity in the Irregular or Hybrid Warfare,

Aurelian 5$ğ,8, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ................. 265
Slovak Troops in Italy During Second World War, -XUDM â,0.2, $UPHG )RUFHV
$FDGHP\RI*HQHUDO0LODQ5DVWLVODYâWHIiQLN/LSWRYVNê0LNXOiã6ORYDNLD ...................... 271
Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield as a Part of Knowledge Development,

Pavel SKALICKÝ, Tibor PALASIEWICZ, 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'HIHQFH %UQR 7KH &]HFK
5HSXEOLF ........................................................................................................................ 276
Principles and Their Significance in Military Art, Ján 63,âÈ., University of Defense,
Theoretical and Methodological Aspects on Military Students’ Education, Robert

67Ă1&,8/(6&8, Stelian POPESCU, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ 6LELX
5RPDQLD ................................................................................................................................. 286
Didactics of the Military Specialty – Pedagogic Process with Major Implications in the
Curricular Architecture of Military Leaders’ Training, Robert 67Ă1&,8/(6&8 , Elvira
BELDIMAN ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ 6LELX 5RPDQLD %XFKDUHVW
%DU%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ........................................................................................................ 292
Non-Military Intervention Through Sanctions, Veronika STOILOVA, “Neofit Rilski”

6RXWK-:HVW8QLYHUVLW\%ODJRHYJUDG%XOJDULD ..................................................................... 298
The Drones and Issues Connected with Their Use in Contemporary Conflicts, Richard
STOJAR, 8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF .............................................. 305
Paratroopers in the Intelligence Confrontations During the Second World War, Mircea
7Ă1$6(, 0LQLVWU\RI1DWLRQDO'HIHQVH%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ............................................ 311
Is Russia that Powerful in Hybrid Warfare?, 7RPL‫܊‬ă &ăWăOLQ 720(6&8, “Nicolae

%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV $FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD................................................................ 317
The Relation Cultural Awareness – Tactical Multinational Military Structures’

Effectiveness, Paul TUDORACHE*, Lucian ISPAS** National Defence University,
%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD .......... 325
Opinions Regarding the Fundamental Domains of National Security, Gheorghe

UDEANU, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ............................. 331
The Vicious Circle of Subsidised Employment, Boryana VARBANOVA, “Vasil

Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ......................................... 339
6
Considerations on the Necessity of Modernization of Engineer Forces from NATO
Members Countries, Mircea VLADU, Ioan-Dan POPA, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV
$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ...................................................................................................... 344
MANAGEMENT
The Relationship Between Leadership and Employees, Oana Georgiana ANDRONIC,

'ăQX‫' ܊‬80,75$‫&܇‬8, ³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD ................... 348
Translation of Capability Requirement into Management by Objectives Environment,

Fabian BAXA, &HQWUH IRU 6HFXULW\ DQG 0LOLWDU\ 6WUDWHJ\ 6WXGLHV 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 'HIHQFH
Knowledge Management Via Erasmus Programmes, Irina Ioana BOCIANU*, Sorin

Adrian CIUPITU** 8QLYHUVLW\ RI %XFKDUHVW %XFKDUHVW 3ROLWHKQLFD 8QLYHUVLW\ of
%XFKDUHVW%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ............................................................................................. 360
Aspects of the Management of Negotiating Class II Material Resources for the

Bulgarian Armed Forces under the Conditions of Resource Limitations, Sevdalina
DIMITROVA, Donika SHOPOVA, “Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko
Tarnovo, Bulgaria................................................................................................................... 366
Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility, Hortensia GORSKI, 5RPDQLDQ-

*HUPDQ8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD ........................................................................ 372
The Organization’s Internal Environment and Its Importance in the Organization’s

Development, Elisabeta-Emilia HALMAGHI*, Dumitru IANCU*, Marinela-Lidia
%Ă&,/Ă , *³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ³/XFLDQ%ODJD´
8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD ...................................................................................... 378
The Role of Computer Systems in the Management of Hotels in Veliko Tarnovo Region,
Bulgaria, Olga MANCHEVA-ALI, Vanya DIMITROVA, “Vasil Levski” National Military
Validating a Defense-Specific Cluster Conceptual Model Using Statistical Instruments,

Gabriel 0Ă1(6&8, “1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ............ 387
The Manager Competences for Risk Management in the Public Sector, Ivana
NEKVAPILOVA, Jaromir PITAS, 8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KH&]HFK5HSXEOLF ... 393
Research on the Preparation and Professional Realisation of Newly Appointed

Logistics Officers, Nikolay NICHEV, “Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko
Tarnovo, Bulgaria................................................................................................................... 399
Risk Management in the Decision Making Process Concerning the Use of Outsourcing
Services in the Bulgarian Armed Forces, Nikolay NICHEV, “Vasil Levski” National
Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria ...................................................................... 405
7
New Approach – Quadrangle of Knowledge Based Sustainability, Ovidiu
NICOLESCU*, Ciprian NICOLESCU** 5RPDQLDQ 6FLHQWLILF 0DQDJHPHQW 6RFLHW\
%XFKDUHVW 7KH %XFKDUHVW8QLYHUVLW\RI(FRQRPLF6WXGLHV%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD ............ 411
Security Management of University Campuses, Constantin OPREAN, Mihail Aurel

‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8, Cristina 7Ă1Ă6(6&8, ³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD .......... 418
Applied Research on Strategic Management of SMEs in Romania in the Digital Age,

Dan POPESCU*, Cristina STATE*, Livia TOANCA**, Ioana PAVEL*,
*7KH %XFKDUHVW 8QLYHUVLW\ RI (FRQRPLF 6WXGLHV %XFKDUHVW 5RPDQLD /LY &RQVXOWLQJ
/RV$QJHOHV86$ ............................................................................................................. 423
Empirical Study Regarding the Influence of Communication Upon the Purchasing

Decision, Dan POPESCU, Alina DINU, Cristina STATE, &ăWăOLQD PICU, The Bucharest
8QLYHUVLW\RI(FRQRPLF6WXGLHVBucharest, 5RPDQLD........................................................... 430
Considerations Regarding the Redesign of Management System of an Organization,

Alexandru Marius RIZESCU*, George %8&Ăğ$ , *³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV
$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD ³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD ............ 438
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Implementation of Vision, Vasile ROMAN,

³$SROORQLD´8QLYHUVLW\,DúL5RPDQLD .................................................................................. 444
Diagnostic Management – Method of Increasing the Potential of Research and

Development Station for Cattle from Arad, 6LOYLX,OLH6Ă3/Ă&$15DPRQD/,/(, “$XUHO
Vlaicu” 8QLYHUVLW\RI$UDG$UDG5RPDQLD .......................................................................... 452
Intangible Resource Management – An Organisational Approach, Sebastian Emanuel

STAN³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX6LELX5RPDQLD ................................................ 456
Intellectual Capital in Knowledge-Based Organization. Implications for the Military

Environment, Leontin STANCIU, Cristian-Lucian STANCIU, ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG
)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD .......................................................................................... 461
Analysis of the Use of Outsourcing Services for Maintenance and Repair of the
Equipment and Armament Available in the Structures of the Bulgarian Armed Forces,
Nikolay STEFANOV, “Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo,
Bulgaria .................................................................................................................................. 467
Analysis of Some of the Applicable Outsourcing Services in the Structures of the

Bulgarian Armed Forces, Nikolay STEFANOV, “Vasil Levski” National Military
The Place and Role of Intellectual Property Policies in an Advanced Scientific Research
and Education University, Mihail Aurel ‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8 , Constantin OPREAN*, Sebastian
STAN*, ‫܇‬WHIDQ ‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8 , **“Lucian Blaga” University oI 6LELX 6LELX 5RPDQLD ³,XOLX
+D‫܊‬HJDQX´8QLYHUVLW\RI0HGLFLQHDQG3KDUPDF\&OXM-1DSRFD5RPDQLD .......................... 479
8
International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION
Vol. XXIII No 1 2017
ROLE OF WOMEN IN SECURITY AND DEFENSE: BULGARIAN NATIONAL

POLICIES AND EXPERIENCE
Nevena ATANASOVA – KRASTEVA
“Vasil Lesvski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria

nevena_atanasova@abv.bg
Abstract: The paper focuses on the policies for gender equality which can and should be understood
as a long-term investment, not as a situational solution or a short-term cost, especially in military
environment. On the basis of the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 - "Women, peace and
security", the National plan for implementation of the Resolution 1325 in the MoD in Bulgaria has
been analyzed. New policies or initiatives concerning the implementation of gender in the Bulgarian
Armed Forces are included with the actual information about female active duty military personnel
and the perspectives to overcome the prejudices and stereotypes in people's minds.
Keywords: gender, implementation of good policy, UNSC Resolution 1325
“The world of humanity has two wings - one is women and the other men.
Should one wing remain weak, flight is impossible”
Baha’i writings
1. Introduction. just society and therefore the opinion of the
One of the most widely discussed and same civil society is important for the
promising topics, quite relevant since the discussions in the biggest and most
beginning of the 21st century, is related to influential words communities and
gender issues. Terms such as gender organizations.
equality, equality between men and women, That’s why the understanding of the
gender mainstreaming are very common in equality between men and women has a
public and scientific space. According to long history during its implementation and
many authors, the equality between women implications for the society. “….the
and men is not a factor whose influence equality of women and men is a facet of
will be applied to half of the mankind. Its human reality and not just a condition to be
impact will affect all sides of the society. achieved for the common well-being. What
Nowadays many organizations and people makes human beings human - their inherent
work hard to support different activities and dignity and nobility - is neither male nor
efforts to protect human rights and at the female. The search for meaning, for
same time to promote the real place of purpose, for community; the capacity to
women and girls in all aspects of life. love, to create… has no gender. This has
Improving the status and well-being of profound implications for the organization
women is a popular tendency because of the of every aspect of human society.” [7]. We
world processes connected with the can add that the gender issue is not only
perspective to create more coherent gender connected with social justice and diversity
equality mechanisms. In that case all people in the surrounding social environment.
must be participants in the formation of the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0001
© 2015. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.
9
The equality appears to be a condition for tapped in the governance. “Today, this is
achieving the goals of each organization, increasingly framed as not only the “right”
the existence of competitiveness and thing to do, but also the “smart” thing to
creating opportunities for social cohesion. do.” [2]
In the context of the Armed Forces, where
2. Body. the working environment is gender –
Different practices have shown that mixed, it is particularly important that both
investing in policies for gender equality has women and men feel engaged in gender
turned out to be a sustainable and timely issues. Additionally the two sexes have to
solution to old and new problems and be convinced of the benefits of efficient
challenges in the last 15 years. Therefore gender equality policies for the society as a
when we’re analyzing the content of a whole.
number of international documents – for To achieve progress in this direction, an
example - UN resolutions and national essential role in the changing of the still
strategies and plans for their existing negative stereotypes and attitudes
implementation, we can make the is attributed to the education of people,
conclusion that the policies for gender media messages and the government’s
equality can and should be understood as a practices. Unfortunately, gender stereotypes
long term investment, not as a situational in society continue to persist and to be
solution or a short-term cost. transmitted through modern education and
Many of the contemporary publications are developed culture. In most countries,
devoted to the real place and problems of women and men often follow the traditional
women at the different levels of political, models of education that actually lead to
economic and social life. An important part career opportunities for women in
of scientific and popular research is aimed professional fields with lower wages. That
to the female participation in the decision is why, one of tasks is to advise and
making process. According to V. Norville encourage young men and women to
“Building lasting peace and security choose non-traditional routes / areas in their
requires women’s participation. Half of the educational development.
world’s population cannot make a whole But to be honest, more than 10 years after
peace.” [3] the United Nations Security Council passed
With relation to this, we should point out Resolution 1325 with the recommendation
that the adoption of United Nations to increase women’s participation in issues
Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000 of global security, the numbers of women
is seen as a historic recognition by the with real participation in peace solutions
international community of the negative remain marginal. And in spite of all
effect that armed conflicts have on women improvements which have been made,
and children in particular, as civilians, women still remain underrepresented in
refugees or internationally displaced public office, at the negotiating table or in
persons. The UNSC Resolution 1325 peacekeeping missions. It should not be
“Woman, peace and security” totally forgotten that the continuing lack of
changed the focus of the important roles physical security and the existence of
which women play as leaders and serious legal constraints in postconflict
participants in security efforts – for societies hamper women’s integration into
example, prevention of or helping in economic life and leadership. [3]
conflicts, peace building, developing The service in the Armed Forces of the
postconflict reintegration efforts, and Republic of Bulgaria is a good example of
improving the standard of life. Women the entry of female soldiers in the so-far
insist that their knowledge and skills, their purely "male territory" of the Bulgarian
leadership abilities, their full potential be Army.
10
The national plan for implementation of ARMED FORCES WOMEN’S
UN Security Council Resolution 1325 in ASSOCIATION" – BUAFWA. This
the Ministry of Defence of Bulgaria exists organization was established in 2006 as an
from 2011. At a national level the body NGO, and as a logical consequence of the
responsible for consultations, cooperation increased proportion of women in the
and coordination among the governmental military units in the BG Army. The mission
and Non-governmental organizations in the of BUAFWA is to promote and endorse the
elaboration and realization of the national prestige and social status of women in the
policy on gender equality is the National Armed Forces and to protect their common
Council on gender equality under the interests.
Council of Ministers. A good example of new policies or
The Deputy Defence Minister is a member initiatives concerning the implementation
of the National Council on gender equality. of gender equality in the Bulgarian Armed
The Council of Ministers has adopted an Forces is connected with one of the
Annual national action plan for promotion guidelines in the National plan for
of gender equality. This plan follows the implementation of UNSC Resolution 1325.
goals, set out in the National strategy for This measure refers to the removal of the
promotion of gender equality for the period informal restrictions for women in
2009 – 2015. professional fields, majors, specializations,
The plan for the implementation of degrees and forms of education in applying
Resolution 1325 of the UN Security for acquisition of Bachelor Degrees in
Council in the Ministry of Defense is a “Military field" with professional
serious and responsible sign to the qualification - “Officer".
Bulgarian and international community of Thanks to the cooperation agreement signed
the priorities and main steps of the between the MoD and the BUAFWA and
management of the Ministry of Defense and after long creative discussions the above
Armed Forces with the idea to implement mentioned obstacle had been overcome.
the Euro-Atlantic policies in this area. And this is already a fact – there isn’t a
The goals in the Action plan for quota for "men" and "women" applicants in
implementation of United Nations Security the military academies. In the last 3-4 years
Council Resolution 1325 at the Ministry of the trainees and future officers have been
Defence are as follows: [1] classified on the basis of their results
1. Provide mechanisms for the full achieved on admission exams. And both
implementation in the structures of the sexes receive equal opportunity for
Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces of development and further advancement.
the principles set in Resolution 1325 of the According to the statistical data, prepared
UN Security Council. for the NATO Committee on Gender
2. Guarantee to the partners from the UN, Perspectives, in the last years more than 15
EU, NATO and other international % of the total number of cadets at Bulgarian
organizations with common values and military educational institutions are
principles that there is provided adequate females.
contribution to allied operations. A proof for the right direction of the
3. An affirmation of Ministry of Defense of understanding of gender mainstreaming or
the Republic of Bulgaria as a leader in gender perspective in MoD is the place
Southeast Europe in the implementation of Bulgaria takes with respect to the number
policies on gender. of women in the armed forces as compared
The plan for the implementation of to other NATO member nation in 2015.
Resolution 1325 in MoD of Bulgaria was The 2015 Summary of the National Reports
developed jointly with the "BULGARIAN of NATO member and partner nations to
11
the NATO Committee on Gender personnel which will have flexible working
Perspectives (NCGP) on the schedules. Another useful practice is the
implementation of the United Nations part-time employment and flexible hours
Security Council Resolution 1325 on which are allowed in case of parental leave
Women, Peace and Security represents and caring for elderly and sick people.
active duty female military personnel in the There are special programmes to support
Armed forces of NATO member nations in parents when both serve in the armed forces
2015, by country. This statistics Bulgaria is or if parents are divorced or single. There is
in the 7-th place with 15,2 % active duty a child-care policy that includes provisions
female military personnel, after Hungary, protecting parents from being deployed,
Latvia, Slovenia, Greece, USA and France. breastfeeding breaks, policy on duty
[6]. Furthermore, comparing the number of assignments, night duty, overtime work,
men and women in the armed forces of flexible working and service hours or
NATO member nations in 2015, it is variable start/finish times during the
important to point out that Albania, working day.
Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Republic, France, All these good benefits as a result of the
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, implementation of the different polices
Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, and USA are connected with gender equality in military
above the NATO average, which is 10.8% environment provoke the new requirements
for women and 89.2% for men. for the leaders from all levels. It means that
In the part “Retention Statistics in 2015” of not only the military personnel from the
the Report there is an analysis of the lowest levels have to be educated and
percentage of NATO member nations with prepared but the new approaches and skills
retention policies that specifically target must be acquired from the seniors.
women.” While 81% of NATO member We have to emphasize that the following is
nations have retention policies, 11% of stated in the Plan of Implementation of
them have particular retention policies for Resolution 1325 in the Ministry of Defense
women.” [6] There are provided the best on preparation and standards of conduct: To
examples among NATO member nations develop materials (manuals, lectures,
with regards to the adoption of specific promotional materials, standards of conduct
retention policies for women in use in 2015. / ethics, etc.) for the implementation of
And in these examples we see Bulgaria Resolution 1325 in order to integrate the
with Spain and United Kingdom where Policy of equality at all levels of the Armed
specific retention policies for women are in Forces.
place. In this regard, the education in gender
Another good gender policy in the issues in the Bulgarian military academies
Bulgarian Armed Forces can be defined as started in 2015. The aim is to support the
parental life and rights. Pursuant to the increased awareness on gender perspective
information in the National report of in military operations for the future officers
Bulgaria, the legal social support is given to and to assist NATO Allies and Partners to
mothers during pregnancy and both parents build their gender capacity and capabilities.
of a new-born child. According to the Topics related to issues of gender equality,
Labour Code, maternity leave is 410 days gender practices, the main international
for each child and parental leave is 52 documents of the UN and NATO were
weeks for the mother as well as for the offered on the website of NATO Strategic
father and it is transferable between parents. Command – SACT [4].
Besides, there are specific programmes to Special attention is paid at the National
support the work-life balance for military Military University to leadership training
personnel such as the list of female military that takes place in regular academic hours
12
on a modular basis, with theoretical and expectations for career development and
practical exercises throughout the whole social support. Sometimes the problems
course of education. On this occasion, as a with overcoming the prejudice and
result of an active dialogue between stereotypes in people's minds can delay the
Ministry of Defense and the representatives process which requires targeted policy,
of BUAFWA and recommendations of systematic work and education.
NATO, steps were taken to major changes To follow the active attitudes in the military
in the curricula, in modules of the and to take adequate decisions regarding
Leadership Training Course. The following gender balance in the army, sociological
topics have been included in the Leadership research on the topic of "Organizational
training module which has 4 parts: climate in formations and structures of the
¾ “The essence of Gender Equality Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria"
Policies. International framework and has been done by the MoD. [5] It is a
documents. "- lecture; workshop and positive tendency that in the last years the
exercise; research has included questions about the
¾ "National framework and policies of the attitudes towards the service of women and
implementation of gender equality" – people from different ethnic and cultural
lecture and workshop; groups in the army. The analysis of the data
¾ "Integration of Gender Equality Policies shows that women soldiers are perceived as
in the planning, implementation and being in a relatively privileged position as
evaluation of military operations and compared to their male colleagues, while
missions." – lecture and exercise. the presence of such a privilege for men is
To summarize some of the shared examples lacking. At the same time, the study proves
from the Bulgarian experience and that there are no signs of organizational
according to the 2015 Research discrimination towards females in the
Questionnaire UNSCR 1325, the main military. These results require research
areas of employment where women serve attention to the factors which are underlying
are as follows (the number of women that the differences in the perception of men and
serve in each applicable area): women soldiers regarding the privilege of
- Administration 2,08%; two sexes in the military.
- Communications 5,07%;
- Logistics 1,4%; 3. Conclusion.
- Finance 0,3%; To finalize all reflections full of good
- Infantry 0,54%; examples, working policies and expectable
- Intelligence 0,54%; troubles, the opinion of the author is that
- Legal 0,004%; the initiatives related to gender equality will
- Musicians 0,06%; contribute to the development of the
- Public Affairs 0,06%; modern and affluent society. The continued
- Other 3,7%, Common: medical, surveyor, empowerment of women is a responsible
meteorologist. task both for the state authorities and for the
It is obvious that the measures taken by the ordinary people. It is more important to
Ministry of Defence of Bulgaria to remove believe and to do our best, with small steps
the legal and organizational barriers to to move in the right and desired
implement gender perspective and to create direction……as The Universal Declaration
good organizational climate in the military of Human Rights reads: ” All human beings
units are yielding results. Women in are born free and equal in dignity and
uniform can live with dignity and with rights”.
13
References
[1] Action plan for implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 at
the Ministry of Defence, www.mod.bg/en/doc/gender
[2] Chang P., Alam M., Warren R., Bhatia R. , Turkington R. , Woman leading peace,
Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, 2015
[3] Norville V., The Role of Women in Global Security. Special report, United States
Institute of Peace, www.usip.org
[4] Package of training and education tools - SACT, NATO, www.act.nato.int/gender-
training
[5] Report about the results of a sociological survey: "Organizational climate in formations
and structures of the Armed forces of the Republic of Bulgaria", MoD - Defense
Advanced Research Institute, Sofia, 2015
[6] Summary of the National Reports of NATO member and partner nations to the NATO
Committee on Gender Perspectives (NCGP), 2015,
www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2017_01/20170113_2015_NCGP_Natio
nal_Reports_Summary.pdf
14
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBAT CAPABILITIES ON OBJECTIVES BY USING A

TRANSPORT PROBLEM
$OH[DQGUX%$%2‫܇‬, Alina-0LKDHOD%$%2‫܇‬
“Nicolae BăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\RI6LELX5RPDQLD
EDERVDOH[DQGUX#\DKRRFRPDOLQDBEDERVB#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: The transport problem finds its application in situations where the upper echelons must
draw up an optimal plan of resources allocation for combat capabilities on objectives. In order to
achieve more reliable results for the real problem, the data needed to formulate the mathematical
model are extracted from an order of operations. This paper presents the optimization of military
action, showing how to solve a practical problem using the transportation problem.
.H\ZRUGVWUDQVSRUWUHVRXUFHV, RSHUDWLRQV
Introduction The information about the situation is

Emerged from military needs, the generally related to the forces of the enemy
operational research essentially deals with and our own forces, namely their location
the decision optimization by using and the main courses of action.
mathematical modeling and data provided So, we suppose to have 3 mechanized
by an action generically called operation. infantry battalions found in a defense
The transport problem finds its applicability situation to stop the enemy offensive on
in situations where the upper echelons have their directions of attack. With the support
to draw up an optimal plan for the of the upper echelon and effectively using
distribution of combat or fire capabilities on the technical-tactical characteristics of the
the targets. For the results to be as reliable weapons, exploiting on the natural
as possible for the real problem, the data properties of the battle field and performing
required to formulate the mathematical numerous offensive retaliation, the subunits
model are gathered from a realistic managed to stop the enemy offensive.
scenario. The execution instructions are divided into
should be divided into sections, each with a three categories: intent, design and
coordination instructions. In this case the
3UREOHPIRUPXODWLRQ superior echelon intends to make a series of
We need information about the tactical trips on three main directions of attack.
situation information, mission statement, The embarquement will take place on three
execution, necessary logistic support, and aerodromes, on the available airplanes.
command and communications instructions. After landing, the permanent passes will be
From these sets of information, we extract investigated from the immediate vicinity,
only those necessary to translate the then the enemy device will be searched, the
problem into practice into a mathematical officers will be captured, the armored
model that once solved will provide the vehicles and the communications points
optimal solution. destroyed.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0002
15
Ultimately, the destruction of the enemy ‫ ݆݅ݔ‬, The number of troops that can
command point is attempted. For better be transported by airplanes from the
efficiency, mixed teams of the three units aerodrome ‫ ݅ܣ‬to objective ܱ݆ during the
will be created after landing. whole operation;
‫ ݆݅ݕ‬, Number of flights / airplane
3UHSDULQJ WKH PDWKHPDWLFDO from aerodrome ‫ ݅ܣ‬to objective ܱ݆ during
PRGHO-6ROYLQJWKHSUREOHP
the whole operation.
In order to prepare the mathematical model,
In order to make the optimal flight chart, it
the following notations will be made:
is therefore necessary to determine the
ܽ݅ (i = 1,2, … , m), (1)
values ‫ ݆݅ݕ‬so that:
The number of available fighters prepared
for boarding in each of the three units ‫; ݅ܣ‬ - Each aerodrome will send all
‫ = ݆( ݆݋‬1, 2, … , ݊), (2) available personnel (ܽ݅ ) to maximize the
chances of success of the operation;
The number of fighters to be parachuted on
- To send to each objective the
each enemy target in the landing districts to
number of fighters (‫ ) ݆݋‬which was predicted
cover the entire area of operations;
݆݃ , The number of troops that can to cover the whole area of operations in an
efficient manner;
be transported by airplanes from the
- The whole operation must be
aerodrome ‫ ݅ܣ‬to objective ܱ݆ . Into the
carried out with a limited number of aircraft
calculation of this data set were taken into and with a minimum number of flights.
account the standard aircraft loading The mathematical model of a problem of
capacity, the distance from the aerodrome this kind will look like this
to the target, the flight height, the flight
speed and the weight of the battle load, etc;
‫ ݅ܣ‬/ܱ݆ ܱ1 ܱ2 ܱ3 ܽ݅
‫ܣ‬1 12 10 8 120
‫ݔ‬11 ‫ݔ‬12 ‫ݔ‬13
‫ܣ‬2 16 15 12 100
‫ݔ‬21 ‫ݔ‬22 ‫ݔ‬23
‫ܣ‬3 35 40 46 175
‫ݔ‬31 ‫ݔ‬32 ‫ݔ‬33
‫݆݋‬ 134 156 105 395
Figure1: Problems mathematical model
The numbers above the diagonal are the corresponding to the highest values of ݆݃݅ .
number of fighters that can be transported For this purpose, the maximum matrix
by each of the three aircrafts. element method is applied because:
Optimized function whose
minimum is sought is therefore: 3 5 3 5
‫݆݅ݔ‬
݉݅݊. ෍ ෍ = ݉ܽ‫ݔ‬. ෍ ෍ ‫ ݆݅ݔ‬ή ݆݃݅ .
3 5 3 5 ݆݃݅
‫݆݅ݔ‬ ݅=1 ݆ =1 ݅=1 ݆ =1
‫ = ܨ‬෍ ෍ ‫ = ݆݅ݕ‬෍ ෍ (4)
݆݃݅
݅=1 ݆ =1 ݅=1 ݆ =1 The following basic initial solution will be
(3) obtained which contains the number of
In order for this minimum to be realized, soldiers assigned to each goal:
the ‫ ݆݅ݔ‬values must be determined
16
34 86 0
100 0 0
0 70 105
Figure 2: Initial basis solution
Starting from this solution, the end result is The scope function is calculated as follows:
optimized. We check whether the solution ‫= ݊݅݉ܨ‬34÷12+86÷10+0÷8+100÷16+0÷15+0
is degenerate or not with the formula m+n- ÷12+0÷35+70÷40+105÷46=3+9+7++2+3=
1= nr. values‫> ݆݅ݔ‬0 so: 3+3-1=5 bigger 24 flights. (5)
values than 0 (34,86,100,70, and 105) it The solution obtained is passed to the
results that the solution is non-generated, so following table (bold values are the number
the distributive method can be directly of fighters to be transported to each goal in
applied. order to be optimized):
‫ ݅ܣ‬/ܱ݆ ܱ1 ܱ2 ܱ3 ܽ݅
‫ܣ‬1 12 10 8 120 0
86 0
‫ܣ‬2 16 15 12 100 0
100 0 0
‫ܣ‬3 35 40 46 17570 0
0 70 105
‫݆݋‬ 13434 0 15686 0 105 0 395
Figure 3: Initial basis solution and intermediate calculations
We check whether the solution obtained is ο31 = 35 െ 40 + 10 െ 12 =

the optimal one by calculating the െૠ(negative difference)
differences ο݆݅ so we obtain: It follows the correction of the negative
ο13 = 8 െ 10 + 40 െ 46 = differences, so the differencesο13 =-‫܈‬Lο23
െૡ(negative difference) =-23. Because not all the differencesο݆݅ are
ο22 = 15 െ 16 + 12 െ 10 = 1 positive it means that the initial basis
ο23 = 12 െ 16 + 12 െ 10 = െ૛ solution is not the optimal one.
(negative difference) The negative difference was given by the
corresponding boxο13 =-8, so the cycle will
form from the box as follows:
‫ ݅ܣ‬/ܱ݆ ܱ1 ܱ2 ܱ3 ܽ݅
‫ܣ‬1 86 0 120
-19 -86 +105
‫ܣ‬2 100 0 ૙ 100
‫ܣ‬3 0 70 105 175

+19 +86 -105
‫݆݋‬ 134 156 105 395
Figure 4: First formed cycle and intermediate calculations
17
By doing similar to ο23 and ο31 we
eliminate the negative differences and come
to the solution:
‫ ݅ܣ‬/ܱ݆ ܱ1 ܱ2 ܱ3 ܽ݅
‫ܣ‬1 12 10 8 120
0 0
‫ܣ‬2 16 15 12 100
86 0
‫ܣ‬3 35 40 46 175
0 70 105
‫݆݋‬ 134 156 105 395
Figure 5: Final solution problem
The new function is: that the new solution is better than the
‫ ݆݅ ݔ‬120 0 0 14
‫ ݊݅݉ܨ‬σ3݅=1 σ5݆ =1 ݃ = 12 + 10 + 8 + 16 + previous one.
݆݅ To eliminate as far as possible
86 0 0 70 105
15
+ 12 + 35 + 40 + 46 =10+1+62+3=22 human computational errors, we check
flights (transport), 22<24 so it's easy to see whether the solution obtained is the optimal
one with The Scientist Manager.
Figure 6: Application interface (main menu)
We enter the necessary data into the origins, respectively aerodromes and
application (the number of sources and objectives in this case):
18
Figure 7: Variable numbers settings
The initial values are addedܽ݅ , ‫܈ ݆݋‬i ݆݃ as

follows :
Figure 8: Initial data insertion
When selecting the type of the objective After running the program we get the
function, the maximization option is chosen following solution which is coincident with
because we set it at first: the original:
3 5 3 5
‫݆݅ݔ‬
݉݅݊. ෍ ෍ = ݉ܽ‫ݔ‬. ෍ ෍ ‫ ݆݅ݔ‬ή ݆݃݅ .
݆݃݅
݅=1 ݆ =1 ݅=1 ݆ =1
Figure 9: Final result
By making the divisions (‫) ݆݅݃ ÷ ݆݅ݔ‬, we of the 3 objectives. The optimal flight
will then get the number of flights / airplane schedule is shown in the following table:
from each of the three aerodromes at each
19
‫ ݅ܣ‬/ܱ݆ ܱ1 ܱ2 ܱ3 ܽ݅
‫ܣ‬1 12 10 8 120
0 0
‫ܣ‬2 16 15 12 100
1 6 0
‫ܣ‬3 35 40 46 175
0 3 3
‫݆݋‬ 134 156 105 395
Figure 10: Optimal flights graph
If this plan is respected, the entire number &RQFOXVLRQV

of fighters required for the mission will be If these methods of operational research are
carried by air, with the foreseen restrictions accepted and applied in the decision-
on the number of available aircraft at a making process, they will only develop
minimum cost and in the shortest possible analytical thinking among the officers, and
time. so they will be able to cope with the
Another graph that leads to fewer transports demands of the modern battlefield, making
under the given conditions cannot exist.. more and more rational decisions.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] 'XPLWUX95XJLQă1., Stoian, I., 0RGHODUHDPDWHPDWLFăDDFаLXQLORUPLOLWDUH
%DFăX(GLWXUD'LDJRQDO
[2] Grad, V., Stoian, I., Kovacs, E., Dumitru, V.,
&HUFHWDUHRSHUDаLRQDOăvQGRPHQLXOPLOLWDU%XFXUH‫܈‬WL(GLWXUD6\OYL
[3] +DPSX$&ăUX‫܊‬D‫܈‬X9&HUFHWăULRSHUDаLRQDOHFXDSOLFDаLLvQGRPHQLXOPLOLWDUSibiu,
(GLWXUD8QLYHUVLWă‫܊‬LL/XFLDQ%ODJD
[4] Maurice, K., Operational Research in War and Peace, Londra,Editura Imperial College
Press, 2003.
20
CREATION OF A MODEL FOR SOCIAL DEFENSE IN CASE OF DISASTERS FOR

THE CITIZENS OF THE REPUBLIC OF BULGARIA
Georgi BAEV, Miroslav DIMITROV, Ivan DIMITROV
“Vasil Levski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria

gbnvu@abv.bg, amirodimitrov@abv.bg, idimgb@gmail.com
Abstract: In Bulgaria there is a great need for a scheme for social defense and protection in case of
natural or anthropogenic disasters. Our country has a relatively good social politics, covering a great
deal of society’s social illnesses. But our financial capabilities for natural and anthropogenic disaster
prevention and handling present a great financial difficulty for our country’s budget. In great deal
of cases aid-money are being spend for covering material damage caused by natural disasters, but the
aspect of affected citizens gets neglected and remains in the background. Our country comes as far as
securing them with a one-off humanitarian or/and financial help for damaged property. In a great
deal of cases though our country’s help is inadequate in amount or gets postponed in time due to
administrative procedures.
Keywords: national security, disaster, social defense
1. Introduction and mitigation of disasters of a different

In Bulgaria a high level of potential risk nature.
exist from the possibility of different
disaster emergence due to natural processes 2. Method
or human activity that can prove to be fatal The research method includes research and
for the economic development of our analysis on the existing legislative
country. [1] framework in the sphere of natural disasters
Bulgarian scientists register a tendency in where a research issue is examined which
yearly temperature increase above the concerns a high number of the country
climatic norm in the country from the year population. For the social protection in
of 1970 until today. Rainfall has also times of crises of natural origin is sought
increased on an annual basis in most areas new approach drawn from existing
since 1990. It is not uncommon to see academic models and system that were
spring and summer temperatures during the applied abroad but can be further utilized
winter months of the year. and applied.
Another evidence of climate warming in
Bulgaria is the shortened vegetation period 3. Legislative measures.
of some agricultural crops Under 90 days, Authorities have adopted the Disaster
according to 2010 data of the National Protection Act, the Climate Change
Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology at Reduction Act, the National Disaster
the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. [2] Protection Plan, the National Disaster
In the last 10 years, following the country's Protection Program, the Disaster Risk
accession to the European Union, the Reduction Strategy, the National Climate
national authorities have synchronized Action Plan. Amendments to other laws
much of the local legislation with the EU- were also made, and then the
wide directives, including the prevention Interdepartmental Commission for
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0003
21
Reconstruction and Support to the Council The savings of the citizens can not be
of Ministers and the Center for Aerospace accepted like an adequate capital for
Disaster Surveillance were set up. covering the damage, caused for repair.
According to the strategy, in view of Therefore, the philosophy of the social help
climate change, the state sector needs to be in the country needs to be rethought.
prepared with an adequate response policy.
Due to the increasing intensity of disasters 4.2. Insurance market
in the country, especially floods and forest On the other side, to talk about
fires, it has to be tackled with common development of the insurance markets in
efforts by different responsible institutions economies with low income is almost
as the damage is of a social and economic impossible.
nature. [3] This imposes more global effort to be made
In order to achieve these goals, several key in order to cope with the problems of the
priorities for action are identified: providing environment and creating guarantee funds
adequate institutional support with a and investment policies. [4]
workable legal framework, enhancing early Among Bulgarian households there is no
warning and climate forecasting capacities, culture of insurance, and in many cases the
culture and philosophy of crisis response insurance policies are not in their capability
training.[1] to buy, even though they are willing to buy
them.
4. National problem Overall, the confidence in insurance
Obviously, the social protection of society companies is relatively low and, often, the
during and after disasters is not a separate funds from the paid policies are not
strand. The country has a relatively good sufficient for rehabilitation activities.
social policy covering a large part of the Therefore, less than 10% of households
social disabilities of the population, but not have insurance against floods and
when it comes to financial protection in earthquakes.
disasters. There are also a variety of insurance
products missing. In many cases, this
4.1. Financial instruments activity is considered by citizens as
The budget is most often used to cover unnecessary waste. [5]
material damage from natural disasters, but
the injured people themselves remain in the 5. Social protection
background. A good mechanism for solving
The state provides them with one-time environmental problems and affecting
allowances and / or with means of repairing people's lives and property is the
the victims property. introduction of social protection schemes
In most cases, compensation is inadequate for disasters.
in amount or delayed due to administrative Through national and international funding,
procedures. social protection measures are emerging as
The budget is used mostly for covering the a real tool for counteracting crises and
material damage caused from natural conflicts - both for people and for
disasters, but the actual injured people enhancing the environment.
remain in the background. In the rapidly developing modern world, the
The country is securing them with one-time provision of social security conditions
financial help or with tools, that they can becomes an important function of public
use to repair their property. However, the life, of the activities of all state bodies and
help from the country is inadequate very institutions.
often, or it is coming slow, because of There are even forms of social protection of
administrative procedures. a private nature - pension insurance,
22
medical services, social security. In Thus however is completely insufficient a
Bulgaria a mixed social protection was new comprehensive policy is needed that
created, using different organizational includes the development of high-tech,
forms, although they are still incomplete. remote Earth exploration through satellites,
Leading forms of social protection are: support for new legislative policies of a
pension insurance, social benefits for social nature, knowledge exchange and
particularly needy categories of the information on environmental risks, early
population, not only those who have warning systems for disasters, unlocking
experienced a difficult life situation or are the potential for interstate cooperatives for
in a socially dangerous situation but all monitoring and response new and more
people - from birth to the end of Life at flexible financial and insurance instruments
different stages of their development. [6] and much more.
If a model or scheme for social protection is
adopted, some of the measures certainly 6. Conclusions
overlap with the current legislation, both in All facts point that Bulgaria is also affected
Bulgaria and in many other countries. by both natural disasters and the climate
However, the idea is that integrating them changes that are often manifested in the
into a common system could lead to more country. The existing research allows us to
flexible legislation and to attract more draw the conclusion that a more decisive
funding under international climate change political will is needed for coping with the
mitigation programs. disasters and the social consequences that
The proposal is the first section of the follow them.
Social Protection Scheme for Disasters to The occurrence of crisis events of ecological
be "Social Security Networks". origin would be a threat to a significant
This concerns the legislative instruments by percentage of the population and the
which victims receive non-insurance consequences would be most devastating for
benefits to obtain food coupons and other the most vulnerable groups in society.
essential necessities. The lack of insurance culture, the low social
The second section concerns the status and educational level and limited
government's assumption of social and information on the topic for a large part of
health insurance costs for those affected by the population are different negative factors
disasters for the period of liquidation. that need to be considered in such analysis.
The third - includes measures on the labour All of the above combined with a limited
market - unemployment benefits, as well as state budget leads to a poor social policy that
priority provision of employment to people would be related not only to a social status
affected by disasters, when it is not a matter but also to crisis management and reaction.
of traumatism. Despite the deepening negative tendencies,
However, wealth is not the only determining there is a possibility the topic to get higher
factor. Disaster preparedness policies and on the agenda of the society and
higher education in this area are needed to respectively in the agenda of the political
help both the poor and the rich. class. The academic community would be
Unprecedented crisis situations from very helpful with its scientific research that
environmental disasters require a robust risk is already in place and their final results to
mitigation policy. Scientific and academic be well structured and applicable schemes
knowledge is crucial for decision-making in for social protection.
crises and conflicts of such kind [7].
References
[1] The Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy of Bulgaria 2014-2020, Sofia, 2014 pp. 2-27.
23
[2] Alexandrov V., Simeonov P., Kazandzhiev V., Korchev G., Yotova A, “Climate
Changes”, The National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology at the Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Sofia 2010, pp. 3-31
[3] The National Disaster Protection Plan, Council of Ministers, Sofia, 2010, pp.2-40
[4] 6+DOOHJDWWH%DQJDORUHɆ%RQ]DQLJR/)D\0Kane T., Narloch U., Rozenberg J.,
Treguer D., Vogt-Schilb A., Washington, Shock Waves, Managing the Impacts of
Climate Change on Poverty, Washington, 2015, pp.1-18
[5] www5.moew.government.bg
[6] Radev N., Social protection technologies, Sofia, GorexPress, 2007, pp 81-125
[7] De Groeve T., Al Khudhairy D., Annunziato A., Clark I., Bower A, Surveying the
landscape of science/policy interfaces for disaster management policy making and
operations, Publications Office of the European Union, 2015, pp.10-50
24
MANNERS OF PERFORMING TERRORIST ATTACKS

7RPDV]%Ą.
University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszów, Poland
tbak@wsiz.rzeszow.pl
Abstract: The article below presents the evolution of terrorist tactics over the years. It describes the
basic types of terrorist attacks divided by the place of attack and by means used to execute it. The
recent ways of performing terrorist attacks by terrorist organizations have been presented on the basis
of accessible sources and statistics. The last part of the article is dedicated to expected changes of
terrorist attack tactics in the future.
Keywords: terrorism, terrorist attack, performance manner
1. Introduction
Terrorism has become one of the most Table 1: Number of attacks and casualties in
serious threats of the 21st century, although particular months of 2015
the phenomenon has been known since No. of
No. No. of
No. of the
antiquity. Over the centuries, both the Month
attacks
of the the
abducted/
objectives and manners of conducting dead* injured*
hostages
terrorist activity changed. January 1270 2340 2781 1726
February 1078 2127 2713 894
2. Statistical presentation of terrorist March 903 2378 2829 1214
attacks April 928 2919 2650 1155
May 1017 2676 2705 1725
It is undeniable, however, that currently
June 929 2727 3407 535
attacks have the following main objectives: July 986 2946 3645 1204
x to glorify strength as the only August 993 2400 3349 1260
method of political fight and the September 881 2266 3491 543
most effective one, October 1040 2300 2722 877
x to show cruelty and lack of moral November 928 1610 2581 769
December 821 1639 2447 287
scruples in the actions taken,
Total 11774 28328 35320 12189
x to give rise to a widespread, strong *incl. the terrorists
sense of danger, Source: Annex of Statistical Information
x to gain publicity w mass media, Country Reports on Terrorism 2015[2]
x to execute political blackmail and
enforce specific political acts or
changes. [1]
To support the above statement that
terrorism is the most serious threat
nowadays, below the statistics of terrorist
attacks in 2015 are given.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0004
25
Table 2: 10 states with the highest number of terrorist attacks in 2015
State No. of No. of the Average No. No. of the Average No. No. of the
attacks dead* of the dead injured * of the injured abducted/
per attack* per attack * hostages
Iraq 2418 6932 2.99 11856 5.23 3982
Afghanistan 1708 5292 3.24 6246 4.00 1112
Pakistan 1009 1081 1.10 1325 1.36 269
India 791 289 0.38 508 0.68 862
Nigeria 589 4886 9.29 2777 7.67 1341
Egypt 494 656 1.34 844 1.73 24
Philippines 485 258 0.54 548 1.16 119
Bangladesh 459 75 0.16 691 1.52 4
Libya 428 462 1.24 657 1.85 764
Syria 382 2748 7.99 2818 9.78 1453
World total 11774 28328 2.53 35320 3.30 12189
* incl. the terrorists
Source: Annex of Statistical Information Country Reports on Terrorism 2015 [3]
3. Types of terrorist attacks x the depth of waters on sea

Considering the basic division by the place communication routes which allows for
of the attack, one may distinguish three planting bottom mines;
basic types: air attacks, sea attacks and land x short time of icing (appearing
attacks. practically only in the coastal zone), as
Using various types of aircrafts as means to icing disallows actions of terrorist
strike objects situated on the ground or on groups using quick motor boats.
sea, one may cause great losses and Prevention of such actions consists mainly
extensive destruction. A typical example of in having sea areas patrolled more
such an attack is the one on 11th September intensively by naval units and by special
2001 on the World Trade Center and anti-terrorist teams composed of special
Pentagon buildings. forces units.
Acts of air terror include [4]: The last basic types of terrorist actions are
x hijacking a passenger plane or a attacks on land. They concern mostly such
different aircraft filled with fuel or objects as:
explosives to destroy a particular object x infrastructure facilities which are the
or attack civilians by hitting the target seats of central or local government
with the hijacked aircraft; authorities;
x using an aircraft (crew-operated or x other countries' diplomatic facilities;
robotic) as a transport means to drop x critical infrastructure facilities (power
(spray) toxic (chemical or biological) plants, dams, important industrial plants,
substances; etc.);
x using an aircraft with a nuclear cargo or x army facilities;
a “dirty bomb” to destroy an important x "soft facilities" (railway stations,
object (e.g. a nuclear power plant or a subway, cinemas and theatres, mass
dam) or contaminate an area. transport means).
The threat of such an attack may only be One may also divide terrorist attacks by the
minimised by careful controls of passengers means used to perform them. Some of the
and proper airport protection. basic types of attacks are as follows:
A terrorist action on sea is another way to x attack on assemblies of population,
perform an attack. Marine areas have selected people or facilities using
conditions favourable to performing such firearms or missiles;
actions, due to e.g.:
26
x terrorist attacks in public places hostages allows not only to publicise one’s
using explosives; own cause, but also to gain direct
x hijacking or detaining means of public concessions of the authorities (access to the
transport with passengers as hostages; media, freeing prisoners, etc.). Three types
x the use of own or stolen vehicle to drive of hostage situations can be defined:
into crowds of people – the newest x kidnapping an individual;
method. x abducting vehicles (planes, buses, ships);
According to the available statistics, bomb x seizing stationary facilities.
attacks are one of the most frequent forms Beside the above-listed forms of terrorist
of terrorist attacks. In the 1980s, bomb attacks, there can be other, less frequent
attacks made up as much as 67% of all and/or typical ones. Those include activities
attacks. That stems mainly from the which consist in instigating riots in jails or
following factors: the ease of planting in the streets and similar actions. As a rule,
explosives, relative ease of obtaining them, beside the terrorists themselves they engage
and the possibility to cause extensive large groups of people loosely connected to
damage. Moreover, the attackers do not the terrorists.
have to be on site at the moment of the The pie chart below presents manners of
attack. The range of bomb attacks is performing terrorist attacks in 2015.
extremely broad: from small bombs (or
even dummy bombs) aimed at terrorising or murders
killing an individual up to huge explosive 8%
attacks
charges meant to cause numerous fire hostage
on
casualties. It is also possible to use civil attacks
infrastru situation
objects as bombs, such as tankers with 23% s
cture
flammables, oil carriers, or passenger 9%
bomb facilitie…
planes with full fuel tanks. Also, numerous attacks
options exist as to placing explosives on the 52%
site of the attack (planted, placed in
vehicles, sent by mail, as well as thrown
into the target area). There are various ways
to detonate them, as well (delay, cord, Fig. 1. Manners of performing terrorist attacks
radio-activated and other fuses), including in 2015
the fact that it is possible to combine Source: Annex of Statistical Information
several detonation manners to increase the Country Reports on Terrorism 2015 [6]
probability of detonation and avoid
disarming by bomb-disposal experts [5]. Additionally, 2015 saw 101 terrorist attacks
The statistics put attacks with the use of without the use of guns or explosives. Such
firearms at the second place. In most cases, attacks usually employed chemical
guns are used for attacks on a limited scale, weapons, or the use of vehicles as a means
although there were cases of attacks with to ram into people.
the use of firearms with many casualties. A yet separate attack is an IT terrorist
Terrorists usually prefer handguns (pistols attack, which consists mainly in hacking
and revolvers) and small machine guns, systems, paralysing information flow and
sometimes also assault rifles. Other kinds of falsifying data. It is also possible to block
guns are sometimes used, like assault or information, manipulate it, destroy data or
machine guns, but those cause difficulties electronically destroy a whole IT system.
in covert transport. Of course, attacks on IT systems can be
In the recent years, hostage situations have combined with other types of terrorist
become a mass phenomenon. Taking attacks, or rather be an introduction to the
27
actual attack. The modern world has many individuals and the possibility of an
IT systems whose disruption could have a epidemics,
negative impact on a state’s functioning and x the contamination element may be any
citizen security. Particularly serious are element of the ecosystem (water, air,
threats to systems operating in the energy, soil, etc.),
waterworks or gas pipeline sectors or in x no possibility to protect oneself in case
emergency or uniformed services. of mass use of the weapon.
Paralysing those can cause paralysis of the When considering the threat of using
whole state. biological weapons for an attack, factors
So far, such attacks did not cause casualties which decide on that must be mentioned.
or a serious threat to human life. These certainly include:
One of the most dangerous kinds of attack x easy gaining (based on using the
is a biological terrorist attack. Characteristic pharmaceutical industry, small
features of such actions are as follows: laboratories),
x quick spread of the microbes (bacteria, x low costs of use (the costs of causing
viruses), comparable losses among people per 1
x lack of effective medicine, km2 are: for conventional weapons –
x difficulty in prompt diagnosis of the 2000 USD, for nuclear weapons – 800
cause of the diseases and deaths, USD, for biological weapons – 1 USD),
x misleading symptoms as the disease x an extremely effective scale of use
develops, considering fatal effects and evoking
x great economy of the weapon, for any infectious diseases,
small amount of the substance x invisibility during the attack,
proliferates and moves together with x easy hiding and transport,
its carriers (people, animals, etc.), x extreme difficulty in quick detection of
x the effect is not immediately the cause of diseases and deaths, as in
noticeable, its incubation time the disease may
x there may appear secondary effects often have atypical and misleading
such as transferring the disease to other symptoms.
FORMS (MANNER) OF USING BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
SPRAYING THE BIOLOGICAL

AGENT IN AEROSOL
FOOD CONTAMINATION ATTACK OBJECTS
WATER CONTAMINATION
SOIL CONTAMINATION
Railway stations Tube stations

Trade centres Airports
Mass catering facilities Sport and cultural facilities
Governmental and public buildings Army concentration areas
28
Another type is chemical terrorist attacks, non-stop cover not just the action itself, but
which consist in using toxic warfare agents also the objectives of the group behind it.
and dangerous chemical substances (toxic The fate of one or more hostages, held by
industrial waste). The main aim of such terrorists and remaining at their mercy,
attacks is to cause maximum damages and would be the number-one topic in the media
casualties among civilians (attacking “soft for a while [7].
targets”, critical infrastructure facilities, The dominating method of the 1970s was
etc). Currently in most countries in the bomb attacks, often aimed at civilians. It
world and in Europe there are very ought to be noted, however, that it was a
numerous plants using dangerous materials difficult method to apply. In the 1970s,
which may cause serious threat for people bombs usually consisted of several
and the environment. For that reason they dynamite sticks and fuses, stolen from
are potential targets of terrorist attacks. construction sites or quarries and linked to
One of the greatest threats in the time of common alarm clocks. Such a construction
peace, as well as in war, is contamination was dangerous not only to the potential
with toxic industrial waste. target, but also to the attacker. Later, thanks
It is worth listing here the manners of to modern explosive materials received
performing terrorist attacks used over from rich sponsors, that danger was
centuries. gradually reduced. After suitable training,
Up until WWI, individual assassination terrorists used professional equipment and
attempts dominated terrorism. The most weapons just as well as the army did. It is
frequent targets of attacks were thus thus no wonder that in the European
carefully selected objects, and the victims separatist terrorism of 1960s and 70s,
included mainly representatives of the then violence was mainly used against the
political elites – kings, ministers, security forces of the attacked states, and to
government heads. After 1945, terrorism a much lesser extent against civilians.
grew in cruelty, both in the Western world Attacks were performed mainly with the
and in non-European campaigns. use of two methods: planting bombs and
Particularly frequent targets were police hijacking. A method introduced to terrorism
officers and soldiers, as that gave the fight a by the Palestinian movement was plane
more guerrilla-like nature, and allowed the hijacking. It became a true plague between
attackers to feel true fighters rather than the 1960s and 70s. Some of the hijacking
terrorists. As a matter of fact, in many cases actions had very spectacular dimensions.
the terrorist attacks were indeed only part of That method – in various variants – was
guerrilla-type fights. Sometimes, the also followed by other terrorist groups. As a
combat turned into regular wars. In that result, in 1969–1972 as many as 286
situation, terrorists soon changed their hijacks occurred.
manner of action and instead of killing, Plane hijacking was soon commonly
kidnapped their targets, following the deemed an effective method, as the
experiences of South American guerrillas. accompanying drama forced authorities to
That required greater skill and a more make concessions. Relatively high numbers
extensive logistic base, yet the results were of victims and their unknown fate gave
much more promising. In exchange for the such actions longer attention and publicity
hostage, a whole group of jailed terrorists than even the most successful (from the
could be freed. What was more, successful terrorists’ points of view) bomb attacks or
kidnapping of a relatively well-known shootings.
figure of political or economic life held the Introducing suicide attacks marked another
attention of public opinion for a longer time milestone in the development of terrorism.
– for several days, the media would almost First of all, such an idea facilitated
29
planning. Hiding the charge allowed a The first attack using a car was executed by
terrorist to come close to the target without Mohammed Reza Taheri-azar, who in
much problem, almost unnoticed. Also, March 2009 drove into a crowd of students
when preparing the attack it was not on the campus of the University of North
necessary to be concerned with planning an Carolina, injuring nine people.
escape route. An additional benefit of Another such attack occurred in 2009 in the
suicide attacks is their extremely powerful Netherlands. During a parade including the
impact on outside observers. Dutch Royal Family, Karst Roeland Tates
Suicide terrorist attacks are performed in drove his car into the parade participants.
various manners. Poorer local groups Before his death he stated he had wanted to
usually send out individual terrorists with kill the Queen.
special belts filled with TNT and metal After that attack, in 2010 the US
pieces. Strictly religious terrorism, which Department of Homeland Security issued a
has more extensive opportunities, most warning concerning that new method of
frequently uses cars filled with explosives. performing terrorist attacks. According to
Such attacks were at first aimed at carefully experts, such attacks are easy to execute
selected objects – checkpoints, embassies, wherever there are crowds, e.g. during
barracks, and the people they held. Then in national holidays or sports events. The
order to increase the impact, random Americans warned that terrorists needed no
objects and civilian targets were chosen special training for such an attack, neither
more and more frequently. The climax of did they need to obtain firearms or
such actions was undoubtedly the attacks of explosives.
September 11, 2001. They became for In October 2014, Martin Couture-Rouleau,
many a proof of the radical changes an Islam convert, rammed into two soldiers
occurring in terrorism. The previously in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Canada, killing
dominating moderation, expressed in one and causing serious injury to the other
choosing methods of a maximum effect one. The perpetrator was shot after a police
with a minimum of casualties, was replaced chase. In that same month, Abdel-Rahman
with “total terrorism”, aimed at killing the Shaloudi rammed his car into a train station
greatest possible numbers. in Israel, killing a three-month-old baby and
Today’s religious terrorists use a far a 22-year-old tourist from Ecuador.
broader range of methods than their right- Other attacks of the kind took place in
wing predecessors. Beside the above- France in December 2014 – in Dijon and
mentioned suicide attacks, a significant Nantes – when men yelling "Allahu Akbar"
number of attacks involve kidnapping, yet rammed into crowds. The authorities stated,
different from what has been seen before. however, that those men suffered from
The aim of such kidnappings is not so much mental illnesses and had no contact to
money or other immediate benefits, but terrorist organisations.
terror. Those kidnappings turn into On the 14th July 2016, a fast-driven truck
prolonged series of murders. One of the rammed into crowds celebrating Bastille
elements are maximalist demands which are Day in Nice. The terrorist killed people as
impossible to meet, and brutal executions of he drove through the promenade. 84 were
hostages after the ultimatum’s deadline. An killed, with over 200 injured. The victims
integral part of that method is publishing included French citizens and foreigners,
films from those executions online. also many children. Two Poles were also
One of the most recent manners of killed.
performing terrorist attacks consists in The events in Nice showed that a car can
hijacking a truck and then ramming the become an instrument of terror. Using a
vehicle into crowds of people.
30
vehicle to attack people has become much fact, the perpetrators go back to the “same
of a standard in terrorist activities. old” methods – bomb attacks, kidnappings,
On the 19th December 2016, another such assassinations – and only diversify them in
terrorist attack occurred in Berlin. A truck some way in order to draw public attention.
with Polish number plates was driven into The “modernisation” of terrorism consists
the Christmas market in the city centre. The thus mainly in seeking new scenarios, as
attack killed 11 people in the Christmas well as in growing brutality and more and
market and the driver of the Polish truck, more frequent breaking of a taboo. The
who was probably shot by the terrorist. modernity (or post-modernity) of the
About 50 others were injured. newest wave of terrorism paradoxically
finds expression in using more and more
4. Conclusions primitive means, like swords, axes, or
To sum up, the very rational choice of poisons. That same tendency is also shown
terrorist methods needs to be stressed. Quite by more direct contact of terrorists with
contrary to common opinion, a definite their victims than there was in the 1970s.
majority of such groups try to adapt their Those tendencies are quite contrary to what
activities to the canons of their can be observed in classical battlefields,
environment. Fearing loss of support, they where smart weapons allow increasing
do not usually choose forms which could distance and keeping the victims
provide true shock to the public opinion in anonymous.
their country or region. A specific The coming years will certainly bring new
conservatism of terrorists is also noticeable. methods of executing terrorist attacks,
The phenomenon itself is definitely although everyone hopes that the fight
undergoing a revolution, yet within the last against terrorism will finally bring the
century and a half, it has changed much less desired outcomes.
than other combat strategies. As a matter of
References
[1] Robert Borkowski, Terroryzm (Terrorism), [in:] Robert Borkowski [ed.] Konflikty
ZVSyáF]HVQHJRĞZLDWD&RQIOLFWVRIWKH0RGHUQ:RUOG, Kraków 2001, pp. 115-116;
[2] https://www.state.gov/j/crt/2015/257526.htm [06.03.2017];
[3] Ibidem;
[4] R. Olszewski, 5HDJRZDQLHQD]DJURĪHQLD]SRZLHWU]DZF]DVLHSRNRMX5HDFWLQJWR$LU-
%RUQH 7KUHDWV LQ WKH 7LPH RI 3HDFH [in:] %H]SLHF]QH QLHER 6DIH 6N\, proceedings
from a scientific conference organised in the National Defence Academy on 10th
September 2002, AON, Warszawa 2002, p.51;
[5] M. Piekarski “Strategia i taktyka terrorystów” (“Terrorist Strategy and Tactics”) -
http://www.antyterroryzm.republika.pl/Strategia_i_taktyka_terroryst%C3%B3w.pdf
[17.03.2017];
[6] https://www.state.gov/j/crt/2015/257526.htm [06.03.2017];
[7] M. Tomczak, (ZROXFMD PHWRG WHUURU\VW\F]Q\FK (YROXWLRQ RI 7HUURULVW 0HWKRGV –
http://studiastrategiczne.amu.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/17_tomczak.pdf
[17.03.2017].
31
WICS MODEL'S IMPACT UPON SUCCESSFUL MILITARY LEADERS
0ăGăOLQD-,RDQD %Ă',/Ă
“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX, 5RPDQLD
/LOBVDLQWBPDGD#\PDLOFRP
Abstract: What does actually define successful leadership? We all know that one of the fundamental
principles of the inter-personal connections represents the similarity reasoning – which means that we
are attracted to people like ourselves. Applying this principle to the military organizational
background, it can be observed that former leaders who occupy a decision-making position in an
organization seek for future appointed leaders with similar ideas and competencies. This can only be
achieved through a profound process of individual evaluation, based on the standardization in the
military. Nevertheless, it has been frequently demonstrated that standardized tests may not properly
dignify the leader’s skills. Therefore, we can avoid being deprived of our personal aptnesses by
expanding our knowledge in the matter of successful leading skills through accepting and
implementing innovative leadership perspectives such as the one WICS model presents. The
abbreviated model involves the harmonious transposition of specific components that define successful
leaders through the synthesis of the intelligence, creativity and wisdom.
.H\ZRUGVWICS, PHWD-FRPSRQHQWVPLOLWDU\OHDGHU, VXFFHVV
,QWURGXFWLRQWR WICS QHWZRUN The vision concerning effective leadership

The skills one needs to survive today are so in the army is always made essential by the
much broader than the skills that old idea that people will perceive as good the
conceptions included. Today’s world is in a leading person who knows what to do and
quick process of development, thus it is how to do it.
important for the leader to demonstrate the Being among notorious experts in
power of his memory and analytical skills, psychology and psychiatry, Robert
but also adaptability to the environment in Sternberg proposed a model of gifted
order to maintain good relationships and leadership, abbreviated WICS - Wisdom,
reach the organizational goals. Intelligence, Creativity Synthesized. The
It has been shown that effectiveness in any model prospective includes both skills and
situation is neither the result of a unique attitudes related to the activity of the leader.
leading style or a standard pattern nor it The model can be simply explained by a
features the uniqueness of certain traits. person's decision to do something, but the
How can an organization characterized by traits found in this theory exceed the
change boost creative sources that meet the previously discovered paradigms. [1]
organizational objectives and what does the The leader applies these three meta-
person in power need to obtain the title of components in a personal level, underlining
effective leader? Well, a modern his self-development as well as in the
perspective is the model WICS that could decision-making process that is to be made
answer the dilemma related to the efficient inside the organization.
leading of modern organizations.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0005
32
Understanding WICS is based on the solutions through consideration of the
premise that no one is good at everything interests of all parts, regardless of timing.
and everyone is capable of something. Sternberg argues that good leaders exhibit
Smart people identify strengths and these three skills that can be improved.
weaknesses, based on which they form an Therefore, it appears that the sequential
effective work pattern. fulfillment of these attributes leads to the
The basis of this perspective represents becoming of good leaders, decent for
successful intelligence which prints the society, but never exceptional. [4]
leader’s efficiency by generating new ideas, 7KH VLJQLILFDQFH DQG LQVWLWXWLRQDO
verifying the usefulness of those new ideas SRWHQWLDORI:,&6PRGHOLQOHDGHUVKLS
through the filter of academic intelligence, Leader's contribution represents the
persuading subordinates of the solutions generation of favourable circumstances and
using practical intelligence and having the alignment of the organization to the creative
necessary wisdom to align new ideas to the upgrade which epitomizes potential
interests of all members of the organization problems.
and the organizational objectives. [2] Thus, the defined model has a few
In this regard, the leader uses creativity to implications. One would be that it involves
innovate and adapt to unforeseen, being certain favorable outputs resulting from the
smart enough for analysis and deployment managing activity. In principle, these are
of the proposed ideas, and, of course, wise determined by the extent to which leaders
in order to reflect moral values at the level convey a message aligned to subordinates
of intrapersonal, interpersonal and extra- needs in a convincing manner, which
personal levels. facilitates implementation, in order to
To illustrate the power of creativity, ensure that subordinates comply with its
creative-intellectual skills are essential to intended purpose.
identify good problems to solve and then Contribution to devising fresh ideas is
defining and redefining them until they are perfected by intellectual skills and
understood in order to apply solutions. dispositions for deciding on the usefulness
Another important implication resulting of the ideas and persuasion of the followers,
from the outline of this network refers to wisdom-related skills and dispositions to
the interaction of wisdom, intelligence, assess the effects of short and long term on
creativity and knowledge in the pursuit of the self, other individuals or institutions.
the common good. It can be observed the In the military organization, leaders face
immense need to balance the interests of the numerous problems altering from personal
leader, of the subordinates and of the domestic problems, as the everyday-type
organization, on the short and long term, problems, to abstract problems of
shuffling moral values in order to adapt, contextualization, according to the occupied
form and select environments. [3] position in the flowchart.
A person can be intelligent without being The way the leader behaves as an authority
creative or wise. To be creative, a person within the organization reflects its attitude
needs creative intelligence to formulate towards decisions. The degree to which
good problems, analytical intelligence to leaders summarize the three dimensions
put the solutions in unison with problems, depends on factors such as the act of
and practical intelligence to ensure that creation, the power of knowledge, thinking
followers understand their value, yet does styles, personality attributes, some
not require being wise. motivational attributes etc. Reflection of
Simultaneously, a wise person is essential meta-components, is, we believe, quite
to be both intelligent and creative, since obvious in the military leadership to a
they both determine the formulation of smaller or greater extent.
33
2 WICS PRGHO¶V LPSDFW XSRQ WKH the expression of the network’s dimensions
PLOLWDU\OHDGHU in behavioral past of the leaders.
The aim of this research involves building Our attempt is to select and provide a basis
the vision concerning military structures for developing the professionalism of
management in the context of synthetizing military leaders who exhibit positive
of intelligence, creativity and wisdom, as influence in both their own lives and in the
well as generating an understanding of organizational world.
leadership challenges and meanings that 25HVHDUFKILQGLQJV
leaders associate with military situations. Interviewed subjects presented similarities
Innovation and practical thinking of the in judgements regarding the applicability
military leader refer to the aimed goal, the WICS network both in activities specific to
type of manoeuver, the course of action, the scene of operations, as well as those
combat disposition resources, scene, time of undertaken carried out in peacetime.
the attack and so on. Intelligence, creativity and wisdom can tilt
The main ideas we focused our efforts on the balance of a mission due to the
conduct the impact of the WICS network multitude of tasks proposed for reaching the
upon the efficient achievement of end state. This means that the leader is
leadership challenges in times of peace or responsible for preparing the structure
conflict and the angle of incidence within before deployment, deployment, execution
the tactical, operational and strategic levels. of the mission entrusted, followed by the
WICS model indicates that effective completion of the mission and
leadership is a sinuous process because it redeployment of the subunits.
involves various elements that interfere the The leader plays an important part in
position or situation in which the leader gaining success of the subunits, in all the
acts. To understand the involvement of the stages of the mission, since he must
network, we will highlight the connection convince the subordinates of organizational
between this type of challenges and goals, the course of action established in the
model’s dimensions, customized on tactical decision-making process and the aftermath.
subunits. Moreover, participants believe that these
In fact, we centered battalion-level dimensions are reflected in the scene of
leadership, being the most visible operations to a limited extent, because
intersection of the debutant leaders with the military leaders must obey the rules and
more experienced ones. The researched regulations of international humanitarian
institution prepares military structures to act law and are less funded by their own
in time of peace or conflict, therefore it experience and believes.
created the opportunity of investigating At the tactical level, leaders must be
military leaders participating in the non- prepared to successfully perform tasks, but
combat Resolute Support Mission as we move forward in the chain of
undertaken between 2015 - 2016 in the command responsibility extends
region of Afghanistan. considerably and it becomes clear that
Apparently, 10 military personnel stood out leaders are not only leaders but also leaders
due to their leading positions in the of their sub-leaders.
organizational structure, which combines The complexity of contingency includes
elements acquired throughout company combat training, providing measures of
duties and practical issues driving from insurance and protection of the force during
headquarter conformations procedures. peacetime, training for carrying the fight,
The SOARA research method on the discovery of new targets referral to the
behavioral interview proved beneficial, dangers, carrying out sessions of first aid.
because of the possibility to demonstrate
34
Officers who participated in the study versa. Leaders with analytical skills have a
presented indicators of intelligence, harder time training their creative potential
creativity and wisdom. as long as they do not show enough creative
The results suggest that those highly thinking. The results from the interview’s
creative often have developed intellectual stages are reflected in the figure below. [5]
skills, but this is not always true, and vice
Figure 1. Types of thinking expressed by interviewers
The leader who mixes creativity with The components must be understood in an
wisdom will not have difficulty in interdependent manner, with flexible worth
formulating viable solutions. On the other once applied with the functions of
hand, creative freedom and the modes of leadership.
action differ from one leader to another, as For tactical and operational leader, the
a rookie’s actions cannot be equated with problems encountered are solved by
those of one with experience. documentation from the military
The three dimensions simultaneously apply regulations, asking for the opinion of
in all circumstances, making it clear that subordinates, advice from other members of
there are certain factors that require specific the organization or the implementation of
features, such as: tactical environment in simulations training when the solutions are
which the mission is conducted (location, not covered at all in operational procedures.
time, forces at disposal, civil population, At the strategic level, WICS network has a
the type of mission, ammunition, etc.); greater share in the managing and leading
resources for analysis, planning, execution; activities, due to the decision-making
potential risks in the operational process as it requires solving problems
environment that may affect the fulfillment whose conditions may exceed the written or
of the mission; the resources available for unwritten patterns, which distribute orders
accomplishing tasks. to operational and tactical leaders.
35
As the hypotheses, we quantified a number amenability: 8 points to a very large extent,
of variables, namely the following: 6 points to a great extent, 4 points in a
intelligence was highlighted by moderate extent and 2 points in small extent
pragmatism, relevance, structure and logic; for the favourable enounciations. This kind
creativity emerged from originality, of rating specified in Tabel 1 allowed the
innovation quality, communication, and reflection of the meta-components in
closure to the task; wisdom was observed challenges of modern leadership, along
from the cold judgment, opportunity and with the applicability of the components at
the excitement created by the participants. the tactical level and the degree of their
The results were scored on a four structural transposing in a specific combat situation.
scale corresponding to the following
Tabel 1. Research findings raking

Applicability of meta-
WICS network’s Putting the model into
No. crt. components in tactical
impact upon leadership practice in a conflict
leadership
Subject 1 6 4 2
Subject 2 6 2 2
Subject 3 2 2 4
Subject 4 2 2 2
Subject 5 8 2 4
Subject 6 4 4 2
Subject 7 8 4 2
Subject 8 6 4 2
Subject 9 8 2 2
Subject 10 6 4 2
TOTAL 56 30 24
In this research, all the military leaders have them into working tasks plays a decisive
concluded that the intelligence, creativity role in the process of formation, as it can be
and wisdom represents important skills that seen in Figure 2.
a leader must demonstrate, and synthesizing
Figure 2. WICS model’s impact upon successful military leaders
It is clear from the results that as we WICS components create a relevant image
advance in the military hierarchy the in the military leadership, but they are more
elements of intelligence, creativity and visible within the strategic level of the
wisdom unify to a moderate extent. armed forces, as they must be first located
36
in the top of the hierarchy, so that later they In addition to these efforts, it is necessary to
can be passed on to the whole organization invest in training programs in order get
through customized orders. acquainted to the model, as well as
The higher the level, the more extent the assuming projects that stimulate
personal contracts are and the leader’s intelligence, creativity and wisdom in the
influence is of life and death as the layout military.
of the order ensures the success of the The viability of the model into the world
defence policies, so the effectiveness of the leadership is verified, as leaders must be
entire military institution. creative in inventing ideas, analytical
intelligent to approach the purpose of those
3&RQFOXVLRQV ideas, practical intelligent for storytelling
The network described in the previous and making subordinates sure of the
sections has a universal nature, being necessity of the ideas and wise for ensuring
available in every domain. the common good.
Overcoming the difficulties that may arise All in all, the WICS fosters both
in adapting to the WICS model can be professionalism and other aspects of life,
achieved by accepting elements of for it gives guidance in career no matter the
dynamism and glorifying leaders by position in the hierarchy. It can be only
continuous education and training, thus beneficial a model that simplifies the art of
participating intensely in the preparation of leading, whereas it shows an easier way of
strategies able to promote the configuration understanding the concept of a good leader.
of future military organization.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Robert Sternberg, WICS: A model of positive educational leadership comprising
Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity Synthesized, Educational Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 3,
p. 203, 2005.
[2] Robert. Sternberg, WICS: A Model of educational leadership, The Educational Forum,
Vol. 68, No. 2, p. 113, 2004.
[3] Robert Sternberg, A Balance theory of wisdom, Review of General Psychology, No. 2,
pp. 347–365, 1998.
[4] Robert Sternberg, The WICS model of leadership, The Oxford handbook of leadership,
New York, Oxford University Press, 2012.
[5] Tabel adapted after the Interview Guide proiected by Denise Jodelet in 1974.
[6] John Adair, How to Grow Leaders: The Seven Key Principles of Effective Leadership,
%XFXUH‫܈‬WL0HWHRU3UHVV
[7] Bennis Warren, Burt. Nanus, Leaders: Strategies for taking charge, trad: L. Decei,
Bucharest, Business Tech International Press, 2000.
[8] Lucian Culda, Leaders in organizations, Bucharest, Centrul de Studii Sociale Procesual-
Organice, 2005.
[9] Dean Williams, Real Leadership: Helping People and Organizations Face Their
Toughest Challenges, Bucharest, CODECS Press, 2007.
37
THE FOREST OFFENCES AND THE NATIONAL SECURITY OF ROMANIA
$QFD(OHQD%(1‫܉‬$
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Police Academy, Bucharest, Romania

ancabenta@yahoo.com
Abstract: In the last 25 years, we have assisted to an increase of the criminal actions in the forestry
field. The factors generating the criminal phenomenon in the above mentioned field are social,
economic, to which we can add the lack in people’s education, as well as some persons’ mentality and,
last but not least, we mention poverty and the wish to get rich under any circumstances. The
prevailing factor is corruption existing at all levels, some people’s eagerness of easily gained wealth
and the lack of involvement of the government institutions, which were supposed to take measures in
this respect. In many cases, the forestry criminal actions were undertaken with the help of certain
representatives of judicial organs or public institutions and authorities of the state. Illegal cutting of
trees, illegal deforestation and inappropriate forestry become a new threat to the national security of
Romania. The new Forestry Code makes provisions for the illegal actions that are considered criminal
offences and for the criminal sanctions for committing forestry crimes. These illegal actions have
serious consequences: financial, for the environment, for the national security, requiring measures to
reduce them and to fight against their negative effects.
Keywords: forest offences, threats, national security

1. Introduction the 60s, the total surface of the forest
Scientific research of the theme capital comprised 6.405 hectares.
approached is based on the current Romania’s forest capital represents 27.3%
situation of forests in Romania and the of the country’s territory, meaning
national forest capital. Preventing and approximately 6.529 hectares in 2013,
combating the criminal phenomenon in the according to the data presented by the
forestry field requires knowledge of National Institute of Statistics. This rate
specific activities to protect the most ranks Romania below the average level of
important natural resource – the forests. the European Union, which rises to
The research methods used for this article approximately 36%. UE member states
are: comparative legal method, statistical such as Finland, Sweden and Slovakia are
method and additional methods of analysis the countries possessing the largest
and processing of relevant information, surfaces of the forest capital, namely
both quantitative and qualitative. 65.5%, 62.6% and respectively 61% of the
The first mention that, before 1989, the territory.
whole forest belonged to the Romanian In 2015, the national forest capital registers
State. Transferring the forests in the state’s an increase of 10.534 hectares (0.16%),
heritage, as a good of all the Romanian compared to the year 2014, totaling a
people, opens the way to a rational surface of up to 6.555 million hectares,
management of the whole forestry according to the data presented by the
heritage. The forestry legislation of that National Institute of Statistics.
time protected the entire forest capital. In Taking into account the fact that the
national forest capital is significantly
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0006
38
important to people, the Forestry Code forests lead to an ecological disaster. These
states that the forest capital “constitutes a criminal actions, beside the enormous
good of national interest” and for this material damages produced, have serious
matter it is compliant to the forestry law, consequences also from an ecological point
irrespective of the type of property. of view, not only on short term, but also
From the trait of “a good of national with long term effects, such as: impact on
interest” of the national forest capital the health of the population, increased risk
results the fact that the rules which govern of natural calamities, landslides, floods,
the specific forestry law have an desert effect and soil erosion, pollution etc.
imperative character. Thus, the national As for what concerns the criminal actions
forest capital is compliant to the forestry which affect the national forestry capital
law, which is governed by the provisions and the forestry vegetation outside the
of the article 6 paragraph (1) of the forestry capital, according to the new
Forestry Code, being defined as “the Forestry Code adopted by the Law
unitary system of forestry technical, no.133/20155 [2], the category of these
economical and judicial rules regarding the criminal actions has been reduced, in the
organization, culture, exploitation, meaning that from the old regulation only
protection and security of the forestry the following criminal actions have been
capital, with the purpose of granting a kept:
sustainable management” [1].
The control of the observance of the x reducing the national forestry code
forestry law for the national forest capital, without observing the legal provisions
with the purpose of guaranteeing its in force (art.106);
integrity, both for the legal circulation of x unrightfully cutting, breaking,
the respective areas, and in the direction of destroying, damaging or rooting out
preventing illegal cutting of trees, belongs trees, seedlings or sprouts of the
to the central public authority responsible national forest capital and of the
with the forestry, through the National forestry vegetation on areas outside the
Forestry Authority- Romsilva. national forest capital (art. 107);
The legal protection of forests and of the x grazing in the forests or forested areas
forestry capital in general, in the context of where it is forbidden (art. 108);
the environment protection, represents one x stealing trees cut off or broken down
of the main tasks of the state, of the by natural phenomena or stealing trees,
economic operators and of the citizens. seedlings or sprouts (art. 109).
2. Forest criminal offences and We also draw the attention towards the fact
Romania’s national security that the provisions regarding the forestry
2.1. Aspects regarding to the forest criminal offences related to the special
criminal offences marking devices, namely the forestry
In the last 25 years, we have assisted to an marking hammers and the instruments used
increase of the criminal actions in the by the forestry staff for marking the trees,
forestry field. Unlike other European the stubs and the timber, stipulated in the
countries, Romania is the only country in art.112-113 of the Law no.46/2008 in the
Europe where the surface of the forests old regulation, are no longer included in
suffered a drastic decrease, first of all the New Forestry Code. The latter confines
because of the growth of the criminal to stipulate in art. 64 paragraph (1) the
phenomenon in the field, but also because legal form of these devices, as follows:
of the irrational exploitation of this natural “The special marking devices have the
resource. legal form of stamps and seals, and their
Illegal cutting of trees, illegal clearings and stencils are registered and kept at the
last but not least illegal retrocessions of notarial offices”, while in article 114 of the
39
Chapter VI – “Liabilities and sanctions” it Development and Research – the National
is stipulated that “The provisions of the Forest Inventory Service and the one
present chapter are completed with the legally harvested is supposed to be
dispositions of the Penal Code and of the illegally harvested. According to a report
Criminal Procedure Code”. of the Court of Accounts in 2013 [5],
Thus, in the case of these special marking within 1990-2011, the illegally cut trees
devices, the provisions of the articles 317- rose to 80 million cubic meters of timber,
318 of the Law no. 286/2009 of the Penal the estimated prejudice being of over 5
Code will be inherent. According to the million euros.
provisions of the article 317 paragraph (1), 2.2. The criminal phenomenon in the
“The forgery of a stamp, seal or marking forestry field
instrument used by the persons mentioned In the last years, we have assisted to a
in the article 176 or by the physical destruction of the forests in Romania
persons mentioned in the article 175 without taking any measures or promptly
paragraph (2) is punished with reacting against this phenomenon. The
imprisonment from 6 months to 3 years or crimes in the forestry field registered
with a fine”, and in paragraph (2) is alarming increases. In many cases, they
stipulated that “The forgery of a stamp, were undertaken with the help of
seal or marking instrument used by other representatives of judicial organs or public
persons than those mentioned in the article institutions and authorities of the state.
(1) is punished with imprisonment from 3 Often, the forestry crimes are closely
months to 1 year or with a fine.” The related to other crimes, such as: tax
article 318 of the Penal Code stipulates that evasions, theft, dilapidation, money
“Using the forged instruments mentioned laundering and so on, thus the perpetrators
in the article 317 is punished with come from different fields of activities.
imprisonment from 3 months to 3 years or Reality proved the fact that in the case of
with a fine.” forestry crimes, the perpetrators belong to
Obviously, the New Forestry Code is not various social categories and their
the only normative act that sanctions aggressiveness is determined both by the
forestry crimes. Among the specific living conditions, and by fast, sure and
regulations regarding the forestry service, constant benefits, resulted from
we mention the Law no. 289/2002 related committing such crimes.
to the forest curtains, which regulates in The factors generating the criminal
the articles 22-23 the facts which constitute phenomenon in the forestry field are
criminal actions and the sanctions to be numerous: starting with social factors,
applied if they are undertaken. going to the economic ones, to which we
From the data provided by the Institute of can add the lack of people’s education, but
Forestry Development and Research in also other people’s mentality and, last but
Bucharest – the National Forest Inventory not least, we mention poverty and the wish
Service [3], within 2008-2014, the volume to get rich under any circumstances. The
of illegally cut timber from the national prevailing factor is corruption existing at
forestry capital and from the rest of the all levels, some people’s eagerness of
forestry vegetation goes up to the annual easily gained wealth and the lack of
average of about 8.8 million cubic meters. involvement of the government
According to the data provided by the institutions, which were supposed to take
National Statistics Institute, the authorized measures in this respect. Also the
and harvested volume within 2008-2014 is insufficient legislation in the field, as well
of approximately 17.9 million cubic meters as the ambiguity of the legislation related
per year [4]. The difference of timber mass to the exploitation and usage of the timber
between the quantity reported by Forestry
40
mass encouraged the criminal deforestation constitutes a new threat to
phenomenon. Romania.
In time, these factors led to the creation of The Article 3 of the Law no. 51/1991
the favorable conditions for committing regarding the national security of Romania,
illegal actions in the forestry field, whose republished, stipulates the concrete
serious consequences affect not only the situations which represent threats to the
population, but also the environment. national security of Romania. The
2.3. The forest criminal offences through mentioned provisions were completed with
light the national security of Romania a new threat, namely: “m) any actions or
In the context of the growing criminal inactions which trespass against the
phenomenon, the illegal cutting of trees strategical economic interests of Romania,
was the topic laid on the board at the those which result in endangering, illegal
meeting of the Supreme Council of management, damage or destruction of the
National Defense held in June the 9th 2015 natural resources, of the forestry, hunting
[6], when it was established to solve this and fishing capital, water and other similar
problem urgently. resources, as well as monopoly or blocking
Consequently, one of the main directions the access to them, with national or
of action was accelerating the regional consequences”.
implementation of the Integrated Through this measure, public institutions
Informational System of Tracking Timber, of the state were assigned attributions in
called SUMAL [7], system which the national security field, in order to
practically consists in monitoring timber in counterbalance the phenomenon of illegal
real time, from the moment of marking the cutting of forests.
trees in the forest, in order to be cut down, It is well known that the serious
to the moment they get to the final consequences of the deforestations, of
beneficiary. illegal cutting of trees and of chaotic
Another direction of action in solving the exploitation of forests have a transnational
problem of illegal cutting of trees was to character, and the results of these actions
establish the Forestry Guards, according to go beyond Romania’s borders.
the G.D. no. 32/2015 regarding the The phenomenon of illegal cutting of trees
foundation of the Forestry Guards, in order is not unique in the European Union, only
to improve the activity of implementation, in our country, but it is present in other
monitoring and control in the forestry field, member states. However, in our country,
as well as to accomplish the objectives this phenomenon is manifested in the most
Romania took on, concerning the aggressive way, which is the reason why
implementation of the Regulation (EU) no. the European Commission drew the
995/2010 [8] of the European Parliament attention of our country towards the illegal
and of the Council of October 20th 2010. cutting of trees and required Romania to
This EUTR Regulation establishes the urgently take the necessary measures to
obligations incumbent on the operators stop it and to apply the EU Regulation
who introduce timber and timber products concerning timber (EUTR) no. 995/2010.
on the market. Knowing the negative effects of illegal
Last but not least, another direction of actions, both throughout the world and in
action in stopping the illegal cutting of the European Union, there is a common
timber is the adoption of the Law no. effort of all the states in order to stop the
2/2016 to complete the article 3 of the Law criminal phenomenon in this field.
no. 51/1991 regarding the national security The extent of the criminal phenomenon in
of Romania, according to which the the forestry field represents a threat for the
destruction of the environment as a result security of the environment. Numerous
of illegal cutting of timber and of massive alarm signals were drawn by international
41
forums concerning the criminal Security of the European Union” [12]
phenomenon which threatens the which has as main objectives preventing
environment. But the alarm signal drawn and anticipating the criminal actions, the
by the specialists in the area is that in the natural and human disasters, as well as
following 30-50 years the biggest threat for reducing their potential impact.
humanity will be the lack of food
resources, as a result of the impact on the 3. Conclusions
soil, thus the agricultural food production One of the priorities of each member state
being endangered [9]. of the European Union must be the
The destruction of the environment leads protection of the environment, because the
to major dysfunctionalities meant to deforestations and inappropriate
amplify the vulnerabilities of the security. exploitation of forests, as well as the
The national security can be granted by growth of the criminal phenomenon in this
decreasing and reducing the vulnerabilities field can have extremely serious
or by preventing threats. In the current consequences, such as: destruction of
context, Romania passes through a period ecosystems, climate change, desert effect
characterized by multiple risks, threats, and soil erosion, various forms of
dangers and vulnerabilities of the national pollution, poverty, drop of food resources
security [10]. of the population, diseases and so on,
Taking this into consideration, we must which lead to dysfunctionalities meant to
pay a special attention to the ecological increase risks, threats and vulnerabilities of
dimension of the national security, because the national security.
it has the most complex aspect, underlining The national security can be granted by
at the same time its transnational character. reducing the above mentioned
We have in view the fact that its effects vulnerabilities or by preventing the threats.
have no borders, they can be felt in the In the present context, Romania passes
neighboring countries and in some through a period characterized by multiple
situations, such as natural calamities, risks, threats, dangers and vulnerabilities of
pollution and so on, the effects appear on the national security.
much more extended areas. Taking into account the cross-border
As a matter of fact, the ecological character of the consequences of
dimension [11] is closely related to the deforestations and illegal cutting of trees,
other dimensions of the security: we can affirm that all these phenomena are
economic, social and cultural. Moreover, also a threat to the internal security of the
the damage of the environment implies a European Union, context in which it is
whole series of dysfunctionalities which necessary to adopt a series of urgent
have as a consequence the increase of the measures in order to counterbalance these
risks, vulnerabilities and threats, not only negative actions with a devastating impact.
to Romania, but also to the internal
security of the European Union, as comes
out from the “The Strategy of Internal
References
[1] According to the provision 42 of the Annex to the Law no. 46/2008 of The Forestry
Code.
[2] …for modifying and annexing the Law no. 46/2008 – The Forestry Code, published in
the Official Gazette no. 411 of June 10th 2015.
[3] http://www.icas.ro
[4] The National Institute of Statistics, http://www.insse.ro
42
[5] Romanian Court of Accounts – Audit reporting regarding „The heritage situation of the
forest capital in Romania, within 1990-2012”,
http://www.curteadeconturi.ro/Publicatii/economie7.pdf
[6] http://www.csat.presidency.ro
[7] G.D. no.470/2014 for approving the Norms on the origin, movement and marketing of
timber, the regime of timber storage facilities and installations of processing round
wood as well as measures for implementing the Regulation (EU) 995/2010 of the
European Parliament and Council of October 20th 2010 establishing the obligations of
operators who introduce timber and timber products on the market, with subsequent
modifications and amendments, (the Official Gazette no. 426 from June 10th 2014);
Order no.837/2014 for the approval of the Methodology regarding the organization and
functioning of SUMAL, the obligations of SUMAL users, the structure and the means
to provide standardized information (the Official Gazette no. 761 of October 21st 2014);
Order no.596/2014 regarding the approval of the Methodology for testing the
implementation of the Integrated Informational System of Tracking Timber (the Official
Gazette no. 491 of July 2nd 2014); http://www.just.ro, http://legislatie.just.ro,
www.rosilva.ro .
[8] The Regulation (UE) no. 995/2010 of establishing the obligations incumbent on the
operators who introduce timber and timber products on the market; http://eur-
lex.europa.eu.
[9] 0ăGăOLQD'DQLHOD*KLED, 1RLDPHQLQĠăULODDGUHVDVHFXULWăĠLLJOREDOH (New Threats to
the World Security), %XOHWLQXO8QLYHUVLWăĠLL1DĠLRQDOHGH$SăUDUHÄ&DURO,´QR,
Bucharest, Romania, March, 2015, pp.110.
[10] Constantin-Gheorghe Balaban, Strategia securitatii nationale (The National Security
Strategy), pp. 8, Editura Academiei de Înalte Studii Militare, Bucuresti, Romania 2001.
[11] Teodor Frunzeti, Vladimir Zodian (coord), /XPHD (QFLFORSHGLH SROLWLFă úL
PLOLWDUă 6WXGLL VWUDWHJLFH úL GH VHFXULWDWH (The World 2007. Political and Military
Encyclopedia. Strategical Studies of Security), Editura Centrului Tehnic-Editorial al
$UPDWHL%XFXUHúWL, pp.92.
[12] www.european-council.europa.eu
43
SECURITY AND PRIVACY IN SMART DEVICES ERA
Laviniu BOJOR
“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

laviniu.bojor@gmail.com
Abstract: Today, more than ever, our society has become obsessed with technology and people
surround themselves with smart devices designed to improve their lifestyle. Communications have
benefited of this rise of the gadgets the most, and reality shows that most adults in the urban
environment own a smartphone with the help of which they can connect to the Internet. We would be
tempted to state that the World Wide Web will change in the future into Human World Wide Web, but
connecting to the Internet does not stop here. Vehicles, TV sets and other electronic devices or
appliances have already started to be connected to the Internet, which makes it easier to believe that,
in the future, we will live in a society where most devices around us will be interconnected to a global
or even spatial network. This concept, which the academic world embraced as the Internet of Things,
should be understood and accepted by society not only from the perspective of the deprivation of
privacy it generates, but especially from the perspective of the insecurity, a possible result of this
dependence on software and programs that can be remotely accessed and controlled.
Keywords: privacy, security, internet, Vault7, Stuxnet, Snowden, Facebook, Xkeyscore
1. Introduction vacuum cleaner to hoover or appliances to

Whether we want it or not, society changes cook following the instructions of online
and evolution and technological progress recipes can be done remotely for increased
influence our daily life. Today, smart comfort or greater ease of use [2]. But
phones are used not only to make phone connecting and controlling through Internet
calls but also for other activities that is not limited to indoor devices. The global
involve access to the Internet: socializing, GPS positioning system, so useful in
locating and transporting, taking identifying routes or decongesting traffic,
photographs, online shopping, paying bills has become a standard in the automotive
and taxes, etc. Integration into this global industry and the use of the Internet while
network is not limited to the mobile phones using the car seems to be at an early stage.
we always carry on us. Artificial If electric cars have passed the novelty
stimulators are planted in human bodies and threshold, autonomous cars have just begun
programmed to function correctly from a to make their way in the car industry. The
distance [1]. Sensors, electronic devices and initiative of some American states like
a large variety of applications have been Nevada, California, Florida, Michigan,
developed to interconnect and remotely Hawaii, Washington, Tennessee to adapt
control systems and home installations. the road legislation and to allow unmanned
Control of lights, of the air conditioning, of vehicles to travel on public roads was
the security system (burglar alarm system, followed by several European countries,
video surveillance, intercom/video, such as France, England or Switzerland.
door/gate access), programming the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0007
44
Cars, trucks and even public transport, provider in the USA and to shutting down
without a driver are projects with thousands major online platforms such as Twitter,
of units already tested by companies such Netfix, Spotify, Reddit [5], after being
as Tesla or Wazmo (Google) [3], and infected with a virus that generated a great
connecting them to the Internet is vital for number of access instances in a short period
their good functioning and for the safety of of time. This malware, called Mirai Botnet,
the passengers in traffic. uses IoT vulnerability by scanning it,
As a result of these widespread connections identifying, infecting, and controlling the
and interconnections of smart devices, more smart devices that use the username and the
and more voices take into account the passwords set by default by the producer. A
forecasts of the emergence and evolution of detailed investigation to identify those who
the Internet of Things (IoT) concept. The triggered this unprecedented attack shows
term was first used in the US Federation that it is very likely that this virus was made
Communications Commissions in to eliminate the competition of a server
September 1985 by Peter T. Lewis, who hosting a popular online game [6]. The
defined IOT as integration of people, journalist Brian Krebs, who worked hard to
processes and technology with connectable identify who is behind Mirai Bootnet
devices and sensors to enable remote malware, because of the attack on his own
monitoring, status, manipulation and site, draws attention upon this "army in-
evaluation of trends of such device [4] waiting" of devices that can be turned into
Houses, buildings, or intelligent transport, real sources of insecurity. Unfortunately,
formerly considered science fiction topics, this incident did not end after the attack of
are already successfully implemented in those competing game servers. The source
some parts of the world. We can say, code of the virus was uploaded to specific
therefore, that ambitious initiatives, such as sites and forums used by hackers around the
the development of intelligent cities, are world. Anyone with minimal knowledge
perfectly feasible and that in the future, the can download and use the virus for illegal
purchase of Internet-connected and purposes. The recent use of Mirai Botnet
remotely controlled devices will no longer malware source code, in October 2016,
be a luxury but a necessity. temporarily shut down the entire Internet in
Understanding that this accelerated Liberia. This country has only 2 Internet
migration of the society towards the online providers and the attacks from Internet-
environment is inevitable, we need to connected devices, such as DVRs or video
investigate the bewildering implications on cameras, whose passwords had not been
security and privacy for the people who reconfigured against the original ones,
decide to surround themselves with these generated traffic of over 600 gbps, too high
intelligent devices connected to the Internet. for the infrastructure limit in the region [7].
And this source code is still available on the
2. Aspects regarding the security of an Internet. We see that the society is
environment particularized by the becoming dependent on this world-wide
presence of smart devices interconnected network system, which,
First, we must accept that the Internet is not despite a strong infrastructure, can be easily
impenetrable. In September 2016, a DDoS blocked by certain software or programs
cyber-attack (Distributed Denial of Service run under anonymity. This vulnerability
is a type of cyber-attack that involves a very confirms that the Internet is not and will
high number of access instances, in a very never be 100% safe, and the smart devices,
short time, to a single server or web site) designed to work only when connected to
has led to the blocking of an important the network, will also be inoperable when
45
there is failure due to some natural disasters the cyber warfare. Smart devices can be
or intentional human interventions. remotely controlled and used for specific
Secondly, we must understand that online actions (weapons, surveillance tools, data
threats do not involve only limiting or over- and information collection, etc.) and these
generating data traffic. A more serious capabilities will be hunted and used by all
security issues than this Internet blocking is security agencies around the world or by
cyber-attacks, designed to take over and other non-state actors. We are very aware of
control smart devices. The current trend the fact that threats against the public do
shows us that after TV sets, vacuum not come from state nations or members of
cleaners and other appliances, cars or even international communities but from terrorist
the public transport will be connected to the groups. In most cases, this software, once
internet. The recent attack in Berlin, on 19 launched into the vast Internet network, can
December 2016, when a truck entered the no longer be controlled and even reaches
crowd gathered at the Christmas fair, those who were the target of the cyber-
caused 12 dead and 56 wounded. This attacks. Once they were uploaded to the
vulnerability used to cause terror is not a Internet, they can be accessed by anything.
novelty and the great powers issued Rootkit Stuxnet is the best example.
security warnings about the possibility of Created to sabotage Iran's nuclear
using public transport against a mass of centrifuges, this “21st-century cyber
people at events or during holiday weapon” is a complexity that makes experts
celebrations. What would happen if the state it cannot be the product of a group of
control of a fleet of autonomous coaches regular hackers. The USA and Israel are
were taken over and they were directed accused of developing Stuxnet, but the
remotely towards crowds gathered in officials of these states have not confirmed
various public locations? Or if the means of the information so far. The challenge
public transport were destroyed in order to launched to Symantec and Karsperky
murder the passengers? For the most part, experts, who joined their efforts in
these scenarios seem to be taken from deciphering Stuxnet capabilities, laid in the
science fiction movies or are described as fact that it was harmless in most
conspiracy theories. If we accept that the environments where it was tested, but it
recent posts on the Wikileaks platform continued to expand, silently, to reach the
under the name Vault 7 [8] are real, we targets it was created for. And those targets
understand that the act of taking the control were not computers. The malware used the
of a car device has been studied by CIA existing computers and computer networks
specialists ever since 2014. Unfortunately, only to reach and control certain industrial
it seems that they did not intend to prevent devices: programmable logic controllers
or to bock this vulnerability but to create (PLCs). Stuxnet searched for some PLCs,
assassinations that cannot be detected: „As those used to monitor and run the Iranian
of October 2014 the CIA was also looking nuclear centrifuges. Infecting other
at infecting the vehicle control systems facilities of the same type did not enable the
used by modern cars and trucks. The rootkit zero-day programs, a sign that it was
purpose of such control is not specified, but created to control only certain nuclear
it would permit the CIA to engage in nearly centrifuges. Consequently, we are talking
undetectable assassinations” [8]. about a punctual cyber weapon, with
The Vault7 document confirms the intelligent ammunition, specially designed
revelations started by Edward Snowden to destroy a particular target. In this case,
about the capabilities and the importance the Natanz-Iran nuclear power plant.
that the National Security Agency gives to
46
Figure 1 – percentage of hits from Stuxnet by country [9]
After reaching these control devices, air, space);

Stuxnet caused changes in centrifugal - communications;
rotations, resulting not only in decreased - financial;
production of enriched uranium but also in - facilities handling dangerous substances
the destruction of nuclear installations. The (CBRN - chemical, biological, radiological
complexity of Stuxnet is evident through and nuclear)
the function of avoiding the existing
security and warning systems. The virus 3. Aspects regarding the privacy of an
replaced the information on poor network environment particularized by the
operation and recorded in the electronic presence of smart devices
logs of the nuclear centrifuges correct data, 3.1. The online market changed the
specific to normal operation. These nuclear relationship between users and the
accidents put a heavy test on the Iranian companies on the Internet. Reality shows
engineers who, "blindfolded", were the that we reached the stage where, with the
target of the most powerful cyber-attack at help of a smart phone and an Internet
that moment. Finally, Stuxnet led to the connection, we can buy online any desired
resignation of Gholam Reza Aghazadeh, product. From a local, national or even
(head of the Iranian Atomic Energy international online store. Online shopping
Organization), and the closure of the became a basic practice in developed
Iranian nuclear program. Unfortunately, the countries, and its benefits (low costs, saving
final target of this malicious software, time, convenience, possibility to compare
whose source code was available to the characteristics and prices, buyers’
entire “interested” online community, can recommendations, the ability to order at any
be changed. It can be programmed to time, etc.) lead to its continuous
operate even on the territory of the development. Statistics show that purchases
countries that created it, or on other critical made from mobile phones are increasing
infrastructures equipped with sensors and every year and that the percentage of users
more or less smart devices, such as: in the countries of the European Union
- installations and networks in the energy varies between 18% (Romania) and 87%
sector (dams, refineries, storage and (United Kingdom) [10]. In the USA the
transmission networks for electricity, oil or data shows that 95% of the Americans have
gas); used the services offered by the online
- facilities in the food domain (storage and market in the last 12 months [11]. These
distribution of water and food); figures explain the chase of the online
- health (hospitals, blood banks, businesses for customers. The information
laboratories); about customers becomes critical to online
- public or commercial transport (rail, sea, stores and the data about their preferences
47
began to be collected and used in activities. Case studies [15] in cybercrime
advertising campaigns. We are talking field show us that these data bases are
about information available from each worth hundreds of thousands or even
user's online activity (domains of interest millions of dollars on the black market.
and accessed sites, search queries, social Because it is not feasible for most
networks, streaming media, news portal, companies to collect complete user
etc.). If the online shops and sites can only information, they choose to buy third-party
store information about the user's activity databases under anonymity [16]. Online
during the visit, some major players such as advertising has become much more
Google Inc. have access to personal data accurate by using these targeting tools
from multiple sources: Google search based on user interests and preferences,
engine, Gmail, Google Maps, You Tube, which makes this practice spread more
Google Tag Manager, Google+, or Google aggressively, and the only option for those
Drive. Last but not least, the data is who want to keep their data completely
collected from most smart device owners, private is to stop using online services.
more than 80% of users currently using the 3.2. Facebook – helping people
Android operating system respectively, also remember birthdays since 2004. The
developed by Google Inc company [12]. development of smart phones is also largely
The policies regarding the privacy [13] due to social media platforms like
show us that the data they collect from Facebook. The latest statistics show us that,
those using Google services can make a worldwide, there are over 1.86 billion
complete profile of the users (Name, Email monthly active users [17] which means that
address and password, Birthday, Gender, Facebook has become player too important
Phone number, Country, Websites you to ignore. 5 new accounts are created every
visit, Videos you watch, Ads you click on second and this social media platform has
or tap, your location, Device information, become the leader of a system that includes
IP address and cookie data, emails you send other major players such as Twitter,
and receive on Gmail, contacts you add, Google+, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Tumblr, or
Calendar events, Photos and videos you You Tube. And Facebook is no longer a
upload, Docs, Sheets, and Slides on Drive). simple "book" with profile pictures. As
The primary reason is the use of these Facebook policies show, the data collected
individual profiles within Google Adwords by it is not limited to that requested when
[12] by running advertising campaigns creating your account: First name, last
where the client pays according to the name, email, gender and date of birth. The
results obtained (pay per click). Searching platform creates a user profile by collecting
for a tourist location will make the user the information about accessed services, sent
target of advertising campaigns run by and received messages, user location,
travel agencies or the companies that offer online payment information (credit card and
services in the area. Theoretically, this is other account and authentication
beneficial for both parties: the user receives information, as well as billing, shipping and
information anchored in his areas of contact details), user networks and
interest, and the companies focus on the connections [18]. It collects information on
target audience. Basically, the security of the friends and the groups the user is
these data cannot be guaranteed and it can connected to, and also contact information
reach a third party. Whether we are talking that they import or synchronize with other
about human errors or opportunities accounts or devices. This means that
identified by hackers, sensitive data, such Facebook has also access to information
as personal IDs, numbers of credit cards or about people that do not have an account,
bank accounts can be used in criminal but they exist in user’s contact list.
48
Facebook stores information regarding the other big online player, Google Adwords, it
operating system, the hardware version, wants to get to the user who offers the
device settings, file and software names and platform the click paid by the interested
types, battery and signal strength, and companies. Most users focus on the social
device identification data. Also, data about interaction that the platform provides, being
Device location, including specific unaware of the commercial and social
geographic locations, such as through GPS, surveillance information they are subject to
Bluetooth, WiFi signals, the name of your [19]. The proof of the fact that Facebook
mobile operator or ISP, browser type, has created its own databases can be found
language and time zone, mobile phone in the manner in which companies can
number and IP address, and those regarding target ads based on the location, age,
accessed sites and applications, or about a preferences and interests, or even the type
third party the user interacts with on the of device users use. Moreover, Facebook
platform. All this shows us that Facebook is tells you the exact number of people the
building a highly complex and detailed advertising set has access to, depending on
profile of the people using this social media the time and the budget of the advertising
platform. It is due to the fact that Facebook campaign.
offers advertising services and, like the
Figure 2 - Facebook targeting audience tools [20]

Therefore, we see that the rule according to for information.
which “If it is private, don’t put it on The privacy of the users who connect their
Facebook” is not really true, and logging in smart devices to the Internet and use
to Facebook on your smartphone or tablet various communication services (data or
means giving permission, indirectly and voice transmissions) is seriously questioned
unconsciously, for the platform to access all after the information published by Edward
the data about user’s personal life. Snowden, the former advisor of the US
3.3. National security agencies. But, National Security Agency (NSA) [24]. His
probably, the most interesting approach to allegations about NSA-developed programs
the issue of the online users’ privacy is the show that anyone with an email account,
work of the big security agencies looking from a judge to a president “to a federal
49
judge or even the president”, can be terrorist activities, it is necessary and it
remotely supervised with the help of some certainly justifies the loss of privacy in
special programs. Xkeyscore can intercept favour of security. But collecting
not only email messages but also the information about state leaders or about
searches or the activity on social networks private talks of officials in key positions
of the target person [21]. And the absence (such as top managers of the Venezuelan
of mandates and the access to any user in national oil company [25] is out of the
the world show us that the presumption of security-privacy binominal area. We are
innocence does not exist and everyone is talking about threats to national security, or,
considered a suspect. more precisely, the loss of state sovereignty
Some states invested huge sums of money and independence as a result of
in the technology necessary for mass compromising people at the highest level. If
surveillance [22] and the document in the case of social media platforms,
presented in the European Parliament by information is strictly personal and the
Claude Moraes and Jan Philipp Albrecht invasion of this space means, at most, to
[23] shows that this practice of the NSA discredit or blackmail the person (such as
American security agency is not a singular information about an extramarital affair),
one. The intelligence services in Great the interception of the data transmitted via
Britain (GCHQ), Sweden (FRA), France smart devices or through telephone
(DGSE) or Germany (BND) have created conversations without a mandate to justify
capabilities to intercept and collect personal the necessity of this act, is an attack on
information either directly through fibre individual security, directly, and an indirect
optic cables or by linking or connecting threat to the national security of that state if
them. Through some agreements between the person in question has an important role
countries, such as the Five Eyes in central public administration.
partnership, this information flows from The information on developing capabilities
one agency to another, and more or less for remotely activating, silently and
balanced exchanges take place, depending secretly, webcams or microphones
on competition or collaboration incorporated into specific IoT devices, such
relationships between states. Justifying this as Smart TV [26], shows that this mass
collection of personal data as a means of surveillance has reached the level where the
fighting terrorism, intelligence services profile of the user can be completed by
„use voluntary or forced collaboration with pictures or live recordings from his
private providers (Microsoft, Google, bedroom.
Yahoo, Facebook, Paltalk, Youtube, Skype, The access to all this information, often
AOL, Apple) and telecommunication located outside their own territorial
companies (BT, Vodafone Cable, Verizon boundaries, gives some states more power,
Bussiness, Global Crossing, Level 3, Viatel which makes subordinate security agencies,
and Interroute”) [24]. The information on such as the NSA or GCHQ, benefit from
the interception of high rank officials, autonomy beyond the legal limit which the
including the French President - Francois state has. If the technological progress and
Hollande, the President of Brazil - Dilma the know-how are the only conditions that
Rousseff, or even the German Chancellor allow an intelligence agency to intercept
Angela Merkel, by the NSA, unequivocally and collect information about presidents of
shows us that Snowden is right, and anyone other states, and this is done in secret, we
can be monitored without a mandate issued certainly have to ask ourselves how this
by legal institutions. When surveillance is information will be or can be used.
directed at persons with suspect behaviour, Moreover, history shows us that, because of
participating in or supporting criminal or information leaks or as a result of
50
whistleblowers, a large number of classified You Tube or Twitter.
information has become available on the Certainly, the purpose of the surveillance
internet through online public platforms and of information gathering measures
like Wikileaks. conducted by the most powerful
intelligence agencies was the stability of the
6. Conclusions security environment. The actions of a
The development and evolution of the terrorist are unpredictable and difficult to
smart devices in society has, in addition to counteract in a timely manner, and the
positive aspects such as comfort and missions of security structures, to identify
lifestyle improvement, some negative and stop the actions of terrorist groups,
consequences regarding users’ security depend to a large extent on the accuracy
within IoT. We talk about the threats that and expediency of the information they
arise when these devices do not work have access to. Mass surveillance and
because of accidental failures or intentional massive collection of personal data can only
interruptions of the Internet. Users should be accepted and approved by public opinion
also be aware of the situations in which under certain conditions:
these devices can be taken over and - data confidentiality is ensured when third
remotely controlled by certain individuals parties are involved;
or organizations for the purpose of carrying - data access will only be made in case of
out criminal activities. Certain threats to suspect people and not as a consequence of
user security can be avoided by taking the existing technological capabilities;
cyber education measures: changing initial - the data is not used for purposes other
passwords, upgrading antivirus programs, than the fight against terrorism and
informing about the characteristics and the organized crime and the provision of a
operation of devices in case of emergencies, stable security environment.
and when not having an Internet The threats the general public is subjected
connection, consulting specialists and to from external sources, such as the
investing the resources needed to develop collection of private data by specialized
an adequate security infrastructure in Smart agencies, fall under the responsibility of the
Home environments. state and its institutions, but because they
Concerns about privacy invasion by third cannot deal with these extremely complex
parties are just as real when frequently attacks we need to be aware that demanding
connecting to and using the internet. The intimacy while daily using smart devices
information from some intelligence connected to the Internet cannot be a
agencies shows that privacy can only be feasible claim nor a goal that the state can
achieved by avoiding connecting to the guarantee.
online environment or by choosing not to
access social media platforms or other
online applications such as Yahoo, Gmail,
References
[1] Islam, SMR; Kwak, D ; Kabir, MH; Hossain, Kwak, KS, The Internet of Things for
Health Care: A Comprehensive Survey, available on
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7113786/
[2] J.Gubbi et al, Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future
directions, Future Generation Computer Systems, 29(2013), pp. 1645–1660.
[3] www.waymo.ro
[4] https://www.linkedin.com/in/petertlewis
51
[5] http://www.theverge.com/2016/10/21/13362354/dyn-dns-ddos-attack-cause-outage-
status-explained
[6] https://krebsonsecurity.com/2017/01/who-is-anna-senpai-the-mirai-worm-author/
[7] https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/nov/03/cyberattack-internet-liberia-ddos-
hack-botnet
[8] http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/wikileaks-warns-cia-can-hack-cars-for-
undetectable-assassinations/article/2616661
[9] https://www.symantec.com/security_response/writeup.jsp?docid=2010-071400-3123-99
[10] http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/E-
commerce_statistics_for_individuals
[11] https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/ecommerce-trends/
[12] https://deviceatlas.com/blog/16-mobile-market-statistics-you-should-know-2016
[13] https://privacy.google.com/your-data.html accesat la 01 aprilie 2017
[14] https://www.google.ro/adwords/ accesat la 01 aprilie 2017
[15] Thomas J. Holt, Olga Smirnova & Yi Ting Chua (2016), Exploring and Estimating the
Revenues and Profits of Participants in Stolen Data Markets, Deviant Behavior, DOI:
10.1080/01639625.2015.1026766
[16] Michael Trusov, Liye Ma, Zainab Jamal (2016,) Crumbs of the Cookie: User Profiling in
Customer-Base Analysis and Behavioral Targeting. Marketing Science Published online
in Articles in Advance 28 Apr 2016 . http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2015.0956
[17] https://zephoria.com/top-15-valuable-facebook-statistics/
[18] https://www.facebook.com/policy.php accessed on April 2017
[19] Montgomery, K. C. Youth and surveillance in the Facebook era: Policy interventions
and social implications. Telecommunications Policy (2015), Volume: 39 Issue: 9 Pages:
771-786, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2014.12.006i
[20] https://jtlr.wordpress.com/2011/12/11/facebook-issues-people-moan-too-much/
[21] https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-online-data
[22] Reddick, Christopher G. ; Chatfield, Akemi Takeoka; Jaramillo, Patricia A. - Public
opinion on National Security Agency surveillance programs: A multi-method approach,
available at http://apps.webofknowledge.com.am.e-
nformation.ro/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=7&SID
=X2PUkelOYUMPmkZUtY6&page=2&doc=55
[23] Working document no. 3, Claude Moraes, Jan Philipp Albrecht
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/libe/dt/1011/1011370/1
011370ro.pdf
[24] Bauman, Zygmunt et al. (2014) After Snowden: Rethinking the Impact of Surveillance.
International Political Sociology , doi: 10.1111/ips.12048, p. 123
[25] http://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/NSA-Spies-on-Venezuelas-Oil-Company-
Snowden-Leak-Reveals-20151118-0010.html
[26] http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/wikileaks-documents-show-alleged-cia-
program-hack-smart-tvs-article-1.2991141
52
COMPLEX CHALLENGES, COMPLEX RESPONSES AND THE STATE
Gábor BOLDIZSÁR
National University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary

boldizsar.gabor@uni-nke.hu
Abstract: After the Cold War, military challenges were generated on the periphery of Europe and
beyond. Europe and NATO dealt with such challenges within the framework of crisis response and
peace support operations. During the development of operations in the increasingly complex
environments military actors carried out increasingly complex tasks and missions. The top of the
efforts is state building affecting almost all of the governmental and state organizations and actors.
Today in Central Europe and in the Carpathian Basin we are facing new threats. The massive and
uncontrolled migration, terrorism and hybrid threats pose new challenges for the states. Today the
physical and internal security in the homeland has to be reconsidered by the state. The new threats
require a new type of response. The military and law enforcement organizations, vital governmental
authorities have to effectively act together in order to provide safe and secure environment in the
country. This joint effort is a new type of home- and collective defence. The complex security of the
state and citizens can be guaranteed by coordinated cooperation based on mutual trust and knowledge
among organizations only. This activity is labelled as Inter-agency Operations, in which the intent and
capability of interoperability are required from all actors.
Keywords: stability, complex operation environment, state responsibility, cooperation,

inter-agency operation, joint effort of governmental actors
Introduction areas in a short time. In this changed world

Over the last quarter of a century in the need for security and safety are
Hungary, in Europe and all over the world reinterpreted. In addition to classic physical
changes took place which could not be security, today in expanding security
imagined by the generations of the Cold dimensions complex interactions must be
War. After the Cold War ended the era of guaranteed for our development and the
world peace did not arrive. With each survival of system. Physical security is also
passing day new and unknown threats reinterpreted in this complex system.
raised and we face hidden challenges. Security dimension actors, controlled by the
These challenges are opportunities for state using state monopoly on violence;
improvement in our life, but they also carry police officers, soldiers, and national
serious risks and dangers. The acceleration security personnel are getting weirder, not
of our lives, at the age of opaque and traditional in any way tasks to solve. Our
inaccessible information it is becoming complex and challenging world is
increasingly difficult to find the right way characterized by the fact how we face many
at the level of the individual, community, kinds of political and armed conflicts in the
and nation. Events taking place in distant world. In addition to the past unresolved
parts of the world have a beneficial or conflicts (Kashmir, Cyprus, the Golan
adverse effect on other security areas Heights, ...) and recent years (the Balkans,
(dimensions) and geographically distant Iraq, Afghanistan ...) immediately several
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0008
53
new risks appeared threatening both our integration. In parallel, the Hungarian
country and Europe. Defence Forces’ organization and doctrines
The mass immigration, also known as the also changed. In the following period, in
migrant crisis, terrorism in Europe and addition to protecting alliances systems
hybrid warfare (destabilization and orientations of sovereignty, we participated
annexation) taking place on the eastern in various "peace operations". Based on the
borders require new kind of response. principle of shared interests and values
Hypothesis: outside our and the alliance’s borders we
The challenges threatening the values of our conducted more and more complex
countries and alliance systems can generate missions and state building tasks in extreme
two types of reactions, future and high-risk environment. Today the
developments. First, on the basis of the threats re-appeared along our borders,
lessons learned from previous development threatening the security of our country and
of national and international crisis response Europe. The knowledge and experience at
and peace operations the integrated crisis organizational and individual level serve as
management capability has to be improved. a base for mutual trust to organizations
On the other hand, to provide security for responsible for the physical security
our country’s and allies' sovereignty and protections of our countries, our interests
territorial integrity we need country- and and our values are acquired.
collective defence capabilities development Operations have been carried out in the past
based on credible military strength. This 25 years individually or at the Alliance’s
capability development was reviewed in level where the interests of national
recent years as we saw that within NATO. concern, regional and global peace and
Only a nation with credible and powerful security were protected. During that time in
deterrent forces may be able to maintain some cases our country was directly
and guarantee self-determination and affected by the effects of hazards, and
freedom of actions. The development of the sometimes only indirectly. There were
two lines is essential, but it does not happen times when we had to perform tasks against
independently. actors in the same civilization, and in other
cases in radically different human terrain.
1. A quarter of a century of a changing
world in our region 2. Today
If we review the past twenty-five years we Today's challenges and dangers can be
can conclude that Hungary solved crisis characterised by complexity, the often
along the southern border, basically on its opaque operational environment and the
own, just immediately after the Cold War continuous and rapid changes. In such a
ended. This period coincides with the birth complex environment the actors, nations,
of democratic Hungary and its seeking have to respond in a complex way. It is
ways of transforming political, economic important that the response is achieved
and security system. Essentially we along the guidelines of a higher strategic
participated in UN missions in the interest goal. Each challenge and response has its
of global peace and security initially as own typical special players. Synchronized
unarmed military observers and later armed efforts of the players, the realization and
peacekeepers. During that period, in the exploitation of synergies are required for
name of Western orientation the Hungarian the success. The responses of complex
military took part in longer and more challenges have many players who mostly
technical courses and trainings in Western serve the state.
countries. From 1994 the joint exercises Physical security is essential for
also contributed to the preparation for maintaining effect and development. In this
54
complex, dynamically changing world full 7hreats to life conditions
of dangers, at national and Alliance level, +\EULGWKUHDWV
the way of physical security maintain and 7HUURULVP
guarantee has to be followed and 0DVVPLJUDWLRQ
guaranteed by the state responsible for Global Challenges
national security, military and law Noticeably the security risks of global
enforcement actors. challenges are effecting the Euro-Atlantic
As the Hungarian military and law region, Europe, the Carpathian Basin,
enforcement actors experienced in their Hungary:
mission engagements, the traditional - wars and armed conflicts,
boundaries become blurred between the two - climate change, desertification, warming,
functional areas. The military in foreign sea level rise, groundwater levels drop and
operations carried out more and more substantially reduce the living space,
complex law enforcement tasks, and the - demographic effects, the population age
police did activities and used methods more structure and the different nature of
military-type for maintaining public order different geographical and economic
and safety. In both cases, complex development background,
operational environment caused the - economic interests, profit maximization
convergence of two areas. Of course, the involve hidden risks,
national security system also has produced - food safety: a global population are of
professional collaboration for home defence more than 7 billion. Opinions that the
and public order protection capabilities. It is inhabitants of the Earth can be provided
just enough to think of the tactical with traditional production systems or will
intelligence capability (HUMINT) used by require the use of Genetically Manipulated
the military in tactical-level. Organic (GMO) production, chemical and
The three physical security guarantee biological results of the latest research in
organizations in their joint efforts, their order to increase efficiency.
work and activities, carried out in the - food security: how to get food to users?
operational areas gained more experience in How to get everyone healthy and sufficient
recent decades. In distant mission areas food and water?
generally the dominance of military force - physical security: security of life and
could be observed, but the state-building property, the interests and values
efforts in strange and extreme environments protection,
gave serious experiences and skills of - disaster management: protection against
professionality. Today this knowledge, man-made and natural disasters.
ability and willingness for close Almost all traditional security challenge
cooperation are also required in our region, perceptions and concerns affect the basis of
along our country's borders and territory. human existence – drinking water and food.
For the sustainment of human existence the
3. Risks and Responses protection of human life, natural resources,
At global and regional levels nations and value-added processes, and physical assets
alliances are facing a number of unsolved are essential.
conflicts. The treatment of old and new Threats to life conditions
conflicts constantly require resources from The survival, the basic condition for the
the armed forces, society and nations. In existence of any human being, small and
addition to threats inherited from the past a large communities is based on the first two
number of new challenges also present a levels of Maslow needs hierarchy:
risk: - physiological needs: proper quantity and
*OREDO&KDOOHQJHV quality of food and drinking water,
55
- Physical security: at the levels of Hybrid threats
individual, small and large community The "eastern threat" which uses the
(life) and property. instruments of warfare affect our region,
Production of food (production, processing, such as the countries on the eastern border
storage, transport) and the management of of NATO. The destabilization of Ukraine
water (self-sustainable use, protection) is an and the annexation of Crimea are part of
essential condition for statehood. these threats. In the first stage of a hybrid
Security in the countryside is not just the attack the objectives of neither the power
physical security of the people living and nor the aggressor are possible to recognize.
working in rural areas, but also the state The attack is the first period, the main
capable to ensure sufficient quality and feature of destabilization fundamentally in
quantity of food (and water) from different social, in political and in economic
sources (own production, imports) to the dimensions.
inhabitants. The more self-sufficient a One of the manifestations of destabilization
country or a region, the safer and more is the deterioration of law and order and
stable it is because it does not depend on security (internal security). A minority,
foreign stages of a commercial chain supported by an aggressor intervening
(imports) and foreign economic and power and turning against government or
industrial influences, either. majority directly or indirectly and openly
Creating, maintaining and enhancing the questioning the authority of the state and its
physical security of the state of small and raison d'être. From the four components of
large communities are an essential pre- the Failed States Index this is one of them.
condition. But physical security is a Some citizens do not accept the supreme
prerequisite for development. authority of the state. The group "chosen"
Direct environments, the Carpathian Basin, and supported by an aggressor usually
will be appreciated significantly in the near shows ethnic or religious deviation from
future in considering the challenges. mainstream society, thus its traditional
x The region has good agricultural values: values may also differ. These are the key
rivers, good quality arable land, and elements of this group which turns it, with
favourable number of annual sunshine efficient "aggressor’s" influence, against
hours. Thanks to these three factors our the majority society and the authorities. As
agriculture has good, self-sustaining a result of the radical confrontation violent
position. acts or armed violence and conflicts disrupt
x In terms of demography the population public order, public security and peaceful
decreases and is aging in the Carpathian coexistence.
Basin and Hungary. The third element of destabilization is the
The Carpathian Basin is ideal for supplying harmful effect on the economic situation.
our declining and aging population. But The endangering of economic well-being,
also, it may be considered as a living space jeopardizing the livelihoods, the decline in
that can be a target for the people living in living standards, unpredictability or
the developing world falling living space blocking of access to resources is to further
and a growing number of increasingly destabilize the circumstances. The political
younger populations. Where the conditions and social tensions based on economic
of life are at high-risk because of wars, dissatisfaction, coupled with livelihood
water loss, or failure in the land, the problems can lead to overt armed violence.
residents there begin to migrate and look In the next phase of hybrid warfare the
for new living space. conflict is escalated by training, equipping,
and supporting the armed groups by the
aggressor. Armed violence becomes
56
apparent, emotions are growing to the occur in the future as there is no hundred-
extremes, while reconciliation seems percent security.
impossible. On the breakaway territories As the "face of terrorism" is changing, the
state authority is limited or terminated, thus organizations fighting against them must
the second requirement of the Failed State change flexibly. Knowledge of the enemy's
Index is also met. The relations between tactics and procedures, the insurgents’
state and its citizens are interrupted. The qualifications, motivation is essential for
armed groups using violence openly neglect the success in the fight against them.
the third criteria of Failed State Index – that Owning such knowledge military, law-
is the use of force is State monopoly. enforcement and national security agencies
As the relation between the state and its can re-define themselves as part of the state.
citizens got broken the central power – the The advantage of asymmetrical warfare is
state – is unable to provide public services, asymmetry itself. It involves different, new,
public benefits, perform public duties in unfamiliar, strange methods, devices, and
these fields. Thus the fourth criterion of the warring factions. If we manage to make
Failed State Index indicators is fulfilled. asymmetry symmetrical: if the opponents
As a result of the destabilization some parts with the same abilities are fighting in the
of the country under attack becomes a same area and time, it is possible to win. In
fallen state and the authority has no the fight against terrorism the earlier earned
influence on the events. crisis management and peacekeeping
Till this phase of hybrid warfare the experiences with a flexible adaptation to the
aggressor’s regular forces are not "visible". potential opponents’ power-equipment-
The crisis is internal, based on political, procedures can make a war wageable,
economic and social issues generated which leads to success! This fight requires
externally in a covert way. So it can be seen not only adaptive and continuous
that destabilization-annexation processes transformation of friendly power devices,
taking place in the eastern borders of but also procedures are needed which can
NATO are mainly targeting public order, efficiently fight the enemy, is an integrated
public safety and national security issues national security-, military and law
mostly (three out of four phases). But it is enforcement system. The fight against
not. Annexation is the physical preparation terrorism is in a changing space
of taking possession of a territory. It is a (globalization), time (speedy flow of
complex, coordinated attack aimed at the information) and content (information
sovereignty, territorial integrity, and abundance). The actor who is faster can
elimination of freedom of action. This is the make the right decisions in real time, and is
principle for which the majority of wars more likely to be the winner of the fight.
were fought in the written and unwritten On the state actors’ side, there are many
history of humanity. This is a war, but it is prerequisites for increasing this speed.
difficult to recognize. New capabilities are Migration
required for the protection of sovereignty, European security is highly influenced by
interests and values of nations and the massive and uncontrolled migration
alliances. taking place in the past two years. The
Terrorism reasons for this migration are complex and
The other great challenge that affects our partly unknown. The alliances and states
country is terrorism. Terrorist attacks in evaluate the situation differently and have
Europe indicate a new era in recent years. different interest, pay attention to manage
Although our country has avoided such the situation. It is sure that migration is
attacks there is no guarantee that it will not related to struggle for declining resources
(water, food, land, living space) and their
57
control. These two factors determine the - Mandate,
motivation of migrants. The hope for a - Organizational culture,
better life often means the only chance of - Decision-making process,
survival. The reason is not only about - Command and control system,
escaping from wars and violence it is often - Capabilities,
the access to food, water, so for the basic - Limitations.
life conditions are also important. There are Co-operation may have several feasible
many reasons for changing life conditions, levels and depends on the nature and
such as global climate change and duration of the tasks, the time available to
demographic changes. prepare the forces and the assets involved.
At different levels of cooperation our
4. Key to success national security, law enforcement and
Complex challenges require complex military agencies gained experience during
responses, which have a lot of actors. joint operations over the past decades in
Alliances, nations, armed forces, services, homeland and foreign areas. These levels
government departments and agencies in an are as follows >2@:
integrated joint effort are needed. To do this x Ad hoc-based implementation.
it is essential that those involved know each x Co-ordination: consultation carried out
other. on a regular basis, information sharing,
The government, national security, military information exchange, and coordination of
and law enforcement elements should be efforts.
effective in the following areas: x Joint implementation: higher level of
x Mutual knowledge, cooperation, which includes key areas of
x Cooperation, planning and organization, leadership and
x Authorization and responsibility management as well.
x A new type of organization and x Joint project: work done together for an
management culture. extended period of time, for a specific
Mutual knowledge is essential for the joint project to develop a skill or infrastructures
efforts of the organizations helping, to achieve a complex goal.
assisting and supporting each other. In the x Joint training and education: the
absence of common knowledge cooperating organizations get familiar with
misunderstandings, unachievable the potential actors on the basis of the
expectations, frustration and loss of above stated criteria in terms of education,
confidence occur and finally, the training, during and preparation time.
cooperation of organizations turns into Authorizations and responsibilities
rivalry. It is therefore necessary that the comprise a decisive factor in the success of
cooperating organizations all have more joint action. The law enforcement elements
knowledge and experience about each other basically carry out their activities in their
and on this basis the best practice can be territory for providing and maintaining
developed. An integrated policy, doctrinal public order and security. According to the
basis that overcomes the limits of nature of national security services they are
individual professions (actors), with a goal operating in domestic or foreign territories.
of maximizing the effectiveness is needed. The Hungarian Defence Forces (HDF) is
In this new doctrinal concept basically to provide defence from external
transformation is everyone's business and attack in accordance with the Constitution.
everyone requires inclusion. The The HDF performs duties arising from
cooperating organizations, professionals, international treaties and contributes to
actors need to know each other at least in disaster management tasks. In accordance
the following areas >1@: with the Constitution >3@ in some specific
58
situations the HDF takes part – an - Action authorisation: the executive
appropriate constitutional guarantees and in forces directly and immediately facing a
case of endangerment – in the restoration of situation are authorised to fast and effective
public order and safety in the homeland. response.
The capability of the armed forces makes it The small and therefore fast and flexible
functionally, structurally and instrumentally organizations, empowered with huge
suitable for a variety of such duties. The autonomy, are able to effectively use
military forces as a state organization are information and solve the problems. We
prepared for operations in extreme terrain, need to shorten the traditional chain of
weather and safety conditions and often command between the classic decision-
conduct unexpected and unknown high-risk maker (leader) and the executive, and the
tasks. It does this as the military is capable need to speed up the flow of information in
of self-sufficiency and renewal because both directions.
being prepared for the worst-case scenario Our region's armed forces have undergone
in a high-intensity armed conflict it cannot significant changes in past times, during
be dependent on government or civilian their evolution. The operations carried out
infrastructures, services and supply at national or international (combined)
systems, because those will be damaged or levels and jointly, could provide them with
destroyed. The force required operability huge experience. These complex operations
and freedom of action to maintain self- were carried out by increasingly small
sufficiency and regeneration capability. The military units, and the knowledge,
military has adequate transport, integration, and ability to cooperate are at
communications, accommodation, medical, lower and lower levels of the execution of
technical and other capabilities and skills tasks. Similarly professional cooperation
that are operated by trained and organized development is needed among national and
personnel and staff effectively with other international actors of complex security,
organizations of state administration. among government departments and
A new type of organizational and agencies. This is the Inter-Agency
management culture is required. The Operational Capability.
complex operational environment, real-time Summary
access to confusing amounts of In order to guarantee the security of our
information, and the accelerating spread of nation, region, and Europe, we need
information create new situation which credible and the capable military forces to
require new management culture and new respond. Having processed the lessons
leadership style. General McChrystal (US, learned from country- and collective
former commander of ISAF) summed up defence, compared them to those of recent
the key to success in his latest book as peace support operations and state-building
follows >4@: experience, and knowing the potential
- Mutual trust among co-operators, future conflicts, the future military
superiors and subordinates, its basis is development trends can be determined.
mutually known. In our increasingly complex and dangerous
- Knowledge of the common goal: this is world the state significance is appreciated.
one of the driving needs for mission The state is responsible to guarantee the
oriented leadership, promoting the right physical security, sovereignty, territorial
decisions in a rapidly changing complex integrity, public order and security. The
operational environment. state must develop into a "good state" so
- Unified knowledge base: mutual that its relations to society could not be
understanding and co-operators access to questioned, a majority of the population and
databases. could not be destabilized. To ensure peace,
59
public order and preserve security new type this issue is the relevant agencies’ deeply
of complex threats must be responded to in integrated cooperation.
a new way. The only possible response to
References
[1] Dr. Boldizsár Gábor: Civil – katonai – UHQGĘUL - QHP]HWEL]WRQViJL HJ\WWPĦN|GpV D
YiOViJNH]HOpVEHQ ,Q 'U 'REiN ,PUH V]HUN $ QHP]HWEL]WRQViJ iOWDOiQRV HOPpOHWH
(NKE, Budapest, 2014), pp 284-285
[2] Dr. Boldizsár Gábor: Civil – katonai – UHQGĘUL - nemzetbiztRQViJL HJ\WWPĦN|GpV D
YiOViJNH]HOpVEHQ ,Q 'U 'REiN ,PUH V]HUN $ QHP]HWEL]WRQViJ iOWDOiQRV HOPpOHWH
(NKE, Budapest, 2014), p. 284
[3] 0DJ\DURUV]iJ$ODSW|UYpQ\H
[4] McChrystal, Stanley: Csapatok csapata (HVG, Budapest, 2016), pp 20, 319
60
MILITARY EDUCATION AND TRAINING SUPPORTED BY BLENDED

SIMULATION
Pavel %8ý.$9ODGLPtU$1'5$66<
$UPHG)RUFHV$FDGHP\RI*HQHUDO0LODQRDVWLVODY6WHIDQLN/LSWRYVNê0LNXOiã
6ORYDNLD
SDYHOEXFND#DRVVNYODGLPLUDQGUDVV\#DRVVN
Abstract: The existing conflicts, both military and non-military are currently mostly of non-linear
nature, where units composed of multiple specializations, both smaller and acting independently are
prevailing. Those units are usually separated from home base and proper access to its own central
supply lines of communication which strengthens emphasizes on their independent command and
control, coordination within deployed forces and other assets within given operation. Therefore,
prior collective training and preparation for deployment is one of the crucial operational planning
requirements before deployment takes place. Modern training simulation techniques and assets do
support preparedness of those units planned for deployment by aligning and synchronizing
interoperability of their activities. One of such techniques - Blended simulation - can realistically
generate a wide range of situations with exact imitation of activities to practice the ability of different
types of units to the declared capabilities across the broad spectrum of tasks. Evaluation of the
blended simulation effectiveness does further help to deliver more efficient methodologies and tactical
procedures for further use within preparation stag. Such approach is in line with the trend of
increased use of modelling and simulation techniques within military education and training.
.H\ZRUGV PLOLWDU\ HGXFDWLRQ DQG WUDLQLQJ VLPXODWLRQ WRROV EOHQGHG VLPXODWLRQ

FRQVWUXFWLYHVLPXODWLRQYLUWXDODQGOLYHVLPXODWLRQ
,QWURGXFWLRQ qualitatively improve processes of

Current process of professional soldiers and education and training of security
crisis managers’ preparation for dealing community, improve effectiveness of their
with likely risks, puts main emphasis on preparation and adjust coordination of
decision making processes – processes built competent staff members for solution of
on command and control. These processes complex crisis situations. An important
are described as a result of conscious element in this structure is human factor as
decision making of individuals, commanding, execution and control
commanders and crisis staff personnel in subject. Preparation of this element for
given operation environment, timeframe solving diverse non-standard situations in
and within specific conditions, like for specific conditions is crucial.
example decisions about employment of The primary component of success is
manpower and equipment in operations, or carefully designed and consistently
as a part of removal of consequences of implemented preventive measures. The
natural disasters, terrorist attacks and intention is to prevent the commutation of
unpredictable emergencies [6]. Progress of all such funds, which would allow the
science, information technologies but also emergence of aggressive activities. The
educational advancements does allow to essence is the shift in philosophy from
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0009
© 2015. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution - Non Commercial - No Derivatives 3.0 License.
61
training to combat threats to prevent these transmission of information. It provides
threats from their inception. [4] support for solving tasks related to
It seems apparent, that computer simulation psychological preparation, behavior in
is one of the tools enabling effective stressful situations and the need for
preparation of individuals and staff decision-making under time pressure.
members, their coordination and does Virtual reconfigurable simulator can
provide environment for testing represent diverse types of land and aerial
responsibilities for conflict resolution equipment including equipment of
within specific scenarios. Simulation integrated rescue system. It can be used for
technologies are one of possible means to individual – separate training, but also as a
achieve desired and acceptable result of means of wargaming of command exercise
preparation for solving questions related to within computer assisted exercise (CAX).
securing defense and protection. Direct simulation supports cognition of
reality through visual, auditory and tactile
%OHQGHGVLPXODWLRQ senses by using “real” technical equipment
Simulation technologies do support in complemented by special ones.
education system of security communities The aim of blended simulation is to
the effectiveness of staff members’ logically synchronize consequential events
preparation for anticipated events, which throughout planning and execution of both
could occur during real employment of military and non-military activities,
forces. The cornerstone for simulation of improve tactics and check on activities
crisis situations is process of specification, execution during deployment. By using
implementation and execution of evolving blended simulation, it is possible to
crisis, supported by developed models, realistically simulate broad spectrum of
which are simulating required level of crisis situations with realistic imitation of
likely real situation. Verification of crisis activities of participating units, train their
scenario validity is possible to execute abilities to solve related supporting or
through blended simulation by simulating anticipated activities within the whole
interrelations between constructive, virtual specter of assigned tasks.
and direct simulation. Today in postmodern wars, the combat (not
Constructive simulation is based on only) military activities taking place in the
mathematical methods and broad use of civilian population environment mostly.
modern computational and information And experts begin to talk about the war in
technology. Its core principle is based on the social environment, in the urban areas
simplified representation of a real system and other sites. Actors of postmodern war
by its simulated model, which behaves are using guerilla methods and irregular
according to prior defined algorithms, entry forms of warfighting in heavily accessible
parameters and given norms and rules. terrain for modern forces which eliminates
Model developed under such conditions technological advantages and create new
fully represents real system with its type of crisis situations [5].
measured values. It is set inside a synthetic Required outcome of blended simulation is
virtual environment incorporating real maps realization of CAX based on
and real technical parameters of equipment interoperability of described types of
including distance ranges of specified units. simulation, so that it would be possible to:
Virtual simulation does provide a) Quantify events and processes which
environment for tactical exercises of do optimize decision making of
individuals as well as whole units. Training individuals and staff members on
is focused on development of tactical and tactical level of command and
communication capabilities in command control, for example by realization of
and control areas, acquiring, providing and war game with the element of
62
securing management of subjective allows a flexible and intensive training
factors of mutual interactions within while providing variability by enabling
decision making processes, changes for specific approaches in relation
b) Model situation occurring in any to decisions of exercising staff based on
geographical region, within specified modeled scenario of crisis situation solution
environmental and climatic as provided in prepared exercise scenario.
conditions, throughout any initial Described process does have its
gaming setup and used equipment consequential line of activities, used forms
based on existing or experimental and methods which are dynamically
standard operational procedures. interrelated to each other´s goals, content,
forms, methods, material and technical
equipment. The result of this process can be
termed as crisis scenario and can be simply
characterized through following steps [1]:
a) Formulation of specific goals of the
process, its clarification, specification
and approval,
b) Selection of optimal methods,
organizational forms and material
equipment,
c) Actualization of procedures related to
executional activities,
d) Modeling of situation in the way so
that it forms coherent and logical unit,
Figure 1: Simplified principle of crisis e) Adoption of new factors,
situation simulation f) Strengthening and deepening of
Source: Own
acquired knowledge,
g) Control of results from the executed
&ULVLVVFHQDULRV
process.
Training while exploiting simulation
Crisis scenarios are the result of crisis
technologies does allow commanders and
evaluation and eventual future security
staff members to develop their decision
environment [7]. They contain description
making thought processes in both tactical
of causes influencing formation and
and operational use of provided units and
continuance of crisis, description of
equipment. It provides realistic perspective
possible impacts on lives, environment and
on time and space factors during crisis
society, but also they do clarify reactions
situation, and deepens habits of exercising
and necessary measures of individual
staff members, their interoperability during
elements of crisis management system for
fulfillment of tasks, synchronization of
tasks execution and their interrelation creation and increase of threats [3].
during organization and execution of Preparation of security communities by
operations within deployment environment. using supporting simulation tools will
It strengthens the capacity to improve improve analysis and uniqueness of
integration of support units while problems under consideration, and sketch
maximizing the utilization of existing units interrelated variables and describe overall
and equipment. It develops habits of proper situation and likely implications. While
use of terrain and environment. It increases solving crisis situation it is necessary to
the ratio of individuals or crisis managers understand its underpinnings and have
respectively who do take part within answer for question: “What will happen
command and control decision making if…”, and concurrently be conscious of
processes of deployed units. The simulator related risks and localities. Programmed
63
crisis scenarios will provide information c) Standardization of qualitative and
with an emphasis on the feasibility of quantitative parameters,
implemented wills, method of command d) Support for analytically unsolvable
and control and managing staff of forces and tasks, while uncovering complex
means. Software and hardware support tools interrelations and reactions on
of constructive, virtual and real simulation are different stimulus and conditions,
helping to verify proposed procedures for e) Acquiring alternative solutions,
solution of crisis situation while evaluating helping to specify novel approaches
the likelihood of proposed initial hypothesis. leading to solution of crisis situations
Simulation will point on required specific while saving environmental costs,
tasks in relation to content and required end costs for personnel, preparation and
state of crisis event. After simulation execution of live exercises while
execution and based on results of information reducing overall risks related to live
gathering linked to exercises, it will define exercises.
which activities of exercising units will be a Comparative cost analysis of real
part of analysis and to which extend they will exercises in the field, with simulation
be presented and implemented in future exercises is 1 to 12 in favor of simulation
situations. Blended simulation will secure exercises for mechanized units and 1 to 6
unified system of preparation for security for supporting units. Despite of this fact it is
community, ability to permanently train and important to bear in mind that real life
acquire habits and their periodical renewal, exercises still do matter.
unification of operational procedures while
maintaining variability for possible solutions &RQFOXVLRQV
of specific stochastic or non-standard Simulation technologies do represent
situations. It is possible with the support of significant trend in training and education
simulation methods to explore complex of units or crisis staff members and they
systems by using compression or expansion enable preparation and development of
of time factor. Simulation does support capabilities and behavioral features of
realization of controlled experiments and individuals as well as whole units to more
does help to understand functionality and effectively execute military and non-
consequentiality of separate steps of crisis military operations. Based on EU directive
scenario. Blended simulation does have 2008/114/ES from 8th of December 2008
advantages primarily in: “About identification and designation of
a) Improvement of decision making European critical infrastructures and
process of individuals and staff assessment of the need to improve their
members during realization of protection” it is necessary to reevaluate
protection, solution of crisis situation approaches to such infrastructure [2]. It is
and during preparation, planning, required to develop normative, legislative
realization or command of diverse and institutional tools for the analysis of
types of operations, weak points and consequent risks from both
b) Reviewing prepared operational external as well as internal threats to critical
plans, crisis plans and their infrastructure, definition of main permanent
interrelation in order to answer security regulations for its more effective
question about how realistically they protection. Blended simulation does
reflect real conditions, while testing improve effectiveness also in this area,
how those plans can be used with the mainly through preparation of security
focus on consequentiality and community for events, which would be
complexity of executed activities and otherwise very expensive to model for in
their mutual synchronization, real life conditions. It does support creation
of real like conditions for simulation
64
purposes generating modeled crisis decisions made, while experimenting with
situations with the consequent simulation of created simulation models of real situation
crisis development while providing with the aim to acquire relevant base for
information required for search of potential optimization of activities in search for and
solutions. Simulation will provide balanced consequent realization of proposed
approach of defining driving features of solutions.
situation under scrutiny and will provide
environment for decision making of $FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV
competent crisis managers, individuals and This article was supported by the outcome
crisis staff members. It also will help within of the project "Analysis and Simulation of
verification processes of specified crisis Information and Security Threats
plans, application of those crisis plan Workplace (PASIBO)“, code OPVaV-
processes and will create environment for 2015/1.1/03-SORO, ITMS code
testing effects and consequences of 26210120044.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Andrassy, V., Grega, M.: Didaktické postupy riešenia úloh v oblasti krízového
PDQDåPHQWX Liptovský Mikuláš, Akadémia ozbrojených síl generála M. R. Štefánika,
2013. ISBN 978-80-8040-484-0.
[2] Andrassy, V., Jasenovec, J.: 9\XåLWLHVLPXODþQêFKWHFKQROyJLtYRFKUDQHSUYNRYNULWLFNHM
infraštruktúry. PHG]LQiURGQiYHGHFNiNRQIHUHQFLD)DNXOWDãSHFLiOQHKRLQåLQLHUVWYD
äLOLQVNHMXQLYHU]LW\äLOLQD,6%1978-80-554-0014-3.
[3] %ODåHN9HWDOKrízové scenáre. Bratislava, Akadémia Policajného zboru v Bratislave,
2012. ISBN 978-80-8054-538-3.
[4] Majchút, I.: Armed forces as a tool for co-operation. Nieuchronna polisemia, potencjalna
V\QHUJLD PLĊG]\QDURGRZH QDURGRZH L ORNDOQH DVSHNW\ EH]SLHF]HĔVWZD Z 3ROVFH L
6áRZDFML2VWURZLHFĝZ6WRZDU]\V]HQLH1DXND(GXNDFMD5R]ZyM,6%1-83-
89466-46-4.
[5] Pikner, I.; Galatík, V.: The Use Of The Armed Forces In The Postmodern Wars. In: The
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and Military Sciences. Sibiu, Romania: "Nicolae Balcescu" Land Force Academy
Publishing House, 2015, p. 90-93. ISSN 1843-6722
[6] 6SLOê3+UQþLDU0: 9RMHQVNiWDNWLND. Liptovský Mikuláš, Akadémia ozbrojených síl
generála Milana Rastislava Štefánika, 2013. ISBN 978-80-8040-471-0.
[7] Kazanský, R., Melková, M.: Information technologies and their usage in crisis
management as a tool to increase the quality of educational process. 15th international
multidisciplinary scientific geoconference SGEM 2015, 18-24 June 2015, Albena
Bulgaria : Ecology, economics, education and legislation : conference proceedings. Vol.
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Sofia: STEF92, 2015. ISBN 978-619-7105-41-4. - ISSN 1314-2704. - S. 917-924.
65
PERSPECTIVES AND OPTIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF VIRTUAL

TEAMS FOR COMMAND OF UNITS IN OPERATIONS
Jiri CERNY, Jaromir PITAS
University of Defence, Brno, The Czech Republic

jiri.cerny@unob.cz, jaromir.pitas@unob.cz
Abstract: Team cooperation has been one of the crucial elements of effective and successful
organization since the late 1960s. Function, structure and behavior within work teams are common
part of organizations, firms and security structures. Increasing cooperation across fields, along with
tendency to develop horizontal organizational structures, requires the capability to cross geographic
and organizational boundaries. Traditional teams are not suitable for this kind of cooperation. With
continual invention and application of new information technology, the communication with units
during the operations is becoming simpler and faster than ever before. With the development of
technologies, command and control has to evolve too. Commanders and staff on the positions of
command during operation are not always skilled and informed enough to solve particular problems.
The search for new potential will enable the achievement of goals of armed forces during the
operations. System of command and control requires new viewpoints and new ways. The solution
might be the development of the virtual teams. However, virtual teams are not understood well enough
from the practical and theoretical perspective.
Keywords: Information and Communication Technologies, Staff, Virtual Team,

Command and Control System, Operations
1. Introduction solutions and decisions, for which neither

Contemporary geographic- political them, nor their staffs can be fully prepared.
environment, in which military operations Military units have to have databases with
are conducted, are so diverse and wide variety of information at their
unpredictable, that commanders, with their disposal. These databases are used by staffs
staffs of various sizes, face many problems for the preparation of material for the
in the area of C2. These problems are both commanders. The fact is, they do not
military and non-military character. always find what they are looking for in
Contemporary security environment is their standing operational procedures. One
characterized by various nonconventional of the options for „promotion“ of the C2
and conventional threats. When combined, system is the virtual team.
they constitute so called “hybrid threats” Virtual teams might provide alternative for
and their impact is massively multiplied [1]. C2 in future operations. Virtual teams offer
With regard to the wide are of operational both challenges and advantages (i.e. the
environment variables, it is necessary to possibility of commanding geographically
have more persons available, who will have dispersed units, radical decrease in the
enough knowledge, experience and skills. number of members of staff at overcrowded
Commanders have to constantly search for positions of command, decrease in the cost
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0010
66
of both persons and material, acceleration require continual increase in the available
of the processes…). This modern virtual knowledge for commanders and staffs. The
reality means that with the help of ICT it is innovative application of knowledge for
possible to make processes of C2 more specific environments in the past caused the
effective than they are with the traditional emergence of a massive use of ICT. ICT
approach. stimulated change for the ways of working
of commanders and staffs, because
2. Goals in the area of C2 during the knowledge can be not only managed, but
operation also transmitted through the ICT process.
The primary goal of the commanders in Workplace of information worker (or team)
operations is to achieve the mission goal. can be anywhere, where there is internet
The commander has to plan all the connection (offices in peacekeeping
necessary actions, give necessary orders headquarters in the country sending the
and command his subordinates to achieve troops, at home, in specialized institutes, in
the goal. Within the chain of command, repair businesses, laboratories, ...). This
commander commands the units even at process presents the virtualization of
long distances. But the individual work.
commanders are not able to manage all the 2.2. Command of the dispersed units
various situations, especially during the To command (or for Coordination)
operations in distant places, in specific subordinate commanders geographically
environment and with specific mission. dispersed units, the commander now has
They are assisted by staff, which is technological possibilities to use virtual
organized on long-term development. The resources. He can use video
organizational structure of staff is usually teleconferencing, instant messaging, e-mail,
rigid and the team roles are differentiated phone, etc. This virtual method of
and divided (usually worked out within leadership requires above all the respect of
standard operational approaches). This also certain security policies. The commander
applies for communication flow. The has to trust his subordinate commanders,
members of staff share the same subordinates have to trust the commander.
environment on their positions of Senior commander cannot convene all his
command, they meet at briefings, basis, at subordinates in one moment (such as is the
lunch and this leads to the spontaneous case in the current operations) and to
communication, related to work. The coordinate their actions with the help of
respective teams solve clearly defined area common operational picture. He is not able
of problems during the operations. to pat their shoulders and praise them, not
However, there may occur situations and to throw a bad look at them and urge them.
problems, for which the staff cannot be He may, however, lead them through the
prepared. use of electronics. It is not easy for
2.1. The staff, as an advisory body everyone involved, not even for senior
commander commander, who due to age and
The experience of recent military experience, do not always have confidence
operations suggests that the environment in in such changes. A number of commanders
which operations take place are so dynamic (mainly senior ones) may not have
and variable that any predictions are almost sufficient knowledge, skills and experience
excluded. The various types of military for using the digital media. Virtual reality is
operations are carried out around the world, environment especially familiar to young
with different geographical, hydro people, in the military conditions these are
meteorological, political, cultural, religious usually at the lowest levels. The operation
and economic conditions. These facts now can take place directly under the
67
"control" of cameras (satellites, UAVs). 3.1 Characteristics of virtual team and its
Commander can with live the fight of his management
own units without the possibility to Virtual team is a kind of team that differs
personally intervene in any way. He must from traditional team (staff type) in:
trust in the ability of their commanders and spatial distances of the individual
trust them. Trust is the foundation of virtual members,
work. ways of communication. [4]
The spatial character captures the distance
3. Virtual team between team members. Way of
The virtual work can be called such a mode communication is based on technology that
of operation in which the ad hoc formed transmits images, voice, or text (or all at
team (composed of individual experts) once). Compared to traditional, virtual team
performs its tasks by means of ICT, while it is a team made up of people who are
may be distanced from the commander and physically separated from each other. Usual
the staff and can be located in any location. face to face style of the communication
This virtual team can be seen e.g. as a must therefore be replaced by a
small, temporally operating team, communication transmitted by ICT.
geographically, organizationally and (or) Operation of virtual teams should not be
in time dispersed information workers, confused with the concept of reach back,
whose work is coordinated mainly via because they are not a groups, teams or
electronic, information and communication specialists from the parent task force, which
technologies and whose purpose is to act as a second part of the space command
achieve one or more objectives (completion post on the peacekeeping headquarters
of tasks) organization. [2]. As a broadcaster in the sender’s land. Virtual
requirement for planning and management teams should be created for a particular
of operations, it is possible to assemble operation, but people in virtual teams are
highly qualified professionals with different not officially subordinate to the commander
(and non-military) expertise from different of mission. Therefore, many commanders
sectors and regions of the world into the argue with regard to virtual teams, "Why do
team. Virtual teams in a military they want anything of them, when someone
environment can have many variations with else gives them their assignments and their
regard to focus, field, style of work and salary?" From the above mentioned you can
actual functioning. E.g. we can talk about a see the difference between conventional
virtual crisis team, which can be assembled management team (staff on-site command)
in order to accelerate requests of and virtual team. The staff is controlled
commander in the operation, to solve an authoritatively with physical dominance of
acute problem or unexpected situations. To the position of commander. In contrast, the
address previously assigned task (to achieve commander who manages virtual team
change in a predetermined period of time) it should use different methods of virtual
is possible to create virtual planning team. control. The current ICT enables the
To address diverse and repetitive activities commanders to communicate real-time
and situations, permanent virtual team anywhere in the world, with virtually no
(team of consultants) can be assembled. [3] time delay.
The main reason for using virtual team can 3.2 Lifecycle of control of the virtual
be mutual cooperation of a number of team
people in order to accomplish or create Lifecycle of control of the virtual team (see
something, which could not be done by any Fig. 1) shows the individual steps. The
of the teams of staff, located on-site of input into the lifecycle is the decision about
command in the operation. the creation of virtual team, which is not an
68
easy task from organizational perspective. risks, he resolves to create a virtual team.
Commander, during the preparation of Based on the knowledge of the potential
operation, should identify, analyze and risks, he subsequently formulates objective,
assess the threats and the resultant risks in which ought to be achieved by virtual team,
future operations area and whether his staff with regard to benefits (superior goal), for
is capable to cope with them while the achievement of which this goal should
exercising the command and control of the contribute and requirements and restrictions
army. If commander resolves that the staff necessary to build a virtual team.
does not have the ability to manage these
Figure 1: Lifecycle of control of the virtual team
Selection and appointment of members of commander. Selection and appointment is a

the virtual team (see Fig. 1) should be very critical step, as the commander may
implemented with regard to professional choose people who in a subsequent step,
qualifications, to the knowledge and initialization and power management in
experience, bearing in mind that each team achieving its objective, will not fulfill his
member has a specific expertise. expectations. The commander should
Commander (together with senior consult their concept of creation of a team
headquarters) has to define the expertise, with experienced staff and senior staff. An
knowledge, experience, language skills and important factor for building up a team will
security clearance necessary for experts of be time that the commander has at his
the team, based on objectives, requirements disposal. Quick and spontaneous
and constraints of the mission. These assembling of a team can cause irreversible
experts have to be found before conducting problems. Commander should approach a
the operation. It can be assumed that greater number of experts, with the same
experts for specific operating environments professional profile, than will be needed in
and types of operations from the ranks of the final state. The reason is mainly the fact
soldiers and civilians, will be sought in the that after a short (structured) interview, the
long term and continuously involved in commander selects the team by personal
departmental "personal" database. For assumptions about estimation of the role of
civilians, the process should be carried out each individual in the team in the future,
under the government's long-term agenda, and formulates objectives and sub-
because an important part of work by objectives. The commander should assess
professionals in virtual teams must be each adept’s qualifications focusing on
treated legally and intimately linked with these attributes:
the motivation of those working in virtual moral fitness for a particular role,
teams. For professional soldiers the process training (professional) capacity for
of activation should be much easier. future occupation of role,
Buildup of a virtual team should be focused motivation of each individual,
on defining the rules, standards, intends of experience gained from previous similar
team role (in the selection of the team of roles in the team,
experts) and procedures of work of team assess possible risks for teamwork.
69
The new team, whose members usually do units (preparation of Staff) to be sent into
not know each other, should meet at the operation (typically within a computer
opening workshop (2nd step of the lifecycle assisted exercise - CAX computer Assisted
- Initiation see. Fig. 1). Under the exercise). Here the commander should
leadership of the future commander of the examine the work of ICT, knowledge of
mission, members of the virtual team will individual processes, procedures and
become familiar with the goals and methods in accordance with the SOP
objectives of the mission, with space processed. This he does by utilizing the
operations and its variables and with rules, training tasks, followed by analysis of the
processes and methods. Commander should process. So the commander moves from an
determine the key rules, standards and initiation of action to the control of a virtual
procedures for the work of virtual team. team’s performance as shown in FIG. 1.
Furthermore, he should familiarize team The aim is to confirmation of standardized
members with their roles, with each performance with transition to its growth, in
individual practice, he should present his order to achieve desired performance
motivational incentives, while team (performing) (see Fig. 2). This activity can
members should start creating direct links also be seen as part of a parallel step of the
in the team. lifecycle, support of the development of the
Creation of the team should start with its virtual team (Fig. 2). Participation of virtual
forming, clearing and adoption of team at this preparation of unit is aimed to
objectives, standards, procedures of work, start and improve the performance of
roles in the team - see Figure 2. After its individual members of the project team.
final assembly and preparation, virtual team
should attend final phase of preparation of
Figure 2: Lifecycle of control of virtual team and the development of the team according to Tuckmen
and Edison
In the relatively short time after the groundwork for a particular decision or he
completion of the preparation, there should faces the problem and a virtual team gets
follow performance control as the next step specifically task and it starts to solve it.
of the lifecycle for the successful This phase is characterized by the
achievement of objectives in the implementation of specific processes
implementation phase (performing the tasks (operations) associated with the meeting of
of the mission). This step begins when the the objectives of the mission. Commander
commander needs to prepare the remotely (from the area of operation or
70
command posts after ICT) uses knowledge team, whose findings cannot be adopted,
and professional qualifications of the partial inhibition of activity of the virtual
individual members of the virtual team, in team may follow.
accordance with the established limits and People working in virtual teams usually
team roles, to prepare a decision for the copy the attitude and behavior of their lead
prevention and solving of the problem. All manager - Commander. It is important what
his requirements, in accordance with set style the commander prefers. Cooperation
rules and procedures, are aimed at fulfilling within virtual team will be determined by
the mission objectives. Virtual team works the "sobriety" of the commander pointing
according to processed SOP. The function out the best, respectively the worst.
of the Commander at this stage consists of Therefore, it is appropriate that the
setting clear task, setting the parameters of commander appoints his representative,
its implementation in accordance with the who will support the development of a
SOP and having in mind the time that the virtual team from "Home", which means
team was given to complete the task. he:
Compared to conventional Team (Staff) maintains communication with members
commander, he cannot use the terms of the virtual team,
"right", "right now," "soon as possible". He continuously analyzes the needs and
must also be aware of the time zones (day- weaknesses of team members,
night). What is important to understand in a sets training tasks with regard to the
multinational environment of a virtual team situation of the mission, for preparation
is that the understanding of deadlines is of addressing the challenges issued by
different in every culture. [3] the commander.
At the same time, during the Deputy Commander is as a person who
implementation phase, the commander may supports the development of a virtual team
face many with regard the control of virtual to timely capture the transition of the team
team: development from Tuckmen model to
Some team members begin to require Edison model (see. Fig. 2) and to reduce /
more information and this leads to the maintain the performance of the team at the
weight of the more "annoying?" appropriate level in the course of the
communication in e-mails and telephone mission, together with a readiness to
(videoconferencing). perform tasks issued by commander from
Some team members will work more - abroad. Winding up and dissolution of a
some less. Those working more may virtual team is the final step in the lifecycle
begin to question whether they work for control of a virtual team, which should not
"reasonable" salary. be overlooked because of its importance to
While controlling a virtual team, the the team members. As commander carries
commander focuses on addressing the out the assessment (assessment), he has to
challenges of the operational process at objectively evaluate the activity of the
place of command a this may lead to virtual team (all of its members) and also
gradual loss of interest in solving the and get from it the feedback for further
problem; individual team members may improvement of activities of the next
begin to negotiate with each other and so lifecycle control of virtual team. It must be
the main key concept of the solution to understood that both the commander and
the problem may be diverted. the individual team members gained new
With the absence of commander’s experience to further their professional
explanation (support for problem development and additional motivation to
solving, evaluation) and subsequent work with a virtual team. Nevertheless, the
"appeasement" of those members of the action of the team is formally ended (must
71
be treated with the government's agenda for forces use technology for data transmission
civilians and with the doctrine for soldiers) called Point-Point or SCPC (single channel
and individuals will start to work as per carrier). Connections are formed
ordinary employers. between VSAT two stations with one
3.3 Basic requirements for technological satellite jump, i.e. without passing through
support for the functioning of virtual the central hub station. It is not a network
teams solution with shared satellite channel, but
A prerequisite for the work of individual communication in a dedicated zone, i.e.
members of the virtual team is the access to with a guaranteed transfer rate. High quality
high-quality ICTS, which should ensure the of connections of SCPC makes them ideal
full work required. At present, a satellite for use by applications sensitive to
connection is used for the transmission of transmission delays such as IP telephony
data and voice during the operations. [7] It and video streaming in addition to standard
is a specific type of connection that allows data transfer. [8]
connection to a long distance high bit rate
in a large coverage area. The connection is 4. Conclusions
made by the utilization of communication ICT strongly influences how we work and
satellites and it enables secure multi- how we will work in the future. Searching
channel connection. Because the for new potentials and new ways will allow
communications satellites are expensive, us to better meet the objectives of the
many armies only hire them. USA military forces, performing missions in
developed the military satellite system operations. Virtual teams, which are trends
TACSAT. The system consists of in today's globalizing world, should become
geostationary satellites deployed to cover a working standard that develops new tools
the entire globe. Czech soldiers within the and methodologies for mutual
framework of cooperation during the communication. Knowledge can be
missions used these American satellites. transmitted through ICT so it is possible for
Czech armed forces also have the option to people to work on remote locations while
use civilian satellite INMARSAT, which being in contact with each other. Workplace
can be used as a converter for access to of the intelligence worker today can be
other connecting systems. For military anywhere where he can connect to the
purposes, three frequencies may be used: L- Internet. Conversely, any place where the
band 390MHz-1.55GHz (for GPS, satellite Internet is available, may become
telephony around 1.2 to 1.5 GHz, for a workplace, if the situation requires it.
connection with the LEO and MEO
satellites), X-band 8-12GHz (for military or Acknowledgements
government connections - advantageous This article was supported by the project
ratio of the size of the antennas, profit, ROZUM DZRO K-105: Development of
routing) and Ka-band 18-40GHz (for general and applied the theory of military
military applications, broadcast TV, and art and military history research between
VSAT terminals. With the use of small modern and postmodern wars, supported by
antennas there are problems with the the Ministry of Defence of the Czech
decline in performance in the rain). Military Republic in the years 2016-2020.
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73
THE HYBRID WARFARE IN THE 21ST CENTURY: AN OLD CONCEPT WITH A

NEW FACE
Ionut Alin CÎRDEI
“Nicolae BăOFHVFX” /DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD

FLUGHLBDOLQ#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: In the last years the focus of the military specialists changed from the asymmetrical threats
to the hybrid threats, seen as one of the main challenge for the security in the 21st century. The
increased attention paid to hybrid threats is due to the events that took place in Ukraine, Syria and
other confrontation areas and which highlighted the vulnerability of the modern societies and modern
armies toward this type of actions. The use of hybrid type tactics can ensure the achievement of the
main objectives of an international actor, with a low effort, usually without using the force, and can
deny to the target/victim the possibility to take any defensive actions. The hybrid warfare can
represent the war of the 21st century, a new type of direct or indirect confrontation, with effects on
short and medium term, impossible to be anticipated.
KH\ZRUGVK\EULGWKUHDWFRQIURQWDWLRQLQWHUQDWLRQDODFWRUV
,QWURGXFWLRQ confrontation is an expression of this

The term of hybrid conflict is not new, and change of perspective.
its origin is lost in the darkness of time. This Starting from the idea that a war begins
concept appears again in the world's long before the weapons are used and that
attention now that the nature of the war has international actors use a wide range of
changed completely and the mix of means to reach their goals, we can say that
conventional actions with unconventional, the hybrid threat is more and more present
asymmetrical, irregular ones has become a and that it becomes omnipresent in all
reality. Moreover, the delimitation between current confrontations, all the more so as
peace and conflict has become very difficult society is more vulnerable in the era of
to accomplish, hostile actions may take place globalization, technology and
long before a conflict breaks out officially informatisation.
and long before the victim realizes it. With the increase in the speed of
In the twentieth century the world has information transmission, with the increase
become accustomed to seeing things in in the amount of information available at all
black and white, in terms of peace or war, times, all states, all institutions and all
and the cold war has been officially individuals have become increasingly
recognized as a state of tension between the vulnerable, and the promoters of the hybrid
main political and military blocs. At that war are doing nothing but exploiting these
time, things began to get shades of gray, vulnerabilities.
and the techniques specific to the hybrid 7KH UHYLYDO RI WKH FRQFHSW RI K\EULG
war were reinvented. In the 21st century ZDULQWKHVWFHQWXU\
gray is the new dominant color in the The international security environment
international environment, and the hybrid behaves as a living and adapting organism
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0011
74
that constantly seeks steady state and is The hybrid conflict came to public attention
now subject to huge pressures that may after Russia's annexation of the Crimean
destabilize it, pressures that may come from peninsula and its involvement in the
both legitimate and illegitimate actors, by perpetuation of the conflict in the East of
using legal or illegal, traditional or hybrid Ukraine. Public opinion and military
means [1]. In this context, in order to avoid specialists were surprised by the
direct confrontations between states, effectiveness of these methods due to the
confrontations that may have immense surprise effect and the impossibility of
costs, effects that can be difficult to predict, combating them.
there is an increasing preference for using As a result of the analyzes carried out by
asymmetric and hybrid means for specialists, by taking into account the
weakening the opponent, due to the smaller different levels of intensity of the threats
costs, huge potential and the difficulty of and the intent of the actors involved, several
identifying the real attacker, especially in elements can be distinguished, such as:
the conditions of using the informational hybrid threat, hybrid conflict, seen as a
and cybernetic environment. Also, the use situation in which the parties involved
of hybrid war offers hopeless states or refrain from openly using the armed forces,
terrorist organizations the hope of winning instead using a combination of classical,
a conflict, even in the face of a strong irregular and hybrid means, and hybrid
asymmetry, which turns this type of conflict warfare, in which the armed forces are used
into the conflict of the 21st century. openly, simultaneously with the use of an
The very famous Chinese general, Sub Tzi, ensemble of economic, political, diplomatic
has highlighted the importance of using means, etc. [2].
hybrids tactics to win a victory against any The hybrid war in the 21st century exploits
opponent over two thousand years ago, internal weaknesses by using non-military,
arguing that the most effective victory is to political, informational, economic means,
subdue the enemy, reduce his strength but also by using manipulation,
without calling to the force of the weapons. intimidation, misinformation, and it does
In other words, all the non-military means not exclude, and is often supported by, the
available to exploit the weaknesses of the use or threat of using conventional military
adversary must be used, in the economical, means [3], as was the case with recent
social, political, diplomatic field, and, we Russian actions in Ukraine, finalized with
add, we can do this without the opponent the annexation of Crimea, the creation of a
being aware of this action. Kneeling the separatist conflict in eastern Ukraine, which
opponent, influencing it, directing its will most likely turn into a frozen conflict
actions or determining it for action or and by removing Ukraine from the process
inaction can be done by using in a modern strengthening the ties with NATO and the
conception the procedures specific to EU.
hybrid war. The new hybrid conflict is not reserved for
It is not about inventing new processes, states, and can be run by any kind of state
actions, the revolution of strategic thinking, or non-state actor who does not obey or
but only about using the modern means to circumvent international law.
achieve the goals, by timely using, from the The specialists in the field of hybrid
perspective of time and space, the methods conflict and threats believe that the basis of
that exploit the ever more numerous the hybrid war is represented by the use of
vulnerabilities of any system and subversive techniques and focuses on four
interdependencies between systems and main stages: demoralization and successive
system elements. or simultaneous destabilization of the
target, creation of the premises for the
75
outbreak of a crisis in the target society and points, tactical or even strategic gains are
taking control over the target society by sought with minimal effort and with the
using internal forces acting in concert with greatest possible media and moral impact,
the attacker [4]. as society is not yet ready to face this
Once again, we can say that it is about the challenge, and individual and
reinvention of techniques, of old strategies, organizational resilience, as well as the
in line with the evolution of technology and ability to react and understand is limited.
computerization, which allow the intensive In the future, we believe that the hybrid
use of cybernetic space to hide both the real conflict will develop, will gain new
face of the threats and their initiators. followers and new forms of manifestation
Hybrid threats are nowadays the same as will emerge, because society is vulnerable,
they were in the past, in the whole spectrum both in the physical environment and
of confrontations, with the indication that especially in the cybernetic environment.
they make evident their presence either as Protective measures adopted by states or by
hybrid threats in the gray area or as open organizations and individuals can
hybrid threats [5], the first category being temporarily limit the effects of hybrid
much harder to identify and counteract. attacks but will certainly cause initiators of
Unlike the hybrid threats that have occurred attacks to discover new methods and new
in the past, the current ones have to be means of action.
analyzed in line with the unprecedented Important to this type of conflict is that it
development of the security environment can take place in all phases of a crisis,
with the integration of new dimensions without the target being clearly aware of
such as cosmic and informational ones. being attacked. Hybrid aggression methods
Currently, hybrid conflict can be a way to can be used in peacetime when they are
achieve the objectives for certain actors in often hidden under the guise of regular
the security environment and can be seen activities such as funding of certain
also as an expression of the effect-based organizations, parties, and people, in order
approach. Due to the many facets that this to promote interests, ideas or to prevent
kind of conflict can have and due to the certain activities being carried out. Here, we
multitude the means of putting into practice, can provide as example the support for non-
we can say that the implementation of this governmental organizations that appear to
concept is limited only by the imagination of be disinterested in promoting or limiting
those who carry it. certain activities, supporting publications or
television stations that focus on a particular
7KHIXWXUHRIK\EULGZDUIDUH direction, promoting messages with a clear
Due to the expansion of the phenomenon of target, supporting political parties or
globalization, the world becomes more candidates for various positions in the state
vulnerable because of the interconnections so that they can then be used in the interests
and interdependencies between countries of certain actors or launching campaigns to
and between regions, and the exploitation influence public opinion, online and offline,
of these vulnerabilities becomes an by posting messages, attempting to
objective of actors aimed at destabilizing influence the public by commenting on
the system or its parts. The practitioners of specific issues and topics etc.
the hybrid war, understanding how In times of crisis, hybrids means used will
profoundly interconnected is the world of become more aggressive and will multiply,
today, seek to impose their own will on the targeting the most important points on the
opponent by weakening the society as a opponent's territory, without the initiator of
whole, targeting the key points that ensure the attack being clearly identified and
his normal functioning [6]. By striking key without being easily counteracted, because
76
the target's efforts will be aimed at limiting interdependencies and vulnerabilities of all
the effects and identifying suitable states, it discovers new ways of
protection and control measures. manifestation and offers solutions to the
When it comes to deciding to open a weaker actors on the international scene
conflict, hybrid methods of aggression will which now see the possibility of achieving
become more visible and can be linked with the goals and even of winning against
the attacker, and these will be doubled by powerful opponents with high potential
the use of military means. In this case, the both from a military and economic point of
hybrid war is only a mean of weakening the view. The effects of a hybrid attack on a
opponent, so that its military power cannot computer network, an energy distribution
cope with aggression and ease the success system, a financial target, can be felt for a
of the aggressor. long time, and eliminating them and
The hybrid war is even more important for implementing protection measures can be
some states, since the use of its specific very expensive and time consuming, and
methods cannot be considered as an this attack, doubled or supported by other
aggression, and when a state finds that the means of pressure, can prepare the ways for
specific techniques against its institutions achieving the higher aim.
have been used, whether it is military, Combating hybrid threats becomes, in the
economic, financial, etc., can only identify new operational context, a particularly
the source of the attack and, as far as complex and difficult task, and the
possible, try to punish the person or group measures taken to combat them or to limit
that carried out the attack by resorting to the effects go beyond the scope of one
domestic or international legislative actor, involving a conjugation of efforts in
provisions. At least in peacetime, but also time and space, and a comprehensive
in time of conflict, it will be almost approach. Any answers to hybrid threats
impossible to prove the involvement of a will require comprehensive approaches by
state in such attacks, even if traces go in engaging a wide array of military, non-
that direction, because the state will deny military, governmental and non-
any involvement, as was the case with governmental instruments. Integrated
Russia in the first phases of the conflict in (interagency) actions, situated at a superior
Ukraine and as it seems to be the case of the level, will not only mean joining
official and non official involvement of governmental instruments, but also
Russia in the US campaign for presidency. merging/integrating them, involving
international and non-governmental
4&RQFOXVLRQV organizations as well [8]. A better
The logic of using the hybrid war is found management of hybrid threats requires a
in the very essence of the war, because the close cooperation between all stakeholders,
ultimate goal of all those who participate in both internally and internationally. It is
the war is to win, and most of the time the about combining efforts to understand this
purpose excused the means. Moreover, phenomenon, to develop mechanisms for
some specialists believe that the goal of the identifying as early as possible hybrid
opponent is to create a breach in the actions, sharing real-time information
dialectics of the war and not to be drawn between states and between specialized
into a form of struggle that he knows will agencies, developing cyber defense
not win [7]. capabilities, both active and passive and
Hybrid war is not a new type of war, but in making operational effective tools to punish
conditions specific to the 21st century, due those who support, promote, or even
to the expansion of the globalization directly use hybrid methods of aggression,
phenomenon, the growing be it people, organizations or states. As the
77
use of hybrid means of aggression is limited been identified, it must be combated with
in real terms only by the imagination of the all its forces, both to limit its effects and to
attacker, the means of counter-attack must discourage any future use.
be as diverse, flexible and easy to apply.
Once the hostile hybrid type action has
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] ,RQX‫ ܊‬$OLQ &Ì5'(, 5ROXO VHFXULWăаLL HQHUJHWLFH vQ DVLJXUDUHD VHFXULWăаLL QDаLRQDOH ЮL
colective, Editura Techno Media, p. 32, Sibiu, 2015.
[2] Patryk PAWLAK, Understanding hybrid threats, At a glance, June 2015, European
Parliamentary Research Service, available on http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank,
accessed on 9 April 2017.
[3] JM CALHA, , Hybrid warfare: NATO’s new strategic challenge?, NATO, 7 April
2015,available on http://www.nato-
pa.int/Default.asp?CAT2=3924&CAT1=16&CAT0=2&COM=4018&MOD=0&SMD=
0&SSMD=0&STA=0&ID=0&PAR=0&LNG=0, accessed on 6 April 2017.
[4] Hybrid Warfare: A New Phenomenon in Europe’s Security Environment, Updated and
nd
extended 2 edition Published by Jagello 2000 for NATO Information Centre in
Prague. Praha – Ostrava 2016.
[5] John CHAMBERS , Countering gray-zone hybrid threats, An Analysis of Russia’s New
Generation Warfare and Implications for the US Army, Modern War Institute, p. 14,
October 18, 2016.
[6] Marius PRICOPI, 6WXGLX SULYLQG HIHFWHOH Uă]ERLXOXL KLEULG DVXSra infrastructurilor
criticeSXEOLFDWvQ*KL‫܊‬ă%kUVDQFRRUG$QFD'LQLFXFRRUG'RUHO%DGHDFRRUG
Ä$QDOL]D‫܈‬LPRGHODUHDFRQFHSWXDOăDVLWXD‫܊‬LLORUFRPSOH[H´(GLWXUD$FDGHPLHL)RU‫܊‬HORU
7HUHVWUHÄ1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´6LELXSS-69, 2016.
[7] LTC Bertrand BOYER, Countering Hybrid Threats in Cyberspace, )HEUXDU\
The Cyber Defense Review, available on http://www.cyberdefensereview.org, accessed
on 06 April 2017
[8] $XUHOLDQ 5$ğ,8 Countering Hybrid Threats by Integrating Civilian-Military
Capabilities, published at the 22-th International Scientific Conference „The
.QRZOHGJH %DVHG 2UJDQL]DWLRQ´ 6LELX -XQH ³1LFRODH %ăOFHVFX´ /DQG )RUFHV
Academy, pp. 109- 115, 2016.
78
CONSTELLATION OF CUBESATS TO MONITOR THE ENVIRONMENT FOR

THE BENEFIT OF EUROPE
Ivan DIMITROV, Miroslav DIMITROV, Georgi BAEV

idimgb@gmail.com; amirodimitrov@abv.bg; gbnvu@abv.bg
Abstract: In our project we are going to present a concept for the creation, launching, usage and
exploiting of an innovative system of semi-autonomous, grouped in “swarm” satellites from one type
with 24/7 link to Earth-based facilities and stations for control, transfer and analysis of space-
gathered data. The innovation in our mission is the usage of a group of apparatuses that can work
both like a structured group with one directed goal or like a loosely-chained system of autonomous
machines, each with a different task or mission given by the control center on Earth.
Keywords: space, national security, satellites, disasters
1. Introduction with climate-related disaster vulnerability

Large constellations of cameras are predicted to be felt most acutely in fragile
surveying every movement of our planet. and conflict-affected contexts. Natural
This from itself is leading to great leap in disasters are explained by organizations
the EO sector. Surveying the Earth from such as the United Nations as: “the
space are the richest source of intel about consequences of events triggered by natural
the planet with the power to inform hazards that overwhelm local response
decisions and activities across as capacity and seriously affect the social and
agriculture, mining, community safety and economic development of a region”; they
healthcare, weather forecasting, disaster include slow-onset disasters such as
mitigation and management, climate and drought as well as sudden shock events.
water cycle modelling, land use and land [2,3]
cover monitoring, forestry, carbon Floods are one of the most devastating and
accounting, cartographing quality of water costly natural disasters, each year on
bodies, coastal habitats, seagrass and coral average affecting over ninety million
reefs, mineral mapping, hydrology, people around the world and causing over
cartography and cadastral, Mapping, sea $13 billion in damage, according to the
surface temperature, and biodiversity United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
monitoring. Losses through the planet Reduction.
claimed by disasters are expected to Climate change adaptation and disaster risk
increase from US$260 billion in 2015 to reduction have been recognized as a priority
US$414 billion by 2030. [1,2] worldwide, exemplified by global
In the period of 2005 up to 2009, more than frameworks such as the Paris Agreement
half of the human population affected by [2,4] and the Sendai Framework for
natural disasters lived in fragile and Disaster Risk Reduction [5], and European
conflict-affected contexts. Projections actions like the EU Climate Change
indicate that this will continue to increase, Adaptation Strategy and the Floods
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0012
79
Directive. It has been highlighted that on Earth. Our goal is to create a space net
reliable risk assessments are essential to of satellites that will monitor, gather data
take effective disaster risk reduction and and help humankind in fields such as
adaptation actions. [5,6,7] ecological and climate changes, disaster
The execution and carrying of our mission warning and management and analyzing
will bring the following pros to Europe and any event in the spheres of habitation
its regions. Building disaster resilience is (biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere etc.) A
crucial to establishing the goal of cluster of 18 satellites will be the ideal
exterminating large scale poverty. As one solution to solving the above-mentioned
of the main components of disaster risk, problems.
given the way it makes and aggravates First of all, for the creation of such
economic and social vulnerability, poverty “cluster” of orbit – based mechanical
has greatly accumulated to the growth in objects, we need a cheap, simple, yet
conditions increasing various risks which effective, easy to maintain and sturdy
further limit the progress of sustainable equipment that can both survive the
development. Evidence suggests that the harshness of Space and provide the
impacts of disasters undermine hard-earned facilities on land with a steady income of
development gains in both developing and accurate data. [9] Such effective machines
developed countries, potentially dragging can be found in today’s modern cube
the poor and most vulnerable even deeper satellites. Their small size (classified as
into poverty. [2,6,7] picosatellites by scientist and the scientific
Humanity’s welfare is often affected as a community), little cost and type of frame
result of disasters and other catastrophes. A make them ideal for tasks such as data
great danger to public health ais raised by gathering and monitoring of events. [10]
diseases, injuries, psychosocial effects and As we know, cube satellites are used by
disabilities linked to hard weather and both large space agencies, large companies
climate-related dangerous events. and small enterprises alike, due to the above
Moreover, damages to healthcare mentioned and other positive
compounds not only cost lives, but also characteristics, such as their ability to be
disrupt health systems, facilities and easily launched and activated in the
services, leaving many without access to Cosmos, thus reducing the costs and the
health care in times of emergency and possible negative events in launching
longer-term implications through lost missions. Also, cube satellites are, in recent
preventative care (such as vaccinations and times, becoming more and more a
prenatal). [8] replacement to larger satellites used for
In our project we are going to present a monitoring of nature events, disasters,
concept for the creation, launching, usage changes in the climate, the ecological
and exploiting of an innovative system of balance of the planet and etc. Furthermore,
semi-autonomous, grouped in “swarm” this type of satellites offer a frame that
satellites from one type with 24/7 link to gives us the possibility to carry a large set
Earth-based facilities and stations for of equipment and instrument needed for
control, transfer and analysis of space- collecting information and transferring it
gathered data. The innovation in our back to Earth. [11]
mission is the usage of a group of If we want the mission to be a success,
apparatuses that can work both like a finding a launching vehicle, capable of
structured group with one directed goal or mass-transporting satellites to orbit is a
like a loosely-chained system of must. The modern era shows us that one of
autonomous machines, each with a different the most important pillars of space
task or mission given by the control center launching and space missions at all is
80
finding or inventing a launch system that is The objective of our mission is to launch a
reliable, effective and one that doesn’t constellation of U-2 CubeSats in low Earth
require much funds for the realization of orbit (LEO) for the sake of providing
each spaceflight. The next ESA Mission for constant monitoring of important events
example. and disasters, like floods and earthquakes
If we look deeper into the conundrum we and changes in ecological balance of the
must take a note of problems such as spheres of Earth’s habitation. The
structure of the launch system, the energy technology that covers our requirements
source it uses (rocket fuel, energy cell, and suits our mission goals are the
energy – driven engine etc.), the control and CubeSats working in a constellation.In
communications instruments and the re – order to complete our mission goal, we put
entry systems. For the problem of finding ahead of us the following tasks:
such a spacecraft we give a solution the x To establish a land – based control and
next ESA mission that will make the costs data collecting and processing facility.
of launching the “swarm” in space cheaper, x To design and launch a working and
while also taking a note of implementing an effective group of satellites working in a
AI that will help choose the best possible constellation in low Earth orbit.
course for space voyage. Being able to x To establish a connection and streaming
avoid near dangerous objects roaming in of intel from the space component of the
orbit and in addition choosing the shortest mission to the land component of the
possible route, so we can save time, mission and vice – versa.
resources, and above all – limiting the risk x To design and execute a launch plan in
of collision with a large space object and order to deploy the CubeSats and their
the subsequent destruction of the craft scientific payload in low Earth orbit.
carrying the payload. x To provide accurate and up-to date high
In the modern day aerospace companies and quality information to all users and
government agencies are not pursuing a institutions.
multi-spacecraft network for in-situ
measurements in the lower thermosphere 2. Mission
because the cost of a network of 50 Our project will show the world the
satellites built to industrial standards would possibility of launching a web of U-2
be extremely high and not justifiable in CubeSats in Europe as a primary payload
view of the limited orbital lifetime. [12] No on a low-cost launch apparatus to perform
atmospheric network mission for in-situ reconnaissance, data gathering for usage in
measurements has been carried out in the the field of national security and disaster
past or is planned for the future. [12] prevention in Europe.
A network of satellites for in-situ In order to provide an efficient monitoring,
measurements in the lower thermosphere our mission needs to meet certain criteria.
can only be realised by using very low-cost The cluster of satellites must be deployed in
satellites, and CubeSats are the only an attitude best suited for the above
realistic option up to the moment.[12] mentioned activities. Satellites will be
CubeSats are miniature satellites that are deployed in low Earth orbit ( between 160
commonly used in low Earth orbit for and 2000 kilometers). [13] Most of the
applications such as remote sensing data satellites are deployed in height of above
gathering or communications. Furthermore, 300-400 kilometers due to features of the
data gathered from such space project like LEO like the atmospheric drag. [13] The
our CubeSat constellation will be used for main reason for our group to choose this
scientific research in educational type of Earth orbit is that the majority of
institutions objective: satellites used for observation and data
81
gathering from the surface of the planet are points because they outperform other
currently deployed in the low Earth orbit. larger satellites.
Our CubeSats will be at an altitude of 2. Very well suited for University-related
415 km. with an inclination of 51.6 deg. research.
Camera actions in such height provide the 3. CubeSats have lower production cost in
best method of monitoring of objects and comparison to larger satellites.
events. [13] There will be operating in a
4. Launch options are now available for
very cold environment with temperatures
$12,000 to $18,000 for less than-1 kg
falling in ranges of around -150 to +150, so
we must use smart systems, new generation picosatellite payloads that are
state-of-the-art materials and AI for the approximately the size of a can. [9]
navigation and the correction and choosing 5. They are lightweight, yet sturdy and
of the most suitable orbit of action. [13] efficient in terms of materials used.
We choose CubeSats due to the fact that 6. CubeSats are smaller and lighter so they
they are superior in both performance and require cheaper launch vehicles and can
cost for operating. sometimes be launched in higher
1. CubeSats are better for usage in numbers.
formations to gather data from multiple
Table 1 shows standard 1U CubeSast dimensions which can give a raw estimate of the technical
parameters of the dimension of which the satellite covers.[9]
Footprint 100 × 100 ± 0.1 mm
Height 227 ± 0.1 mm
Feet 8.5 × 8.5 ± 0.1 mm
Rails External edges shall be rounded
5îPPRUFKDPIHUHGƕîPP
In Table 2 we show the dimensions of one unit of 2U CubeSat which will be used in a constellation
comprising of 18 CubeSat units of the same type. [9]
Footprint 100 × 100 ± 0.1 mm
Height 454 ± 0.1 mm
Feet 8.5 × 8.5 ± 0.1 mm
Rails External edges shall be rounded
5îPPRUFKDPIHUHGƕîPP
In figure 1 we can clearly see the size in reducing cost. Some design changes like
comparison to other CubeSats. smaller electronics leaving more room for
Where the 2U CubeSat figure is circled in additional payloads. The disadvantage of
red. The advantages of using this platform this technology in the long run is that the
are that there is enough space for playload durability is limited thus showing us that
without increasing the overall size too satellites form this type last less than other
much keeping weight down while also big size satellites.[14 ]
82
Figure 1: 2U CubeSat in comparison to other satellite versions
3. Delivery
The delivery will be accomplished by the components with the given specification of
use of delivery method best suited for our the QB50 CubeSat which shares many
needs. The rocket must provide both characteristics and traits with the CubeSat
reliable, safe, cheap and cost-effective we are planning to use.[4] [12]The
transport of satellites into lower Earth orbit. components of the satellite with their mass,
We plan to launch our constellation with an volume/area and power consumed details
ESA mission in the near future. The 2U are shown in the Table 3.
CubeSat satellite comprises of various
Table 1: Payload mass, volume and power consumption.
S.no. Card/subsystem Mass(g) Volume/area Power consumed

(mm3) (watt)
1 Structure (incl. MLI) 400 100*1 -
2 Solar panel 400 98*98 -
3 UHF/VHF antenna 100 - -
4 PC4(lono/tomo) 80 80*80 .5
5 Payload(Main) 500 50*10 .5
6 PC2(ADCS) 100 90*90 .25
7 PC1(EPS+Batt) 200 90*90 .2
8 3*Torquer(AWG31,.12 120 80*80 .75
PC3(SDR) 100 80*80 .4
83
4. Cluster formation scheduling, and activation of active thermal
In order for our mission to function control components. [9] CubeSat computers
properly, we must arrange our CubeSats not are highly susceptible to hazardous cosmic
only in a constellation or a cluster, but in an rays will take special steps for normal
efficient formation too. A very important operation in the highly irradiated space,
aspect of land monitoring is to observe such as the use of the special type of ECC
every place of the inspected regions on RA. [16]
land. Every satellite will have the same 5.3. CubeSat Camera
scientific instruments to use, making the Our idea is to use a micro camera because it
project more cost – efficient. is perfect for taking images from such high
altitude such as the one in low Earth orbit
5. Space segment and due to its small size starting from
5.1. Payload CubeSats. It will be used for monitoring
By definition we can say that the payload is and taking high definition pictures of the
the main positive cargo that is being carried Earth. The camera we choose can achieve
in space by the CubeSats constellation or by 600 meters per pixel ground resolution
a CubeSat unit alone. from low Earth orbit, using the basic
Certain functions of the payload are version of optics (44x34 degree field of
required to be controlled from the ground in view) and sensor (640x480 pixels). [17]
order to be optimize and maintain the The camera if needed can also be equipped
service. Likewise certain indicators of with complex multi lens optics for even
performance are required to be monitored greater detail and higher quality of the
on a continual basis from the ground in images taken. The camera will be energy
order to optimize and maintain the service effective consuming of about 65 mW with
(telemetry). [15] peaks of 240 mW during imaging.[17].
Fundamental telemetry parameters include: 5.4. Avionics and flight control
- Unit off/on status; The next crucial piece of hardware is the
- Unit temperatures; one responsible for flight control avionics
- Transponder channel gain setting and attitude control. Hardware installed
status; inside the frame of the spacecraft should
- Power amplifier health status include scientific instruments for example
parameters flight modules with installed special control
- software. This type of hardware must be
5.2. Primary computer applicable to CubeSat systems of different
All of our CubeSats will be equipped with a kind. It must have the following
primary computer which will interface with characteristics like a 5V supply unit a 16bit
other payloads. Also a small computer will ultra long microcontroller with 50 to 60 kb
be included in order to prevent overloading of flash memory.[18]
the main computer system with data A stackable 104 pins connectors, onboard
handling, or to ensure payload's operation regulator for increased reliability. A system
continues without being interrupted by the preventing override is also a must and an
spacecraft's other computing needs such as instrument for monitoring power
communication. The CubeSats’s primary consumption is critical to the survival of the
computer will be used for image spacecraft in space. [18]
processing, data analysis, and data 5.5. Solar panels
compression. Tasks that the main computer For our CubeSat we plan to use a high
typically handles are the delegation of tasks performance CubeSat compatible solar
to the other computers, calculations for panels. The panels come in 1-6U size with
movement and maneuvers in outer space, sun and temperature sensors and other
84
customisations available. [19] Thanks to the CubeSats the ability to sustain normal flight
very thin and customisable design they will even in the event of a malfunction in the
be the best choice for utilization in the field main propulsion system.
of spacecraft constellations and clusters. 5.8. Price and Funding
The above mentioned panels will have the The cost of our project will depend on the
option to deploy themselves in fixed prices of the various components of our
positions and collect sunlight throughout mission. The funds we will gather will be
the day-night cycle. from different government funding
5.6. CubeSat Power Systems programs and from funds offered from
The main elements of the power system are different European or worldwide space
the energy source and conversion, power programs. Thus we will acquire all money
regulation and control, energy storage and and resources needed for executing our
distribution. [20] The primary energy space project, involving launching a cluster
source for our CubeSat constellation will be of satellites around our planet.
the Sun. Solar arrays will be used to convert CubeSat Constellation Formation and
the solar energy into electrical energy. Working Regime Schedule
Furthermore, high efficiency converters In Figure 2 we show graphically the
will be used for regulation and control. As a CubeSat formation layout and a basic
secondary energy source rechargeable scheme of the principle of working of the
batteries will be used for energy storage. constellation. The cluster of 18 satellites is
[20] divided into three main groups, with two
5.7. Propulsion sub-groups each consisting of three same –
Propulsion for our CubeSat constellation type units. While one of the main groups is
will be achieved by the means of installing gathering information, the other two are
a propulsion system in each unit based on recharging its power supply and restoring
warm gas propulsion. their capabilities to operate in the LEO and
With the corona-based heating system we collect data. Another main component of
will increase propellant temperature and the satellite formation is that every sub –
corresponding lsp to70s. [21] The power group of three satellites will be able to do
consumption of the warm gas system can be the tasks given to it even if one of the
tuned above or below a preset design of satellites suffer a malfunction and goes out
around 15 Watts, with total impulse of order or is destroyed by an object or an
reaching around 600 N-s and fitted to work event as presented in figure 2:
for a 2U CubeSat by increasing some
technological parameters. [21] As a failsafe
we will install an additional backup
propulsion system based on electric
propulsion modules. This will give our
85
Figure 2: Cluster formation in LEO
6. Ground segment of the mission - Users of this type of structures can

Important aspect of the space program is include:
the Earth – based element – the data and - Government agencies
communication centers. As well as the - Non-government organisations
challenging task of building and launching - Providers of services
a satellite, the success of an Earth - Enterprises ( corporations, firms, etc.)
observation mission relies on being able to The user organization generally needs a big
operate the satellite from the ground and land-based compound to serve as its central
ensure that the data gathered are of good staging and coordination point and to give
quality and made readily available to users. wide access to different network types, such
[22] as the Internet, corporate WAN, or the
There will be one main center that will use Public Switched Telephone Network
radio waves on different frequencies to (PSTN). [24]
enable communication between land and all This is a make-vs-buy decision, because the
the CubeSats. For our project we consider user has the option to use a public facility
using (FSS)Fixed Satellite Services where called a teleport, which is operated by a
signals transmit to and from a limited service provider.
number of fixed locations on the ground A teleport is a telecommunications business
while still expanding to include some BSS that provides services to local users. [25]
applications. [23] Because of the fact that Today, the most important features of the
there will be a lot of interference from ground segment, like the usage and
neighboring satellite communication quality exploitation of control centers are:
may degrade. In order to avoid such - real-time data acquisition - when the
problems we must properly coordinate RF satellite is visible from a ground station;
frequencies and power levels for operation [26]
in our chosen orbit. We choose to use - acquisition of LBR data from the on-board
recommended frequencies approved by the tape recorder; [26]
International Telecommunications Unit - data processing and generation of fast
(ITU).For data transfer we will use multiple delivery products. [26]
channels that will carry many signals each The center of our mission will be situated in
with a reduced bandwidth. Due to the Vasil Levski National Military
bandwidth limitations we will employ University, Faculty “Combined Arms” in
frequency reuse schemes to maximize the the city of Veliko Tarnovo. Main
system capacity. components of the site will include a
facility to incorporate a relay antenna that
86
will both transmit and receive data and 7. Conclusion
information from Space to land and vice – The presented project is an academic
versa, a site where all the hardware with the achievement, as it gives a working model
installed specialized software will be kept for the manning of CubeSats on behalf of
and connected to the main control elements. science, security, industry and the human
This ground station will serve as the main society as a whole.
hub from which data will be transferred to The idea’s originality is unveiled in a
other institutions and structures, like mission, consisting of the creation of a 18-
different ministries, agencies, other unit CubeSat cluster working in
universities or educational centers, sophisticated order and managing different
international monitoring facilities etc. A scientific tasks.
focus on our project is the creation of a Presentation of the idea is in the form of a
system that will allow also interoperability scientific report, including scientific
and receiving data from other land-based specifications and explanations of every
hubs and centres, so that monitoring of part and aspect of the space mission.
events and objects will be more efficient. This type of report gives a stable model for
Data received from such Earth-based development and synchronization between
facilities will include statistics, other different elements of projects of such kind.
satellites or satellite constellations images, The goals itself shows that prevention has a
data, telemetry and charts that will show huge role in containing extreme situations
any kind of change. and that funds spent for prevention are
much less than the funds spent for
recuperating from any kind of disaster of
negative event.
References
[1] https://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/46052
[2] Vousdoukas, M. I., Mentaschi, L., Voukouvalas, E., Verlaan, M. and Feyen, L.,
Extreme sea levels on the rise along Europe's coasts. Earth's Future. Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp.
304–323, 2017
[3] http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ClimateChange_DisastersFragility
Conflict_EN_2015.pdf
[4] http://unfccc.int/2860.php.
[5] https://www.unisdr.org/
[6] Mechler, R., L. M. Bouwer, J. Linnerooth-Bayer, S. Hochrainer-Stigler, J. C. J. H.
Aerts, S. Surminski, and K. Williges, Managing unnatural disaster risk from climate
extremes, Nat. Clim. Change, No. 4, pp. 235–237, 2014
[7] Gall, K. H. Nguyen, and S. L. Cutter, Integrated research on disaster risk: Is it really
integrated? International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 12, pp. 255-267, 2015
[8] http://www.unisdr.org/files/46052_disasterriskreductioninthe2030agend.pdf
[9] https://www.nasa.gov/content/what-are-smallsats-and-cubesats
[10] 3LRWU:RODĔVNL "Space-related activities at the Warsaw University of Technology and
Institute of Aviation", Warsaw University of Technology, Retrieved 2008
[11] http://www.pe0sat.vgnet.nl/2016/esa-cubesat-competition-winners/
[12] https://www.qb50.eu/index.php/project-description-obj
[13] www.spaceacademy.net.au
[14] https://www.nasa.gov/content/what-are-smallsats-and-cubesats
87
[15] https://www.slideshare.net/DedeSomantri2/geostationary-satellite-communications-
systems
[16] https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/home/CubeSats_initiative/
[17] http://www.aticourses.com/blog/index.php/2015/07/08/cubesats-explained-and-why-
you-should-build-one/
[18] https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:829190/FULLTEXT01.pdf
[19] https://www.cubesatshop.com/product/single-cubesat-solar-panels/
[20] http://www.cubesatkit.com/docs/press/20120420_Pumpkin_CSDWSLO_2012-2.pdf
[21] http://www.busek.com/cubesatprop__main.htm
[22] http://www.eutelsat.com/en/support/earth-stations/eess.html
[23] http://search.itu.int
[24] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bruce-kushnick/public-switched-telephone-
networks_b_2377773.html
[25] http://www.jsati.com/why-satellite-how-GroundSegment5.asp
[26] https://earth.esa.int/ers/eeo/eeo3.324.html
88
CHALLENGES OF THE SECURITY ENVIRONMENT BEFORE THE

CORRELATION "RESOURCES-CABILITIES - EFFECTS"
Sevdalina DIMITROVA
„Vasil Levski“ Miltary National Military, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria

sevdalinaid_bg@mail.bg
Abstract: In the complex and controversial security environment characterized by dynamic changes
and the trend of increasing resource limitation, there is the disbalance between the projected
capabilities and the maintenance of the existing ones on the one hand, and on the other - the need for
the defense capabilities to be adaptable to the parameters of the changing environment. This
necessitates compliance to one of the fundamental principles for enhancing the effectiveness of the
defense policy – the principle of improving management as a process and structure for the
management of defense resources and related defense products. Moreover, maintaining a stable level
of defense spending as a proportion of gross domestic product, is the basis for building the necessary
defense capabilities in accordance to the imperatives of the modern armed forces. It is of utmost
importance to achieve a balance in the correlation "resources-capabilities-effects". This, in a security
environment which is marked by terrorism provoked by the actions of the "Islamic State" and the
permanent threat they impose, by the migration flows that create conditions for serious alteration of
the morals and traditions of the "Old continent" and its economic stability, by the danger of spreading
and instilling radical Islamism and "redrawing" of state borders, and by hybrid war, is the challange
which provokes the scientific research of the author.
Keywords: defence resource management; defence capabilities; security environment.
1. Introduction and complex concept "security" defines a

In the dynamic changes of the security problem with too broad a scope, which
environment, considering national security allows for different interpretations that most
as a complex social system with imperative often depend on the interests (every so
powers requires perceiving the processes often not only scientific) of the participants
and phenomena that constitute it in their in the discussion. Nevertheless, security is
unity, integrity, interconnection and directly dependent on the challenges of the
controversy. security environment, which in today's
Security can be presented on one hand as an globalized world and the promotion of civil
unquestionable value without which life is society, is accompanied by explicit political
impossible, while on the other – as a uncertainty, bolstering terrorism and
widely discussed concept that has frequent threats to world order. And if until
undergone multifaceted interpretations recently the prevailing opinion was a real
since ancient times. threat to world peace did not exist, in the
The word security itself covers a wide last few years security has been facing
range of meanings, from "feeling safe" - to serious, and unconventional in their nature,
"feeling protected" or "state without risks challenges, threats and risks. This is what
and anxieties". Hence the comprehensive defines the dynamic, indefinite, sometimes
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0013
89
poorly predictable nature of the security capabilities on resource capabilities of the
environment and its often unpredictable member countries of the Euro-Atlantic
dimensions. Moreover, it is increasingly structures in the dynamically changing
difficult to set clear boundaries when security environment.
defining the concepts of external and
internal security. Various factors affect the 2. Rsources-capabilities-effects
security, as the paramount ones are: At present security has both military and
globalization, terrorism, proliferation of non-military (humanitarian) aspects.
weapons of mass destruction, climate and Despite of its wide scope, economically it is
health problems, demographic, a "public asset", available equally to every
environmental and energy issues; asymetric member of society. This means that the
risks and threats, threats to information creation of this asset is dependent on the
security, regional conflicts, weak statehood, available resources and the potential of the
Euro-Atlantic integration, the efforts of the national economy in compliance with the
international democratic community to required proportions between the military
maintain peace and stability. [4] and public needs. Moreover, in accordance
To all of the abovementioned, we should with them forming the military potential
add the development of "hybrid war", the requires optimum balance between capacity
activities of the terrorist organization and defence resources of a purely economic
"Islamic State", the unresolved security potential. [1]
issues in the Western Balkans, the frozen Each organization in the security sector,
conflicts in the Black Sea region, the regardless of its position on the domestic
ongoing conflicts in Afghanistan, the level, its purpose and involvements and the
Middle East and North Africa, the illegal objectives it pursues in order to exist and
migration and the trafficking in human develop, must necessarily receive certain
beings, arms and drugs [5]. resources from the external environment. At
All more often this requires that we find an the same time, it has ro deliver its product
answer to the question whether our defence (goods, services, public assets or social
capabilities are adequate and sufficient products) to the external environment.
enaough in order to respond to the Moreover, the public sector organizations
challenges of the security environment; provide the civil society the public goods it
whether our economic potential is capable demands.
of providing the necessary defence A confirmation of this is the Global Peace
capabilities; how much these cost the Index (prepared by the Institute for
taxpayers; how, when and where they are to Economics and Peace in London, the study
be provided. And the answer can be found covers 163 countries where 99.7% of the
in the theory of management and in the best population of the planet lives), the
practices in resource management for economic cost of violence in the world in
security and defence in terms of budgetary 2012 was 9.46 trillion, or 11% of the global
constraints and dynamic changes in the GDP, while in 2015 it was already 14.3
security environment. Moreover, "security trillion, or 13.4% of the global GDP, where
is a feature of any system and it is its ability the death toll from terrorism has increased
to protect itslef when a change of by 80% in comparisson to 2014, and a
environment conditions and circumstances terrorist attack was not registered only in 69
on which it depends occur; to function and countries
develop optimally, i.e. to achieve the set The world military spending on armament
correlations and purposes at the lowest grew and in 2015 it amounted to 1.676
possible cost of resources "[6]. And this is trillion dollars. On 26 July 2016, Nation
the starting point for our further reasoning magazine wrote "the world may be in
in support of the dependence of the security chaos, but the American arms industry
90
benefits from this", since, if two decades complex, taking into account that its
ago it was accountable for a third to a half collective use is carried out under different
of the global arms market, in 2011 it circumstances.
already accounted for 70% and the upward There are sufficient reasons to argue that
trend continues. the national security policy and the strategic
It is the goods, services, public assets or management of organizations in the
products produced by different types of security sector should consciously work
organizations and provided to the external towards providing the civil society with
environment that link each of the products of adequate and socially beneficial
organizations with their external public authority.
environment that justifies their existence. Now more than ever, this necessitates the
Market society analysts often argue that on implementation of an adequate system for
the market the buyer assumes the role of planning, allocation, disbursement,
"king" because they buy only what they accountability and control of the resources
like, of course, to the extent they can afford for security and defence and adapting their
it within their disposable income and management to the changes in the external
depending on their preferences, tastes and and internal environment. This is supported
belonging to a particular consumer culture. by the fact that achieving competitive
Therefore, in the market economy only advantage and defence capabilities for any
products for which there are buyers should social system, and particularly for the
be produced. In this context, it is imperative system of security and defence, depends on
to present and analyze what the buyer the resources, which for the management
(citizen and civil society) pays for, since process are divided into material, financial,
security as a product is the starting point in human and information. They are at the
defining the strategy of individual entrance of each system, and the manner of
organizations in an integrated national their use and "dynamic deployment" [7, 8]
security sector. predetermines the final output of the system
On the other hand, the expensive "sale" or and its benefits. And this is what lies in the
delivery of the public asset security is basis of strategic management and the
largely a result of the activities of a number adjustment of any system to the changes in
of organizations as direct producers of the environment.
security using limited resources (capacities, The planning and allocation of resources for
means and methods). security and defence at the national level is
A similar point of view, brought in within subordinate to the idea of reducing the
the armed forces that directly produce the share of expenditure on defence and
defence product, is extrapolated adversely, security in the GDP and their restructuring
especially in terms of our very limited in favor of the capital expenditures for
national resources. restructuring and modernization of the
Unlike the business sector, the products of Armed Forces. The goal is a smaller share
the security sector are not particularly of GDP to achieve a greater effect on the
varied. On the contrary, because of management of defence resources and
production and technological reasons, and defence processes. And that in itself is
because of their collective and even public strategically targeting the taxpayers
consumption, the defence products are resources in a way that "is able to transform
generally homogenous. Considering the the available defence capabilities into
current trend of intensifying of various effects for the security and economic
threats, including the asymmetric ones, it is development of the country" [3].
imperative that the product "security" is Planning and resource allocation at the
internally restructured and made more departmental level is related to the planning
91
and evaluation of the existing and future structures, functions, accountability and
capabilities of the Armed Forces; transparency of spending, and through
operational planning in response to the eliminating the prerequisites for
possibility of crises and a choice of options improper and inappropriate diversion of
for action; planning needs according to budgetary resources. In relation to this,
financial constraints and resource planning. there is still no exact idea what part of
This answers the question of how to the military budget accounts for funds
efficiently spend all the available resources that actually become defence security.
(financial, material, human and Furthermore, ½ of it is subjected to a
information) in order to achieve the secondary allocation in the form of taxes
required operational capabilities of the and excises, as supplies for the purposes
Armed Forces. of the Ministry of Defence, unlike the
Hence the priorities [2] of the resource NATO practice, are not exempt from
management, whose ultimate goal is to VAT and other taxes. In other words, the
achieve a reasonable balance between legal framework still does not comply
stated intentions and provided capabilities, with the specifics of the armed forces
are the following: activities. Overcoming all these
9 systematic development of defence drawbacks (and it is the prerogative of
capabilities and optimum use of the the legislature to do so) is a prerequisite
Armed Forces by carrying out a not only for streamlining the
collective, regional and bilateral defence management of resources for security
policy in line with the changes in the and defence, but also for improving the
security environment and its quality of life of employees in the
unpredictability; defence system;
9 modernization of current weapon 9 managerial accounting of
systems with sufficiently long life cycle expenditure for defence towards
and investment in new ones; maximum efficiency and effectiveness;
9 joint research and program 9 specialization of the Armed Forces,
development with NATO member states which is in direct connection with the
- there is a huge potential inherited in economizing the process in defence as a
this area; result of resource constraints;
9 ensuring political and social 9 participation in the Euro-Atlantic
security - to this end, attention is focused structures Connected Forces initiatives;
on employment through development of The implementation of these priorities of
the military education system, the resource management is the foundation for
professional capacity of military and the development and adoption of strategic
civilian personnel, elevating the status of decisions on the resource framework of
servicemen, social adaptation of defence capabilities acquisition in
discharged military personnel, increasing accordance with the Capability Targets in
the overall culture of the population and building technologically advanced,
the attitudes towards the defense balanced, interoperable, mobile and
processes; expeditionary forces in response the
9 improvement of the of the defence dynamic changes in the security
resources management system through environment and global defence standards.
enhancement of the legal framework, the
References
[1] Dimitrova S., Defence Resources Management in the Security Sector, Veliko Tarnovo,
Vasil Levski National Military University Publishing, 2011, pp. 19-29.
92
[2] Dimitrova, S., Resource Management in the Dinamically Changing Security
Environment, Ruse, Primax Publishing, 2014, pp. 57-58.
[3] Ivanov, T., Formulating Criteria for Assessming the Economic Aspects of Security and
the Reform of the Security Sector, http://www.mediapool.bg/ site/ security/ 2004/01/
page.shtml.
[4] National Security Strategy of the Republic of Bulgaria, SG, issue 19, 8 March, 2011,
pp. 3-5.
[5] Nenkov, N.V., Petrova M.M., Yuriy Dyachenko. Intelligence Technologies in
Management and Administration of Justice, 3rd International Multidisciplinary
Scientific Conferences SOCIAL SCIENCES & ARTS SGEM2016, POLITICAL
SCIENCES, LAW, FINANCE, ECONOMICS & TOURISM, Conference proceedings,
Volume V. pp. 385-392, 2016. ISBN 978-619-7105-76-6, ISSN 2367-5659, DOI
10.5593/segemsocilal 2016B25.
[6] Petrova, Mariana. Methods for management and analysis of the information risk,
Izdatel, “St. Cyril and St. Methodius” University of Veliko Turnovo and State
University of Library Studies and information technologies [SULSIT] – Sofia. N 1-2,
2012, pp.39-45 [BG]
[7] Programme for the Development of the Defence Capabilities of the Bulgarian Armed
Forces 2020, Sofia, 2015, pp. 4-6,
https://www.md.government.bg/bg/doc/strategicheski/20151207_Programa_razvitie_ot
branit%20sposobnosti.pdf
[8] Prodanov, V., Internal Security and the National State, Military Journal, p. 9, Sofia,
issue 2, 1995.
93
USING GEOPOLITICS IN THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEMS BASED ON FACTORS CONSIDERED RELEVANT
Anca DINICU
“Nicolae BăOFHVFX” /DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD

DQFDBGLQLFX#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: The international scene is still modeled on the states’ interests, despite the challenges of
non-state actors, whose international policy intervention can not be described as new. The state still
continues to play a central role in shaping the international system, even if it is forced to act in an
environment where large corporations are designing many of the national economies of states whose
nationality they do not have, and non-governmental organizations are at the outskirts of an emerging
global civil society, which could jeopardize the state’s right and obligation to prevent injustice, and
considering that at the global level there is no entity able to issue regulations in this regard, all of
which amid testing international governance models. Looking retrospectively, during the Cold War,
the state was much stronger and the threats which it had to face were characterized by a much higher
degree of predictability.
This paper aims to analyze the contemporary international system by reference to that specific to the
Cold War, based on factors considered relevant, the objective being to identify the possibility of
turning the present international system to a new Cold War.
.H\ZRUGVJHRSROLWLFVSRZHULQWHUQDWLRQDOV\VWHPKLVWRULFDOIDFWRULGHRORJLFDOIDFWRU
,QWURGXFWLRQ of power in terms of attracting or

It is obvious today that geopolitics is maintaining a geographical space in a
beginning to regain its authority as a tool certain area of influence. Geopolitical
for deciphering and explaining present and analysis is related to the territory because it
past events by reconsidering its analytical is concerned with the way in which
importance following the elimination of its geography influences international politics
destructive association with the actions of (but not in a deterministic sense), the
Nazi Germany. Geopolitics is thus a useful changes that international politics generate
way of analyzing international relations in at the level of geography, the history of
their dynamics by evaluating the relations between states, as well as their
determinants of events in their specific interests, thus trying to identify possible
context and explaining the consequences of developments on the international scene.
different actions not only at the level of Geopolitics operates with the same factors,
primary actors (i.e. those directly involved regardless of the moment of analysis or the
in the event), but also at the level of historical time in which the analyzed event
secondary actors (those who, although not is placed, but these factors are of different
directly involved, have, as a result of their importance, the context being that of
own interests, a stake in the evolution of the prioritizing them. From the perspective of
situation in one direction or another). this analytical approach (i.e. the need to
Geopolitics therefore considers the rivalries carry out the comparative analysis between
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0014
94
two international systems of global scope), of redesigning the political map of the
the geopolitical evolution of the world would thus be represented by
international system, based on the Germany’s territorial division, that is, the
manifestations of power, is based on both division of Germany and Berlin into the
the following factors: historical and four occupation areas after the war, namely
ideological. four sectors.
As for the post-Cold War system, it was
0HWKRG rather the result of a confrontation not won
In order to write this paper, the comparative by Americans but lost by the Russians, as a
analysis proved to be a very useful method consequence of the implosion of the Soviet
and it was applied on data and information Union due to its incapacity for internal
gained on the base of empirical observation transformation and its functioning based on
of the selected events. a logic that had become anachronistic. And
the geopolitical vacuum created especially
$QDO\VLV RIIDFWRUVFRQVLGHUHGUHOHYDQW in Central and Eastern Europe would be, in
According to the philosophy of this paper, the first instance, overwhelmed by the rapid
the international system is the product of reorientation, first of all at declarative level,
the interaction of the states of the world, the of the foreign policy of the states in the
nature of this interaction being determined area, which in fact constituted an invitation
not by the sovereignty of states but by the addressed to Western states to cover the
power abilities that they possess and power vacuum created.
through which they seek to attain their 7KHLGHRORJLFDOIDFWRU
interests. This results in a network of There is currently a considerable amount of
relationships that are structured on the basis suspicion or restraint concerning the
of rules, sometimes amoral, but definitely concept of ideology, often associated with
well-defined, which in turn generates the resonance of the suffix “ism” –
effects both on the domestic policy of states communism, nationalism, anarchism,
and on international politics. fascism, Islamic fundamentalism, but also
37KHKLVWRULFDOIDFWRU liberalism. But, irrespective of the message,
The emergence of a new global the impact of political, cultural or religious
international system is the result of a beliefs and values on the organization and
historical context that leads to the functioning of a society, at the mental level,
emergence of a new hierarchy of power. In ideology is perceived as a bundle of
both cases taken into account (the system artificially grounded ideas, located on a
specific to the Cold War period and the level parallel to the daily life of the
post-Cold War system), each system individual and used in a manipulative
emerged from a confrontation: the first, in manner “by the powers that be and the
the form of a proper war (the Second World powers that want to be [1].
War), and the second, in the form of a The Cold War was, first and foremost, an
“warm peace” (the Cold War). ideological confrontation, the national
Even before the end of the Second World interest of each of the two super powers
War, it became obvious that the alliance having an ideological footprint needed to
formed for Hitler’s defeat would not work justify the pursued ambitions and policies
when peace will have been established. The promoted. The fact that the Cold War
February 1945 Yalta Conference was to would have an ideological trait is a perfect
decide on the first geopolitical movements result of the context that led to cooperation
of the Americans and the Soviets along the between the Allies in the Second World
line of geopolitical moves that would define War and which was based not on a common
the Cold War period – the center of gravity vision on a solid and lasting project on the
95
organization of the system, but a common related with the state functioning and
interest of both political and extremely democratization. But the new values have
pragmatic nature. However, how can two been improperly implemented and the results
states that are defined by completely different seems to be a “hybrid version of democracy,
ideologies cooperate? The answer lies in the with an oligarchic governance structure and
national interest and foreign policy as a tool limits on individual freedoms” [3].
for its realization. As noted by the remarkable
American political scientist and diplomat ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH UHVXOWV REWDined
Henry Kissinger, “the common geopolitical IURPWKHDQDO\VLVRIWKHWZRIDFWRUV
interest is a strong bond” [2], which means The comparative analysis in the field of
that national interest can be freed from the international relations carried out in the
possible ideological imprinting and put into present case through the use of geopolitics as
practice, including through partnership with a means of introspection of events offers the
states that naturally should not resonate with. possibility of understanding the dynamics and
The ideologies referred to when talking about the meaning of the evolution of the
the Cold War framework are liberalism, international system, a system in which the
communism and fascism, but also State, despite the competition from other
nationalism (as an extension of 19th century types of actors, remains the main determinant
political thinking). Of these, however, the of global political architecture.
first two stand out, marking the history of a 7KHKLVWRULFDOIDFWRU
not only troublesome 20th century, but also of Obviously, both international systems are
a century in which the countdown of the rooted in the transformations generated
years stopped at 70 (1919-1989). mainly by the end of an era, and first of all
With the end of the Cold War, there also in the emergence of a decisive shift in the
emerged the theory that it was “the end of global power structure aimed to establish a
ideologies”, too. Rather, it would be an end to new order.
the ideological confrontation, because as one If, at the end of the Second World War, the
of the super-powers of the Cold War survived system appeared to have a bipolar structure
(the United States of America), so did the as a result of the appearance of only two
ideology promoted by it, which continued not world powers to which other state actors
only to exist but also to extend its were related to, despite the existence of
geographical coverage, even attempting to other important states (if we take into
establish an international order based on account only the Great Britain, France and
(liberal) democracy, market economy, and China, the other three states benefiting from
human rights and freedoms. It may be the right of veto within the Security
considered that the project failed, the world Council), at the end of the Cold War, the
economic crisis that broke out in 2008 in the newly born system was originally
world’s most developed economy seriously characterized by unipolarity (the United
shaking the economic foundation of the States becoming a hyper-power by the
desired order, and causing the state to disappearance of its rival) becoming, in a
drastically intervene in national economies relatively short time multipolar by the
for the purpose of saving them, but also for assertion of certain states with pretensions
saving its citizens. At that time some voices to participate in the global affairs
claimed if not of returning to Marx and management mechanism, even if the extent
Engels, at least reconsidering Keynes’s way of their action was feasible only at regional
of thinking. level. The genesis of the multipolar system
Anyway, by being ideological defeated and was possible amid the loss of Americans’
considering the new international context, credibility to some states and the
Russia was forced to make some changes deterioration of its image of invincibility as a
96
result of the terrorist attacks of September sociologist and political scientist Francis
2001. It was the time when the international Fukuyama, who, amid the dissolution of
balance was between “what was preferable communist ideology, supported the triumph
from the ideological point of view” and “what of liberalism as the ultimate ideology in the
was desirable to ensure success”. However, evolution of humanity [5]. But as “the end
this was not the case for Moscow, which of history” meant the end of a historical
continued to be perceived as a world power age, also the idea of the end of ideologies
only from the point of view of the nuclear could mean their termination in their
factor; instead, Washington maintained its classical sense, a need to reinvent them
supremacy by gathering four important according to the determinations of the
attributes of power – economic, military, contemporary era so that not only states but
cultural and technological – even if in recent also individuals to understand the context
years these have been undergoing serious which they are part of, most of them
challenges from regional powers, some of independent of their sovereignty and will,
them emergent. and to explain apparent spontaneous
The trajectory of the two states’ evolution phenomena and processes, which were
within the bipolar system and the position inconceivable in a previous age.
occupied by each of them within the Governments will continue to define
multipolar system can be a starting point in the themselves politically, embracing a
global hegemony – leadership binomial doctrinal cloak absolutely necessary to
analysis. States constituted in global and guide ideas and policies, ensuring as much
regional power centers can guide the evolution as possible the flow of processes and
of the international system in the direction of explaining determinations. The lack of
cooperation and development, including current citizens’ confidence in the political
through reforming their own societies and parties, the (current) chaos of the classical
rethinking governance at national level. As parties amid the exhaustion of their
shown in the literature, “the really great mobilizing state as a result of the strident
changes that define the transformations of an and ineffective promotion of their
era are caused by changes in the nature of the belonging to the political spectrum (left or
dominant units” [4]. right), the appearance of “providential”
7KHLGHRORJLFDOIDFWRU people able to save the nations of the supra-
Generally speaking, the utility of ideology for national claw, the struggle with everything
the political decision-maker is obvious, that goes beyond the comfortable level of
because, through the patterns it imposes, understanding and knowledge, all these and
suggests a certain direction of interpretation many others are not the product of these
and perception of the world. It thus becomes days, but of those of the beginning of the
a useful tool for the public policy maker in new system, some of which having even
his attempt to explain, justify and get public more distant origins. The current system
support for his/her actions. Therefore, has failed to generate a relatively stable
ideology would legitimize the political power structure of power, including recognized
of the dominant unity at the level of the and accepted, state of being that favored the
international system or the dominant group at exaggeration of freedom (in the sense of
the internal level of the (state) analysis unit. breach of norms), excessive privatization of
However, there are situations (as it has earnings, and an equally excessive
already been pointed out) when the political socialization of losses.
decision aims exclusively at the goal, Given the complexity of the current
disregarding the means. international context, political discourse
As regards the end of ideologies, this theory and theorizing of attitudes will fall under
was strongly promoted by the American the same suffix “ism”, this time talking of
97
extremism, populism and pragmatism. should be emphasized, however, that if at
Globalism seems to have lost for the the end of the bipolar system liberal
moment its attractiveness and capitalism democracy defeated (among other
must go beyond its economic limitation. explanations, due to the possibility of a
The issue of (neo)colonialism as the clear identification of the enemy), today,
expression of globalization spreading still under the conditions of a multipolar but
remains. Moreover, it seems that both rather vaguely defined system, the fight is
Russia and America together with its allies no longer clearly held between “good” and
identify Islamic terrorism (another “ism”) “bad” – communism has considerably lost
as being their common enemy. its attractiveness, but it has not disappeared,
liberal democracy is under pressure, state
&RQFOXVLRQV capitalism seems to function, Western
The analysis of the two global systems has institutional membership is competing with
taken into account only historical and sentimental affinity to the East. It follows
ideological factors as determinants of the that, from the perspective of the ideological
geopolitical game, leaving aside for the factor, each system represents the ground of
moment the economic and military ones, ideological struggle, but each time it is
much more intensely used and therefore carried out among other ideological forces.
presumed to be more accessible and known. Considering the non-existence of a pattern
The empirical research of reality and then of confrontation between (two) global
the interpretation and comparison of the powers, if we accept the second system’s
data according to the mentioned factors led failure to comply with the model of the
to the integrated conclusions, as follows: first, the supreme conclusion would be that
%RWKV\VWHPVKDYHHPHUJHGDVDUHVXOWRI Mankind is not in the face of a new Cold
a confrontation and have been based on War. This does not mean the conflict on
geopolitical actions. But, if at the beginning multiple plans, between multiple actors,
of the Cold War system, the United States including global and regional powers, is not
and the Soviet Union were on a level possible. The possibility of conflict to turn
playing field in world domination, five into a military confrontation depends on the
decades later, the balance of power would context.
have been considerably in favor of Concerning Russia, this state will continue
Washington. to play an important role in the global
It follows that, from the perspective of the affairs although not quite in a manner
historical factor, the two systems do not compatible with a still Western designed
overlap, their genesis being different both international order. And as it was said, “it‘s
in context and as generating forces. not a strong Russia we should fear, but a
%RWK V\VWHPV DUH GHILQHG E\ WKHLU RZQ weak one [6]”
ideological rainbow, but there is an element Of course, in order to conduct a complete
of relative continuity between the two eras, study, the economic and military factors
namely liberal democracy. As the 1950s should be analyzed also, so as to have a
and the 1960s marked the beginning of the more comprehensive approach of these two
process of finalizing the decolonization international systems. This direction of
process, the ideological liberation research would help to better understand the
movements of the late 1980s in Central and manner in which an international system
Eastern Europe could remain in history as evolves, especially when it comes with
the beginning of the action to complete the dealing with more than two powers.
process of democratization worldwide. It
98
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Michael Freeden, Ideology. A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, University Press, 2003,
p.1.
[2] Henry Kissinger, The Return of History. Conflict, Migration, and Geopolitics in the
Twenty-First Century, Houde of Anasi Press, 2016, p.215.
[3] Jennifer Welsh, 'LSORPDаLD, %XFXUH‫܈‬WL, Editura ALL, 2002, p.293.
[4] Barry Buzan, Richard Little, 6LVWHPHOH LQWHUQDаLRQDOH vQ LVWRULD OXPLL, Ia‫܈‬i, Editura
Polirom, 2009, p.388.
[5] Francis Fukuyama, 6IkUúLWXOLVWRULHLúLXOWLPXORP, %XFXUH‫܈‬WL(GLWXUDPaideia, 1994.
[6] http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/02/17/are-we-entering-a-new-cold-war-russia-europe/.
99
TOWED ANTI-TANK GUNS RENAISSANCE OF ALMOST FORGOTTEN

WEAPONS IN UKRAINIAN CONFLICT
/XNiã'<ý.$

lukas.dycka@unob.cz
Abstract: Russia’s operations in Ukraine stand in stark contrast to the old Soviet doctrine of
methodical, timetable- and echelon-driven employment of ground forces that sought to outmass the
opposing army. Apart from obvious tactical implications and use of some modern equipment, this
approach has led to reoccurrence of rather forgotten types of military hardware on the battlefield,
most notably the towed anti-tank guns that had profound effect on later stages of the conflict. This
article assess the reasons of their reoccurrence, types of these weapons and ammunition used on both
sides of the conflict and in the last part tactical use of towed anti-tank guns with possible prospect for
the future warfare. Data collection and analysis relied chiefly on media and image analysis both from
Russian and Ukrainian sources.
Keywords: Russia, Ukraine, Towed anti-tank guns
1. Introduction revealed several innovations, most notably

1. It could be argued that Russia’s the employment of the semi-autonomous
operations in Ukraine (2013–present) as well battalion tactical group, and a
as in Georgia in 2008 provide many reconnaissance-strike model that tightly
interesting insights, but most notably they couples drones to strike assets, hastening
illustrate a departure from contemporary the speed at which overwhelming firepower
guerrilla and counterinsurgency operations is available to support tactical commanders.
(dominant of Western armies) and [2] These methods stand in stark contrast to
demonstrate the pendulum swinging back the old Soviet doctrine of methodical,
toward conventional, high-intensity land timetable- and echelon-driven employment
warfare. of ground forces that sought to outmass the
Firstly, changes to Russian tactics typify the opposing army. Current Russian land
manner in which Russia now employs its warfare tactics are something that most
ground force. Borrowing from the military armies, including the Czech Armed Forces,
theorist Carl von Clausewitz, who stated, are largely unprepared to address.
“It is still more important to remember that Conversely, after achieving limited
almost the only advantage of the attack objectives , Russian forces in Ukraine
rests on its initial surprise,” [1] Russia’s quickly transitioned to the defense using
contemporary operations embody the ground forces, modern drones and air-
characteristic of surprise. Russian defense capabilities to build a tough,
operations in Ukraine, as well as earlier in integrated position from which extrication
Georgia, demonstrate a rapid, decentralized would be difficult, to be sure. [3] Russia’s
attack seeking to temporally dislocate the defensive operations do not serve as a
enemy, triggering the opposing forces’ simple shield, but rather, as a shield capable
defeat. Russia’s actions in Ukraine have of also delivering well-directed,
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0015
100
concentrated punches on the opposition due to the possibility of achieving higher
army.[4] Russia’s paradoxical use of pressures (and thus, higher projectile
offensive operations to set up the defense speeds) and longer endurance. The fact that
might indicate an ascendancy of the defense smoothbore barrels are more suitable for
as the preferred method of war in HEAT rounds, since the rotation of grenade
forthcoming conflicts. Apart from obvious from the rifled barrel reduces the efficiency
tactical implications and use of some of the shaped charge, played also role in its
modern equipment, this approach has development. The T-12 gun used the
unexpected impact on reoccurrence of carriage and other features of the 85-mm D-
rather long forgotten military hardware on 48 anti-tank gun, the only difference was in
the battlefield. fact the barrel. [5] Both types can be easily
Among the most visible and with highest distinguished by their muzzle brakes,
impact on later phases of Ukrainian conflict because the brake of D-48 has got a “box”
were towed artillery pieces, including anti- shape, while the brake of T-12 is cylindrical
tank cannons. Largely omitted in past with small holes. The T-12 breech is a
decades, it can be argued that the towed vertical block with semi-automatic
anti-tank guns played their last important function, meaning that it needs to be
role during the World War II, but the opened manually only before the first shot,
maneuver character of the combat gradually but after every following shot, the breech
led to the preference of self-propelled anti- opens automatically itself. The recoil of the
tank guns, also called “tank destroyers”. gun is lowered not only by the muzzle
Although many armies continued to use the brake, but also by the hydraulic buffer and
towed anti-tank cannons, their importance recuperator. In 1971, a new variant was
declined as light recoilless guns and later introduced, officially called MT-12
the anti-tank guided missiles replaced them. (sometimes also T-12A) and given the
The only relevant exception was the Soviet combat name Rapira (meaning “Rapier”).
Union, which continued to develop, The performance has not changed, but the
produce and use “classic” (i.e. not gun used new carriage with higher
recoilless) towed anti-tank guns. Even endurance, as it was needed for towing by
today, these guns of 85 and 100 mm caliber MT-LB armored tractors (while the original
could be surprisingly effective artillery T-12 was usually towed by trucks). Their
weapons, as the conflict in eastern Ukraine wheels can easily distinguish both variants,
has proven. since the wheel disc of the T-12 has six
screws, while the MT-12 wheel disc
2. Historical overview – Development of (identical to ZIS-150 truck disc) has eight
Soviet Smooth-barreled Cannons in Cold screws.
war Era. 2.1. Ammunition types and special
In 1965, the Soviet industry manufactured variants
the first serial examples of new towed anti- The main device for aiming of the MT-12
tank gun, but it officially entered the Soviet in good visibility is the OP4MU-40U
Army service only in 1961 under the name optical sight, while in the night, the crews
T-12 or 2A91. It had caliber of 100 mm and use the APN-6-40 sight, also known as
it was created by the construction bureau of “Brusinka” (Russian for “Cranberry”). But
the Yugrin Machinery Plant as a the gun can be equipped also with other
replacement for previous BS-3 gun of the types of night sights, such as the 1PN35,
same caliber. But there was also a distinct 1PN53 or APN-7. [6] The MT-12 gun is
difference, because the former gun had got also able of indirect fire, thus, it is equipped
rifled barrel, but the new T-12 had got with S71-40 mechanical artillery sight, PG-
smoothbore one. This solution was selected 1M panoramic telescope and K-1 collimator
101
sight. Coincidently this feature plays separatists in Donbass was at first
significant role in Ukrainian conflict. The documented in their original role, and it
default ammunition stock is twenty rounds, was soon proven that, while morally
including ten solid armor-piercing rounds obsolete, these 100-mm cannons could still
(BPS), six HEAT shaped-charge rounds be efficient weapons. While they could not
(KS) and four high-explosive grenades penetrate the frontal armour of modern main
(OFS) against “soft” targets (their battle tanks, it is worth mentioning that
specifications are found in the table). “modern” tanks are very rare in the eastern
Besides the main MT-12 variants, there Ukraine conflict. The most common type is
were also smaller amounts of two special the T-64 tank, whose front armour can be
models, equipped with additional sensors. penetrated by 100-mm rounds at smaller
The MT-12K (2A29K) gun has got a laser distances. And this type of ammunition is in
device for guidance of the anti-tank guided any case wholly adequate for penetrating side
missiles (in Russian, called “PTUR”) of the armor of T-64 tank and it can in any case
9K116 Kastet (“Knuckle”) system. Its easily destroy all lighter armored vehicles
9M117 missile is launched with a special used on the Donbass battlefield. The main
round and is guided semi-automatically drawback of the MT-12 gut is its limited
with laser-beam-driving method. Its range mobility, for which it is only of limited use in
is about 4000 m and it is able to penetrate maneuvering combat – consequently in this
reactive protection and layered armor equal type of operations 100-mm cannons suffered
to 550 mm RHA.[7] For comparison, the greatest losses mostly due to mechanical
“classic” armor-piercing grenades of MT- breakdowns and counter-battery fire by the
12 can penetrate armor of about 215 mm Russian military. [9]
RHA (the armor of M60 and Leopard 1 The largest maneuver tank battles took
tanks) at 1000 m. The second special place in the summer 2014 and the initial
version of the gun is known as MT-12R results of the Ukrainian army against the
(2A29R) and is equipped with a small separatists were satisfactory, but after the
radar, called 1A31 Ruta (“Rue”) and regular Russian army units joined the
developed for the detection and aiming of conflict, the situation changed. In the
targets at distances up to 3500 m. Both September 2014, the Ukrainian army
variants were introduced in the service in suffered the fatal defeat near Ilovaysk and
1981 and were not exported outside of the the frontline was stabilized. Up until this
USSR, while the basic MT-12 was point, towed guns were rarely seen, because
massively sold to the Warsaw Pact and maneuverable warfare preventeted their
Third World countries. The Russian Army wider employment. But after defeat near
actively uses about 520 guns [8] (and about Ilovaysk the frontline became more static
two thousands are stored) and several and this class of weapons appeared on both
hundreds can be found in arsenals of at least sides of the front in larger numbers. In the
fourteen other countries of the world. combat from the September 2014 to
February of 2015, towed artillery played
3. Use of Towed Anti-tank Guns in the significant role. The MT-12 guns were
Donbass Conflict often seen during the battle of Debaltseve in
Before the outbreak of the conflict in the January 2015, this time on both sides,
eastern Ukraine, the Ukrainian army because the separatists captured several
possessed slightly over five hundreds of the pieces (or were supplied with them by
T-12, MT-12 and MT-12R cannons (but Russia).[10] The city formed a salient into
probably no “rocket” MT-12K guns). Russian- and separatist-controlled territory,
Usage of towed anti-tank guns by the which offered Russia an enticing
Ukrainian army against the pro-Russian opportunity to shore up its front lines. On
102
January 14, 2015, Russian and separatist T-12 cannon). The D-44 and D-48 guns
forces attacked, aiming to collapse the possess rifled barrels with the length of 55
shoulders of the salient and cut off the or 74 calibers, respectively. Their breech is
Ukrainians in the city—a pincer movement again the vertical block and the range of
reminiscent of the Battle of the Bulge. Once ammunition includes solid armor-piercing,
isolated, Russian forces launched massive HEAT and high-explosive grenades. The 85-
salvos of rocket and artillery fire at mm armor-piercing round could penetrate
Ukrainian forces. The Ukrainian army had armor of 185 mm RHA at the distance of
to abandon its positions and in the February 1000 m. It is still surprisingly efficient against
2015, the new ceasefire agreement (also older vehicles, and moreover, these guns are
known as “Minsk II”) was negotiated. also capable of indirect fire; the full range of
While it is still in power, the situation in the D-48 is about 19 km. Reports from the
eastern Ukraine remains risky and battlefield indicate, that with ceasfire
dangerous. measures in place, indirect fire became “daily
3.1. Re-emergence of the 85-mm guns bread” for this class of weapons, since larger
At the same time with the “Minsk II” caliber guns were withdrawn from the
negotiations, the media also published frontline. [14]
several pieces of news about efforts of While these guns are morally absolutely
Ukrainian army to strengthen its artillery obsolete, their firepower simply cannot be
capabilities [11]. The Ukrainians decided to ignored. And they also have one very
re-activate certain types of weapons, which special feature, which could be even the
were stored in the reserve storage and decisive factor for the Ukrainian army. The
belong, in fact, to the “museum” category, “Minsk II” agreement determined the
since they were developed in the beginning distance of 50 km from the frontline to be
of the Cold War.[12] However, cleared of “heavy artillery”, i.e. weapons of
employment of older artillery pieces on the 100-mm caliber or higher. But the 85-mm
battlefield was dictated (more than anything guns logically don’t fall under this
else) by terrible losses Ukrainian army regulations, thus, they could be placed in
suffered during the war. Comparing the the nearest distance of the line. This could
2013 and 2016 editions of the Military be taken as a warning that the situation is
Balance shows that between 2013 and 2016 very tense, and as the recent events in the
Ukraine has lost 29% of its tanks, 56% of Ukraine demonstrated that a “hot” conflict
its armored personnel vehicles, 66% of its can erupt in every moment. And in that
infantry fighting vehicles and 44% of its case, the towed anti-tank guns can be seen
artillery. This included 56% of its self- in combat again.
propelled artillery and a whopping 80% of
its light artillery. [12] Thus activated 4. Conclusions
weapons included the 152-mm D-20 (52-P- The battlefields in Eastern Ukraine
546) howitzers, which were introduced in represent part of a new era of warfare, or so
1955, and two types of towed cannons of 85 we are regularly told. Analysts, pundits, and
mm caliber that were designed by the military leaders point to cyber warfare,
famous F. F. Petrov from the Ural hybrid warfare, and the gray zone. But look
Machinery Plant. The first one is the D-44 away from these shiny new concepts for a
(52-P-367) divisional gun, introduced into moment, and it becomes clear the Russian–
service in 1946. Its design was also the Ukrainian war’s conventional character is
basis for the second type, the already far from new. In fact, it looks a lot like the
mentioned D-48 (52-P-372) anti-tank last century’s World Wars. While the new
cannon, which entered service seven years aspects of this war have generated
later (and its carriage was later used for the discussion within the defense industry as to
103
the evolving character of war, an fire makes them weapon ideally suited for
acknowledgement of the conflict’s prolonged positional warfare that dominates
conventional character is largely missing last two years of Ukrainian conflict.
from the discourse. This case could be Acknowledgements
ideally illustrated on towed anti-tank The work presented in this paper has been
artillery used in the conflict. Of course, supported by the Ministry of Defence of the
self-propelled artillery is much more Czech Republic (Research Project
effective in terms of active defence “STRATAL” No. 907930101023).
operations. But towed anti-artillery, with all Special thanks also goes to Mr. Lukáš
its slowness, requires little attention in Visingr for his constant and unwavering
terms of the material and technical support. support during writing this article.
Moreover its ability to be used in indirect
References
[1] Fox, Amos C., Russian Hybrid Warfare and the Re-emergence of Conventional
Armored Warfare: Implications for the U.S. Army’s Armored Force, 2015. Available
on: http://www.benning.army.mil/armor/earmor/content/issues/2016/JUL_SEp/3Fox-
Russia16.pdf
[2] Fox, Amos C., The Russian–Ukrainian War: Understanding the Dust Clouds on the
Battlefield, Modern War Institute, West Point, USA, 2017. Available on:
http://mwi.usma.edu/russian-ukrainian-war-understanding-dust-clouds-battlefield/
[3] Krushelnycky, Askold., Preparing for Trench Warfare in Ukraine, The Intercept, 2015,
Available on: https://theintercept.com/2015/04/04/ukraine-trench-warfare/
Russia16.pdf
[5] Širokorad, A. B., ɗɧɰɢɤɥɨɩɟɞɢɹ ɨɬɟɱɟɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ ɚɪɬɢɥɥɟɪɢɢ, Charvest, Minsk,
Belarus, 2000. ISBN 985-433-703-0, pp. 621-632.
[6] http://www.russianarms.ru/forum/index.php?topic=860.0
[7] http://www.russianarms.ru/forum/index.php?topic=860.0
Russia16.pdf
[11] ɍɤɪɚɢɧɚ ɜɨɫɫɬɚɧɚɜɥɢɜɚɟɬ ɫɬɚɪɵɟ ɫɨɜɟɬɫɤɢɟ ɨɪɭɞɢɹ 2015. Available on:
http://bmpd.livejournal.com/1276990.html
[12] Kmitits, A., Artillery in Ukraine: observations from the line of battle, Belarus Security
Blog, Minsk, Belarus, 2016. Available on: https://www.bsblog.info/artillery-in-ukraine-
observations-from-the-line-of-battle/
[13] Mercouris, A., Details of Ukrainian Equipment Losses Confirm Scale of Ukraine’s
Defeat, TheDuran.com, 2016. Available on: http://theduran.com/confirmation-
ukrainian-equipment-losses-confirms-scale-ukraines-defeat/
104
[14] Kmitits, A., Artillery in Ukraine: observations from the line of battle, Belarus Security
Blog, Minsk, Belarus, 2016. Available on: https://www.bsblog.info/artillery-in-ukraine-
observations-from-the-line-of-battle/
105
REVOLUTION IN MILITARY AFFAIRS AND OUTER SPACE
JDNXE)8ýËK
Centre for Security and Military Strategic Studies, University of Defence, Brno,
The Czech Republic
jakub.fucik@unob.cz
Abstract: Concept of the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) analyses and describes processes of
major changes in military-strategic dimension, which provide possibilities especially for states to
enhance their military power and establish superiority over their opponents. Contemporary,
development of new (weapon) technologies (e.g. precision-guided munitions, unmanned aerial
vehicles) and doctrines (e.g. network centric warfare, system-of-systems) represents such opportunity.
Outer space in this context represents relatively new dimension of warfare with increasing importance
for strategical thinking of all main state actors (e.g. China, Russia, and the U.S.). This paper deals
with relation between RMA and outer space. The aim of this paper is to analyses how outer space and
space technologies influence contemporary/future RMA and vice versa.
Keywords: C4I, Network Centric Warfare, Outer Space, Revolution in Military Affairs.
1. Introduction is interdependent relationship, which can be

Since 1980s, it is possible to identify analyzed in two dimensions: 1) how the
changes in military-strategic dimension, current RMA is influenced by outer space;
which are associated with concept of the 2) how the current RMA affects outer
Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA). space.
Development of new (weapon) technologies RMA for the purpose of this paper is
(e.g. precision-guided munitions, unmanned defined as the process and condition of
aerial vehicles) and doctrines (e.g. network revolutionary changes in the nature or
centric warfare, system-of-systems) method of warfare based on the external
represents opportunity (and challenges) manifestations (actions) which use the
especially for states to enhance their threat of force or the use of force to achieve
military power [1]. In this context, the political aims [2]. The "revolutionary" then
importance of the fourth dimension of refers to the radical nature of these changes,
warfare - outer space - is increasing which when in relation to the original system and
could be also demonstrated on the approach its elements must occur abruptly de facto
of all main state actors (e.g. China, Russia, preserving just a minimum similarity (e.g.
and the U.S.) and their space policies. in features, by which the system is
Aim of this paper is focused on identified). We cannot therefore speak of a
examination of the relationship between the progressive (gradual) transition and the
RMA and the outer space. The main goal is establishment of new elements into the
to identify how (in what form) these existing framework and its evolutionary
concepts affect mutually, i.e. how one of transition. With regard to the military
them shapes character of the other one. This dimension of this revolution, we can use the
distinction is based on hypothesis that modified characteristics defined by Jeffrey
between the current RMA and outer space R. Cooper, which talks about: "... non-
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0016
106
follow and unprecedented change process accurately interfere (invade) the opponent
military capabilities, resulting in at his most vulnerable areas, to prevent his
transformation efficiency of combat possible attempts to initiate counterattacks
operations" [3]. or enact countermeasures and therefore
However, this paper does not focus on completely take over combat initiative and
RMA in aforementioned "general" form, paralyze his opponent.
but on its expression through specific The outer space is in this paper understood
processes or changes. This is labeled by in geopolitical terms. Through the
period of about the 80s of the last century "traditional" considerations of
and continuing today. Relevant changes in environmental influences on the interaction
the method of warfare are founded on a of various actors that include land, maritime
technological level in the introduction and and aerospace dimension (e.g. works of H.
use of advanced weapons and information Mackinder, A. T. Mahan or spouses
systems (e.g. precision-guided munitions - Sprouts) extended to an additional
PGM, unmanned aircraft, and remote dimension that exceeds (bridges) system
sensing devices/sensors). related "only" to one planet. By its nature, it
Changes on the doctrinal dimension are is airless space that surrounds celestial
represented by the establishment of the bodies (planets, stars, asteroids etc.) [6].
concepts of so-called System of Systems Interest and consideration of this space in
(SoS) and Network Centric Warfare the human history is dating back to its
(NCW). The first mentioned is based on relatively depth. Leaving aside any
two fundamental elements - information explanation of the possible purpose of
and integration (cooperation). The megalithic structures e.g. In the English
prerequisite is an amalgamation of Stonehenge, we can point among others on
particular systems and components, such as the theory of Indian astronomer and
command, control, computers, mathematician Aryabhata about the year
communications and information (C4I), 500 A.D., which treats the Earth as a sphere
into one coherent functional framework [4]. rotating around its axis and at the same time
The aim is to provide situational awareness along with the other planets orbiting the
on the battlefield essentially in real time for Sun [7].
all relevant components of the armed A fundamental shift in space exploration
forces. has brought the second half of the last
The second concept is associated with the century. Plotting the first artificial satellite
very existence and use of functional links to orbit the Earth, which was followed by
among the units on the battlefield, which manned missions and landing on the lunar
are integrated into the aforementioned surface, not only meant a practical
framework. Their interdependence allows confirmation of the accessibility of this
to maximize their combat skills and on the dimension, but also opened up a completely
other hand, to compensate for weaknesses new set of ways of its utilization.
(e.g. through an almost perfect fire support, In general, these options can be divided into
information about intentions of the enemy). two groups - civilian and military. The
Full use of this potential is connected e.g. to dividing criterion is the nature of the
implementation of so-called "swarming" activities or artificial bodies (satellites,
tactic, which in itself implies synchronized stations, etc.), which are operated or located
and highly flexible combat deployment of a in this environment. Civilian group includes
large number of small clusters (military e.g. the establishment and use of satellite
units) [5]. networks for monitoring weather or
In practical terms, the army, which fully television signal transmission. Military
applies both concepts, is allowed to group includes e.g. spy satellite network,
107
satellite navigation of the combat troops or exploitation, but also to the emergence of
weapons platform designed for interception competition, eventually conflict situations,
of ballistic missiles. In accordance with the while achieving their own interests. The
aforementioned definition, we also cannot historical example is the so-called “Space
forget to anti-satellite weapons (ASAT). Race” between the U.S. and USSR about
Although they can be placed on the Earth's the second half of the last century. Its
surface (the example of the U.S., Russia, climax is universally known - on 20th July
China), but their use is directly situated into 1969 American crew of the spaceship
space. At the same time, it is necessary to Apollo 11 successfully achieved lunar
state that the boundary between these two surface [10]. Astronauts Neil Armstrong
categories is quite unclear, or these two and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin became the first
groups often overlap in their elements, and people who reached other planet (celestial
distinguishing them in practice is rather body).
problematic. The military dimension of the conflict
We can define such a phenomenon as so- generally followed the context of the Cold
called "dual-use" technologies or activities. War and was evident in both of these
Satellite navigation network, for example, countries through their research and
can be used not only to determine the development activities. Since the 60s of the
position of civilian actors, but also to last century we can identify development of
coordinate the advancement of combat the Soviet projects for the acquisition of
groups or homing guided missiles or drones bombardment (FOBS/R-36), missile
(a reference e.g. to the American GPS defense (Kaskad, Skif) and anti-satellite
system). Similarly, the Soviet space stations (IS, IS-MU, IS-MD/Naryad, Naryad-V)
Salyut class were used for both civil and systems placed in the space [11]. Strategic
military purposes [8]. Defense Initiative (SDI) can represent
Security or economical aspects however do example of the U.S. projects. The goal of
not generally represent the sole motivation this research program was to build a
for the individual states to obtain and multilevel system of missile defense that
enhance their space capabilities. For would allow the destruction of the
example, element of (gaining) prestige can opponent's missiles in all phases of flight.
be identified as one of the indicators of the The program envisaged the placement of
position in the international system in terms some elements of defense (e.g. laser
of power. The leading states in this regard weapons or kinetic interceptors) right into
must act as bearers of technological the space [12]. Simultaneously, the
progress. The ownership and the modified weapon platforms could be able to
development of technologies for activities fulfil the role of ASAT. However, with the
in the outer space are fulfilling this end of the Cold War the individual projects
characteristic completely. Other motives were phased out or transformed [13].
can include influence of strategic culture, On the other hand, the development of
significance of the military-industrial space technologies in this sense provide a
complex or personality of the leaders of real basis for the vision of the current
relevant country [9]. RMA. The building of robust satellite
network may provide to individual states
2. Impact of outer space on RMA unprecedented awareness, monitoring,
From the geopolitical point of view, outer navigation and communication capabilities.
space represents next dimension for the These (sensor) elements are crucial for the
projection of (state) power, which is related implementation of the concepts associated
not only to the opportunity for cooperation with the current RMA. Both SoS and NCW
of individual actors in the exploration and share especially (increased) requirements
108
for information accuracy (in real time), which would enable both short and
multi-level communication network among economic spaceflights among the planets,
combat units and their headquarters. and also the pursuit of a permanent
Satellite technology provide opportunity to settlement e.g. for the purpose of mining
minimization of "fog of war". The result is and quarrying, we will not likely witness to
an overall awareness of the movement and conflicts comparable (with a certain degree
distribution of the opponent's forces in real of analogy) to fight for control of the
time. shipping routes, respectively overseas
Similarly, satellite technology provides a colonies, in the near future.
much-desired feature of precision-guided On the other hand, the beginnings of the
munitions, i.e. the real accuracy [14]. aforementioned the U.S. - Soviet rivalry
Operations Steel Rain and Desert Storm pointed that individual states "recognize"
which are connected with, in principle, the another implication of this characteristic.
rapid destruction of armed resistance from Any position on the surface of Earth is
the Iraqi army, despite some former directly accessible from its orbit,
(sceptical) predictions about the expected irrespective of uneven terrain, altitude and
length and possible casualties on the its distance (not only from the rest
coalition side, represent examples of direct “civilization”, but also from the mainland
manifestation how space technologies itself). Disposing relevant capacities in
influenced warfare in the terms of RMA. space, therefore, plays a relatively major
role in the ability of individual actors to
3. Impact of RMA on the outer space project their power, or military power, on a
Aforementioned example from the Cold global scale. This issue highlights among
War highlighted the successful others the U.S. National Space Security
identification of potential strategic Strategy from 2011 [15].
importance of outer space (with all its Representatives of China, Russia and the
implications) for the power of individual United States, i.e. the leading countries that
states and their position. This finding is focus on the development of military
further supported by the development of programs and projects applying theses
space policies of other major actors in the current RMA, agree that outer space plays a
international system (China, France, India, key role in the establishment of military
Iran, Israel, Japan, the United Kingdom and capabilities and infrastructure [14]. For
others.). Similarly, e.g. competition for example, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)
primacy in achieving Mars by manned require for achieving their effective combat
spaceflight is sometimes referred to as "the results comprehensive system of
new space race" and new source of clash communication, navigation and monitoring
among participated parties (actors). satellites [16].
Contribution of the outer space can be Protection of corresponding systems is
initially seen in its location and actual size becoming for the state one of its key security
(or infinity). Space represents the domain in interest to ensure that aforementioned
which they are a part of Earth other planets, capabilities (PGMs, UAVs etc.) can be used
stars and celestial bodies. However, according their purpose. From this point of
currently from a security standpoint is for view, establishing concepts of the current
various actors in the international RMA is deeply connected to militarization of
environment not (so) important that this this domain, which highlight not only further
area has to be overcome to achieve other increase in its strategic value, but also issues
celestial bodies. of “dual-use” technologies.
Given the attainability of the general level
of technological development of mankind,
109
4. Conclusions Nowadays, we should especially mentioned
Paper was focused on examination of the that any position on the surface of Earth is
relationship between the current RMA and directly accessible from its orbit,
the outer space. This interdependent irrespective of uneven terrain, altitude and
relationship was analysed in two its distance. Space systems, which are
dimensions: 1) how the current RMA is dedicated to ensure increasing of military
influenced by outer space; 2) how the effectiveness in the terms of the current
current RMA affects outer space. RMA, also represent some kind of
In the first dimension, we can identify the vulnerability (e.g. threat of enemy ASATs).
importance of development of space From this point of view, establishing
technologies for operability of the modern concepts of the current RMA is deeply
weapon systems (for example UAVs or connected to securitization and
PGMs). Robust satellite network provide militarization of this domain.
unprecedented awareness, monitoring, Acknowledgements
navigation and communication capabilities. The work presented in this paper has been
These elements are also crucial for the supported by the Ministry of Defence of the
implementation of the concepts of SoS and Czech Republic (Research Project
NCW. “STRATAL” No. 907930101023).
The second dimension is highlighted by
strategic value of the outer space.
References
[1] JaNXE )8ýË. DQG =GHQČN .ěËä ,QIRUPDþQt UHYROXFH YRMHQVNR-technická revoluce,
QHER UHYROXFH YH YRMHQVNêFK ]iOHåLWRVWHFK" (Information Revolution, Military-
7HFKQLFDO5HYROXWLRQRU5HYROXWLRQLQ0LOLWDU\$IIDLUV"Obrana a strategie, Vol. 13,
No. 2, 2013, pp. 15-24.
[2] For further details see Colin S. GRAY, Strategy for Chaos - Revolution in Military
Affairs and The Evidence of History, London, Frank Cass, 2005.
[3] Jeffrey R. COOPER. Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs,
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub240.pdf, Strategic Studies
Institute, 1994, p. 13.
[4] For further details see e.g. William A. OWENS and Ed OFFLEY. Lifting the Fog of
War. New York, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000.
[5] For more details see David S. ALBERTS, John J. GARTSKA and Frederick P. STEIN,
Network Centric Warfare: Developing and Leveraging Information Superiority,
Washington D.C., CCRP, 1999.
[6] Barry F. DAITON, Time and Space, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2001,
pp.132 - 133.
[7] Michael J. SHEEHAN, The International Politics of Space, New York, Routledge,
2007, p. 144.
[8] Curtis PEEBLES, Battle for Space, London, Book Club Associates, 1983, p. 29.
[9] For further GHWDLOV VHH -DNXE )8ýË. Tvorba vesmírné politiky aneb stejné motivy u
RGOLãQêFK VWiWĤ" (Formulation of Space Policy, or the Same Motives at Different
6WDWHV" Master Thesis, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, 2013.
[10] Charles A. MURRAY and Catherine B. COX, Apollo: The Race to the Moon, New
York, Touchstone, 1990, p. 356.
110
[11] Miroslav *<ĥ5g6,, The Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Program,
http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Sov-FOBS-Program.html, Air Power Australia, 2010,
updated 2012; and/or Anatoly ZAK, Russian military space program: Yesterday, today
and tomorrow, http://swfound.org/media/53469/rsw_milspace_web.pdf,
RussianSpaceWeb.com, 2011.
[12] For further details see Kevin CROWLEY, The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Star
Wars, http://www.coldwar.org/articles/80s/SDI-StarWars.asp, n.d.; and Petr SUCHÝ,
5HDJDQDĜtãH]OD9êYRMDPHULFNp]DKUDQLþQtSROLWLN\DY]WDKĤPH]L supervelmocemi v
letech 1981 – 1989 (Reagan and the Evil Empire. The development of US foreign
policy and relations between the superpowers in the years 1981 - 1989), Brno, CDK,
2004, pp. 97 -106.
[13] Matthew MOWTHORPE, The United States Requirements for an Antisatellite (ASAT)
Capability, The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp.
132 – 147, 2002.
[14] Compare with Michael NEARY, Space: 7KH 1H[W 5HYROXWLRQ LQ 0LOLWDU\ $IIDLUV",
Journal of International Service, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2008, p. 114.
[15] U.S. National Space Security Strategy, KWWSVZZZKVGORUJ"YLHZ GLG , 2011.
[16] For further GHWDLOV DERXW 8$9V VHH IRU H[DPSOH 5LFKDUG 672-$5 %H]SLORWQt
SURVWĜHGN\ D SUREOHPDWLND MHMLFK QDVD]HQt Y VRXGREêFK NRQIOLNWHFK 7KH 8QPDQQHG
Aerial Vehicles and Issues Connected with Their Use in Contemporary Conflicts),
Obrana a strategie, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2016, pp. 5-18.
111
THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL OF MILITARY STRUCTURES
CoQVWDQWLQ*5,*25$ù
“Nicolae %ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD
JULJBFRVWHO#\DKRRUR
Abstract: The war has not disappeared and will never disappear. It is constantly changing, in perfect
correlation with those who created it, the people organized into social structures. It changes
according to the changes in the operational environment, influenced, in turn, by the technical-
scientific discoveries. All these changes impose a new philosophy of warfare in which the methods of
creating and using forces acquire new valences generated by the diversity and the possibilities of
access to the new technologies. Knowing the way in which indirect (having the potential) factors
influence the fighting capacity of a military structure is just as useful for predicting the outcome of the
operation/battle/war. Knowing this assessment, the military decision makers will be able to submit
variants and solutions to the political decision maker, who will choose the one that he will appreciate
as being the most appropriate.
.H\ZRUGV RSHUDWLRQDO HQYLURQPHQW K\EULG ZDU PLOLWDU\ RSHUDWLRQV VWUXFWXUH RI WKH
IRUFH
,QWURGXFWLRQ Toffler pointed out, "the logic, deduction,

The issue of the physiognomy of the epistemology - in short, the activity of the
military actions of the future has human brain and of machinery - is the
increasingly given rise to the interest of current premise of military power" [1].
more and more diverse groups of specialists Thus, the physiognomy of conflicts
in recent years. If, in the past, it seemed to poignantly reveals the need to continuously
be an attribute of the militaries, the improve the theoretical and related practical
complexity of the phenomenon has led to foundation, as well as the approach to the
its approach by specialists in various fields methods and means of action.
today. As a science, strategy emerged as a The emerging contemporary operational
necessity generated by the increasing environment will impose a new philosophy
complexity of military actions. of warfare. Factors such as limited
Consequently, in the informational era, this resources, asymmetric threats, limiting the
complexity will certainly impose a new collateral damage and losses among non-
chapter in the approach to building, combatants, the preponderance of actions in
equipping and using military forces. the urban environment and the
War, as an objective reality which is part of multinational and joint character of military
the lives of people, especially of human actions will alter the traditional way of
communities, must be known and generating and regenerating forces, and, in
understood as a reality of human existence. the same manner, the way actions are
In this versatile, uncertain, complex and planned and forces are managed.
ambiguous international context, defining At the end of the last millennium, based on
the physiognomy of future wars has their experiences and on a thorough
become an almost feverish concern. As analysis of the operational environment, the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0017
112
American specialists developed a new regional and international organizations,
strategic concept. In order to apply it, a with their policies and agendas, sometimes
complex process started for the favorable to their own forces, sometimes in
transformation of the existing forces competition with them. Many of them have
"Legacy force" into a party of forces enough power and influence to exert strong
grouped under the name "Objective Force pressure on what previously were purely
XXI". In the land forces, this process was military operations.
accomplished through the conversion of The importance of the ever more active
small arms infantry forces into initial forces existence of information organizations, of
of brigade level (Initial Brigade Combat systems and computerized architectures,
Team), further grouped into forces of private or public, cannot be neglected. The
interim brigade level (Interim Brigade global flow of information, technology,
Combat Team). At this stage six knowledge and power is now creating a
"STRYKER" type brigades have been favorable environment for all the categories
created, some of them having already been of information operations, information
tested in the latest conflict in the Persian distribution and information warfare. The
Gulf. scientific conquests, the diversity and the
It is very fashionable nowadays to use possibilities of access to them have led to
concepts such as network-based warfare, changes in the way in which the forces are
effect-based operations, fourth generation created and used, while at the same time
warfare, network-based operations and creating conditions favorable to the
hybrid warfare. They are modern concepts, technological breakthrough. This situation
resulting from the need to adapt to a has generated an erosion process that
constantly changing operational slowly undermines the technological
environment. But the hardest step, from supremacy enjoyed by some advanced
theory to practice, has been made by the countries over the last 20 years.
Americans for the time being. The cultural and demographic factors that
go beyond the borders and internal
'HILQLQJ HOHPHQWV RI WKH FXUUHQW problems of some countries have made
RSHUDWLRQDOHQYLURQPHQW conflict solving a complicated and long-
The current operational environment is lasting process that often requires the
extremely fluid, characterized by changes in operation of changes in the character of
coalitions, alliances and partnerships, as operations before the final desirable state is
well as by the emergence and disappearance reached. These situations will increase in
of some (state, non-state, national and number and importance.
transnational) actors. More and more The military operations of the future will be
frequently, the gravity centers are characterized by combining the possibilities
represented by the complex terrain or the of a force and the use of the environment in
urban area having a more or less developed a unique operational framework. They will
infrastructure and civilian population, consider using the concept of opportunity
which automatically qualifies them as areas derived from environmental conditions to
of operations. Taking action in these areas the detriment of the unilateral use of
of operations adds a humanitarian crisis military capabilities, specific to wars of
component to the armed conflict, which attrition. This is the new paradigm of
will require taking appropriate measures for operations. The specialized literature
the management of the population. underlines the fact that these characteristics
In addition to the civilian population, it is and their implications have been carefully
worth mentioning the presence in the area studied and implemented on a wide scale.
of operation of private, non-governmental,
113
I am of the opinion that the most important - the ambiguous operational environment;
features of present and future military - military operations carried out at a very
operations in the new operational high rate, with surgical precision of strikes;
environments are: - dissymmetric operational environment;
- the fact that they primarily take place in - future operations, as well as those of the
complex terrain and urban environment; past and present, will focus on avoiding
- the enhance of informational loss of life;
warfare/information operations; The principles presented in fig. 1, which
- the expanse of operations in the outer identify the physiognomy and typology of
space; the new military or non-military conflicts
- the need to design power outside the resulting from the modern impact of the
national territory and the loss of the general laws of war and of military
invulnerability of one’s own territory; conflicts, with today's and perhaps the
- constraints and limitations in the use of future society’s challenges outline a new
military forces; type of conflict that is increasingly
- carrying out operations under the becoming more diffuse, more
conditions of complex, often changing disproportionate and hence more difficult to
relationships generating uncertainties; control and manage.
- the rules of engagement are required;
-"live" operation - media;
- carrying out operations with limited
resources;
DLVSURSRUWLRQDOLW\ RLSRVWH
AV\PPHWULF
JHQHUDWLRQ
RHPDQHQFH PRINCIPLES +LJK-WHFKDQG

IT
SXUSULVH Resonance
DRPLQR
Fig. 1 Principles that identify the physiognomy and typology of the new military or non-military
conflicts
Another feature of the operational organized crime, terrorist structures, drug

environment is the confrontation between traffickers, promoters of extremism and
civilization and non-civilization, one that intolerance. Not incidentally, the doctrines
opposes the one hand stability, democratic of certain countries (USA) armed forces
values, human rights and market economy, may be involved in anti-drug operations, as
and on the other forces that aim to chaos: a form of stability and support operations.
114
War was and remains one of the main amplification of unconventional means,
features of human society transposed by techniques, methods and strategies can lead
making conflict relations and political, to a real dilemma of security, in the sense of
economic and social. In essence, the war a manifestation of the tendencies of
remains a catastrophe, a social cataclysm increasing the power, especially military
resulting in loss of life, significant material power, of the states.
damage and a massive loss in terms of the The hybrid war, in my opinion, implies a
life and spirituality of a society. complex engagement in a confrontation,
undeclared by the states or other actors,
7KHRULHVRQK\EULGZDU where the one generating the aggression
Although not new, the phrase "hybrid war" aims at achieving synergic effects through
does not yet have a unanimously accepted the combined exploitation of societal
definition. In 1933, the Russian military weaknesses (ethnic tensions, weak and
theorist Georgi Isserson wrote in his work corrupt institutions, economic/energy
"The Fundamentals of Depth Operations" dependence, etc.) with the military ones,
that "mobilization must not take place after but the latter are not explicitly assumed.
the war has been declared, but unnoticed The proposed effects can be achieved at all
attacks must happen a long time before levels of the war.
"[2]. The hybrid war consists of a combination of
In other authors' view, the hybrid war conventional and unconventional, lethal and
represents "a combination of symmetrical non-lethal capabilities, from different
and asymmetrical armed conflicts, in which spheres of social life, aiming at gaining a
the intervention forces carry out traditional decisive advantage over the opponents.
military operations against military forces The hybrid war targets both at the intrastate
and enemy targets, while simultaneously and the interstate level, and can have
and decisively acting to gain control over extremely various forms of manifestation,
the indigenous population in the area of integrating regular forces, guerrilla
operations through stability operations "[4]. formations, terrorist or criminal elements,
The same approach belongs to the Chief of and using various weapons and tactics
the General Staff of the Russian Federation, without any regard to the laws of war.
General Gherasimov, who, in an article The crisis in Ukraine is the result of the
published in the Russian Defense VPK, concerted actions of the Russian Federation
underlines the secret use of the regular in order to maintain the sphere of influence
military forces as the last resort, and the and to discredit NATO and the European
Special Forces appear to be the main means Union. To this end, Russia has prepared a
of action, concealed as peacekeeping forces new type of war, where information
and information operations [5]. operations and the use of Special Forces
The hybrid confrontation goes beyond the have played a central role.
physical elements of the conflict, the media The management of the hybrid warfare
and imagistic warfare, where media involves hybrid responses based on the
manipulation and discrediting the opponent multidimensional approach to conflict,
can be priorities, and where the integration including almost all areas of social life:
of information operations with strategic political, economic, financial, societal,
communication programs is as important as including environmental. The success of the
the weapon systems on the battlefield. The operations is given by the synergy of
border between regular war and "new wars" effects, which can be achieved at all levels
is more and more diffuse, and non-state of war. Applying the results of knowledge,
groups have access to those weapons that capitalizing on the human potential, the
once were exclusively state-owned. The comprehensive approach, interagency, the
115
valorization of intelligence products and, correlating them with the type of mission.
last but not least, multidisciplinary Thus, the process of planning is divided
education and training must be priorities. into 5 stages: 1 - elaborating a planning
directive; 2 - defining the needs; 3 -
4 &ULWHULD IRU HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH VWUXFWXUH allocating the needs and setting the
RIIRUFH objectives; 4 - facilitating the
The process of establishing the structure of implementation of national planning; 5 -
force is closely related to the characteristics examining the results.
of the operational environment and the type For the determination of the structure of the
of mission, or more precisely to the force, the 5 planning steps will be applied
particularities of the missions that these for each military operation. At the end of
forces will have to fulfill. Planning, as a this procedure, the structure needed to meet
process, is the outline of a reference model the initially identified needs will be broadly
that will later become a standardized model achieved. By applying the peculiarities
for future structures. specific to that mission, a structure of force
So, the final outcome of the process of will be obtained, which will be able to
establishing the structure of the force will effectively respond to the challenges for
have to meet the previously identified which it was built.
requirements. The structuring of the force is frequently
Planning the structure of the military force addressed according to three different
for a particular type of mission is a criteria: depending on the threats, the
laborious process that must follow an scenarios and the future capacities [6].
algorithm that will result in a structure of a) Depending on the threats. When
force that is capable of effectively applying this criterion, the force is framed
responding to the needs for which it was with the declared purpose of dealing with
created. Thus, we can define a few above- specific threats. In this respect, intelligence
mentioned variables, to which the process services evaluate the likely threats; the
of setting the force is subjected: defense and security decision-makers
x the dynamic context of the determine the necessary forces and the
environment in which this process ability to counteract these threats according
takes place; to the order of priority. Then hypotheses are
x the cause-effect relationship formulated according to this priority order
between the factors involved in in terms of alert and response time, the
designing defense; possibility of concurrent operations and the
x the fluctuations that occur in the capabilities required.
country's economic development; b) Depending on the scenarios. This
x the constant implementation of the criterion is no different from the previous
process of reform in all areas of one. It is based on a series of generic
activity, including national defense; scenarios defining defense policies and
x the interaction between the stages strategies, which are then sorted according
of the process of national planning; to the assigned priority. The capacities are
x the multitude of guiding then designed according to each scenario.
documents (programs, actions and c) Depending on future capabilities. This
measures initiated) on which the criterion seeks to determine the capacities
planning of defense is based. and forces that will be received to face
We highlight the previously mentioned future threats and to draw on the
stages of the process of planning defense, opportunities of the future. It endeavors to
with a view to pointing to the criteria for specify the characteristics of the security
determining the structure of the force by environment in the future and to determine
116
the possible missions, as well as to integrate the various components into a
formulate operational assumptions. Then, structure of force that can be a valid choice.
various types of force structures are The first task of the fourth stage is to
developed, depending on the capabilities examine the potential for multiple uses of
required to carry out these tasks. these components.
The process of establishing the structure of 5. Integration of rotation requirements.
force generally follows the following This stage explicitly addresses the issues
stages: and matters of rotation. Some requirements
1. Determination of the elements to be must be taken into account, such as the fact
retained for structuring the force that, for a military in mission, there are four
(scenarios). The first stage determines the others left in the rear.
elements that will have to be taken into 6. Adjusting the structure according to the
account in the structuring of the forces or creation of forces and the other
the missions that the defense policies and requirements. This stage deals with the
strategy require. issue of creating forces as bases of
2. Establishing a priority order for the recruitment and training, as well as other
retained elements and determination of specific requirements.
acceptable risks. This stage classifies the 7. Modeling and analyzing the structure of
elements retained in the order of priority, the force in order to assess the risk. The
based on the policy and strategy guidelines. last step is to model and analyze the
At the same time, it allows to see where the structure of the force resulting from the
emphasis should be placed and where the preceding steps in order to determine
risks can be accepted. At this stage the risk whether they correspond, at an acceptable
levels must be determined. In high priority level of risk, to the requirements of each
sectors, only low or moderate risks may be country's policy and strategy.
acceptable. In the low priority sectors,
higher risks could be accepted. This stage is &RQFOXVLRQV
perhaps the most important, but also the To sum up, each criterion has its
most difficult. advantages and disadvantages. That is why
3. Conceiving the components of the the choice of one or the other is made
structure of the force. Once these elements, according to the concrete context of the
as well as the levels of priority and risk future mission assigned to the respective
have been taken into account for the structure of forces. The reorganization of
structuring of the force, the third stage military structures has been and will
serves to conceive the individual continue to be a difficult and often
components that will form the structure of "painful" action, even if it is conducted in
the forces (tactical units), which will be peace/normality conditions, and it
compatible with the levels of risk multiplies its effects even more when it is
concerned. to be carried out in crisis or war situations.
4. Considering the multiple use of the same
component. This and the next step seek to
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Alvin Toffler, Power in Motion, Publishing Header, Bucharest, 1995, p.25.
[2] J.N. Nielsen, "Hybrid Warfare", October 07, 2014;
https://geopolicraticus.wordpress.com/2014/10/07/hybrid-warfare/ (accessed on April 23,
2015);
[3] James N. Mattis & Frank Hoffman, Future Warfare: The Rise of Hybrid Wars, U.S. Naval
Institute Proceedings Magazine, November 2005, p. 2.
117
[4] Colonel John J. Mc Cuen, USA, Retired, Hybrid Wars, Military Review, March-April
2008, the United States Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, pp. 107-
108.
[5] Nielsen J.N., "Hybrid Warfare", October 07, 2014;
https://geopolicraticus.wordpress.com/2014/10/07/hybrid-warfare/ (accessed on 23 April
2015). [6] Policies Defense Policy Review: Tackling the Gap between Strategy and Resources
http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/engraph/vol3/no3/pdf/21-28_e.pdf, accessed on 24.04.2011.
118
EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL-MILITARY COOPERATION
Grigor GRIGOROV

gbgrigorov@nvu.bg
Abstract: The report examines the emergence and development of CIMIC. It analyses the reasons for
its emergence, and states guidelines in its development. This will contribute to a better understanding
of the relationship between civil environment and military forces in the face of civil-military
cooperation.
Keywords: Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC), Civil-Military Interaction (CMI),

Civil-Military Relations (CIMIR), Civil Affairs (CA).
1. Introduction new system of relations between civilians

Civil-military cooperation is a relatively and the military has gradually emerged and
new concept used to describe the activities begun to develop with a specific focus on
and relations between the military and cooperation in order to create favourable
civilian. It has emerged and is being used conditions for preparing and conducting
because of the graduate complication of the military operations. Moreover, it arises
environment in which military operations from the need to reduce the hostility of the
are conducted. Not only military, but also a environment in which operations are
number of civilian and humanitarian conducted, and is widely recognised by the
institutions co-exist in it, and together they name civil-military cooperation. Its purpose
face challenges and solve a wider range of is “winning the hearts and minds of the
issues. There are various situations when people” in the area of military operations,
the military have to complete tasks which as well as creating a favourable
are not exactly military in nature. This puts environment for completing the
an even greater emphasis on civil-military commander’s mission [6].
relations. This process of interaction in Initially, the discussion on the essence of
NATO is known under the abbreviation the concept is complex, due to the different
CIMIC (Civil-Military Cooperation). meaning implied by the individual actors.
For example, for NGOs this is the
2. Emergence and development of civil- participation of military units in the
military cooperation delivery and distribution of humanitarian
After the end of the cold war, with the aid; to civilians it is the help of the military
development and strengthening of the in emergency situations, and for the
democratic civil-military relations, in order military it is all the activities that are not
to harmonise the contribution of the armed related to the combat functions of the
forces and the civil society organisations military [3, p. 16]. For the first time these
working in the area of operations with the new relationships are used in the United
civilian population, effective relations States of America (USA), still known there
between them should be developed. Thus, a under the name "Civil Affairs" (CA). Later,
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0018
119
in NATO and the European Union the term exclusively to reducing the hostility and
“Civil Military Cooperation” (CIMIC) was supporting the local population [5].
adopted, and in 2014, in the new policy of In the area of military operations, there
NATO Ministers - 411/2, a definition of the always are many civilians who are affected
concept of “Civil-military interaction” by the conflict in one way or another.
(CMI) was also provided [3, p. 15 – 16; 8]. Usually, they have various cultural and
Back in World War II in the US divisions religious characteristics. The lack of
with similar functions were created in the sufficient information about them could
armed forces and were called US Army lead to unwanted or illegal actions by the
Civil Affairs Division. Later, they took part military actors in certain cases. Sometimes,
in the wars in Korea, Vietnam and in the the actions of individual soldiers could even
operations in Grenada and Panama, and had put at risk the implementation of the entire
to solve refugee problems, settle and operation. Therefore, knowing and adapting
manage refugee camps and evacuation, and to local culture and religion would ensure
assist the population. keeping good relations with the local
Gradually, the activities of civil-military population. On the other hand, the military
cooperation became essential for the in multinational formations have different
preparation and conduct of modern military cultural and religious backgrounds and the
operations. It became clear that to solve a differences between them are to be
number of problems affecting both the effectively regulated. However, the cultural
civilian population and the military actors, interoperability in multinational formations
there is no one-sided decision. On the one is not always a fact. Often, the differences
hand, it is not inherent and appropriate for in expectations, behaviour and attitudes
the military to engage in civic activities; on might cause tension and lead to problems
the other hand, there is a large number of between soldiers of different nationalities.
civilians in and around the zone of At the same time, the absence or loss of
hostilities who could not carry out their trust between peacekeepers from different
activities without military support. While in countries restricts the commander of the
the Gulf War in the '90s, Civil Affairs multinational military formation and he is
played an important role with their motto likely to be hesitant when having to order
“Secure the Victory”, the operations in the actions he deems appropriate. It is our
XXI century proved that the ultimate knowledge and the presentation of relevant
success is now unthinkable without the information about the environment, as well
inclusion of CIMIC in all stages and levels as the compliance with the norms of
of ongoing operations [3, p. 16]. Experience international law and the specific
shows that to maximize success, it is arrangements for each mission that require
essential for all parties that they all fully both understanding and cooperation not
understand how each partner plans and acts. only between the military and civilians, but
In this regard, the activities of CIMIC also between soldiers performing common
structures and personnel provide additional tasks but having different cultural
capacity to the commander for the full characteristics.
exchange of information between the The scope of cooperation between the
parties concerned. It is a fact that in many military, the civilian authorities,
cases there is a large number of hostile international and non-governmental
civilians in the area of operations who are organizations and agencies, and the civilian
unable to cooperate with the armed forces, population largely depends on the type of
which further complicates the conduct of ongoing operations or campaigns. In
the operation itself. In such cases, the combat operations, the interaction between
efforts of the CIMIC staff shall be directed them would normally be limited and would
120
primarily comprise of preventing country and its civilian institutions and
unnecessary losses and casualties among people, but between the AF of NATO and
civilians, as well as supporting compliance civilian institutions and the local population
with the norms of international in the country where NATO conducts its
humanitarian law. In peace-enforcement operation, i.e. its host society.
and peacekeeping operations this The difference between the two concepts
interaction will gradually expand, develop becomes even more obvious when they are
and deepen in terms of supporting and considered in terms of control over the
establishing control over the local armed forces. CIMIC is a tool to maintain a
population, coordination with state bodies certain military cooperation between the
and organisations, support and provision of NATO military and the institutions and the
humanitarian assistance to the population, population in the zone of operation, not
and also control of the refugee flow. In between a people and its own army. In
peacetime and during humanitarian CIMIC, control is exercised by the
operations, the scope of cooperation with management of NATO. CMR in democratic
civil authorities and civilian population is countries are based on the principle of
the largest and lies in building and civilian control over the armed forces. This
improving infrastructure, distribution and is done through various mechanisms and
delivery of humanitarian aid, monitoring of relationships, and an example of this is the
refugees and security of refugee camps, control of the armed forces in Bulgaria
preventive measures, and elimination of the where the Minister of Defence is a civilian
consequences of natural disasters, accidents and the Chief of Defence – a General [2].
and catastrophes. The systems of established relationships
Many people often identify what constitutes and their legal regulation indicate that CMR
CIMIC with the content of the term "civil- are much more extensive and
military relations" (CMR), which actually comprehensive. In contrast, CIMIC is
differs considerably. In order to avoid regulated by a much smaller number of
future uncertainties about the two concepts, documents, such as NATO’s policy for
it is appropriate to clarify the nature of each CIMIC and civil-military interaction (CMI)
of them and the difference between them. [7, 8], Doctrine for CIMIC [1, 5] vand other
CMR arise with the creation of the modern documents, which proves that they are a
state and are recognised as relations small part of CMR.
between the professional military institution Based on all this, we can conclude that the
and the respective country with its people difference between CMR and CIMIC is
[4]. Unlike CMR, whose rules and norms significant, and the two terms should not be
emerge in the late XVIII and early XIX c., used interchangeably, but are to be
CIMIC is a relatively new concept, differentiated and used properly.
regulated by documents in the nineties of Nowadays, CIMIC, as a military function,
the XX century. In the concept of NATO, is an integral part of modern comprehensive
CIMIC is a military function, which operations which examines all interacting
includes a set of capabilities to accomplish parties in a conflict and facilitates mutual
missions and helps commanders establish assistance of civilian capabilities to military
effective civil-military interaction with forces, and vice versa. The main objective
other non-military actors [7, 8]. CIMIC is a in this whole interaction is reaching a
tool in the hands of commanders which certain typical desired end state which will
helps them win the hearts and minds of be best for the local population, civilians
civilians. This tool, however, influences the and AF and which in the best case will be
creation of specific civil-military relations difficult to achieve. Therefore, increasing
not between the Armed Forces (AF) of a the efficiency of CIMIC plays a key role in
121
achieving the success of the operation. knowing these features and without the
necessary interaction with the interested
3. Development and preconditions for the civil actors. Another result of this
implementation of civil-military interaction is to create a positive attitude
cooperation towards the military in the hostile local
The experience gained from the operations population and the warring factions.
conducted in Iraq, Afghanistan, Kosovo, According to the same doctrine of NATO
etc. shows the increasing complexity of for CIMIC, there should be four
today's crises. These complex crises defy preconditions or the so-called contingent
simple definition and analysis. Modern factors for the application of CIMIC:
challenges require a comprehensive x CIMIC staffs are fully integrated into the
approach of the international community, commander’s headquarters (HQ), have
including through the use of coordinated full vision of and are authorised to
activities by the appropriate mix of civilian coordinate CIMIC activities and projects
and military actors, allowing for the in the joint operations area (JOA).
organization, coordination and avoiding x CIMIC activities form an integral part of
conflicts between the military and political the joint force commander’s plan,
instruments of power. This requires greater contribute to his mission and are related
cooperation and planning when the political to implementing the overall strategy and
and military leaders take the relevant contribution to achieving a stable and
decisions [5]. sustainable end state.
The contribution of the AF to the x NATO forces will seek to accommodate
comprehensive approach is ensured by and support the activities of civil actors
making the connection with the civil in achieving the agreed, shared end state.
environment through civil-military x CIMIC activities, as projects or other
cooperation. It allows the military to help development activities are conducted
achieve the desired end state through with the purpose of transitioning
coordination, synchronisation and non- responsibilities to the appropriate civil
conflict military actions with civilians, and organisations or local authorities in a
in this way military operations are bound to timely manner. [5, p. 2-1].
political objectives. These contingent factors once again show
According to the Doctrine of NATO for that the work of the staff of CIMIC should
CIMIC (Allied Joint Doctrine for Civil- be synchronised with that of the
Military Cooperation - AJP-3.4.9), the commanders of each of the three levels of
definition of CIMIC is “The coordination command and control - strategic,
and cooperation, in support of the mission, operational and tactical, both before and
between the NATO Commander and civil during and in the final phase of the
actors, including national population and operation. The CIMIC activities aimed at
local authorities, as well as international, helping the local authorities and population
national and non-governmental organisations should be coordinated with them in order to
and agencies”. [5, p. 2-1]. provide adequate support, but at the same
Analysing this definition, one can conclude time they should not lead to dependence on
that all activities in this interaction are this aid.
subject to the successful accomplishment of The experience of operations carried out in
the “mission”. This is because modern recent decades shows that CIMIC is
operations are usually conducted in areas of applicable in all types of operations, and
the world with different cultural and commanders are required to report all
religious particularities, where the mission political, social, economic, cultural,
could not be executed successfully without religious, humanitarian and other factors of
122
the environment, and involve them in military and civilians lead to building and
planning and conducting their operations. maintaining effective liaison between them
It is also necessary to take into account the as is CIMIC. Overcoming difficulties in
fact that a large number of civilian order to achieve success in this activity can
participants will be in the area of operations be accomplished by increasing the
with their own goals, methods, principles, efficiency of CIMIC.
mandates, structures, roles and perspectives CIMIC should not be equated with CMR
that can be used in the operations and vice because it is a much more narrow concept
versa – the military can also be used in their expressing relations between the armed
operations. This means that they all would forces of an organisation like NATO and its
accomplish their missions better when host society and civilian participants in the
assisting each other. That is to say, in area of operations, while the CMR system
bringing the joint efforts of all actors in the of connections and relationships is much
conflict, the efficiency should be increased. more complex and comprehensive and
Depending on the type of operations and concerns the institutions and the people of a
the means of achieving operational country, as well as its own armed forces.
objectives, the scope of application of Nowadays, CIMIC, as a military function,
CIMIC will differ, but not the essence of its is an integrated part of modern
main functions. This means that it should multidimensional operations which
be included in planning and conducting the examines all parties interacting in the
full spectrum of operations, occupying an conflict, and facilitates mutual assistance of
increasingly significant place in them. civilian capabilities to military forces, and
vice versa. The main objective of this
4. Conclusions interaction is reaching a certain desired end
CIMIC emerges and develops as a result of state which should be equally good for the
the increasingly complex environment in local population, the civilians and the
which operations are performed by the armed forces, but it will be difficult to
armed forces and by an increasing number achieve. Therefore, the increase in the
of civilian actors having their own effectiveness of CIMIC plays a key role in
objectives and mandates in the areas of achieving the success of the operation and
operations. Joint activities between the reaching a certain desirable end state.
References
[1] Doctrine for Civil-Military Cooperation (NP-3.4.9), MoD, Sofia, 2014.
[2] Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria (NP-01), MoD, Sofia, 2011.
[3] Ivanov, V. Fundamentals of Civil-Military Cooperation. Defence College, Sofia, 2012.
[4] Huntington, S. The Soldier and the State, MoD, St. Georgi Pobedonosets, Sofia, 1998.
[5] AJP-3.4.9. Allied Joint Doctrine for Civil-Military Cooperation, NATO Standardization
Agency (NSA), Feb 2013.
[6] CIMIC Field Handbook – 4rd edition, Civil-Military Co-operation Centre of
Excellence, Netherlands (The Hague), 2016.
[7] MC 411/1. NATO Military Policy on Civil-Military Co-operation, North Atlantic
Military Committee, Jan 2002.
[8] MC 411/2. NATO Military Policy on Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC) and Civil-
Military Interaction (CMI), North Atlantic Military Committee, May 2014.
123
IMPROVING COORDINATION, INTERACTION AND COOPERATION IN

HUMANITARIAN AID OPERATIONS
Grigor GRIGOROV

gbgrigorov@nvu.bg
Abstract: The report examines the possibility of improving coordination, interaction and cooperation
in conducting humanitarian aid operations. It reveals how Civil-Military Cooperation staff would help
overcome difficulties in the joint planning process and work between the different actors involved in
humanitarian operations through the deployment of the Humanitarian Aid Coordination Centre.
Keywords: Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC), Coordination, Interaction, Cooperation,

Humanitarian Aid Operations.
1. Introduction information, lack of mechanisms for

The participation of armed forces in cooperation with the host nation,
conducting humanitarian aid operations is politicisation and militarisation of
accompanied by quite a few challenges humanitarian aid, ignoring the views of the
because a large number of governmental, affected population, etc. [6, 7] The key
non-governmental, international and other critical areas for coordination are security,
organisations, agencies with and without a logistics, health care, transportation and
mandate, military and other actors take part communications [2]. In these areas, the
in the process of providing the aid. Some of constant flow of timely updated information
these organisations are united in various is essential to the success of humanitarian
forums for coordination and allocation of activities. Moreover, these areas often allow
aid, the largest of which is the United for the distribution of tasks and planning
Nations. These forums have prior between the UN and the military. In such
arrangements and agreements which cases, one of the most effective ways of
significantly relieve their work and the sharing information, joint planning and
planning and distribution of aid. However, problem solving is through staff exchanges
most of the actors have their own linking humanitarian UN agencies and the
objectives, mandates and ways of working, military at appropriate levels. Training of
which makes joint planning and working in military and civilian personnel for civil-
a humanitarian crisis difficult. military coordination and relationships in
complex emergencies is offered by the
2. Improving coordination, interaction Military and Civil Defence Unit (MCDU)
and cooperation in humanitarian aid in the UN Office for the Coordination of
operations Humanitarian Affairs. That unit has
The main problems in the provision of personnel trained for liaison that can be
humanitarian aid arise due to difficulty in used by the UN humanitarian agencies and
coordination, ignorance of the way of other actors that meet complex emergencies.
working, incorrect needs assessment, lack of Some UN humanitarian agencies even have
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0019
124
qualified personnel with experience in centres give real results. For example, the
liaising with the military. However, a large Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian
part of all humanitarian agencies and Assistance, which manages military support
organisations have no such liaison staff, but in the humanitarian operation in Haiti, has
in case of emergency they wish to provide played a crucial role in coordinating
humanitarian aid and they need protection. activities between the military and civilians.
The analysis of the methods of planning During the Kosovo crisis, a centre for
used by CIMIC in NATO and the planning humanitarian information was established
for providing humanitarian aid at the UN and it stimulated the dissemination of
indicate the presence of significant information. Similar centres have been built
differences between the military planning in Iraq – Humanitarian Operations Centre
of CIMIC and the humanitarian planning at for Coordination of Movement, and in
the United Nations [3]. Furthermore, Afghanistan – Coalition Humanitarian
although the model for humanitarian Liaison Centre to accelerate regional
planning of the UN brings together many humanitarian activities, and they have also
humanitarian organisations [4], there is a assisted greatly in coordination, interaction
huge number of others who do not apply it. and cooperation between the military and
They all have their own organisational civilian [1, p. F-9].
culture, way of planning and structure, The analysis of humanitarian aid operations
which makes cooperation with them in the shows that the most important CIMIC
beginning of a crisis extremely difficult. activities are the support of civilian actors
These organisations have their individual and their environment, and the
way of working, which they are accustomed implementation of civil-military relations
to, and in collaboration they are reluctant to [3, p. 68]. This is done by the liaison
change it, and want others to work and plan officers and CIMIC centres. As in
by their rules. This requires more humanitarian aid operations it is necessary
coordination with them on the provision of to coordinate efforts and resources, if the
humanitarian aid than their inclusion in the armed forces are involved in the provision
joint planning of humanitarian assistance. of such assistance, there should be a
This approach will lead to uniting the structured interaction and cooperation
efforts of everyone who is willing to help in between them. This is implemented by the
a humanitarian crisis, and its CIMIC staff and, therefore, they must
implementation should be carried out by a participate. In NATO structures, these are
coordination centre under the leadership of the CIMIC bodies and forces at different
the host nation, the UN, NATO, etc. The levels. The CIMIC doctrine defines the
purpose of this centre will be not to force tasks that can be performed by these CIMIC
everyone to work and plan in the same way, bodies and forces, and in humanitarian aid
but to direct and distribute efforts and operations they will mainly be reduced to
resources to achieve the common goal – to coordination and interaction with
provide assistance to those in need and save humanitarian aid providers, assistance in
lives. When establishing it, the principle of the provision of aid, analysis and
implementation of civil control over coordination of refugee flows, deployment
military power and means should be of CIMIC centres, etc. That is, in
applied, and the military personnel working humanitarian operations CIMIC will
in it, is to be identified in a way that contribute primarily by building and
distinguishes it clearly from that used for maintaining the relationships between the
military purposes. aid providers, and carrying out various
The experience from the conducted assessments of humanitarian needs in the
humanitarian operations shows that such area affected by the crisis.
125
To facilitate the implementation of liaison, and organisation will be implemented by
coordination and directing humanitarian the CIMIC staff, but the overall control will
efforts and resources in carrying out the be performed by the UN, the host nation (if
humanitarian aid, it is appropriate to deploy it is legitimately governed), a lead agency,
a Humanitarian Aid Coordination Centre the International Committee of the Red
(HACC), whose core will be the CIMIC Cross (ICRC) / the International Federation
centre. HACC will be the basis of of the Red Cross (IFRC), NATO (as an
coordination between the multinational exception), or some other civilian forum
forces, the military forces of the host with a legitimate mandate. This will prevent
nation, humanitarian organisations, the militarisation and politicisation of
international organisations, NGOs, humanitarian aid and will maintain its civil
government agencies and the host nation character.
and other departments and agencies willing Figure 1 shows the role performed by
to help the affected population. HACC will HACC.
facilitate the coordination among key
humanitarian actors, and its establishment
Figure 1: Functions of HACC in humanitarian operations.
HACC will perform the following main activities:
126
x providing a joint forum for humanitarian protection of collected information and
organisations, agencies and all wishing accessibility for consumers. The core of
to provide humanitarian assistance, but HACC will be the CIMIC centre, made up
also to preserve their neutrality. These of staff for CIMIC and assisted by
organisations should consider HACC a logistical, legal and communication
place for discussions with interested elements.
parties and a forum for decision-making; It is advisable that the HACC includes
x supporting the head of the humanitarian representatives from:
aid operation; x the government of the affected country;
x coordinating and directing relief efforts x the UN;
and resources between the multinational x NGOs;
forces, the forces of the host nation, the x international organisations;
United Nations, the receiving country x regional organisations;
and other non-military agencies; x local authorities;
x accepting, drawing general conclusions, x multinational forces;
coordination and distribution of requests x forces of the host nation;
for assistance to the affected population; x donor countries and the private sector;
x summarising and analysing the x opposing groups (if any), etc.
capabilities of the NGOs, international The creation of a HACC by the CIMIC
organisations, government agencies, Centre represents the contribution of the
military forces (multinational and host personnel to CIMIC in coordinating the
nation) and the private sector willing to efforts of the actors in humanitarian aid
provide assistance; operations. The main purpose of
x receiving, summarising and distributing establishing such a centre is to attract
requests of humanitarian agencies which everyone who is willing to help the affected
need protection and security in the population, to summarise and share
provision of humanitarian aid; information about the current situation,
x assisting in the transfer of humanitarian resources available and needed, holding
responsibility from the military to non- discussions and sharing the efforts to
military agencies; address the humanitarian crisis. It is
x coordination of requests for assistance to important that the activity performed by the
civilian agencies; CIMIC staff is not construed as the military
x organising daily briefings to analyse the dictating the rules, but as a unified approach
humanitarian actors’ needs and to solving problems. HACC helps to
capabilities for assistance; identify problems in critical areas in the
x convening special groups that include provision of humanitarian aid concerning
functional specialists in the relevant area security, logistical support, information
for planning joint missions between sharing, messaging, and other issues that
military and civilians, such as escorting a require cooperation. It is well-known that
convoy, transporting, management and after the introduction of the cluster
security of dislocated civilians, camps approach in each of the nine problematic
and feeding centres, etc. sectors out of eleven total (only two are
Establishing and organising HACC should non-problematic - education and
provide comfort to humanitarian partners in agriculture), a lead agency was designated
the use of common ways of communication to take responsibility for coordination in the
and sharing information to develop unity of sector. When such agencies participate, it is
effort. If possible, it is recommended to appropriate that the functions delegated to
create a common, Internet-based system for them by the Inter-agency Standing
sharing information, providing both Committee of the United Nations be
127
maintained as follows: The examples listed above are only some of
x agriculture - Food and Agriculture the documents to be produced in HACC.
Organisation of the United Nations Each organisation, agency or entity will
(FAO); continue to use its approved documents in
x management of camps for internally its individual business, but in their joint
displaced persons – UNHCR, for victims activities with other organisations in HACC
of disasters - International Organisation they all have to speak “clear language”
for Migration; using those sample forms. In the process of
x early recovery - Program for establishment and operation of this centre,
Development of the United Nations; more necessary sample documents will be
x education – UNICEF and Save the developed, and they will depend on the
Children; specific situation and the participants
x shelter: for internally displaced persons – involved. In HACC, the head of the
UNHCR, for victims of disasters - IFRC; humanitarian operation or someone
x telecommunications in crisis - OCHA, appointed by him will have to conduct a
UNICEF, WFP; morning (08.00 hours) and an evening
(18.00 hours) briefing, and its organisation
x health – WHO;
and other various activities at the centre
x logistics - WFP;
will be conducted by the staff for CIMIC.
x food - UNICEF; The morning and evening briefings should
x protection: for internally displaced include the following activities:
persons – UNHCR, for victims of
x completing attendance forms by the
disasters and affected by conflict -
participating representatives of various
UNHCR and UNICEF;
organisations;
x Water and sanitation needs – UNICEF
x announcing current information about
[5]. the humanitarian crisis;
In the absence of a lead agency in a
x filling out forms on the capabilities of
particular sector, the head of the
each organisation to provide assistance
humanitarian operation should designate
(type, volume, time);
one of the agencies and organisations with
x request for military assistance by the
the most experience in the sector to perform
this role. To facilitate the functioning of multinational forces (for security,
HACC and its activities, it is necessary to convoy, communications, transportation,
have previously prepared samples of the medical care, etc.);
documents that are most often used in x specifying the leading agencies in
humanitarian aid operations. It is therefore various sectors (clusters);
appropriate to use the following sample x identifying key unmet needs;
documents [3, p. 152]: x distribution of identified needs;
x allocation of responsibilities to meet the x summarising and dissemination of the
needs; collected information;
x a list of emerging needs; x assigning assessments to be conducted
x a list of participants in HACC; and requests for additional information;
x a list of the needs encountered so far; x clarification of the tasks and activities
x capabilities of organisations / structures carried out by different actors;
for the provision of humanitarian The content of the daily briefings and the
assistance in clusters; overall activity of HACC will depend
heavily on the situation, its specific
x table reporting unmet basic needs of the
affected population; characteristics and requirements. Therefore,
they will differ for each operation, but their
x rapid initial report on the disaster.
primary goal should always be
128
coordination, interaction and cooperation order to enhance its effectiveness.
among all categories of actors for the The problems in conducting effective
provision of humanitarian aid and to save CIMIC in operations for providing
lives. humanitarian assistance have a different
nature. An example is little mutual
3. Conclusions understanding of the methods of work of
The changed security environment in which the military and humanitarian actors, as
the armed forces conduct operations well as fear of compromising their own
requires maintaining a close relationship mission by humanitarian actors in joint
between military and civilian participants participation with the military. The most
through CIMIC. There are many different significant problem, however, remains
aspects of its application. In humanitarian weak coordination, interaction and
aid operations, its main role is to ensure cooperation of various levels between
close interaction with civil organisations, military and humanitarian actors. This
national governments and local authorities problem can be solved by deploying
to understand each other's missions, goals, Humanitarian Aid Coordination Centre,
tasks and ways of working of the various whose core will be the CIMIC centre
actors in the humanitarian operation in established by CIMIC specialists.
References
[1] Field Operations Guide for Disaster Assessment and Response, U.S. Agency for
International Development, USA, Sept 2005.
[2] Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets to Support United Nations
Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies (MCDA Guidelines), Rev. 1, Drafting
Committee, January 2006.
[3] Grigorov, G. Opportunities for Increasing the Effectiveness of Civil-Military
Cooperation in Humanitarian Aid Operations. Dissertation for Acquiring Educational
and Scientific Degree "Doctor", National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, 2017.
[4] IASC reference module for the implementation of the humanitarian programme cycle,
version 2.0, Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Jul 2015.
[5] Reference Module for Cluster Coordination at the Country Level, IASC Working
Group, August 2012.
[6] The effectiveness of foreign military assets in natural disaster response, Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute, Solna, Sweden, 2008.
[7] Metcalfe, V. Haysom, S., Gordon, S., Trends and Challenges in Humanitarian Civil–
Military Coordination, HPG-Overseas Development Institute, London, May 2012. –
http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7679.pdf –
(last visited 24.08.2015 – 12.08).
129
EU POLICY INITIATIVES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
Mariya HADZHIPETROVA-LACHOVA
“Neofit Rilski” South-West University, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria

maria.hadzhipetrova@gmail.com
Abstract: The article traces the various stages in the development of EU – the Mediterranean region
as well as the EU policy initiatives in the Mediterranean region. The very history of the European
unification gives hope that by gaining experience in overcoming the difficulties of diverse nature, the
Union will be able to “reset” relations with its Mediterranean partners, basing them on new
principles and values.
Keywords: EU, Mediterranean region, Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (Euromed),

European Neighbourhood Policy, Union for the Mediterranean (UfM)
1. Introduction single basis of their policies towards the

At present, the Mediterranean region covers Mediterranean. The task is gradually
26 coastal countries that share its replacing the individual policies of Member
geographical position and historical past, States to the Mediterranean region with a
yet they are divided into rich and common approach, with a general policy of
democratic North and poor and politically the Union.
unstable South. The Southern The second phase of this policy is
Mediterranean is characterized by associated with the initiated in 1972
underdeveloped infrastructure, low-skilled Overall Mediterranean Policy (OMP) of
labor and high unemployment. Challenges EC. The comprehensive dimension of the
such as migration, terrorism, organized Mediterranean policy is aimed at “coastal
crime, human trafficking and environmental countries of the Mediterranean (including
issues can hardly be overcome by any one Jordan) which wish or would like to
country alone, which promotes regional maintain a special relationship with the
cooperation and initiatives of the EU Community.” [2]
regarding the Mediterranean region. Another initiative to build closer
cooperation between the two shores of the
2. Stages in the development of EU - Mediterranean is the Euro-Arab dialogue
Mediterranean region relations from 1973 till 1990. The idea was launched
The beginning of the relations between the in 1970 by France, which proceeds from its
EU and the Mediterranean region could be foreign policy aimed at the Arab world. [3]
found at the outset of the creation of the The foundations of cooperation between the
European Communities (EC) in 1950s. The League of Arab States and the EC are
Treaty of Rome establishing the European already present and economic and political
Economic Community in 1957 [1] allows cooperation in the field of agriculture,
the EC Member States to orient themselves, industry, science, culture, technology,
if not yet to a common policy, then to a
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0020
130
finance and public infrastructure is southern Mediterranean is the creation of a
established. [4] new regional system of relationships aimed
So in 1970s relations were developing with at economic growth and liberalization in the
the countries of North Africa and the partner countries and the establishment of a
Middle East most intensively. During this long-term political and social stability and
period there were implemented two security within the new European concept
approaches to the region - the existence of of international cooperation.
still in force bilateral agreements between The conference formulated a program of
Member States and the Mediterranean cooperation in three main areas:
countries and the emergence of the first - Defining a common area of peace and
joint EU agreements with individual states political stability through dialogue in the
in the region. field of security. The goal is to build
As a third stage of the Mediterranean policy partnerships between participants in BP on
of the EC (later EU) it is determined the security issues. Respect for human rights,
time from late 1980s to mid 1990s of the democratic values and respect for social
20th century. During this period the pluralism within countries themselves, as
southern extension of EC (Greece, Spain well as ensuring the territorial integrity,
and Portugal) was prepared and peaceful conflict resolution and respect for
implemented. This expansion had a international norms on arms control are
negative impact on exports from the some of the requirements contained in a
Mediterranean to the EC because of the voluminous catalog. [5]
similarity of this export production, mainly - Building a zone of shared prosperity
of agricultural products and citrus fruit in through an economic and financial
the new countries. Overall in EU’s policy partnership and the gradual establishment
there could be observed a gradual transition of a free trade zone. According to the
from a heterogeneous approach to a more measures provided for in this direction,
constructive global concept with respect to economic relations between the
the Mediterranean region. participating countries should be
Especially important for the modern intensified. [6]
formation and development of the EU - Bringing nations together through
common foreign policy towards the cooperation in social, cultural and
Mediterranean region is the second half of humanitarian spheres in order to promote
1990s. It is in this period that the alignment understanding between cultures and civil
of that policy takes place in accordance societies. The dialogue and mutual respect
with both the modern development of the between cultures and religions should be
EU and the challenges of the incoming new encouraged, and opportunities for training
century. Undoubtedly a major role in this and education - improved. [7]
played the conducted in November 1995 in The three areas of cooperation that BP
Barcelona Conference of Foreign Ministers covers cannot be considered separately.
of EU and the Mediterranean countries. Trade, economic assistance and
That was the beginning of a new strategy of immigration of the population are
partnership between them, known as the interrelated and the political stability and
“Barcelona Process” (BP) or the Euro- security in the region depend on the
Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED). successful resolution of socio-economic
problems in individual Mediterranean
3. EU initiatives towards the partner countries.
Mediterranean The regional cooperation is one of the most
The main objective of the Barcelona innovative aspects of BP as it covers and
Declaration, signed by the then 15 Member superimposes three dimensions of
States of the EC and the 12 countries of the cooperation, namely cooperation in the field
131
of economics, politics and culture. The aim as well as the liberalization of trade and
is to develop not only North-South economic development. It, along with
relations, but also South-East relations. Euromed, covers the political dialogue,
The existing economic disparities between economic cooperation and trade, migration
Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean and and the problems associated with it,
creates a structure of asymmetric regional and sector focus on partnership,
interdependence and increases the dominant cooperation in the financial, energy and
role of the EU in all negotiations on the information fields. [8] In this connection,
Euro-Mediterranean partnership. Between the scope of the ENP in the southern
partner countries bilateral relations continue dimension appears as a new policy tool that
to dominate, although the Barcelona confirms, supports and complements the
Declaration gives priority to multilateral Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in 1995.
cooperation. The prevalence of bilateral What is typical of the neighborhood policy
relations in the Euro-Mediterranean policy is that it does not envisage EU membership;
creates artificial obstacles to the entry of the it envisaged privileged relations based on
southern Mediterranean countries as a recognition of common values - democracy
single economic unit and allows the EU to and human rights, rule of law and good
use its advantages as the most powerful governance, market economy and
partner and a major donor. sustainable development. Within privileged
With the complexity of the international relations the neighboring beneficiary
situation (crisis in Iraq (2005), another countries take advantage of the cooperation
outbreak of violence in the Middle East, the in trade, industry, agriculture, energy
spread of terrorism and its impact on security, transport, science and research,
societies) at the beginning of the new education, culture, etc. This basic
millennium and faced with its greatest characteristic distinguishes it from the
territorial expansion, the EU seeks new enlargement policy. However, the
solutions to structural, organizational and neighborhood policy is similar to the one of
problematic challenges it faces. In this expansion in that it applies the principle of
complex context, the Union launched the conditionality. According to this principle,
European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) in its neighboring countries should carry out
two dimensions - east (Eastern Europe and conditions and reforms in order to prove
then South Caucasus) and south (countries their loyalty to shared values and thereby
of North Africa and the Middle East). gain access to the financial instrument of
The new Neighborhood Policy is aimed at EU cooperation. This principle was
building a unified format for European advocated in the Euro-Mediterranean
relations with the new southern and eastern cooperation, but in practice it was not
neighbors with their possible integration applied. The impact of the principle of
into the European single market but also to change led to the Arab Spring in the
establish more active relations between the Mediterranean countries and this was a
EU and its neighbors. Regarding the clear sign that the neighborhood policy
Mediterranean states ENP should reinforce needs revision.
existing forms of cooperation, accelerate The latest EU initiative in the
regional and subregional integration Mediterranean region is associated with the
processes and ensure the gradual idea of the French President François
establishment of the EU internal market, in Sarkozy to establish a Mediterranean
the core of which are the four freedoms: Union. The form in which it was launched
free movement of people, goods, services in January, however, excludes the
and capitals. An important role in the new participation of the EU or provides for a
policy is attributed to political factors and minimum of its participation. Therefore, the
safety issues in the Mediterranean region, initiative received a negative response from
132
a number of leading figures in the EU and summit in Paris six key strategic sectors for
Sarkozy was forced to make changes so that cooperation are defined - civil protection;
it does not completely fail. On December construction of marine and land
20, 2007 the Government leaders of France, infrastructures; environmental cleansing of
Italy and Spain met in Rome and adopted a the Mediterranean; development of
joint document entitled “Call of Rome”. It alternative energy sources (particularly
outlines the main guidelines of the project solar energy); development of higher
and makes adjustments to the name. [9] education and scientific research; business
“The Mediterranean Union” (UM) becomes development through a mechanism for
the “Union for the Mediterranean” (UfM). promoting small and medium enterprises.
By the linguistic and stylistic change of the Thus, the new alliance promotes
name the importance of the Euro- multilateral and regional cooperation,
Mediterranean Partnership is reaffirmed and which should complement EU bilateral
skeptics in the project soothe themselves relations with Mediterranean partners
with the fact that a new regional taking place within the framework of the
organization will not be created. At the Association Agreements. This also applies
same time in the place of the initial idea for to the Action Plans of the ENP. The activity
a closed Mediterranean club, a different of the Union for the Mediterranean will not
pan-European perspective for the depend on the EU policy on enlargement,
Mediterranean is being formed. Another negotiations for EU accession and pre-
distinctive feature of the Union for the accession process. The EU initiative gives a
Mediterranean is that it adds to the three new impetus to BP on three main areas: 1)
main areas of BP (economy and trade, raising the political level of the EU's
security, culture and humanitarian issues) a relations with Mediterranean countries, 2)
fourth direction - cooperation in justice and ensuring joint projects and thus
home affairs. If within BP, the only strengthening the multilateral relations and
structure, decision maker and the one 3) creating more specific and transparent
funding projects is the EU, in the Union for relations through additional regional and
the Mediterranean there is offered a co- subregional projects. The launched in 2008
presidency for a period of two years (at the project “Union for the Mediterranean”,
moment the EU is represented by the which may reasonably be considered as a
President of the EU, Head of the European supplement and continuation of BP, has
External Action Service and President of been built with the active participation of
the EC while the Mediterranean countries the EU and its institutions.
present its chairperson on the principle of
consensus start). In addition, there was 4. Conclusion
created a Permanent Secretariat (based in As a result of the shown by Sarkozy
Barcelona), which deals with the selection activity, the EU currently has a total
and analysis of the projects needed for the program of initiatives - the Euro-
region. [19] In this sense, the new alliance Mediterranean Partnership, European
brings two major features that were lacking Neighborhood Policy in its Southern
in previous initiatives, namely joint dimension and the Union for the
responsibility and joint decision Mediterranean. Despite the nearby nature of
constituting a qualitative step forward in the these initiatives, in many ways they are
quest for cohesion of the countries. What is complementary, but different as well.
also new in the Union is that the Initiatives have been undertaken at different
cooperation is built around specific projects stages of development of the EU – the
within the problematic issues and has the Mediterranean region. Objectives and
status of an important, but mechanisms used to implement them,
“complementary”, chapter of BP. At the despite being close, do not in any case
133
overlap. This to some extent is due to the of its policy conducted in the Mediterranean
diverse challenges facing the EU in terms region.
References
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19 ɫ . (Treaty establishing the European Economic Community on March 25,
1957 (1994), p. 387.)
[2] JO noC 19, 1er mars 1972, p. 15, point no4.
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[6] 1HZ 1HLJKERXUKRRG 3ROLFɭ 6WUDWHJ\ 3DSHU 'RF &20 ILQDO
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[8] Kiryakova-Dineva (2016). Mezhdukulturen dialog v turizma. University Press Neofit
5LOVNL %ODJRHYJUDG LQ %XOJDULDQ Ʉɢɪɹɤɨɜɚ-Ⱦɢɧɟɜɚ Ɍɟɨɞɨɪɚ Ɇɟɠɞɭɤɭɥɬɭɪɟɧ
ɞɢɚɥɨɝɜɬɭɪɢɡɦɚɍɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɫɤɨɢɡɞɚɬɟɥɫɬɜɨÄɇɟɨɮɢɬɊɢɥɫɤɢ´Ȼɥɚɝɨɟɜɝɪɚɞ
[9] Schmid, Dorothée, (mars avril 2009), Dossier la Méditerranée. Du Processus de
Barcelone à l’Union pour la Méditerranée: changement de nom ou de fond?, Questions
internationales, Institut Français des Relations Internationales, p. 3.
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134
HYBRID WARFARE – A FORM OF ASYMMETRIC CONFLICT
Laura-Maria +(5‫܉‬$
“%DEH‫܈‬-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

laura.herta@euro.ubbcluj.ro
Abstract: For a few decades now, a vivid scholarly discussion centred on new forms of conflict has
been developing. Military historians and political scientists entered into debates building consistent
pro and counter-arguments about whether armed conflict at the end of the 20th century and beginning
of the 21st century features novel aspects. Several concepts have been coined in order to describe the
nature and dynamic of warfare in a post-clausewitzian/post-conventional era, such as new wars,
Fourth Generation Warfare, compound wars and last, but not least, hybrid warfare. This article will
briefly present the core of each category and will stress hybrid warfare as most recent development of
such intellectual categories. The main argument defended here is that hybrid wars are a
contemporary feature of global politics, mostly associated with non-state actors (such as terrorist
groups) and with Russia’s strategies in eastern Ukraine, but also that they are a form of asymmetric
conflict.
Keywords: new wars, compound warfare, fourth generation warfare, hybrid warfare,
Russian hybrid warfare
1. Introduction core arguments of specific concepts (such

The transformation of war and the new as new wars, fourth generation warfare,
forms of belligerence emerging at the end compound warfare) which have been
of the 20th century became salient issues theorized in order to reveal the
within consistent debates among military transformative nature of warfare.
experts, political scientists, and military
historians. Several concepts have been 2.1. New wars
coined in order to describe the nature and Much of the discussion on the
dynamic of warfare in a post- transformation of war relied on
clausewitzian/post-conventional era or to distinguishing between conventional
best illustrate types of conflict in the 21st interstate warfare and unconventional
century. On the other hand, other intrastate armed conflicts. The late 1990s
approaches followed suit in order to prove and beginning of the 21st century witnessed
that the transformative processes in war- the old wars-new wars dichotomy and the
making capacities do not indicate new consequences of globalization as catalysts
forms per se or new categories at the end of for a new pattern of belligerence.
the 20th century, but rather a development The term “new wars” prompted a large and
pertaining to previous historical interesting debate in the academic milieu
recurrences. In other words, the latter and is the centrepiece of most scholarly
approach insists upon the combination of works tackling the transformation of war.
regular and irregular tactics as a historical On the one hand, several scholars, such as
reality of war. Mary Kaldor [1], Herfried Münkler [2],
In what follows, the article will present the Mark Duffield [3], Dietrich Jung and Klaus
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0021
135
Schlichte [4], Bjørn Møller [5], focused on military force; greater asymmetry of
the main differences between conventional, military force; autonomization of forms of
Clausewitzean, trinitarian warfare violence [10]. Since such wars tend to be
(associated with the rise of the modern prolonged (because of shadow economies,
state) and the novel aspects of post-Cold support from outside powers, increased
War armed conflicts. The general consumption of resources, and local
observation of scholars concerned with the warlords’ reliance on profits from war
new wars is that after the Second World economy), one major observation is that the
War, the classical, Clausewitzean pattern of “short-wars between states” (from the mid-
inter-state war was gradually replaced by seventeenth to the early twentieth century)
various dynamics of intra-state violence. were replaced by “long wars within
Despite obvious regional peculiarities, societies.” The latter imply the following
recent and contemporary armed conflicts intertwining characteristics: the asymmetry
share certain structural features: the of forces/belligerents; the gradual
asymmetrical configuration of the privatization of violence; the deviation from
belligerents, lack of respect for the jus in codified rules of warfare; and the use of
bello, and violence directed against force (in its utmost brutal force) against
civilians. The “new wars” approach civilians [11].
contends that globalization produced trans- Similarly, Mary Kaldor and Basker Vashee
national and sub-state threats in a manner argued that new wars display new
that changes dramatically the nature of phenomena associated with armed conflict,
warfare. As such, the de-statization of war such as “large-scale population
[6], the transformative power of economic displacement, social disruption, and
globalization [7], identity politics [8], the widespread destruction of historic and
forced displacement and victimization of cultural monuments” [12], all indicating the
civilians determine the profound changes in suffering of civilians and brutality targeting
recent and contemporary belligerence. non-combatants. The authors stress the fact
Herfried Münkler argued that “the classical that the nature of war has changed, since
model of inter-state war […] seems to have “overall casualties and direct participation
been discontinued”, states tend to lose their in wars tend to be lower, but the ration of
de facto monopoly on organized violence civilian to military casualties appears to
and are replaced by “military have risen quite dramatically.” [13]
entrepreneurs”. According to Münkler, On the other hand, a series of scholarly
“states have given up their de facto works argued against the “newness” of
monopoly on war, and what appears ever contemporaU\ ZDUV 6LQLãD 0DOHãHYLü >@
more frequently in their stead are para-state Mats Berdal [15], E.A. Henderson and D.
or even partly private actors – from local Singer were adamant to demonstrate that
warlords and guerrilla groups through firms characterizing features of contemporary
of mercenaries operating on a world scale to wars (like massacres, banditry, population
international terror networks” [9]. The main displacement, or sexual violence as tactics
argument pertaining to the features of new of war) are in fact not new, but have a long
wars is related to a “multiplicity of interest history; hence, “many of the ‘new wars’ are
groups”, which breed on war economies simply amalgamations of various interstate,
and hence have no direct or lucrative extrastate, and intrastate wars - i.e., the ‘old
interests in initiating peace processes or in wars’ - that have been lumped into a single
the “renunciation of violence”. The author’s category” [16].
contention about the transformative nature Theses of new wars were revisited and
of war is centred on several developments: certain scholars, such as Mary Kaldor,
de-statization of war or privatization of addressed the issue in response to criticism
136
and re-articulated main arguments by will. As shown by Thomas Hammes, “it is
showing that “‘new wars’ should be rooted in the fundamental precept that
understood not as an empirical category but superior political will, when properly
rather as a way of elucidating the logic of employed, can defeat greater economic and
contemporary war that can offer both a military power.” [22] Consequently, Fourth
research strategy and a guide to policy.” Generation Warfare “does not attempt to
[17]. According to Newman, “the new wars win by defeating the enemy's military
literature, while exaggerating the forces. Instead, combining guerrilla tactics
peculiarities of contemporary conflict, has or civil disobedience with the soft networks
done a great service in deepening of social, cultural and economic ties,
understanding of civil war” and “literature disinformation campaigns and innovative
on the social and economic dynamics of political activity, it directly attacks the
civil war offers rich insights for the security enemy's political will.” [23]
discourse, including human security” [18]. Criticism against Fourth Generation
Warfare came from historians and the
2.2. Fourth Generation Warfare concept has been rebuffed as “elegant
Alongside the old wars versus new wars irrelevance”. [24] The critique focuses on
debate, another interesting concept the history of irregular warfare which
emerged, namely Fourth Generation reveals a mixture of conventional and
Warfare (4GW). Certain core elements are unconventional means. Such mixture is then
present in the two approaches mentioned so not so new, since it has been evidenced by
far: the “blurring nature” of contemporary much earlier writings, such as Callwell’s
conflict, i.e. the blurring of war and peace, treatise Small Wars [25] already published
public and private or combatants and non- in 1906, according to this view. [26].
combatants, but also “the weakening of the Reactions to the concept of 4GW indicate
state and the rise of non-state actors willing that, in fact, “what has occurred is simply
and able to challenge the legitimacy of the part of war’s evolution, a shift in degree
state” [19]. Already in 1989, “the changing rather than kind” [27]. Consequently, much
face of war” was linked to fourth generation of the criticism contends that fourth
warfare by an article in the Marine Corps generation war “falsely claims that
Gazette: “fourth generation warfare seems traditional state-to-state warfare is a relic of
likely to be widely dispersed and largely the past.” [28]
undefined; the distinction between war and
peace will be blurred to the vanishing point. 2.3. Compound Warfare
It will be nonlinear, possibly to the point of The concept compound warfare has been
having no definable battlefields or fronts. employed by Thomas M. Huber in reference
Also, the distinction between ‘civilian’ and to major wars that had “significant regular
‘military’ may disappear.” [20] Proponents and irregular components fighting
of Fourth Generation Warfare also insist on simultaneously under unified direction”
this aspect: “4GW is conducted [29]. Huber focused on illustrative case
simultaneously in population centers, rural studies, such as the American Revolution,
areas, and virtual networks. It moves compound warfare in the Vietnam war, the
constantly to avoid detection and to target Soviets’ experience in Afghanistan etc.
its enemy’s vulnerabilities.” [21] The According to Huber, “Compound warfare is
concept of Fourth Generation Warfare the simultaneoususe of a regular or main
centers on the ability of (militarily) weaker force and an irregular or guerrilla force
belligerents to combine conventional and against an enemy. In other words, the CW
unconventional means in order to pose a operator increases his military leverage by
serious threat to the opponent’s political applying both conventional and
137
unconventional force at the same time.” and formations, terrorist acts including
[30]. However, Hoffman argued that the indiscriminate violence and coercion, and
theory of compound warfare “offers synergy criminal disorder” [35]. The underpinning
and combinations at the strategic level”, postulate is that “hybrid wars blend the
but, in fact, the historical cases presented by lethality of state conflict with the fanatical
Huber indicate that “when militia and and protracted fervour of irregular warfare”
irregular forces were ever employed with [36].
regular forces, […] the irregular forces […] Hoffman uses the “multi-modal” underlying
were second-rate conventional forces.” nature in hybrid warfare in order to
[31]. distinguish it from previous guerrilla tactics
or from compound warfare whose aim was
3. Hybrid warfare to pose a persistent threat by protracting the
3.1. Origin and development of the conflict. In such a scenario, the militarily,
concept technologically and numerically weaker
The term hybrid warfare emerged during side aimed at avoiding direct confrontations
the first decade of the 21st century when with the opponent and decisive battles were
several scholars were focusing on “the not strategically envisioned. “Hybrid
blending and blurring character of future opponents”, Hoffman argues, “seek victory
conflicts” [32]. It has been used over the by the fusion of irregular tactics and the
last ten years in reference to non-state actors most lethal means available in order to
waging (sometimes seemingly successful) attack and attain their political objectives”
wars against militarily superior state and “the disruptive component of Hybrid
adversaries, but also as illustrative term for Wars does not come from high-end or
Russia’s strategies in eastern Ukraine. The revolutionary technology, but from
term was used for the first time in 2002 in a criminality” [37]. The traditional
master’s thesis by William J. Nemeth [33]. intellectual or conceptual categories seem
In his Future war and Chechnya: a case for obsolete, since they are based on separation
hybrid warfare, Nemeth used this concept between regular and irregular warfare,
in order to analyze how “increasing which becomes transcended by “a fusion of
dislocation brought about by globalization war forms”. According to Hoffman,
enhances the drive toward ethnic or tribal “instead of separate challengers with
affinity”, hence determining “devolving fundamentally different approaches
societies” to reorganize their military forces (conventional, irregular or terrorist), we can
and conduct in warfare. Additionally, expect to face competitors who will employ
Nemeth claimed that “hybrid warfare will all forms of war and tactics, perhaps
become increasingly prevalent” and that the simultaneously. Criminal activity may also
“Chechen insurgency [is] a model for be considered part of this problem as well,
hybrid warfare.” [34] as it either further destabilizes local
It was in 2007 that Franck Hofmann tackled government or abets the insurgent or
hybrid threats as those that are irregular warrior by providing resources, or
simultaneous, fused and subordinated to by undermining the host state and its
one command unit. Focusing on “multi- legitimacy” [38].
modal activities” which are “operationally Hybrid wars, therefore, neither supplant
and tactically directed and coordinated conventional warfare, nor do they confine
within the main battlespace to achieve future threats to mere sub-state or trans-
synergistic effects”, Hoffman argued that state irregular actors. They represent the
“hybrid wars incorporate a range of blending of various forms of tactics and
different modes of warfare including strategies, the simultaneous military and
conventional capabilities, irregular tactics cyber attacks, the instantaneity of targeting
138
and inflicting harm, all facilitated by recognition that such multi-modal threats
globalization and developments in command a ‘holistic’ approach, which
technology and information. At the same combines traditional and non-traditional
time, hybrid wars will retain basic and responses by state and NSAs [non-state
brutal forms of violence, trying to instil actors] as well” [42].
terror and human costs, while exploiting
virtual dimensions of warfare. Hybrid wars 3.3. Russian hybrid warfare
basically combine cyber, kinetic, media, Recent literature links hybrid warfare with
terrorist, and military (regular and irregular) Russia’s actions in eastern Ukraine and the
command structures. They blend malware subsequent annexation of Crimea. Most
and hacking with conventional military articles focus on Russia’s combined
decision-making. [39] strategies and tactics, ranging from
subversion, cyber-attacks, media
3.2. Non-state actors and hybrid warfare manipulation, the presence of “little green
The term hybrid war is associated with non- men”, staged military exercises, criminal
state actors launching military campaigns disorder, agitation and fifth columns.
against states. The war fought by Israel Several authors describe the entire set of
against Lebanon-based Hezbollah in 2006 tools employed by Russia in eastern
was the one that triggered preoccupation for Ukraine [43]. Some scholars focus on cyber
the capacity of a non-state actor, such as warfare or information warfare as major
Hezbollah, to pose a serious threat to the shifts in Russia’s strategies [44] while
conventional Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) others are rather preoccupied with the
not because it merely employed irregular asymmetric nature of Russia’s operations
strategies, but because its strength [45]. Other approaches focus on the
combined military force with “political, difficulty of conceptually coining Russia’s
social, diplomatic, and informational strategy as hybrid war, terming them “gray-
components that provide[d] bedrock zone wars” [46] or a form of “compound
support for its military organization” [40]. ‘indirect’ approach” [47]. Bachmann and
Sascha-Dominik Bachmann and Håkan Gunneriusson focused on the somehow
Gunneriusson tackle the role the internet “undefined nature of the conflict” stressing
and social media as “enhancer and force the difficulties over defining Russia’s
multiplier” in terrorist activities and actions in Crimea as “war or civil unrest,
emphasize the “readiness, availability and interstate aggression or intrastate conflict”
affordability of using new technologies for [48].
setting up effective” systems of “command Russia’s recourse to information warfare
and control” [41]. Referring to non-state and cyber attacks is considered crucial in
terrorist actors, such as Boko Haram, Al- transforming the modes of waging war
Shabaab, ISIS, Bachmann and against Ukraine. Keir Giles focused on the
Gunneriusson stressed the increasing way in which information technologies and
capacity of non-state actors to replicate the social media were employed as both tools
command and control structures of for disinformation, amounting to “hacking
conventional military and observed that of the news” according to some [49], and
recent “developments have changed the for the media construction of Russia’s
traditional view of asymmetric warfare, version of events [50]. What Keir Giles
where an AK-47 and the insurgent’s morale dubs the “next phase of Russian
were traditionally the only and often most information warfare” basically centres on
important factors in achieving victory”. The employment of “Pro-Russian trolls – online
two scholars argued that “hybrid threats as profiles controlled by humans - and bots,
such are not new threats; what is new is the those controlled by automated processes”
139
[51]. A complex and systematic process has footing with the other important actors in
been developed, which tends to supplant the world politics. Consequently, Russia’s
conventional deployment of troops, with hybrid strategies constitute a response to a
“Russia amassing abilities on social media, perceived asymmetric conflict.
ready to be deployed when needed” [52]. As emphasized by James Wither, “many
This led other scholars to assess Russia’s Russian commentators and analysts claim
actions in terms of capacity “to hybridize that Russia has been under sustained and
not only its actual warfare, but also its effective information attack by the US since
informational warfare” [53]. Russia’s the 1980s” and hence, “from a Russian
strategies in eastern Ukraine and the perspective, the seizure of Crimea and
annexation of Crimea are considered hybrid operations in eastern Ukraine are strategic
challenges for the 21st century, since they defensive campaigns to counter US hybrid
heavily rely on what Peter Pomerantsev and warfare against its national interests and
Michael Weiss have called “ ‘the values” [55].
weaponization of information, culture and In both the case of Russia and the case of
money’, vital parts of the Kremlin’s concept non-state actors hybrid strategies were
of ‘non-linear’ war” [54]. meant to counter-act militarily and
technologically stronger opponents, namely
4. Hybrid warfare as response to states and their military arsenals such as
asymmetric relations Israel (in the case of Hezbollah) and the
The main argument defended here is that West, especially the United States (in the
hybrid wars are a contemporary feature of case of Russia).
global politics, mostly associated with non-
state actors (such as terrorist groups) and In conclusion, hybrid warfare is an
with Russia’s strategies in eastern Ukraine, aggregate of blended strategies (facilitated
but also that they are a form of asymmetric by globalization and revolution in
conflict. I argue that Russia’s hybrid war in communications and internet, also
Ukraine entails much more than military triggering the instantaneity of attacks)
aggression against Ukraine and it is in fact a employed by some military actors, which
response to the West, more specifically to perceive themselves in an asymmetric
the global asymmetric conflict with the conflict with an opponent, in an attempt to
United States and Europe, since one major keep up with the uneven conditions.
goal for Putin’s Russia is to be on equal
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140
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[45] Rod Thornton, “Turning strengths into vulnerabilities: the art of asymmetric warfare as
applied by the Russian military in its hybrid warfare concept”, in Bettina Renz; Hanna
Smith, Russia and Hybrid Warfare – Going beyond the Label, Report 1/2016, Aleksanteri
Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland, pp. 52-60.
[46] Antulio J. Echevarria II, “How Should We Think about ‘Gray-Zone’ Wars?”, in Bettina
Renz; Hanna Smith, Russia and Hybrid Warfare – Going beyond the Label, Report
1/2016, Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland, pp. 33-39.
142
[47] Sibylle Scheipers, “Winning Wars without Battles: Hybrid Warfare and Other ‘Indirect’
Approaches in the History of Strategic Thought”, in Bettina Renz; Hanna Smith, Russia
and Hybrid Warfare – Going beyond the Label, Report 1/2016, Aleksanteri Institute,
University of Helsinki, Finland, pp. 47-51.
[48] Bachmann; Gunneriusson, op. cit., 2015, pp. 88-89.
[49] Tikhonova, Polina (2015), “Russia Hacking Your News”, ValueWalk, 14 March 2015,
http://www.valuewalk.com/2015/03/russia-hacking-your-news/
[50] Keir Giles, “The Next Phase of Russian Information Warfare”, in Bettina Renz; Hanna
Smith, Russia and Hybrid Warfare – Going beyond the Label, Report 1/2016, Aleksanteri
Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland, p. 40.
[51] Ibidem.
[52] Ibidem, p. 43.
[53] Peter Pomerantsev; Michael Weiss, The Menace of Unreality: How the Kremlin
Weaponizes Information, Culture and Money, New York: The Institute of Modern Russia,
2014, p. 5.
[54] Ibidem, p. 4.
[55] James K. Wither, “Making Sense of Hybrid Warfare”, Connections: The Quarterly
Journal, 15, no. 2, 2016: 73, p. 80.
143
WARGAMING AND CHALLENGES IN THE EXPERIMENTATION DOMAIN
Jan HODICKY
Centre for the Security and Military Strategic Studies at the University of Defence,
Brno, The Czech Republic
jan.hodicky@seznam.cz
Abstract: Military domain lacks the sufficient funding. It becomes extremely critical investing into the
right projects that will deliver the expected outcome in the acquisition phase from the medium and
long term perspective. The Concept Development and Experimentation (CD&E) is a powerful
approach to reduce the related risk if it is consistently applied. Wargaming is a method that is used in
the military to get insight about the examined phenomena when employing the military decision
making process. The article deals with the role of wargaming in the CD&E. The second part of the
article describes the architecture of wargame, main constructs, phases and critical factors of its
design. The last part of the article describes the proposed Case Study of the Computer Assisted
Wargaming (CAW) to be used for the complex problem like military capability planning and risk
reduction under the specified uncertainty. Uncertainty is reduced by proper Design of Experiment
when the CAW plays the crucial role.
Keywords: modelling and simulation, wargaming, experimentation, capability planning
1. Introduction main components of any Experiment [2].

Military budget is very limited in the most The components are described as:
European countries and goes below the 2% x Independent variable or treatment.
of the Ground Domestic Product [1]. The Input variables that may influence
only approach in the current political and warfighting effectiveness.
economic situation is to implement into x Dependent variable or effect. Output
MoD strategic decision making process variables that are results of the trial and
tools/approaches that might help to reduce shows potential increase or decrease in
the cost and mainly uncertainty related to some measure of warfighting
the wrong implementation of such decision effectiveness.
into the defence planning. It becomes x Experimental unit or team that executes
extremely critical investing into the right the trial.
projects that will deliver the expected x Trial is one observation of the
outcome in the acquisition phase from the experimental unit under one alternative
medium and long term perspective. The of independent variables to see the
Concept Development and Experimentation effects on the dependent variables.
(CD&E) approach is at the moment the x Analysis compares the results of all
most effective and accepted means to trials in the experiment.
support the capability planning as the main CD&E should employ one of the following
objective of defence planning. CD&E methods:
defines 14 principles to follow and five
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0022
144
x Live Experiment. A trial is done in the wargame. The adjudication about the
live environment, real soldiers and real results of the CoAs and the execution of
capability is involved; only the effects wargaming is supported by computers; it
might be simulated. means simulation might be used as one
x Manual Wargame. A trial is executed in of the operation research approaches [4].
the form of wargame. The adjudication A method of the human in the loop in is
about the results of the Course of Action employed. Therefore the results of the
(CoA) is done manually by arbiter/ trial are translated by the human being
umpire. and human factors are included.
x Computer Assisted Wargame (CAW).
A trial is performed in the form of a
Figure 1: Experimentation and scope of methods
x Constructive Simulation Experiment. A a constructive simulation. This means

Trial is done in synthetic environment eliminates any non-wanted human decision
created by constructive simulation [3]. and allows executing the experiment in very
Capabilities and human decision is fully structured way. However the realism is a
replicated in the constructive simulation. critical element. Human decision is limited
Human input is limited to creation of to the capacity of artificial intelligence
CoAs of players. Important feature is implemented in the simulation because
limited number of operators to be able to there is no human being interaction during
manage a simulator effectively. the execution of a trial.
x Virtual Experiment. A trial is carried On the other side there is the Live
out in the virtual environment, where Experiment where the realism is very high.
actors are mixture of real person in the However the way to control the
avatar form and artificial intelligence. experimental trial is limited. Another
Decision about CoAs might be done by important factor is that live experiments are
simulator or by human- avatars. usually very expensive and an element of a
Figure 1 describes the scope of the method danger shouldn’t be underestimated either.
and its relation to the experiment control CAW and manual war gaming seem to be
and experiment realism. The best way to the optimum solution to support analytical
control the experiment and assure the rigor studies in defence from the applicability
from the procedural point of view is to use and resources point of view.
Another solution that brings good ration
145
between the experiment control and it needed in the design phase of wargaming to
realism is to perform a trial as complete set up the scene.
Virtual Experiment; however the current Wargaming is a process composed of four
state of the art in the simulation domain is main steps [5]:
not mature enough. It would require x Set up of preconditions. The
connecting the virtual environment where experimental unit must be trained in
all players are in the form of avatars with using WG and personnel running WG as
the adjudication platform instantiated by well.
simulation. x Preparation and planning.
Documentation like scenarios,
2. Wargaming as an analytical tool responsibilities, Main Event List (MEL)/
The history of wargaming is connected with Main Incident List (MIL) must be
Kriegsspiel. It was the very first systematic prepared well in advance.
approach to train a commander staff in x Execution. Execution of WG is usually
decision making process in the Prussian run in sequences that correspond to the
army in 1830. It was originally played as a identified scenarios/ vignettes. Each
game strictly controlled by explicitly sequence is run in one or more cycles
defined rules. However it proved to be depending on the level of expected
contra productive. The players abused the insight/analysis. Each cycle is run as the
rules to win the game and there was no process described on the Figure 2. A
authority – umpire who decides on the cycle is composed of five steps. Initial
results of the particular CoA. Therefore the situation is explained by facilitator and
open version of the Kriegsspiel was stress is put on the situation descried by
launched and rules were more flexible and a vignette. It is followed by CoA
adjudication of CoA was done by a senior proposed by Blue Team with detailed
rank with sufficient authority. From description over the map to other
definition of wargaming as “A warfare participants. Then Red Team explains its
simulation that does not involve the actual CoA and Bluet Team react in a new
forces, using rules data and procedures in counter CoA. The very last part of the
which the flow of events shapes and is cycle is the cognition phase run by
shaped by decisions made by a human umpire and facilitator where the main
player or players”, is evident that individual insight about the cycle is amplified.
decision is made by human being or other x Evaluation of collected information.
players. The meaning of the others is the After action review and analytical part
artificial intelligence. Word simulation must be done at the end of any WG
explains that decision making process is activities. A quality of this phase
done over the simulated environment, even influences an acceptation of the results
if an experiment might be run as live one. of WG process, mainly if it used for
Another important fact is that a flow of analytical purposes.
incidents is controlled by participants, it is
not pre-scripted. However, good scripting is
Figure 2: WG execution phase
146
Wargaming is relatively cheap, and open to intelligence, representing both or one
innovative way of thinking, method that side.
allows educating, training, informing, and x Analysts. The role of analyst is crucial
analyzing of a problem domain. In further mainly in the situation when the WG is
reading the stress is put on the analytical used for analytical purposes.
capability of wargaming where the x Facilitator. The role of facilitator is to
objective is to make recommendation for support flawless execution of the game
decision making process based on the by giving assistance to the players to
results of the wargaming process. better achieve the objectives of the WG.
x Umpire. The role of the umpire is to
3. CAW architecture make decision over the executed CoA
CAW architecture is composed of the and to support cognition phase of each
following constructs: cycle of the execution phase.
x Scenario. The main driver of
wargaming process is an exhaustive 4. Critical factors in WG
description of the scene via a scenario. Application of WG method generally
The scenario must be transferred from depends on many factors; the most
the language of military to the important and challenging are elaborated
executable form readable by computer; bellow:
e.g. Military Scenario Description x Experienced umpire/ facilitator. The
Language [6]. umpire must be a senior officer who is
x ORBAT. Order of Battle contains the accepted as the character in the military
current capability of own forces and its domain by the players and is
characteristics. experienced in WG execution. Facilitator
x Objectives. WG design must start with must be trained in WG execution,
explicit definition of its objectives. however more critical for him is to
x Maps and Charts. WG must be run over understand the objective and scenario of
the map or replication of the map by WG in the very detailed way.
current Information and Communication x Collaborating staff. Players must be
Tools like, Geographical Information motived to be part of the process and
System (GIS) or 2D/3D modelers. should be nominated from the very
x Clock. Wargaming is not an activity beginning of design of WG and not
running in continues manners. It is changed in the middle of the WG
executed in discrete time intervals. process.
Therefore a clock is represented by x Scenario. Scenarios must be developed
Simulation time that is changed in the as close as possible to the reality;
pace required by the Players to better otherwise it is going to be refused by the
understand a problem domain. players. If it is run as CAW then the
x Rules&Data. The adjudication over scenario must be replicable in the
players’ moves is done by umpire that synthetic environment, e.g. in the
follows one part rules that are explicitly constructive simulation.
stated and the second one that is based x Feedback and Records (FIR, AAR). For
on the umpires\ best knowledge. The analytical purposes and for justification
first category of rules might be coded in of WG design and execution
the core of a simulation system to expenditures, immersion of feedbacks’
support a decision of an umpire. collection must be done in very sensitive
x Players. Dynamicity of a wargame is and rigorous way. Otherwise it might
created by players. They might be in the spoil a flow of the execution and it might
form of a human being or an artificial
147
create barrier in the freedom of players’ important, even if the WG is run at the
innovative thinking. strategic level.
x Visualization. The game is played over x Entertainment. The last but the most
terrain that needn’t to be only in the important factor in WG execution is
form of a cart map but more often is amusement. If players are not attracted
visualized in 2D or 3D. It brings a new by scenarios, if they do not feel to be
challenge in the WG design and part of the group, if the map model in 2D
execution. Critical factor is to find out or 3D is not eyes’ catching, then the
limits on the level of details to be objective of the WG is difficult to
displayed to the players. achieve. Facilitator plays here important
x Working Information and role as well.
Communication Technology (ICT).
CAW is founded on the support from 5. Proposed Case Study
ICT world. Therefore up and running, The Czech Armed Forces doesn’t have at
stable and flexible ICT environment the moment formalized procedure to deal
must be implemented; otherwise it with capability planning. The objective of
might be even contra productive. the current research is to use the power of
x Precise planning phase of WG. Quality analytical tools like CAW and to implement
of the execution phase of WH is highly it into a new capability planning process in
influenced by the planning phase. All accordance with CD&E approach. Figure 3
documents must be prepared in high describes proposed architecture of applied
quality a consistent manner. Details are CAW in the capability planning.
Figure 3: WG execution phase
Main input in the architecture is scenario at that is available in the moment of the
the strategic level. It must be translated into capability planning process. It creates
the executable form [6], [7] readable by condition for Design of the Experiment
constructive simulation used as a core of (DoE) where Key Performance Parameters
analytical method of CAW [8], [9], [10]. (KPP) at the strategic level through
Second main input is the current capability Measure of Effectiveness (MoE) at the
148
operational level up to the Measure of decision is needed and parameters are not
Performance (MoP) at the system/model clear, the problem domain is not well
level are defined. Next phase is the first defined and factor of uncertainty is very
cycle of wargaming with objective to find high. Implemented process of capability
out gaps and short back in the Current planning supported by CAW will increase
Capabilities in confrontation to defined confidence that the findings are valid and
Scenarios. Analysis enables transferring the creates a systematic body of knowledge to
results of the CAW from the System Level inform and investigate capability
represented by MoP back up to the strategic development. The future work will be
level and KPP. If gaps identified a new focused on the development of the strategy
experimentation cycle must be run and to translate scenarios from generic
models must be updated in the constructive description down to the executable form
simulation to adequately represent new and on definition of the set of Key
capabilities required. Then DoE might be Performance Parameters, Measure of
updated based on new set of MoPs. The Performance and Measure of Effectiveness
Experimentation cycles are repeated till the to unify the inputs for the capability
moment the Future Capabilities are clearly planning process.
identified.
Acknowledgements
6. Conclusions This work is sponsored by the project called
The role of experimentation is crucial in STRATAL (2016-2020).
any complex military environment where
References
[1] Mironova, D.S. Nato transformation in the context of global financial and economic
crisis (2016) World Economy and International Relations, 60 (6), pp. 80-89.
[2] Guide for Understanding and Implementing Defense Experimentation (GUIDEx). ISBN
92-95046-11-0. Canadian Forces Experimentation Centre, Ottawa, Canada. 2006.
[3] Hernandez, A.S. Integrating simulation-driven decisions and business wargames to
shape fiscal policies (2015) Simulation Series, 47 (2), pp. 111-118.
[4] Novotny, Antonin; Prochazka, Dalibor. Application of system dynamics in the process
of sharing military capabilities. In: Proceedings International Scientific Conference
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Bucharest, Romania: Carol I National Defence University Centre for Defence and
Security Strategies Studies, 2015, p. 90-101. ISSN 2285-8318.
[5] Dunnigan, J.F. (1992) The Complete Wargames Handbook.
[6] Blais, C., Dodds, R., Pearman, J., Baez, F. Rapid Scenario Generation for multiple
simulations: An application of the Military Scenario Definition Language (MSDL)
(2009) Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization - Spring Simulation
Interoperability Workshop 2009, pp. 20-32.
[7] McCreight, R. Scenario development: Using geopolitical wargames and strategic
simulations (2013) Environmentalist, 33 (1), pp. 21-32.
[8] Casar, J., Stefek, A.: Analysis of decision process in HLA simulations. Croatian Journal
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[9] Casar, Josef. Expert analysis of decision process in simulator In: international
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ISBN 978-80-7231-848-3.
[10] STODOLA, Petr; MAZAL, Jan. Tactical Decision Support System to Aid Commanders
in their Decision-Making. In: Modelling and Simulation for Autonomous Systems.
Rome: Springer, 2016, p. 396-406. ISSN 0302-9743. ISBN 978-3-319-47604-9.
149
KEYSTONES OF IRREGULAR WARFARE
0LFKDO+51ý,$5
Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš,

Slovakia
michal.hrnciar@aos.sk
Abstract: The current security environment is evolving towards a global complexity of unpredictable
events. The risk of state and non-state actors attempting to achieve their goals through destabilization
exists. In the operating environment, this implies a blurring of the boundaries between state and non-
state actors (such as insurgents, terrorists and criminals) and NATO may confront an adversary who
uses traditional (conventional), irregular warfare or both (hybrid warfare). The aim of the article is to
find, analyze and describe the key elements that fundamentally different irregular of traditional
(conventional) and hybrid warfare.
Keywords: irregular, traditional, hybrid, warfare, tactics
1. Introduction or cyber war. Judging from publicly

The security environment is evolving available sources, the issue of modern, so-
towards a global complexity of called "irregular wars" is in Slovakia for
unpredictable events. It is characterized by a many politicians, journalists, opinion
wide range of threats and risks posed makers and even for military personnel still
important security-political challenges of the a big unknown. The eventual debate on the
21st century. It can be defined as global, ongoing operations in Afghanistan and so-
complex, multilayer and variable. It is called “Islamic State” shows that many
characterized by high dynamics, turbulence, people still are not quite acquainted with
increasing diversity of actors and their the basic set of rules that dominate the
interests. Adversaries can become not only current armed conflict characterized by
the traditional nation-states, as well as asymmetry and other irregular activities.
organized entities represented by non-state Therefore, the aim of this article is to
armed actors, insurgents, terrorists or identify and briefly describe the key
criminal networks. [1] elements that clearly distinguish irregular
Modern armies have become extremely conflict from conflict traditional or hybrid.
dependent on sophisticated technologies.
Without these instruments their economies 2. General definitions and characteristics
can no longer be working and their Irregular warfare is one of the oldest form of
infrastructure would breakdown. Thus warfare. It is also called as a little or small
technologies offer a high standard of life to war, low-intensity conflict or tribal warfare.
societies but on the other side present There have been more than 80 irregular
vulnerability. [2] wars, since World War II. They include
The most common manifestations of civil conflict in Somalia, rebellions in
contemporary conflicts are insurgency and Chechnya or insurgencies in Algeria, Iraq
terrorism, but also various forms of or Afghanistan. These conflicts involved
criminal activities, public riots, subversion irregular fighters fighting against other
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0023
150
irregular fighters, regular army of a state, or civilian with military actors taken to defeat an
an international intervention force. [3] insurgency and address core grievances. [5]
The term irregular warfare defines conflicts Traditional warfare (also called
that manifest actions usually do not include “conventional” or “high intensity conflict”)
traditional confrontation military forces. is a war between states (state-to-state war)
Term “irregular” used to describe a that employs direct military confrontation
deflection from the classical conventional to defeat an adversary’s forces, destroy an
form of warfare where adversaries may use adversary’s capacity, or seize territory in
non-traditional methods such as guerrilla order to force a change in an adversary’s
warfare, terroristic attacks, subversion, and government or policies. [6]
insurgency for control of local population. Another category of conflict is called
This is a summary of the activities of hybrid warfare. This "modern" term is a
military, political, psychological and combination of a number of conventional
economic nature guided by local, non-state and irregular warfare tools (diplomacy,
actors (insurgents) for use primarily economic and information warfare,
irregular activities. propaganda, cyberattacks etc.). The hybrid
Irregular warfare is defined as „a violent warfare is characterized by synchronous
struggle among state and non-state actors engagement of regular forces and non-state
for legitimacy and influence over the actors using a mixture of regular and
relevant population(s). Irregular warfare irregular activities. This conflict executed
favours indirect approaches, though it may by both state and non-state threats that
employ the full range of military and other employs conventional capabilities, irregular
capacities in order to erode an adversary’s tactics, and criminal disorder. [7]
power, influence, and will“. [4] Hybrid warfare involve traditional and
It is a big confusion between terms irregular irregular warfare forms crosswise the full
warfare and counterinsurgency (COIN). spectrum of conflict. Figure 1 shows a
COIN is a specific subgroup of irregular pattern of approaches that could be included
warfare involving comprehensive efforts in hybrid form of warfare. [6]
Figure 1: Contrasting Traditional and Irregular warfare [6]
3. Contrasting Dimensions of Warfare type of conflict are symmetric armed forces

There are few of fundamental dimensions of opposing states or alliance of states.
which traditional (conventional) and In contrast, irregular warfare is
irregular wars will differ. characterized by blurred the boundary
3.1 Participants between war and politics, the military and
Traditional (conventional) warfare is civilians. States have lost their monopoly
essentially state-to-state war. Actors in this on the conduct of armed conflict.
151
In the irregular conflict is one of the rival warfare try to solve conflict by forcing
forces represented aggressive asymmetric change in enemy’s behaviour. However,
non-state actor (irregular forces or they contrast importantly in focusing its
insurgents). The characteristic features of effort.
insurgents are decentralized and often Traditional (conventional) warfare
multinational base. [8] concentrates on dominion over an enemy’s
3.2 Motivation and main goal ability to hold its operational capability, but
Motivation for traditional (conventional) population is generally out of the main
war is territory, economic (for example attention.
seizing natural resources) or political Irregular conflicts are absolutely focused on
change. The result of such a military their attitude, which is considered the
confrontation is usually easily measurable, central point of interest, means to achieve
such as liberation or occupation of certain the objectives. The aim therefore is not
territories, destruction, defeat or elimination militarily defeat the enemy but various
of a known enemy and so on. [9] forms of influence on people in order to
On the other hand, the motivation of achieve a change in his thinking and policy
irregular war is usually ideology, religious decisions of the government (Figure 2). [5]
extremism, ethnic separatism, colonialism, Irregular war requires the active or hidden
culture. On the contrary, the aim of support of the population concerned.
irregular war is not military defeat the External recognition or approval of other
enemy but various forms of influence on countries or political parties is not
domestic government to achieve change necessary. Success in this conflict is
(elimination or weakening of the authority directly determined by the degree of
of government, change of control of the support from host country populations.
whole territory or part of the existing Indigenous people become the heart of
government, or achieve political efforts of both rival forces. This ongoing
concessions in sharing political power). [8] fight is focusing on "hearts and minds" of
3.3 Centre of gravity the population of the host nation. [8]
Both irregular and traditional (conventional)
Figure 2: Contrasting Traditional and Irregular warfare [5]
3.4 Terrain control of cities, infrastructure and territory.

One of the main differences between The advantage of the irregular forces is that
conventional and irregular war is connected they are not tied to the territory and
with meaning of territory. normally a waiver in order to gain time. If
While conventional conflicts are they are forced to leave the base, settlement
characterized by basic connection or position, they transfer their activities to
stakeholders in the geographical area, the another area, where conventional forces,
insurgents used the so-called “Fabian’s due to limited resources or political
strategy” thus they do not seek to gain constraints present a lower risk. The
152
paradox becomes that the military weakness They achieve their goals through regular
of the insurgents is also an essential source and irregular activities that can take many
of their strength. [9] forms (propaganda, convince civilians to
3.5 Duration collaborate with insurgency, subversion,
Observance of traditional conflict is that it kidnapping, rape, suicide bombings,
should end as soon as possible, in irregular terrorism e. c.). They profit from fear
war, it is not. If insurgents feel time is on factor. Act of faith "to kill one and frighten
their side, they are more likely to adopt a ten thousand." [12].
lower risk approach and avoid becoming Insurgents primarily use infiltration and
resolutely engaged. If they perceive time as surprise, after the implementation of impact
being against them, that will push them (mainly by attack by fire, ambush or raid)
towards higher risk activities. Insurgents followed by immediate distraction and
have the ability to protract a conflict, which entanglement in a crowd present population
may be extremely costly for both state ("hit and run"), which is a typical feature of
authorities and international forces. guerrilla warfare. [13] Their work is
Insurgents win a war when they don't lose, characterized by using of methods and
while the counter-insurgents lose when they means that are unusual and often at odds
don't win. [10] with humanitarian, moral and ethical rules.
3.6 Overall Strategy and Tactics The asymmetry in military terms thus
In both types of conflicts, conventional and against each other the activities carried out
irregular, the actors seek to resolve conflicts in accordance with military standards and
by acting on the enemy. However, they international law and various methods of
differ inherently in strategy, tactics and fighting guerrilla way, ignoring the Geneva
using means. conventions. [8]
In conventional conflict is applied direct
overall strategy - orchestrate military 4. Conclusions
offensives to eliminate the enemy. Tactical The difference between the traditional
expression balance of power in the irregular (conventional) and modern irregular war is
conflict in most cases strongly suggests the confirmed by the American authors, led by
predominance of regular armed forces W. S. Lind, who have divided a history of
(numerical, technological, situational and modern wars, respectively military art, into
conceptual) to those irregular. [11] They four warfare generations. Based on the
have better training, better equipment and results of their work is possible
better system of command and control in contemporary conflicts, characterized by
combination with the option to request their complexity and long duration of the
support using modern weapon systems. action of non-state actors utilizing
Insurgents will therefore enter into a sophisticated psychological and irregular
confrontation only in case of favourable activity or terrorism, may be integrate in the
circumstances. The aim of irregular fighter so-called "Fourth generation warfare". [14]
will often only caused to bereavement in The nature of modern conflict is changing.
the hope that the home countries deployed Modern warfare is different type of war,
regular forces will decrease the political recent in its intensity, olden in its origin war
will to continue the conflict. by insurgents or guerrillas, war by ambush
Tactics of non-state actor responsible way instead of by combat, by infiltration instead
asymmetrical warfare. Fighters generally of aggression, seeking victory by
organized into small independently exhausting the adversary instead of
operating over groups with different levels engaging him. [5]
of resolution and readiness do not want to The primary object of confrontation is not
be directly confronted with regular forces. the armed forces, but the society and its
153
support. Whoever is able to be successful in efficiency in this type of conflict is
the battle of "story" is mostly successful in therefore subject to the application of a
the war and conflict. different approach, a different range
Ability to face irregular threats from strategic and operational thinking, and quite
conventional forces required to understand different sort of force, fully different
the specific nature of the irregular conflict, capabilities, and therefore a significantly
its context and the participants. Their different species of military training. [15]
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515-1.
154
CYBERWARFARE
Petr HRUZA, Jiri CERNY

petr.hruza@unob.cz, jiri.cerny@unob.cz
Abstract: The internet has to be considered a very dangerous battlefield. Nobody is secure. It is a
paradox that those countries which do not feel vulnerable may be the most threatened by cyber war.
This applies primarily to western powers and fast developing countries. Cyberattack may easily be
ordered through the internet. Such an attack is cheaper than an attack by conventional weapons and
at the same time it causes bigger economic losses. It is obvious from the military standpoint that
cyberattacks and defence against them have to be an indispensable part of military activities. The
reason is that the military consider the internet and virtual space to be the fifth area of employment of
their forces, besides land, air, water and space. It is stated in the hypotheses that cyber activities will
be an inseparable part of future military operations. The key objective will be to achieve information
supremacy or information dominance on the battlefield. Thus developed countries develop and
introduce new cyber weapons with the aim of striking the enemy´s command and control structures, its
logistics, transport, early warning systems and other vitally important military functions at any time
upon receiving an order.
Keywords: Cyberwarfare, NATO, Cyberattacks, Cyberspace
1. Introduction groups, companies, political or ideological

Cyberwarfare is a hot topic. Armed forces, extremist groups, hacktivists, and
intelligence, and law enforcement agencies transnational criminal organizations. [2]
have made computer security a top priority Some governments have made it an integral
for investment and recruitment. In fact, part of their overall military strategy, with
current efforts to take the higher ground in some having invested heavily in
cyberspace are so intense that many cyberwarfare capability. [3] Cyberwarfare
governments will overreach, with is essentially a formalized version
unfortunate ramifications for democracy of penetration testing in which a
and human rights around the world. government entity has established it as
Cyberwarfare involves the use and a warfighting capability. [4]
targeting of computers and networks in This capability uses the same set of
warfare. It involves both offensive and penetration testing methodologies but
defensive operations pertaining to the threat applies them in a strategic way to:
of cyberattacks, espionage and sabotage. x Prevent cyberattacks against critical
There has been controversy over whether infrastructure;
such operations can duly be called "war". x Reduce national vulnerability to
Cyberwarfare has been defined as "actions cyberattacks;
by a nation-state to penetrate another x Minimize damage and recovery time
nation's computers or networks for the from cyberattacks [4]
purposes of causing damage or Offensive operations are also part of these
disruption"[1], but other definitions also national level strategies for officially
include non-state actors, such as terrorist declared wars as well as undeclared
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0024
155
secretive operations. [5] objective will be to achieve information
Despite these factors, there are still many supremacy or information dominance on
sceptics over cyber war, and more questions the battlefield. Thus developed countries
than answers. Although malicious code has develop and introduce new cyber weapons
served criminals and spies very well, can with the aim of striking the enemy´s
cyberattacks offer soldiers more than a command and control structures, its
temporary, tactical edge on the battlefield? logistics, transport, early warning systems
Can it have a strategic effect? and other vitally important military
functions at any time upon receiving an
2. NATO Standpoint on Cyberspace order. [7]
NATO countries legal standpoint on For cyber operations, the Army will need to
cyberspace is quite clear. NATO countries, build trust and operate with NATO
including the Czech Republic, partners. The Army must be able to employ
acknowledged within the NATO cyber cyber capabilities at all echelons, including
defence policy, that international law, tactical echelons. The Army must be able to
including the international humanitarian operate with existing authorities and be
law, may be applied in cyberspace. This prepared to operate with increased
standpoint was acknowledged by the Allies authorities it might gain in the future.
also in the NATO Wales Summit
Declaration (4-5 Sept. 2014). 3. Targets of Cyberattacks
Cyberspace is recognized as another sphere Most people believe that the targets of
for the conduct of combat. Its importance is cyberattacks do not concern them. They
on the increase as it is the space in which believe that it is a problem of a state, or the
attacks may be aimed at military, industrial institutions having relations to the state
and political cyber espionage, damage of defence and security. Such a way of
state critical infrastructure, own enrichment, thinking is a serious risk in the area of
collection of information otherwise cyber threats.
inaccessible, intentional dissemination of Cyberattack has to be concealed, or at least
disinformation within the conduct of kept in secret till the very last moment. The
information operations in cyberspace real target must not be revealed before
(Warsaw Summit, 8–9 July 2016). sufficient preconditions are created for its
All NATO armies activities are increasingly efficient strike. There is obviously an
dependent on the elements of civil critical analogy with a common combat tactics and
information infrastructure. Mainly in the although hackers attack with other
initial phases of conflicts cyberattacks will weapons, they are the same combatants as
target information systems, communication soldiers in the field. The combat principles
systems and the systems of critical are similar to those of a typical
infrastructure (e.g. power industry, finance, conventional war. Therefore, we have to be
transport, telecommunication, health system prepared that typical future war conflicts
…). These systems will be targeted with the will be accompanied by attacks against
aim to disrupt command and control important communication and information
system, reduce conventional military nodes of a state. [8]
capability and combat readiness of a state. Each computer network is as secure as its
It is obvious from the military standpoint weakest part. Computer connection into
that cyberattacks and defence against them the computer network represents the biggest
have to be inseparable parts of armed risk. The risk of a developed information
operations. It is stated in the hypotheses society is in its dependence on information
that cyber activities will be an inseparable and communication systems. A state, the
part of future military operations. The key governance of which has a high degree of
156
informatization, is much more vulnerable sufficiently protected;
than a state with a low degree of x Access denial: attacks against e.g. armed
informatization. Thus, the cybewar is a real forces which use computers and satellites
phenomenon for such developed states. It is for communication. Orders and reports
conducted in close proximity and anybody may be intercepted and altered, which
of us may be its participant, as well as its may result in dangerous situations for the
victim. On the one hand, modern army;
technologies make our lives easier, but on x Network attacks against
the other hand there is an increased risk infrastructure: attacks on transmission
they will be abused. It is significantly easier systems of the companies in power
to paralyze modern states on the level of engineering, gas industry, heating
digital processing and exchange of industry, oil industry and communication
information. Thus, the most developed infrastructure, which are sensitive to
states and their modern armies cannot cyber attacks;
ignore their cyber security. [8] x Non-network based attacks against
Cyberattack is usually carried out on the infrastructure: abuse (or rather utilization)
technology control elements which may of common computer hardware and
seriously threaten people´s lives, hardware used in internet operation and
production, technology, or service. security. Virus is hidden in hardware,
Cyberattack may thus be defined as an software, or maybe even in
attack against the infrastructure of microprocessors.
information technologies with the aim to Cyber war may further be classified in the
cause damage or get sensitive or same way as a conventional war into
strategically important information. It is defensive and offensive cyber war. [11]
most often connected with politically and 4.1 Defensive Cyberwarfare
military motivated attacks. Cyberattacks In case of defensive cyber war it will be
will soon become a bigger threat than important to determine strategically
terrorism. [9] important installations. At present such
installations are buildings and the decisive
4. Cyberwarfare Methods criteria are their geographical locations,
The increasing number of internet users equipment, etc. These installations may also
resulted in the fact that propaganda is be virtual in case of cyber war. In order to
spread more efficiently in cyber space than prevent an attack or reduce loses and
e.g. through leaflets airdropping. The damage it is necessary, prior the attack
spreading of malware is easier, more itself, to minimize the number of input
available and faster with the increasing access spots, introduce multiple software
number of users. Therefore the threats of security, hardware security and properly
cyber attacks are also more likely. screen and train the personnel with network
There are various methods of cyber attacks access permits.
in cyber space ranging from the moderate to Cyber attackers have got a clear goal with
the merciless ones, such as follows: [10] an easy plan. The key to success is the
x Vandalism: common attacks on moment of surprise during attack. The
government web sites. Such attacks are earlier the defender responds to the attack,
usually fast and do not cause serious the easier it may be to stop or repulse it. If
damage; such an attack with the moment of surprise
x Propaganda: dissemination of political is conducted, it is first necessary to stabilize
news mainly through internet; the whole system and thus deal with the
x Collection of data: collection of surprise. Second, it is necessary to detect
classified information which is not the attack and try to understand the
157
attacker´s plans and intentions. Then the 5. May Forces Ratio Be Calculated In
attack may be repulsed. It must not be Cyber Space?
forgotten that the attack analysis always has Various tactical calculations may be part of
to follow. Based on acquired information, combat planning. One of such calculations
the protection of critical infrastructure is the ratio of forces and resources. The
(hardware and software) has to be increased ratio of forces and resources is prepared as
in order to prevent possible subsequent a supplementary document, mainly to the
cyber attacks. [12] decisive phases of task (combat order)
4.2 Offensive Cyberwarfare fulfilment. Such a ratio may be elaborated
Firstly, we have to be aware of the aspects either quantitatively, or qualitatively.
of offensive cyberwarfare and compare Authors present the numbers (assumed) of
them with traditional aspects (conventional forces and resources employed by enemy
war, diplomacy, etc.). Such a type of war and friendly forces in individual required
may be more acceptable for public than categories in quantitative forces ratio, while
employing the means of conventional war. in case of qualitative forces ratio the quality
Although a cyberwarfare may avoid direct of employed forces and resources is
casualties, there are still indirect dangers. considered. Such quality is considered in
Critical infrastructure is somewhere the final ratio of forces and resources of a
between state and private sectors. It given category through so called combat
includes e.g. water distribution network, potential. The fact is that enemy forces and
electric energy network, air traffic control, resources are considered on the basis of
and other systems critical for the probability assumptions. It is a summary of
functioning of a particular country. Enemy qualitative and quantitative data about the
may take advantage of our dependence on forces and resources of fighting parties with
cyber space and gain strategic advantage in the help of which a better idea of combat
a possible conflict. It is assumed that a capabilities and the likely outcome of
cyber war would precede a conventional combat can be obtained. [13]
war. [12] How is it possible to calculate the ratios of
Future possible cyberwarfare are reasons forces of cyber armies being against each
for our serious concerns. Unlike traditional other in a war cyber conflict? Is it feasible
wars requiring a vast amount of sources, to carry out such a calculation? In fact, it is
such as weapons, personnel and equipment, almost impossible. In case of war in cyber
cyber wars require somebody who has got space it is quality, not quantity, which
appropriate know-how, computers, and counts. A hundred of specially trained
willingness to create chaos. Enemy may be soldiers of cyber units may fail face to face
everywhere, even inside the country or with one talented enemy (a cyber attacker).
organization. An intense attack may be Quantitative supremacy need not be
carried out by only a few hackers with the decisive in cyber space. Thus, is it enough
help of standard computers. [12] or not to have 100 or 1.000 specially trained
Another terrifying aspect of cyber war is soldiers? [13]
the fact that cyber attack may be either part I think that military cyber units may be
of a coordinated attack, or it may only be an compared at least according to the
idea of a malicious hacker, e.g. with a following three criteria:
funny idea. No matter what the attacker x Capability of carrying out attack in cyber
motive is, cyber attacks may cause big space (offensive potential);
financial losses. And many countries are x Capability of preventing attack
pitifully unprepared to manage such (defensive potential);
unexpected cyber attacks. [12] x Dependence on cyber environment
(dependency).
158
Other aspects considered for more detailed The Military Intelligence builds the
comparison may be the capability of National Centre of Cyber Forces, which
restoring key systems, existence of will systematically monitor and report
supplementary or contingency systems, anomalies in cyber space. Cyber space
crisis plans, etc. In case of cyber combat we monitoring is important and irreplaceable in
deal with rather potential possibilities for cyber defence. The monitoring enables us
calculating the forces ratio of cyber units, to identify in time certain phenomena
because more detailed information is never which may indicate the preparation of cyber
available. The reason is the fact that any attack. The systematic monitoring will be
statement of future attacker may help the provided through technical means located
opponent to be better prepared for potential in the networks of the Czech providers of
weaknesses, provoke testing operations, electronic networks.
and breach public confidence. The future
attacker´s statement about perfect 7. Conclusions
protection of his own network may provoke The seriousness of cyber threat is
testing operations carried out not only by underestimated. Cyberattacks of any kind
potential attackers, but also by haphazard are very sophisticated offensive instruments
non-state actors (e.g. hackers) with the aim against which there is not an easy defence.
to reveal possible weaknesses. [13] There is a common chacteristics of all such
I have been dealing with the calculation of attacks – they are of low costs for attackers,
forces ratio in cyber space since 2013. but their consequences, elimination and
More detailed description of the outcomes possible prevention are more and more
in qualitative and quantitative calculation of costly and the damages may reach billions
forces ratio is beyond the scope of this of dollars. Those who suffer from such
contribution. attacks are individuals, economic entities,
government institutions and also armed
6. Cyber Defence in the Czech Republic forces. Damages of the largest degree range
Gradual steps have been taken in building from the theft of secret or sensitive data to
the cyber defence in the Czech Republic. At the destabilization of various infrastructures
first, the Government tasked Military or even critical information infrastructure.
Intelligence to build a unit capable of As the biggest problem remains the fact that
conducting operations in cyber space. Why hackers are difficult to be caught due to
Military Intelligence? Army is responsible the anonymity of internet. Even a more
for the defence of the Czech Republic and serious problem will occur when states
the Military Intelligence is the military become participants.
intelligence service and a constituent of Acknowledgements
the Czech Ministry of Defence. Moreover, This work was supported by the project no.
cyber space is not a typical battlefield, it is VI20152019049 "RESILIENCE 2015:
rather information space, and intelligence Dynamic Resilience Evaluation of
service traditionally plays an important role Interrelated Critical Infrastructure
in this area. Advantage is also the fact that Subsystems" supported by the Ministry of
Military Intelligence is the only Czech the Interior Security Research Programme
intelligence service both on our territory of the Czech Republic in the years 2015-
and abroad. 2020.
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160
CULTURAL INTEROPERABILITY – PREREQUISITE FOR THE RESPONSE TO HYBRID

THREATS
Lucian ISPAS*, Paul TUDORACHE**
*”Nicolae BăOFHVFX” /DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD

**”Carol I” National Defence 8QLYHUVLW\%XFKDUHVW5RPDQLD
LVSDVOXFLDQ#\DKRRFRP, WXGRUDFKH#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: Nowadays, in addition to the already known challenges, the hybrid threats require new
responses, which had a timely appearance (adapting the existing military capabilities, the
establishment of new military structures, at division and brigade level, their training etc.) and which
involve an unconditional cooperation between NATO Member States and between them and their
partners. From the perspective of the military response, creating multinational military structures
based on different national contingents raises a number of questions on how they succeed to act
coherently, in a coordinated and integrated manner. In this respect, the role of interoperability in
general, and of cultural interoperability at the level of NATO military structures, in particular, has
significantly increased, becoming a necessity for the development of multinational military operations
as a joint response to the hybrid threats.
.H\ZRUGV: FXOWXUDO GLYHUVLW\ FXOWXUDO GLIIHUHQFHV LQWHURSHUDELOLW\ EHKDYLRUDO

LQWHURSHUDELOLW\ FXOWXUDO LQWHURSHUDELOLW\ PXOWLQDWLRQDO PLOLWDU\ VWUXFWXUHV
PXOWLQDWLRQDOPLOLWDU\RSHUDWLRQVK\EULGWKUHDWV
,QWURGXFWLRQ (the ex-Soviet space, the area controlled by

The ongoing transformation of the security ISIS between Syria and Iraq, Iran, China
environment in general, and the emerging etc.) [2]. The establishment, the training
hybrid threats, in particular, have led and the use of multinational military
NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty structures for conducting multinational
Organization - NATO) to adopt a series of exercises/operations or for other purposes,
measures that facilitate the adaptation of the as part of the response to hybrid threats and
existing capabilities and the improvement not only, generates a series of challenges
of their mode of action. In this regard, the regarding the achievement of cultural
NATO summit in Wales, held between interoperability, i.e. identifying an answer
September 4-5, 2014, NATO member states to the question How do national
agreed on the implementation of NATO’s contingents within multinational military
capability to respond effectively to the structures succeed to act jointly, timely,
challenges posed by hybrid threats, where a coherently, in a coordinated and integrated
broad spectrum of visible and covert manner?
military, paramilitary and civilian actions Even if the analysis of cultural diversity
are engaged in a highly integrated design within multinational military structures is
[1] by different actors (state, non-state, not novel, and has been addressed countless
embryo state) at different levels (tactical, times both in national and international
operational, strategic), in different regions scientific conferences, as well as in
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0025
161
specialized journals and magazines, trying strategic objectives” [7], we believe that a
to understand how cultural differences common denominator of the definitions
influence the activities and actions of the given to cultural interoperability should be
static (multinational headquarters) or action built on that ability by which the
(multinational military operations) capabilities of various national military
multinational military structures and contingents interact positively, in order to
solving the problems generated by them, solve the cultural diversity problems so as
are essential in achieving the cultural to achieve common tactical and operational
interoperability of multinational military objectives and accomplish the end state
structures. specific to the multinational military
operation.
2 &XOWXUDO LQWHURSHUDELOLW\ – a “PXVW In a multinational military context, the
KDYH´ RI WKH 1$72 PXOWLQDWLRQDO conduct of a military or of a military
PLOLWDU\VWUXFWXUHV structure is influenced by the characteristics
From our point of view, interoperability in of the environment in which it operates, but
general, and cultural interoperability, in also by a number of factors specific to the
particular, are closely related to the concept politico-cultural, organizational, cultural
of multinational military operations. Quite and individual-cultural fields [8]. In this
often, cultural interoperability has been respect, cultural interoperability can be
identified as a prerequisite for multinational described both by institutional prescriptions
cooperation, with current estimates and guidelines and by the national
highlighting that, even more so in the constitution, the legal system, and their
future, NATO multinational forces will not national customs and own culture. Specific
be able to operate within multinational to the politico-cultural field, the national
military operations without achieving an laws and the constitution limit the manner
optimal level of cultural interoperability. in which a military force/national military
In addition to doctrinal interoperability, the contingent can be used, i.e. in what regards
cultural interoperability stands out as a the missions which they can participate in.
component of behavior interoperability [3] Some national contingents are subject to
defined as the dimension of interoperability legal limitations regarding their
that manifests as individual and group involvement in different types of missions
actions determined by their perceptions on outside the national territory, and for others,
the security environment [4]. Generally, there are limitations regarding the
cultural interoperability refers not only to engagement to carry out missions under the
the ability of a military to work together command of a certain nation. [9] On the
with other soldiers from different cultures, other hand, the rules of engagement (RoE)
but also to the mutual understanding in a can influence military actions during
joint multinational environment [5]. On the multinational military operations. The
other hand, we must be aware of the fact, national rules of engagement may differ
that, in addition to providing contact, from one nation to another. Using a
dialogue and interaction between the common denominator for the RoE
military, cultural interoperability also (transnational RoE) can be an appropriate
encompasses the influences that they can solution to meet the demands of the security
reciprocally transmit and receive [6]. environment, but the differences of
Starting from the definition of the concept interpretation at national level should not be
of interoperability formulated by NATO as ignored. [10] For example, national
“the ability of the Allies to work together contingents can have different perceptions
coherently, effectively and efficiently, in of the concepts of hostile intention, hostile
order to achieve tactical, operational and action, self-defense etc.
162
At the organizational-cultural level, the own reference during the cultural/intercultural
national repertoire also influences the use of activities
force/risk-taking during multinational - Roles-plays during the multinational
military actions. In Afghanistan, for military exercises [14] including Blue
example, the Romanian military Forces (BLUFOR), Opposing Forces
contingents needed more time to conduct (OPFOR), civilians on the battlefield
specific analyses, to check other sources (COB), interpreters (TERP); such pre-
before launching a division to confirm or deployment training exercises of various
deny the threat represented by improvised military structures take place in the Combat
explosive devices (IEDs). Unlike the Training Centre for Land Forces ”Getica”-
Romanian military structures, the US CIL-FT;
military appropriately engaged subunits in - Distributed training exercises using
order to reduce the likelihood that the IEDs distributed simulation, where the
be initiated by other subunits, based on participants operate real, virtual and
short, qualitative analyses. [11]. constructive systems, using different
Lastly, at the individual-cultural level, platforms connected to a network (with at
achieving cultural interoperability in order least one node), in different locations, based
to understand the situation and to boost the on a common scenario; the system of
efficiency of the joint military action, virtual simulation Virtual Battlespace 3 -
involving all the members of the VBS3 used at CIL-FT in version 2 for small
multinational structure can be achieved groups training before the mission (up to
based on knowledge and mutual trust [12], company level) is extremely resourceful, as
where the greatest influence is given by the it facilitates the checking of knowledge
cultural / intercultural training of the regarding operating procedures, and,
military and by the use of a common perhaps most importantly, most often
operational military language. during joint exercises with forces belonging
In what regards the intercultural training of to other nations (e.g. a detachment of
soldiers, it can happen both in a local and in Romanian-American-British special forces
a new environment. The training of the executing a kinetic mission into the enemy
deployable military structures should not be environment).
done randomly, but must be integrated into The second variable of cultural
all pre-deployment training activities, interoperability at an individual-cultural
conducted in relation to the position that level is the operational military language,
each military will occupy in the defined as the common language (English,
multinational military structure. French), and the use of acronyms,
Cultural/intercultural training is addressed symbolism, and different manners of
to all members of the deployable military formulating the mission and setting tasks
structure, regardless of the rank, position, based on mission/task verbs etc. Since the
gender etc. Perhaps more emphasis should majority of the NATO member states have
be placed on those soldiers who will occupy made considerable efforts to learn English,
key positions of responsibility and on those the problem is somehow resolved; in terms
who will serve in multinational of knowing the acronyms, symbols and in
headquarters. The resources that can be what regards the formulation of the
employed include: missions and establishing the tasks, there
- Specialized textbooks and journals, are some differences (mostly in terms of
cultural/intercultural guides, handbooks and interpretation), which arise especially
cards [13] to provide information and during moderate and high intensity
examples of relations that can be used as multinational military actions. Military
research has shown that joint operational
163
military language can be improved, the agenda of most actors, generators of
especially by conducting joint multinational security, in the future we may witness a
exercises and by common participation in transformation towards a higher level, as
all the phases of the planning process of we have witnessed a smooth transition from
multinational operations. conventional threats to
These are just a few aspects to be unconventional/asymmetric and finally to
considered in order to achieve an optimal hybrid threats. Faced with these challenges
level of cultural interoperability, as required entailing a permanent transformation of the
by multinational military structures, without security environment, NATO’s obligation
which NATO cannot plan the deployment to think, generate and apply appropriate
and conduct of multinational military answers that in the best cases lead to a
operations in the present and especially in partial solution is not sufficient.
the future. From our point of view, NATO Based on the old saying that “prevention is
should undertake more efforts so as to build better than cure”, NATO should certainly
up the capacity to anticipate various threats, channel more efforts towards developing
in order to develop doctrines and strategies the ability to anticipate new security risks
for resolving them. NATO is facing some and improve joint action to combat them.
problems in determining a common Without cooperation between partners,
doctrine on achieving the cultural without the joint efforts of all NATO
interoperability of its military structures members and beyond, we can not give
[15], although one should have already quality responses to the requirements of the
been implemented until now. Only in this security environment. In this way, the
way will NATO have the opportunity to development and improvement of cultural
design and submit consistent, efficient and interoperability as an element of behavioral
effective responses to hybrid threats. interoperability at NATO level is among
the main priorities of the alliance in its
&RQFOXVLRQV attempt to move from a cause-effect
The annexation of Crimea by the Russian resolution to a prospective one, which is
Federation is just one example of using based on anticipating risks and taking
strategies specific to the hybrid war, a threat measures to amend the initial conditions of
which currently has a growing trend of manifestation.
expansion. If today’s hybrid threats are on
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Enrico Fassi, Sonia Lucarelli, Alessandro Marrone, What NATO for what threats, Warsaw
and Beyond, NATO HQ - Boulevard Léopold III, 1110 Brussels - Belgium, 2015, p. 9.
[2] Ibidem, p. 10.
[3] Michael Codner, Hanging together: Interoperability within the alliance and with coalition
partners in an era of technological innovation, Royal United Services Institute for
Defence Studies Whitehall, London, United Kingdom, Final Report, June 1999, p. 13.
[4] Ibidem, p. 23.
[5] Colonel Philippe Berne, Addresing the issues of interoperability, in Doctrine - general
military review, Interoperability the challenge, No 11, April 2007, p. 11.
[6] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, 'LPHQVLXQHD LQWHUFXOWXUDOă D IRUPăULL RILЮerului din
ForЮele Terestre, “Lucian Blaga” University Publishing House, Sibiu, 2015, p. 60.
[7] http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_84112.htm, retrieved on February 21, 2017.
[8] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op.cit., p. 75.
[9] Michael Codner, op.cit., p. 23.
[10] Ibidem, p. 23.
164
[11] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op.cit., pp. 77-78.
[12] Colonel Yves Beraud, Towards a draft of an interoperability policy for the French Army, în
Doctrine - general military review, Interoperability the challenge, No 11, April 2007, p. 35.
[13] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op.cit., p. 98.
[14] Ibidem.
[15] Thomas A. Crowson, Partnering and Army Doctrine: Indicators of Military Cultural
Interoperability, available on
http://www.queensu.ca/cidp/sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.cidpwww/files/files/publication
s/Policy%20Briefs/CIDP_PolicyBrief_Spring2015.pdf, retrieved on February 21, 2017.
165
HUNGARIAN SECURITY POLICY AND THE MIGRANT CRISIS (2015-2017)
Diana IVANOVA
“Neofit Rilski” Sout-West University Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria

velevad@abv.bg
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to present the Hungarian security policy over the last two
years, focused on the migrant crisis. This policy is explained on the basis of the National Security
Strategy. According to the Strategy, the migration is treated as a natural and at the same time complex
phenomenon, bringing economic and demographic advantages and, at the same time, carrying public
and national security risks. It is concluded that resolving the crisis is one of the most important
priorities of the Hungarian security policy. The paper highlights the differences between the
Hungarian security policy and the official policy of the EU. Like the other members of the Visegrád
Group, Budapest is against the quota system for the allocation of migrants. The position of Hungary is
that the discussion of the migrant problem both in the Group and at EU level should be based on the
concept of effective solidarity. The country supports European integration of the Western Balkans.
The study is based on documents, mainly of the Visegrád Group, and materials from the media.
Keywords: migrant crisis, security policy, Visegrád Group, European Union
1. Introduction policy, aimed at resolving the migrant

The international situation changed crisis, is based on documents – of both the
dramatically in the last few years as Hungarian Foreign Ministry and the
evidenced by increasing number of terrorist Visegrad Group, as well as on materials
acts in different states. Migration crisis from the media.
which has been exacerbated in the last three
years caused a change of policy to the 2. Hungarian security policy
security of European countries and often The main directions of the Hungarian
became the subject of disagreement security policy are enshrined in the National
between them. The official policy of the Security Strategy, elaborated in 2012 [1].
European Union (EU) was not approved by On the basis of values and interests and an
the countries of Central Europe and the analysis of the security environment this
Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán document defines the national objectives,
became its most serious critic. He is against tasks and comprehensive governmental
the quota system for allocation of migrants, tools for Hungary with a view to asserting
which is proposed by Brussels, and calls for its national security interests in the
acceleration of the European integration of international political and security context.
the Western Balkans. The importance of In today’s continuously changing security
Hungarian security policy increases because environment challenges, risk factors and
on the July 1, 2017 the country takes over threats appear on several levels – at
the rotating presidency of the Visegrad individual, community, state, regional and
Group (V4). also global level. The management of this
The presentation of the Hungarian security challenges requires comprehensive and
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0026
166
coordinated political, economic and – if being prepared for the expected larger influx
necessary – military action. The authors of of refugees, was sitting on its laurels [5].
the Strategy emphasize that in our Prime Minister Orbán has vowed to seal
globalised world of today, security does not Hungary's southern border with Serbia from
start at country borders, because the September 15, imposing tougher penalties
“distant security risks and challenges and for illegal entry and setting up transit zones
sources of danger can cross our borders [6].
with dramatic speed” [2]. The fundamental Orbán says his government is merely trying
security interests of Hungary include the to uphold EU rules by insisting that all
protection of its sovereignty, territorial migrants register in Hungary, doing a job
integrity and constitutional order, the he says Greece – the first EU state many of
stability of the country, its economic, social them enter – has failed to do by letting them
and cultural development and the upholding head north across the Balkans.
of human rights and fundamental freedoms. He has also invoked Europe's historic
Completely logical membership in NATO Christian heritage, suggesting it is under
and the EU provides the basic framework of threat from the mainly Muslim migrants
Hungary’s security policy. The stability of who are anyway only coming – he argues –
the Eastern and Southern Neighborhood in search of a higher material standard of
Hungary and the spread of democratic living. "We like to have kebab kiosks, to
values are of paramount importance for the buy lamb from the Syrian butcher at Easter,
security of the country [3]. but we don't want to see the numbers (of
The document, which is analyzed in the Muslims) suddenly radically rise,” Orban
article, has been taking notice of the told Hungarian ambassadors on Monday, in
migration. According to the Strategy, the characteristically colorful language [7].
migration is treated as a natural and at the According to the Strategy Hungary attaches
same time complex phenomenon, bringing great importance to the policy of security
economic and demographic advantages and, cooperation and action will be held in the
at the same time, carrying public and framework of multilateral organizations.
national security risks. Some of Hungary’s The policy of the Visegrád Group on the
borders will remain as the external border of migrant crisis can be viewed in this regard.
the EU or the Schengen Area for the This policy opposes Hungary, Poland,
foreseeable future, with tasks of and Czech Republic and Slovakia of EU.
responsibilities for managing that border [4].
Despite the existence of strategy before 3. Hungarian security policy within the
2015 in Hungary there has not been much framework of the Visegrád Group
talk about the refugees. For the Hungarians The most serious problem on which
this question seemed to be an exotic Brussels and the Visegrád Four have
problem of distant countries. But neither for different positions is undoubtedly the
Brussels nor for the Hungarian Government migrant issue.
it could have caused surprise that the Syrian The Central European countries are firmly
War and the advance of the Islamic State against the quota principle in the allocation
sooner or later will be felt in Europe. It was of migrants and this position of theirs was
clear (or at least it was supposed to be), that categorically stated during the Czech
sooner or later the refugees could reach us presidency of the Group (1 July 2015 - 30
because Hungary is situated in the Western June 2016).
Balkan migration and smuggling route. After the meeting held in Prague on the
Unfortunately, the Hungarian government – September 4, 2015 the leaders of the four
like most of the governments of the EU countries came out with a joint statement to
member states and Brussels – instead of “preserve the voluntary nature of the EU
measures" concerning migrants and that
167
“any proposal leading to introducing would substantially reduce Member States'
mandatory and permanent quotas... would competence in this area. Their efforts are
be unacceptable” [8]. As a response to calls primarily directed towards providing
for EU solidarity on migration, the Visegrád assistance to third countries and
countries reminded they “have continuously strengthening the cooperation with them to
pointed out that an effective management of address the root causes of migration
the root causes of migration flows is the key pressure [13].
element” in any solution [9]. What is envisaged is the continuation of
While inflows of refugees when trough the cooperation within the EU Emergency
Hungarian border in late Summer 2015 Trust Fund for stability and addressing root
before the right-wing and conservative causes of irregular migration and displaced
Government built a fence on the southern persons in Africa. As a group of donors, the
border, the parliamentary group of the V4 countries will work out common
Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) positions before meetings of the Board and
formulated a year later a proposal with far- Operational Committees of the Fund. The
reaching demands addressed to the Presidency continues the coordination of
Government for a change in the current the initiative for joint parallel local
migration policy. The parliamentarians humanitarian projects in Jordan and Syria.
called upon the Government to establish a The formulated in the Programme priorities
specialized border policing directorate and were discussed at a meeting of interior
to initiate an institutionalized cooperation ministers of the four countries held on July
with other EU member state [10]. 11, 2016 in Warsaw. There was an
At the beginning of 2016 with the agreement on the constructive position of the
deepening of the migrant problem the Visegrád countries in the area of migration
policy of the Visegrád Group has and border issues including: 1) continuous
intensified. The leaders of the four efforts to ensure adequate protection of the
countries declared it would support plans to external borders of the EU Member States;
tighten border controls on the Balkan route, 2) increasing support to the third countries;
Greece and Turkey should fail to implement 3) the lack of consent for any mandatory and
Ms Merkel’s plans to limit the flow of automatic mechanisms [14].
migrants. The Visegrád Group countries reaffirm
Hungary’s Prime Minister Viktor Orbán their stance against the quota principle for
claimed Germany’s “welcome culture” the allocation of migrants at the summit of
towards refugees had “encouraged terrorism the EU in Bratislava (September 16, 2016).
and spread fear” [11]. The four states emphasize upon the
The migrant issue is extremely important protection of the external borders of the
for the Polish Presidency, which is Schengen area and the entire EU. The issue
confirmed by the fact that the migrant crisis of security is closely linked to migration,
is ranked first in the first priority of the which is a big problem for five of the
Programme of the Polish Presidency, Member States. That is why V4 insists on
namely “1. Strong voice of the V4 in the basing the migrant policy on the principle
European Union: coordination of the of “flexible solidarity” [15].
European agenda and cooperation on key The Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán
challenges” [12]. assesses the meeting in Bratislava as
Regarding the reform of the Common unsuccessful since a change of the migration
European Asylum System, in particular the policy of Brussels has not been achieved.
Dublin system, the V4 countries focus on According to him, in the EU there continues
the opposition to any changes that would to prevail a “self-destructive and naive
lead to the introduction of any permanent immigration policy” as “on this occasion the
and binding mechanism, redistribution or summit had focused more on speeding up
168
the process of distributing migrants across The problem of illegal migration is
Europe than on stopping them at the border distinguished as one of the main challenges
of the Schengen Area” [16]. facing Europe at the meeting of foreign
The referendum in Hungary can be ministers of the Visegrád Group, too, which
interpreted as a reaction against this policy was held on November 29, 2016 in
of Brussels. It was held on October 2, 2016 Warsaw, attended by the High
and 98% of the Hungarian voters rejected Representative of the Union for Foreign
the EU plan for the state to adopt the Affairs and Security Policy and the Vice-
mandatory quota of refugees [17]. Thus President of the European Commission
with the support of the society Orbán has Federica Mogherini [22]. At the meeting
legitimized his policy. However, the claim the Ministers of the Visegrad countries
of Jan Culik that by the referendum “Orbán adopted a joint declaration on the policy of
also wanted to stoke a cultural and political EU enlargement, in which they reaffirmed
counter-revolution throughout the European their support for the European aspirations
Union” [18] is far-fetched. of the Western Balkans states. They
To realize the main priority of the Polish emphasize that the reliable and effective
Presidency of importance is the meeting of policy of enlargement is a strategic
interior ministers of the Visegrad Group investment in the security of Europe [23].
countries, held on November 21, 2016 in On January 31, 2017 a V4 meeting of
Warsaw [19].There the ministers once again experts on the mechanism of migration
expressed their disagreement with the crisis was held. The meeting served as a
proposed EU system for moving refugees. follow-up to the decision of V4 ministers of
They are united around the opinion that interior adopted on November 21, 2016,
further discussion of the migrant problem in establishing the Mechanism.
the Group and at EU level should be based The Visegrád countries seek to solve the
on the concept of effective solidarity[20]. problem outside the borders of the Old
At the meeting in Warsaw interior ministers Continent, in which case it is not about
announced the creation of a Migration xenophobia, as these countries are often
Crisis Response Mechanism, whose aim is blamed for, but it is about a pragmatic and
to achieve a more effective coordination nationally responsible foreign policy. The
between the respective institutions four countries emphasize upon the
responsible for migration. In this way there protection of the external borders of the
can be an appropriate response to relevant Schengen area and the entire EU.
challenges in providing assistance to
refugees in countries outside the European 4. Conclusions
Union. The center will be run by Poland The analysis of key documents on the
[21]. It is a counter-proposal to the system migrant crisis, which determines the policy
of mandatory quotas for the resettlement of of Hungary on this issue, allows the
refugees, proposed by Brussels. drawing of a few conclusions. First, there
Participants in the meeting of the Visegrád stands the conclusion that the work on
Four, including representatives of Austria, resolving the crisis is one of the top
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia and Slovenia, priorities of the Hungary’s security policy.
stressed the need to improve the protection The countries of the Visegrád Group
of the EU borders and encourage the return categorically rejected the quota principle
of migrants to their home countries. To for the allocation of migrants. In return, the
escape from the migration crisis, they position of Hungary – so as of Poland, the
believe that the European Union should Czech Republic and Slovakia – is that the
abandon plans for refugee resettlement and discussion of the migrant problem both in
to pursue a policy of returning migrants that the Group and at EU level should be based
have arrived in the EU. on the concept of effective solidarity. The
169
leaders of the Visegrád Group see the vision for the future. In support of this,
realization of this concept in two there can be interpreted the partial change
interrelated ways. The first one provides for in the position of the German Chancellor
assistance in the protection of the external Angela Merkel in the first weeks of
borders of the EU (including the Republic December – migrants who have been
of Macedonia) and there ensued the second refused a refugee status or have committed
one – support to accelerate the EU crimes have to be deported. This change
accession of Western Balkan countries, gives hope that the decisive Hungary's
which will enhance security in the region. policy within the Visegrád Group on the
The drawn conclusions give grounds for the migration crisis will contribute to its
policy of Hungary on the migrant problem successful resolution.
to be defined as a reasonable one with a
References
[1] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Hungary. Hungary`s National Security Strategy. 2012.
[2] Ibid., p. 5.
[3] Ibid., p. 8.
[4] Ibid., p. 17.
[5] Benyik, M. Refugee crisis and Hungary. http://www.transform-network.net/blog/blog-
2015/news/detail/Blog/refugee-crisis-and-hungary.html (available on 31.03.2017).
[6] Than, K. Hungary's Orban plays for high stakes with tough stance on migrants.
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-hungary-orban-
idUSKCN0R82B920150908 (available on 07.04.2017).
[7] Ibid.
[8] Gotev, G. Visegrad countries trigger crisis ahead of EU refugee summit. 22.09.2015.
http://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/visegrad-countries-trigger-
crisis-ahead-of-eu-refugee-summit/ (available on 18.03.2017).
[9] Refugee quotas 'unacceptable' for Visegrad states. 4.09.2015.
https://euobserver.com/migration/130122 (available on 18.03.2017).
[10] Toth, B. Handling the refugee crisis: Progressive views from Hungary.-
https://progressive-europe.eu/handling-the-migration-crisis-progressive-views-from-
hungary/ (available on 9.04.2017)
[11] Refugee crisis: Eastern Europe opposes Angela Merkel’s policy on asylum seekers.
Independent. 16.02.016
[12] http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-eastern-europe-
opposes-angela-merkel-s-policy-on-asylum-seekers-a6877916.html (available on
26.03.2016).
[13] Programme of the Polish Presidency of the Visegrad group 1 July 2016 – 30 June 2017.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Poland, Warsaw 2016, pp.8-9.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Visegrad Bulletin (1/2016), Review of the most important events In July and August
2016. In:
http://www.msz.gov.pl/en/foreign_policy/europe/visegrad_group/polish_presidency_of
_the_visegrad_group_2016_2017/visegrad_bulletin__1_2016_;jsessionid=21525D3182
A95EE5D1F7AB7341DCA7BB.cmsap2p.
[16] ȼɢɲɟɝɪɚɞɫɤɚɬɚ ɱɟɬɜɨɪɤɚ ɩɨɫɬɚɜɢ ɭɥɬɢɦɚɬɭɦɢ ɧɚ Ȼɪɸɤɫɟɥ. In:
https://www.actualno.com/europe/vishegradskata-chetvorka-postavi-ultimatumi-na-
bruksel-news_563395.html - (available on 15.12.2016)
170
[17] Ɋɟɡɭɥɬɚɬɢ ɨɬ ɚɜɚɪɢɣɧɨ-ɫɩɚɫɢɬɟɥɧɚɬɚ ɫɪɟɳɚ ɧɚ ɜɴɪɯɚ ɧɚ ȿɋ ɜ Ȼɪɚɬɢɫɥɚɜɚ. In:
http://bultimes.com/rezultati-ot-avarijno-spasitelnata-sreshta-na-varha-na-es-v-
bratislava/ - (available on 15.12.2016)
[18] The referendum is not valid because voters are around 45%, while according to the
Hungarian Constitution there must be more than 50% of voters. See more: Macdowal,
A. Voters back Viktor Orbán`s rejection of EU migrant quotas. In:
http://www.politico.eu/article/hungary-referendum-eu-migration-viktor-orban/
(available on 25.03.2017).
[19] Culik, Jan. Hungary’s invalid refugee referendum dents Viktor Orbán’s anti-
EU ‘revolution’. In: https://theconversation.com/hungarys-invalid-refugee-referendum-
dents-viktor-orbans-anti-eu-revolution-66424 - (available on 25.03.2017).
[20] Joint Statement of V4 Interior Ministers on the Establishment of the Migration Crisis
Response Mechanism. In: http://www.visegradgroup.eu/calendar/2016/joint-statement-
of-v4 [20] Visegrad Bulletin (3/2016). In: http://www.visegradgroup.eu/visegrad-
bulletin-3-2016- p.2. (available on 08.04.2017).
[21] Joint Statement of V4 Interior Ministers…, Op. cit.
[22] Meeting of ministers and representatives of 15 Central and South-Eastern European
countries attended by head of European diplomacy. In:
http://www.msz.gov.pl/en/foreign_policy/europe/visegrad_group/polish_presidency_of
_the_visegrad_group_2016_2017/meeting_of_ministers_and_representatives_of_15_ce
ntral_and_south_eastern_european_countries_attended_by_head_of_european_diploma
cy;jsessionid=21830255A6ACE68ECED570CD32F784E2.cmsap2p - (available on
08.04.2017).
[23] The Visegrad Group Joint Statement on the Western Balkans, In:
http://www.visegradgroup.eu/calendar/2016/the-visegrad-group-joint-(available on
08.04.2017).
171
MODERN APPROACHES IN THE TRAINING OF MILITARY POLICE CADETS

AT VASSIL LEVSKI NATIONAL MILITARY UNIVERSITY
Krastyu KRASTEV
“Vasil Lesvski” National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria

krustev_kr@abv.bg
Abstract: The mission of the Vasil Levski National Military University is to build its students morally,
mentally and physically, to indoctrinate them with the ideals of patriotism, duty and honour, to form
them as individuals and leaders. The graduated students have to possess leadership qualities, be able
to develop and apply scientific knowledge, manage public and special structures in peacetime and
crises and to participate in national and multinational projects aiming at maintaining security, peace
and development of society. The present paper describes some results of the implementation of the
modern person centered educational approaches to training of the Military police cadets.
Keywords: training approaches, cadets, military police
1. Introduction trends in modern education. The focus of

The mission of the Vasil Levski National this paper is the training of cadets at NMU
Military University is to build their students for the needs of Military Police.
morally, mentally and physically, to The object of the report is the personality-
indoctrinate them with the ideals of oriented type of educational technology.
patriotism, duty and honor, to form them as The main hypothesis that the author raises
individuals and leaders, possessing is that when using and implementing
leadership qualities, able to develop and person-centered type of educational
apply scientific knowledge, manage public technology, the efficiency of the
and special structures in peacetime and educational process of cadets MPs will
crises and to participate in national and increase and consequently their GPA by
multinational projects aiming at quantitative and qualitative indicators will
maintaining security, peace and increase, too.
development of society.
The mission of Specialized Training 2. Characteristics of the military
Department is to spread professional education process at Vasil Levski
knowledge and training to quality level in National Military University
the Security and Defence Field of higher 2.1. Main objectives
education, combined with a fundamental The main objectives of the military
understanding of the basic principles, educational process are identified and
methods and management tools, to create defined in the regulatory framework of
opportunities for learners to their realization Vasil Levski NMU.
in the Bulgarian army, civil service and They are as follows - preparation and
local government. conducting of a highly effective educational
The activity of the department is in process based on modern approaches and
agreement with the European and national methods of training; integration in the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0027
172
curricula and lecture fund of adopted about - the structure, functions and tasks of
standards for achieving a high level of the Military Police as a structure of the
interoperability; study of combat experience Armed Forces maintaining the order and
from the participation of units of the security in the Ministry of Defence, in the
Bulgarian Army in missions abroad and structures directly subordinated to the
timely integration of lessons learned in the Minister of Defence, and in the Bulgarian
educational process; improvement of Army at whole; organization, armaments,
existing educational facilities for military equipment, dislocation and
conducting quality education in the new perceptions of conducting combat
range of tasks in operations other than war operations by the formations of the Armed
and post-conflict interoperability; Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria; the
maintaining constant contact with the users main tasks of the Military Police, associated
of staff educated in the direction of meeting with the detection, prevention, interception
current needs, and improving and and investigation of crimes and other
upgrading their professional qualifications; offenses that threaten the order and
establishing and maintaining professional security, through control and security
contacts with military training structures of activities; the main tasks of the Military
NATO member countries and partners from Police related to the detection and
the Partnership for Peace Initiative. neutralization of terrorist actions against the
Of course, the above objectives cannot be armed forces, agents and forces of NATO
determined as exhaustive, but rather as and countries participating in military
guidance in the design of the courses exercises on the territory of the Republic of
focused on their implementation and Bulgaria and abroad; military police
achievement. support operations to complete tasks of the
2.2. Main tasks main types of missions of BA; procedures
The Rules and Regulations of Vasil Levski in the work of commanders of military
National Military University define the police formations to guarantee military
main tasks in the cadet training. order and discipline in garrisons and
They are as follows -conducting effective military units and security of military
educational process incorporating objects; operational and tactical aspects of
traditional and contemporary topics; timely the Balkan theater of war and the nature of
upgrade of the lecture fund; development of their fortification equipment.
new curricula and introducing new subjects As a result of the training, the future young
in the military training of cadets; improving officers need to build new capabilities - to
the existing and creating new educational implement in full the required by their
facilities; integration of modern forms and functional duties analytical, prognostic and
methods of training in the specialized information activities; to fully organize and
military training; use of interactive training firmly manage the actions of their entrusted
systems for combat training in field military police formation in the
exercises and camps; providing performance of their daily routine
opportunities for additional professional operations; to assist the commanders in the
qualifications of the faculty and cadet staff entire range of operation by organizing and
in courses organized by the Specialized supporting the movement of troops,
Training Department. regulation and control of traffic on the main
roads of communication, events to guard
3. Expected learning outcomes of the area, patrolling and securing the safety
Military Police cadets of individuals, performing all kinds of
As a result of this training program, the detentions of military people and civilians;
trainees should acquire new knowledge to lead the process of collecting, analyzing
173
and reporting operational information, law solve educational tasks, quality control,
enforcement, prevention, detection and reflection and self-assessment of their
investigation of crime, collection and activities on the basis of knowledge of their
exchange of information; to apply in their individual circumstances; individual
practice as Military Police employees the selection of subjects studied, creative
documents regulating their activity; to laboratories and those types of classes in
apply specific tactics and maneuvers typical them that are consistent with the underlying
of the Military Police staff in the conduct of curricula as subjects and classes of your
operational and investigative activities; to choice; enhancing and deepening the
plan and organize the actions of their content of the training course; individual
entrusted their military police formation in choice of additional topics and creative
participating in expeditionary operations. activity by subjects; the right of an
Value orientations and attitudes are individual picture of the world and
loyalty to the institution they belong to; individual sound positioning in any
tolerance, openness and respect for different educational field.
views and ideas; personal responsibility and The following can be determined as basic
respect for fundamental freedoms and elements of individual educational activities
human rights; interpersonal, social and of the cadets - the meaning of the activity;
civic competences; aesthetic, moral and the setting of personal goals; the action
health culture; readiness and desire for plan; completion of the plan; reflection
lifelong learning; communication skills; /understanding of own activity/; evaluation;
team work in heterogeneous environments; correction and redefining of the objectives.
caring for others, building a spirit of trust, It is always important to motivate the
motivation and responsibility for tasks; upcoming activity - it increases the
ethics of communication in the military attention of cadets, activates them and
hierarchy; adherence to the ideals of stimulates the expected beneficial activity.
patriotism, duty and honor. When motivation is tied to personal goals
of cadets, that the teacher should be well
4. Introducing a person-centered type of aware of, it is easier to plan activities and to
technology in teaching cadet MPs realize them in an appropriate way
The analysis of the modern pedagogical according to the level of the training and
theories and the use of interactive teaching development of the students at the time.
methods provide an opportunity to integrate The including of reflection and evaluation /
Hutorskoy’s theory that represents the self-evaluation, to be exact / further
personality-oriented type of technology contributes to increasing the efficiency of
through the creation of individual educational operations and creating conditions for self-
trajectory under the guidance of the teacher. improvement and development of students.
Personality-oriented education of cadets The element provided for a possible
aims at providing the following rights and correction and redefinition of the objectives
opportunities - freedom of choice and is necessary in cases of error or reaching a
expression of individual meaning and new stage in the development of the cadet
purpose in each training course, topic and personality.
class; the right to personal interpretation It is obvious that cadets themselves are also
and understanding of fundamental concepts included in person-oriented technologies -
and categories; the right to development of in goal setting, planning, preparation,
individual educational programs on the implementation and reflection of the
studied course for the semester or for the military pedagogical process.
academic year; the right to select individual For the purpose of this study, an analysis of
pace of learning, forms and methods to interdisciplinary connections between
174
subjects in the curriculum of the MP cadets Table 1 lists the subjects and the
has been made, where as a key determinant designation of the respective determinants.
we have the knowledge K, which should be
acquired in the training process.
Table 1 Knowledge relations between the subjects
Codes Subjects Knowledge Relations - K
K1 English Language K1-K6-K7-K12
K2 Military Vehicles Engineering K2-K8-K11-K15
K3 Balkan Language K3-K4-Ʉ-Ʉ
K4 Military History Ʉ-Ʉ-Ʉ-Ʉ
K5 Ethnic, religious and spiritual aspects of security K5-K12-K14-K16
Communication and Information Systems in
K6 K6-K1-K11-K16
Security Management
K7 Leadership Training K7-K1-K8-K11
K8 Shooting Training Methods Ʉ-Ʉ-Ʉ-17-Ʉ
. Firearms Training Methods .-K8-K11-K15
K10 Drill Methods K10-K7-K15-K18
K11 Special Tactics Methods K11-K7-K8-K18
K12 European Union Law K12-K4-K5-K13
K13 Regional and national infrastructure and security K13-K4-K12-K15
K14 Social political history of Bulgaria K14-K4-K5-K13
K15 Military Units Service K15-K7-.-K11
Structure and functions of the security services in
K16 K16-K5-K13-K15
the state and local administration
K17 Theory of shooting and firearms training K17-K8-.-K11
K18 Special Tactical Training K18-K7-K11-K15
The analysis of the relationships of This inevitably raises the question: "How
knowledge acquired in the respective to simultaneously train all cadets
subjects reveals the interdependencies differently?"
among them. Experts outline two opposite routes, each
The ways to achieve the objectives and containing an individual approach:
complete the tasks of the person-oriented - The first method - differentiation of
training can be as follows: training, according to which each cadet is
- the cadets individual tasks receive on approached individually, differentiating
each topic; the learning material in terms of
- organization of group academic work; complexity, focus and other parameters.
- formulating creative tasks that involve - The second method - suggests that own
individual performance by each cadet; way education is created for each cadet in
- cadets’ initiative to draw up lesson plans each of the studied educational fields.
for themselves, choose the content of Every cadet is given the opportunity to
their homework assignment for creative create their own educational trajectory to
activity, individual training schedule on learn the different academic subjects. (See
the subject for a certain period of time. Fig.1)
175
Figure 1: Individual educational trajectory (variant)
It is necessary to emphasize that the task of the mentioned individual educational

education is to provide individual area of activities of the cadets.
creative development for each cadet and the
technology for the realization of individual 4. Model for integrating individual
trajectory includes 7 stages: Stage 1. educational trajectories
Diagnosis of cadets individual characteristics. The model for integrating individual
Stage 2: Defining the fundamental educational trajectory in the training of MP
educational subjects. Stage 3: Building a cadets for one semester includes several
specific personal attitude in the cadets to components - organizational, theoretical,
the objects of the study. Stage 4. practical, control and evaluation, and
Programming by each cadet of individual optimization as shown in Figure 2. The
educational activities. Stage 5. organizational component includes setting
Simultaneous realization of the individual goals of the cadet under the direction of a
educational programs of the cadets. Stage 6. lecturer from the department and making an
Demonstration of their educational individual plan; preparation of individual
products. Stage 7. Reflection and evaluation educational trajectory in accordance with
of the activities. [1] the proposed individual plan of each cadet,
These stages are acceptable; the sequence is given the self-assessment of personal
logical; there is a natural correlation and abilities and opportunities for training;
sequence among them. [2,3] Each has its approval of the individual educational
place and importance. There is clearly seen trajectory by the head of the department.
relevance to the fundamental elements of
Figure 2: Components of the model for integrating individual educational trajectory for one semester
176
The theoretical and practical component component, which defines it as a field for
covers on one hand the period specified by manifestation of the reflexive function of
the cadet for acquisition and mastering of the pedagogical process.
theoretical knowledge on the subject and, In the proposed model (Figure 3) individual
on the other, the set of practical actions, educational trajectories in civil and military
training, conducting practical experiments specialty for all semesters have been
and other activities related to the acquisition integrated; as the periods for individual
and improvement of practical skills of the reflection in both areas of knowledge
cadets. clearly stand out. In order to realize the
The control and evaluation component opportunities for individual reflection, it is
comprises evaluation tools with which to necessary to encourage the cadets to
measure the performance of the trainees in improve their performance in the previous
the respective subjects in accordance with semester of individual educational
the scheduled curricular methods - tests, trajectories.
project assignments, examination tests, etc. Reflection is socio-culturally conditioned,
The optimization component is an integral instrumental intellectual procedure /
component allowing the upgrade of process, a set of conscious and controlled
knowledge and skills of cadets at their mental actions / targeted and meaningful to
desire and judgment. The opportunity for self-knowledge: knowledge of their own
this upgrade of professional knowledge and cognitive activity and own personality [4]
skills is integrated in the optimization
Figure 3: Model for individual educational technology integration
Contemporary professionals recognize the can be brought down to applied technology.

need to build a common theoretical and [5,6,7,8]
applied model in which and through which It is crucial for the fate of reflexive problem
to systematize abstract theoretical ideas for itself that it does not remain only in the
reflection, to transform into practical mid- form of an abstract theory or choice of
range theories, and on this basis to develop theoretical postulates that almost defy
a system of methodological developments verification, forgery, i.e. they can hardly be
and reflexive tools where ideas of reflection empirically verified. The main ideas in the
177
reflection should be able to formulate 5. Conclusion
whose logical consequences that can be Finally, it should be noted that results from
traced and verified empirically, to prove or the use of modern individual approaches to
disprove [,10,11] the training of MP cadets should be subject
To achieve innovative intentions it is to a more in-depth analysis and
needed to provide the right environment for measurement with the appropriate scientific
self-education of MP cadets in order to tools. The expected increased effectiveness
stimulate the achieving of the desired of their training should occur in quantitative
outcome for an optimal period of time. and qualitative terms, which will be the
subject of a further research.
References
[1] Vasilev D., Y. Merdzanova. Theory and methods of professional orientation. Sofia, UP
„St. Kliment Ohridski”, 2003S
[2] Gyurova V. & all, Provocation training process, Sofia, Askoni PublisherS
[3] Ilieva M., S. Terzieva. Self-evaluation and self-identification – Strategies in educational
and scientific policy, Vol. 3., pp.34-42, 2001.
[4] Nikov A., Pedagogical psychology, Sofia, Karl Marx Publ., p.127.
[5] Rasheva-Merdzanova Y. Professional pedagogy in tradition and perspective, Sofia, UP
„St. Kliment Ohridski”, 2004, p.172.
[6] Terzieva S. Modern educational strategies, Sofia Publ., 2003, p.46.
[7] Petrov P., Atanasova M.. Educational technologies and learning strategies, Sofia Publ.,
2001, p.42.
[8] Marquardt, M., Leonard, H. S., Freedman, A., & Hill, C.: Action learning for
developing leaders and organizations: Principles, strategies, and cases. Washington,
'&$3$
>@ Chiu, M. M.: Adapting teacher interventions to student needs during cooperative
learning, American Educational Research Journal, 41, pp.365–
[10] Coffield, F, Moseley, D., Hall, E., Ecclestone K.: Learning styles and pedagogy in
postearning: A systematic & critical review, Learning & Skills Research Centre
London, 2004, p.214.
[11] Moon, J.: A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Practice,
London: Routledge Falmer, 2004, p. 126.
178
THE IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING SECURITY CULTURE AMONG

MILITARY PERSONNEL AS A WAY TO MITIGATE THE TERRORIST THREAT
/DXUHQ‫܊‬LX- /HRQDUG/Ă=Ă52,8
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Abstract: A higher level of knowledge owned by military personnel about the specific actions of
terrorist organizations, especially those used to recruit new members from colectivities of military
personnel, in particulary military cadets, is a matter of novelty and requires some security education
values in order to face the current threats.
In the last 5 years, the Internet has become the preferred vehicle for spreading the radical jihadist
discourse and a recruitment field of followers, eager to be involved directly or indirectly through
logistical support, financial information for terrorist purposes. The interest of terrorist organizations
for the social category, represented by young soldiers or cadets, is given by their access to
information and skills on weapons, ammunition, explosives usage and even the information about how
and from where find and steal them. More than that it appears the intention of recruitment and
cultivation a secret and confident relationship with the future military personnel to obtain classified
information, especially about terrorist actions organized by the specialized antiterrorist structures of
the state.
.H\ZRUGVVHFXULW\HGXFDWLRQ, WHUURULVWWKUHDW, SHUVXDVLRQ FODVVLILHGLQIRUPDWLRQULVN\

EHKDYLour.
,QWURGXFWLRQ specific actions to develop security

In each organization the most valuable education have a role or knowledge of the
components are human resources, but also human personality, characteristics of
those are the most sensitive which is occupational categories, in order to reduce
vulnerable to internal and external the negative effects of uncertainty and
influences that can affect his own unpredictability of the human factor. All
performance or the safety of the group to specific actions use for developing
which those people belong. Illegal actions security education have also a second role,
with serious implications for national the knowledge of human personality and
security by engaging in terrorist activities founding characteristics of occupational
or unauthorized dissemination of classified categories, in order to reduce the negative
information for terrorist purposes is a risk effects of uncertainty and unpredictability
posed by human factor , GLUHFWO\ࡳ WKH of the human factor.
inteQWLRQWRFRPPLWWKLVRULQGLUHFWO\ࡳ DVD The organizational integration of any new
result of several external factors: procedural member is a part and a stage of social
errors, organizational deficiencies, integration, it largely depends on learning
vulnerabilities in IT management. the rules that structure the socio-
Whichever way we assess the issue, the professional relations and also on the
most vulnerable part of the protection subjective capacity of behaviour’s
system it is usually proved to be human. All adaptation to situations where, even are
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0028
179
defined very precise rules of action, there is of a role can be masked in the social
sometimes a tendency to abuse them. manifestation, the action of the individual
Therefore, as social integration includes under another social role will reveal in a
general permanently rules adapted to social direct or veiled way the true perception and
context, as training and security culture reaction to those values to which the person
development is a continuous process which disagrees.
began when selecting staff. This process Some specialists from Defense Personnel
occurs throughout the professional activity, Security Research Center allowed six active
with the permanent integration of fields to be taken into consideration by the
knowledge and operational procedures to staff with responsibilities of management to
potentially dangerous challenges on minimize the risk from employees'
classified information. Assuming behaviour, the first three are considered
theoretical training of people, according to with a higher relevance in the selection
organizations goals, even it is completed at process of candidates [1]:
the end of professional activity, security a) practices and internal policies;
culture, by preserving similar principles b) recruitment methods of personnel;
throughout his career, will mark the c) Screening of candidates on previous
individual's lifetime. work (advice, assessments);
The obligations imposed by the social role, d) Preparing effective and specific security
submitted by professional rules, are education;
designed on social interactions plan in the e) Continuity evaluation and implementation
form of expectations or what can be of appropriate policies to current
expected from the one who fulfil that role. challenges;
The social role gives every individual the f) Management intervention;
chance to correctly interpret the meaning of The roles that people learn to interpret
the actions that normally are done in a (better or worse) constitute sets of definite
subjective and objective manner. rules, subjectively and objectively
In an overview, by these two components: recognizable, through human behaviour can
personnel selection and subsequent, by be understood and anticipated. Learning of
security education process, we understand these roles shall be carried out in a dynamic
the imposition of some conditions and a context, in which the social environments
practical and theoretical assimilation of a of the individual have permanent
certain social role, according to military complicated their structures and also their
environment. This role is not independent, interactions, thus making necessary the
but blended with other social roles, conventionalization of relations. We also
consistent adapted to one another, consider that specific professional roles in
performed by the individual in the form of a the military field involves a constant
continuous and mixed process. We strictness, also some certain behavioural
appreciate that people do not behave rigidities, which have been overcome in
mechanically, isolated for each social role, other social roles performed by the
they don’t act as robots that invariably react individual in society.
to comparable situations and whose
behaviours are totally predictable and can ,QFUHDVHPHQWRIWHUURULVWWKUHDWDFURVV
be anticipated. In the fact the consistency or EXURSHDQ\RXQJSHRSOH
the inconsistency of obligations and By the dynamics increase of jihadist
expectations reveal either consensus or ideological offensive amongst young
disagreement. Europeans we identify a particular category
We believe that the interaction of social of interest to terrorist organizations
roles, even if the rejection of all the values represented by students and more than that
180
by military students. For a terrorist x The myth "knight hero" operating
organization I consider the interest to this successfully for handling young male;
social category is given by the access of x The myth "humanitarian cause" to help
young soldiers to information and data on children gassed by the Syrian
weapons, ammunition, explosives, the government. Technology finds followers
knowledge about its usage and even in among the young female;
formation about stealing them. More than x The myth "call of duty", referring to the
that the intention of recruiting military video game with the same name, uses
personnel and growing relationship over the persuasion techniques for targeting
time have a special goal to the terrorist young people who want to fight;
organization in order to obtain information x The myth "the one that is bringing
about terrorist actions organized by water" model that works for
specialized state structures and appropriate indoctrinating young people looking for
disclosure of these. The information could a leader;
be shares to a representative contact, a x Myth "unlimited" used successfully
member of the terrorist organization. handling challenges and adrenaline
According to the Centre de Prevention de seekers.
Deradicalisation et Suivi Individuele The French evaluation report emphasizes
(CPDSI) from France, in the period the fact that the extreme danger that radical
January-September 2016, French security jihadists is due to the use of the familiar
forces identified 1954 young French universe, like references to the video game
supporters of the Islamic State (ISIS). world. Virtual violence of a game like
Statistics said that the radicalization of "Assassin's Creed" may determine a
youth increased by 121 percent over 2015 sensitive young man to leave his social
[3]. environment and to move in conflict areas,
More than that, the French foreign Minister, controlled by terrorists, for a real encounter
Bernard Cazeneuve, said that the terrorist with specific scenarios games.
threat in France is more than ever, about The fundamentalism can be found in all
300 people were arrested in 2016 on religions, it is often identified common
suspicion that they supported with characteristics. Fundamentalists play the
information and they committed actions lawyers role for a considered minority
with terrorist flavour. CPDSI report shows oppressed, even when numeric, they
that over 90% of French citizen’s represent a great value. They oppose to
recruitment to join the ideological jihad secularisation and are led by charismatic
were made online. In 2015 and 2016 at least leaders with great power of persuasion.
17 young French died, fighting for ISIS in Contemporary fundamentalism, even it is
Syria and Iraq. Christian, Jewish, Hindu, Islamic, is a
Terrorists have improved recruitment and reaction to traditional features of secular
indoctrination techniques so much as they society, is interested in restoring a faithful
offer customized models to address for a society, paradoxically, with the help of:
higher category of interest, especially mass-media, bureaucratic institutions and
among adolescents. To be as convincing, even weapons of mass destruction.
ISIS members have developed and have Religious fundamentalism is a consequence
used for the persuasive purpose, in the of technological progress before whom
recruitment process of new followers, five people desperately cling to what is familiar,
popular myths, designed and applied looking for simple answers to complex,
successfully to attract young supporters. discouraging situations.
These models were called symbolic as These often simple and wellbeing
follows [2]: responses, offered by fundamentalist
181
doctrines, were accepted by believers as unlikely that individual to use scientific
long as they do not take on their shoulders calculations for performing and developing
the burden of discernment and as long it actionable decisions.
guarantees the punishment of each real or Therefore, the behaviour under risky
perceived enemy. circumstances is the result of estimates,
made stereotypical, depending on schemes
3. $SSO\LQJWKHSHUVXDVLYHWHFKQLTXHVE\ formed over time or on the case law and
WHUURULVWHQWLWLHV examples of subject experience in taking
Expressed as an act of communication, the duplicitous behaviours, reprehensible
persuasion is intended to change the mind professional.
set of human target, differing from other In the process of changing their values, the
forms of influence by two features: initiating agent of persuasive action has as a
the target subject has the impression of a second aim, beyond changing attitudes and
total freedom; acceptance of a new behaviour, creating the
the outcome is translated into behaviour illusion of control, development of self-
modification, gaining consent and confidence (for the target subject) outlining
internalization of this agreement. the illusion that the acceptance of
Generally, individuals have a strong sense cooperation it will have a great benefit. For
of subjective immunity, often registering a the one interested in accepting a conformist
tendency to minimize the likelihood of attitude of the correspondent (the target
negative consequences of everyday tasks. subject) it would be absurd and unrealistic
But when tasks and actions, accepted by the only the presentation of benefits, regardless
human subject to be performed, should be of the risk of failure. The balance resulting
condemned by organization to which from a relatively objective analysis will be
subject belongs, knowing some further in favour of accepting the new behaviour.
consequences causes a state of Those negative elements, disadvantageous
psychological tension. for individual, will be masked and
From the perspective of individual seemingly annihilated by accepting a
introspection, when drawing intention of discrete behaviour based on a conspiracy
committing reprehensible socio- relationship. This creates a double
professional actions, an interesting element persuasion, which guarantees a time
becomes the relationship between continuity of relationship between
perception of risk exposure and the real individuals in terms imposed by persuasive
choices. Inevitably there will appear agent.
questions like: What are the consequences Individual risks assumed are part of human
of accepting a risk? Benefits of a behavior nature, it is and will always be a modus
are higher than energy consumption used to vivendi for people and society in general.
find a proper risk management? This modus vivendi is subject to risk
In terms of counterintelligence structures, awareness, a modus cognoscendi where
whose defensive role in protection of taking an action is determined by a rational
classified information is a normal task, a thought.
question will arise: Under what conditions
individuals assume a conscious risk and 4. &RQFOXVLRQV
under what conditions they prefer to choose More than ever the Islamic ideology of
a non-hazardous behaviour or some fundamentalism stems beyond the religious
preventive measures? context, from the contact with Western
If in socio-psychological research the risk ideology, addressing the same category of
can be rigorously analyzed and understood individuals who were attracted earlier in
in all manifestations, in everyday life it is history to communism and fascism.
182
Accepting this idea as valid we extract a psychological procedures with the eccentric
new conclusion that is relative to current and exclusive character, promoted by
realities. Thus, if the twentieth century was extremists recruiters by presenting some
marked by the burden of the Cold War, the glorious aspects even they are condemned
twenty-first century is influenced by by social norms, will fuel young people
Islamic extremism terrorism. Like desire to stand out, they will be relatively
communism, dominated by fascist and easily directed to action in a certain way
nationalist storms, started during the Cold that will represent a real risk to national
War, terrorism will recruit the most loyal security. The contemporary reality has
and conscientious followers from the shown that as the Internet becomes the
people who lives in capitalist states. The primary way of radicalization, passing
recruitment process will be based on through the mosque is no longer automatic,
intrinsic motivation, main oriented by the ideological texts are designed to be the best
attraction’s value, acceptance of new weapon of online persuasive actions.
concepts, totally different from those To sum up, more than gathering classified
promoted by capitalist society. Concepts, information from young military personnel
born from extremist ideology, will be who has access to them, using special
interpreted by some members of specific procedures of ideological indoctrination,
segments of society as been opposed to the recruitment of human sources will have
superficial values of democratic countries the main goal the participation and in
and to the monotony of modern society, terrorist attack by selecting well trained
marked by globalization. Thus, using partly military people.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Eric.D.Show, Lynn F.Fischer, Insider risk evaluation and audit tools, Defense
Personnel Security Research Center, PERSEREC Report, aug.2009,
http://www.dhra.mil/perserec/reports/pp09-03.pdf, accesed on 06.12.2015..
[2] Dounia Bouzar, Comment evaluer un ebrigadement djihadiste, 2016, disponibil la
http://www.cpdsi.fr/radicalisation/, accessed on 12.10.2016
[3] Ibidem.
183
SECURITY, DEFENCE AND ARMED FORCES - PUBLIC VIEW
Frank LIBOR

libor.frank@unob.cz
Abstract: The paper deals with the interpretation of public opinion polls in the Czech Republic
related to security, defence and armed forces. In recent years, we can observe concern about the
security situation development in the relatively close vicinity of the Czech Republic. In particular,
information regarding the activities of the so-called Islamic State, the conflict in Ukraine and media
presentation of recent terrorist attacks, as well as the dominant securitization of migration, have a
major impact on the public opinion and the level of support for specific steps of the government in the
field of security and defence policy. In the surveys, we can trace not only the growing public concern,
but also the increasing support for higher defence spending and possible reintroduction of some form
of compulsory military service. Special attention is paid to the public perception of the armed forces
and the interpretation of the latest public opinion polls at the turn of 2016/2017. The growing support
for the military and the increasing willingness of the public to engage in the Active Reserve System
are positive factors that can be used to meet the recruiting goals of the Czech Armed Forces.
Keywords: public polls, threats, public attitudes, security and defence issues
1. Introduction of the leading representatives of the

It must be said that in the last few years in country, especially former Prime Minister
the Czech Republic as well as in other (and current president of the country) Miloš
countries in Central Europe, it is possible to Zeman, as well as specific and visible
observe an increasing public concern and security measures (let us recall the IFVs in
also an increase in fear of specific threats or the centre of Prague around the Free Europe
phenomena that are interpreted and radio buildings), all this affected the public
securitized in this respect. This and the sense of security has never returned
development is very clear, especially if we to the level of the beginning of the last
compare e.g. the present results of public decade. Still, the concerns of citizens were
opinion polls with the data that related, in particular, to the issues of their
characterized the popular feelings and social and economic status.
concerns over the past decades. Unemployment, sickness, decrease in living
standards, crime - these were the sources of
2. What we were afraid of previously the concerns that the public primarily
For example, still in 2001, before the perceived. Wars, arms race, terrorism and
terrorist attacks of September 11, 88% of other phenomena associated with national
respondents - citizens of the Czech Republic or international security, were in fact less
believed that no military threats existed. [1] significant to the public. [2]
The events of September 2001 in the United
States, highly covered in media, statements
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0029
184
3. What we are afraid of now 4. Migration - example of securitization of
Today, the situation is more complicated. a non-existent threat
The focus of public interest is occupied by This development can be clearly
phenomena that were previously considered demonstrated with the attitude toward the
as not relevant to our geographic area or migration crisis and acceptance of refugees
were entirely absent from the public that most of the public (3/4) consider not as
discourse. In particular, the concerns about people in need, rather as a security threat to
migration, terrorism and war are new and the Czech Republic, Europe and the global
they are viewed much more sensitively by peace. [6]
the public. [3] It is a paradox, indeed, as at the height of the
Despite the economic growth and rising migration crisis in 2015, when almost two
living standards, paradoxically, there is million migrants came to Europe, including
growing feeling of discomfort, scepticism several hundred thousand to neighbouring
and pessimism in the issues of the future Germany, the Czech Republic was affected
development of security of our country and by this wave only marginally. In 2015,
the whole of Europe. There are significant around 8,000 illegal migrants were detained
concerns about conflicts and war that could in its territory; in the last year, it was about
involve our region. More than 80% of half of this number. A little above 1,500
respondents in the Czech Republic think that migrants applied for asylum in 2015; less
war is a threat for our country – even for than 1,400 last year. [7]
37% it is a big threat, which is roughly three However, the overwhelming majority of
times higher compared to the situation ten applicants for asylum contributing to these
years ago! [4] figures were from Ukraine, Cuba, Vietnam,
Overall, the security situation in Europe is China and the post-soviet countries.
seen quite negative and, according to the Applicants for asylum from Syria, Iraq or
public, further development does not Afghanistan amounted to several tens, still,
promise a better turn. Today, only about 4% the subject of migration and refugees has
of respondents declare that in the past five become the subject of great media, political
years the security situation in Europe has and public interest on the edge of hysteria. [8]
improved, for 14% it has not changed, but All of this in a situation where the ordinary
for more than 80% it has deteriorated (for citizen essentially does not have a chance to
43% of them significantly). [5] physically meet a refugee, let alone learn
Media presentation and political anything about their story. It is tragic that this
interpretation of the activities of the so-called refusal applies not only to the economic
Islamic State, the terrorist attacks in Europe, migrants, but also to people fleeing war and
annexation of Crimea and the rising tension looking for a safe haven in our secular
in relations between Russia and the West as country that, paradoxically, at least in words,
well as the migration crisis and its if not deeds, asserts the untouchability of
association with terrorism, all this gives the Christian values. However, even for war
public a sense of fear and uncertainty, but it refugees there is no place in Czech Republic,
also raises the demand for instant, strong, as almost two thirds of the Czech citizens do
simple measures that would bring the feeling not agree even with the granting of
of security back. Especially the mentioned temporary asylum to people fleeing war. [9]
events and their presentation influenced, in a Why is the Czech society so unfavourable,
significant way, the public interest in the frightened, xenophobic? What kind of
security issues in general and also information raised such public concern over
contributed to the creation of a dominant, the subject of migration? Why is the
rigid and negatively defined public attitudes. migration that we may actually need for
economic and in particular demographic
185
reasons, interpreted as a threat rather than as by immigration and requires strong, fast,
an opportunity? simple and forceful or restrictive measures
As our own empirical experience with by the state or all those who match these
migration is essentially excluded, it can be concerns meet with their political offering.
assumed that migration is securitized, i.e.
interpreted as a security threat, by media, 5. Changes in attitude to defence and
certain political forces, president or other armed forces
persons who have sufficient authority and The political scene also responds to the
ability to influence public opinion. growing public concerns, which are reflected
In this context, we can demonstrate the in the content of the recently updated
fundamental, dominant and negative impact strategic documents of the Czech Republic
of the media, including the public service However, while the public sees the biggest
media, which should facilitate information danger in illegal and mass migration, the
objectively, impartially and professionally. official documents are dominated by the
However, based on a number of studies of issue of international terrorism and the
media coverage of the migration crisis, we concerns with the activities of the Russian
can clearly identify their failure and Federation. All these threats and their
contribution in the securitization of frequent media and political interpretation
migration. For example, the conclusions of contribute to the overall sense of danger and
the research project “Analysis of Media modify the long-term public attitudes toward
Coverage of the Refugee Crisis”, [10] aimed defence issues and the armed forces.
at main news programs of two most popular While the past decades showed relatively
TV stations – public service Czech little public interest in the army and the low
Television and commercial TV Nova, are level of awareness of the defence matters, in
clear: “Covering of the refugee crisis in the recent years an empirically evidenced change
main news programs of both TV stations was has occurred. The defence department is no
not balanced and it unilaterally emphasized longer perceived as a reserve for the state
the security and administrative risks budget and defence spending has become a
associated with immigration. Thus presented legitimate and desirable expense of the state
news could make the viewers feel threatened in the eyes of the public. The turnover in the
and increase the demand for short-term ratio of views on the importance of defence
solutions to the problem with the use of spending in public opinion polls can be
force.” observed approximately since 2014. Since
It can be presumed that the conclusions of 1993 (with the exception of 1999, when the
the analysis can be applied to other media, Czech Republic entered NATO) most of the
tabloids notwithstanding. public always considered this expenditure
Emphasizing the security and administrative too burdensome for the state budget (51-
aspects of migration, introducing fear of 58%); since 2014 this view represents
economic costs, increased criminality, minority of respondents (39-41%). At the
introduction of diseases, etc., strengthen the end of 2016, as many as 63% of respondents
public rejection of all migrants. In addition, directly voiced support for an increase in
linking migration to islamization [11] and spending on defence. [12]
terrorism leads to the creation of a simplistic According to the research „Army and
and false negative stereotype: refugee = Security 2016“ by the Ministry of Defence,
Muslim = terrorist. there is also an apparent growing confidence
Based on the empirical data from public in the army and support for the introduction
opinion polls, it seems that this interpretation of some form of military training or training
of migration is accepted by a considerable of the population. The army enjoys a high
part of the Czech society. It feels threatened level of public confidence (more than 70% of
186
respondents express trust in the army, more government adopted in March 2017, expects
than e.g. police; twenty years ago, the a significant increase in defence expenditure
confidence in the army was under 30%). The (up to 2% of GDP by 2024; in 2016
prestige of the military officer has increased spending amounted to 1.03% of GDP),
dramatically and is comparable with the modernization of the armed forces and in
public recognition of a judge or university particular significant increase in the number
professor. [13] of professional soldiers up to nearly 30,000
The army is seen as necessary for the defence (23,184 professionals served in 2016). [17]
of the state, but the public is aware of its lack
of capacities and the limits in securing 6. Conclusion
defence and security of the state, which are The growing public concern over threats or
the result of long-term underinvestment. phenomena that are presented so by the
Low numbers of the fully professional army media, political elites, president or persons
along with the growing concern about the considered experts by the public is evident.
development of the security situation Russian assertive to aggressive foreign
strengthen the public support for the policy activities, terrorist attacks, mass
reintroduction of military service or other migration - these are all factors which are
forms of military preparation of the sensitively perceived and empirical
population. Still in 2012 the decision to researches show significant and in recent
abolish conscription was viewed as correct decades unprecedented shifts in the public
65%; at the end of 2016 it was already only attitudes.
half of the respondents (42% agree with It can be assumed that there is a link between
renewing the basic military service!). [14] these concerns and the pessimism of the
In comparison to previous years and decades, public and the growing support for the
there is also an increase in the willingness of actions of the state to increase its defence
the public to participate in the defence of the capabilities. The extraordinary support for an
state. Nearly 9% of respondents would be increase in defence spending, growing
more willing to become a professional interest in the military service and in Active
soldier, serve in the Military Police or the Reserve represent a significant opportunity
Castle Guard and work in a military for the armed forces of the Czech Republic.
profession. Even more, 19% of respondents, Despite some improvements in their
are willing to become a member of a so- situation in recent years, they still have to
called Active Reserve, in addition to their deal with the aftermath of the long-term
civilian occupation, participate in regular shortage in funding and political and public
training and receive a monthly allowance support.
from the state. One third of respondents However, the current favourable economic
(33%) are even willing to participate in situation, the existing political will and the
single short-term voluntary exercises along growing clear public support offer hope for
with their civilian occupation. significant improvement in the conditions for
The evaluation of the military as an employer the modernization and strengthening of the
is also positive, up to 66 % of responding armed forces and achieving their best
citizens consider the army as a good employer military capabilities.
and only 8% answered in negative. [15]
The data and the trends are likely to facilitate Acknowledgements
the implementation of the updated military- The work presented in this paper has been
political ambitions of the Czech Republic. supported by the Ministry of Defence of the
The updated document The Defence Strategy Czech Republic (Research Project
of the Czech Republic [16], which the “STRATAL” No. 907930101023).
187
References
[1] 9,123$/-LĜt3ČWOHWY1$729RMHQVNpSROLWLFNpDVSROHþHQVNpDVSHNW\þOHQVWYtý5Y
1$72, IIPS, Ostrava, Jagello 2000, 2004, p. 85.
[2] REZKOVÁ, Miluše. 5HIOH[HHNRQRPLFNpWUDQVIRUPDFHDNRPSHWHQFHYOiG\ ,Q78ý(.
Milan. 2GUD]VSROHþHQVNêFK]PČQYHYHĜHMQpPPtQČQt-. Praha : Sociologický
~VWDY$NDGHPLHYČGýHVNpUHSXEOLky, 1999. ISBN 80-85950-63-4. s. 48.
[3] http://cvvm.soc.cas.cz/media/com_form2content/documents/c1/a7659/f3/ov170209.pdf
[4] http://cvvm.soc.cas.cz/media/com_form2content/documents/c1/a7648/f3/ob170117.pdf
[5] Ibid.
[6] http://cvvm.soc.cas.cz/media/com_form2content/documents/c1/a7680/f3/pm170327.pdf
[7] http://www.emncz.eu/statistiky/
[8] http://www.mvcr.cz/soubor/cs-stat-2016-pdf.aspx
[9] http://cvvm.soc.cas.cz/media/com_form2content/documents/c1/a7680/f3/pm170327.pdf
[10] 7.$&=<.0LFKDO3DYHO3263ċ&+D-DNXE0$&(.$QDOê]DPHGLiOQtKRSRNU\Wt
XSUFKOLFNpNUL]HYê]NXPQi]SUiYD%UQR0DVDU\NRYDXQLYHU]LWD
doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4957.5764.
[11] STOJAR, Richard. 2EUDQDDVWUDWHJLH, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 61-78, 2016.
[12] $UPiGDDYHĜHMQRVW, Czech MoD, unpublished.
[13] $UPiGDDEH]SHþQRVW 2016, Czech MoD, unpublished.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid.
[16] http://www.mocr.army.cz/images/id_40001_50000/46088/OS.pdf
[17] http://www.mocr.army.cz/assets/dokumenty-a-legislativa/cisla/att00022-doc.xls
188
COMMANDER’S MANAGERIAL COMPETENCES IN THE CZECH ARMED

FORCES
3DYOD0$&+Èý.29È-LĜt+2'1é-DQ=(=8/$
8QLYHUVLW\RI'HIHQFH%UQR7KHCzHFK5HSXEOLF
SDYODPDFKDFNRYD#XQREF]
Abstract: The paper summarizes the research results of commanders’ managerial competences. The
aim of the research consisted in identifying facts, which managerial competences make or do not
make troubles for commanders; there are offered recommendations for the development of
commanders’ critical competences. The research was conducted within three groups of respondents:
the first group comprised senior officers, participants of the General Staff course; the second group
comprised junior officers, participants of the senior officer course, and the third group covered
graduates of the basic officers’ course. Using the questionnaire research, respondents rated ten
selected managerial competences of their subordinates. The research results concluded that
commanders face the greatest difficulties in communication, self-development and analytical thinking.
.H\ZRUGV FRPPDQGHUFRPSHWHQFHVTXDQWLWDWLYHUHVHDUFK&]HFK$UPHG)RUFHV
,QWURGXFWLRQ level, first, the key managerial competences

The fundamental concepts such as manager, as well as their content had to be defined
leader and competence have become widely and specified. Creating the initial model of
discussed even in the military environment commander´s key competences consisted in
in the Czech Armed Forces. There can be searching selected studies and publications
found countless models of aptitudes and in order to find, or, possibly define a simple
skills required for effective leading operationalized model of managerial
subordinates; however, research on competencies, which would enable creating
detecting its quality appear in the Czech a simple tool for measuring, or respectively
Armed Forces environment just evaluating commander´s competencies.
sporadically. The aim of this paper consists When determining competences, the
in drawing attention to far little researched publication Leadership by Horana (in
survey covering the level of commanders’ Vrchota) [1] is based on research resulting
managerial competences in the Czech from self-evaluation of managers, i.e.,
Armed Forces and acquainting readers with which competences are the most significant
the main results of empirical research, for the executing managerial activities:
which had been conducted by the authors of those are efficiency, responsibility,
the paper. purposefulness, knowledge, decisiveness,
creativity, ability to compromise,
6SHFLILFDWLRQ RI FRPPDQGHUV NH\ perseverance, collaboration, and
FRPSHWHQFHV communication.
To perform the empirical research of In 2003, the Kienbaum Consultants
commanders’ managerial competences International organization presented results
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0030
189
of its research [2], which had been carried Novák´s [7] structured competence model
out at the management of word leading of ten managerial competencies is a very
companies: its aim was to identify the most similar typology with predetermined
important skills, which should be mastered indicators; the authors have used it as a
by their managers. Those specified starting model for further research covering
competences were sorted by relevance as commander´s competencies for successful
follows: motivation, targeting, team-work leadership of teams; it comes to
ability, communication, ability to work decisiveness, responsibility, goal
under pressure, analytical skills, willingness orientation, efficiency orientation, self-
to learn, lead, flexibility, decisiveness (10 development, policy, empathy, self-
competences by relevance had been confidence, communication, creativity. This
selected). model was prioritized because of relevant
The U.S. Army Leadership Field Manual indicators applicable in evaluating
[3] defines the commander´s competence commander´s key competencies.
model as a set of values (loyalty, The model had been judged professionally
responsibility, respect, unselfishness, by several selected commanders serving in
honesty, scrupulousness, courage), formations of tactical and operational
attributes (mental, physical, emotional), levels, and resulting from that the model
knowledge and skills (communication, was partially modified. The original
decisiveness, creativity, couching, competence “policy” was replaced by
mentoring, knowledge, monitoring). ”analytical skills” as this competence
The National system of Occupations of the reflects better the aspect of military
Czech Republic [4] defines the following experience. Components (indicators,
soft skills for a senior executive: criteria) of individual competencies were
communication, collaboration, creativity, modified in compliance with activities of a
flexibility, efficiency, independence, military unit commander. The number of
problem-solving, life-long learning, competencies appeared to be well suited for
activity, coping with workload, leadership. creating a research tool, a structured
“The Decree on the procedure for official questionnaire dealing with assessing
evaluation for soldiers and its commander´s competencies. The
considerations” of 2015 [5] is a further questionnaire frame comprised
document, which had been considered for predetermined and defined competencies as
creating a core group of commander´s follows:
competencies; there are ten evaluation x decisiveness,
criteria as follows: fulfilment of duties, x responsibility,
qualification, efficiency, responsibility, x goal orientation,
communication, reliability, independence, x efficiency orientation,
analytical skills, coping with workload, x self-development,
interpersonal relationships. x analytical skills;
Vrchota [6] defines key managerial x empathy;
competencies for the enterprise x self-confidence,
management as follows: communication,
x communication,
collaboration, ability to solve problems
x creativity.
(make decisions), ability to learn,
The above presented competencies were
independence, efficiency orientation,
always assigned five indicator components
creativity, responsibility, ability to think,
characterizing that particular competence.
and ability to evaluate. The model
advantage consists in offering empirically
measurable indicators as well.
190
4XHVWLRQQDLUHVXUYH\ ten competencies.
The research goal consisted in identifying Respondents were assessing the level of key
those competencies that cause commanders competencies of subordinate commanders
major and minor problems. Questionable within the interval 2.09 – 2.49; according to
competencies and skills bringing the Czech school grading scale, the rating
commanders troubles are going to be paid ranges between very good up to good
attention to in the future by the authors as (ECTS: B-C). The empirical research
well in terms of developing commanders´ showed that respondents perceived at their
competencies. subordinates competencies such as
Having applied the operacionalized model communication, self-development and
of commander´s managerial competencies, analytical thinking ability as the most
the authors developed a questionnaire questionable ones. On the contrary,
consisting of fifty statements. Each competencies such as efficiency orientation,
statement was assigned a five-point rating goal orientation and decisiveness belonged
scale in compliance with the Czech school among the top rated, see graph no. 1.
grading scale. The questionnaire was No significant differences were found at
distributed among three groups of assessing three most questionable and three
respondents, i.e., life-long learning top competencies among individual groups
participants at the University of Defence: of respondents (General Staff course –
General Staff course, senior officers´ GSC; Senior Officers´ course – SOC; Basic
course, and basic officers´ course graduates. Officers´ course – BOC), see table no. 1.
In total, there were 90 respondents (three More detailed results, i.e., which skills
groups of thirty people). The interviewed (indicators) at subordinates within
persons covered the entire management individual competencies are evaluated
levels, i.e., from strategic, through favourably, and which are considered rather
operational up to tactical. The data were questionable, are presented in the table no.
being collected within 12 – 16 December 2 and 3 below.
2016. The questionnaires were returned by The table no. 2 shows that skills within
100 %. competencies goal orientation, efficiency
orientation and decisiveness are top rated.
0DLQUHVHDUFKUHVXOWV The table no. 3 shows that when assessing
Researchers tried to answer two research subordinate commanders, respondents
questions. considered as rather questionable skills
1. Which competencies at the subordinate within competences communication,
commanders are considered empathy, and self-development.
questionable by respondents, and which
are not? 5DHYHORSLQJFRPPDQGHU¶VFRPSHWHQFLHV
2. Which skills being a part of individual The empirical research results show that
competencies at the subordinate competencies such as communication, self-
commanders are classified questionable by development and analytical thinking ability
respondents, and which are not? have the greatest potential for developing
Respondents had to assess 50 skills within commanders’ competencies.
191
192
&RPPXQLFDWLRQ evaluation interviews, assessment of
Ability to be listened to and accepted by training and commanders’ preparation. The
others, to grasp substantial and build feedback is efficient particularly in cases
relationships among others should become when practised by an experienced
basic tasks of a commander. In our opinion, commander who acts as a consultant
developing the commander´s competence (mentor, coach). A commander should also
communication should be focused be concerned about the training courses
predominantly on active listening skills, level of his subordinates, follow, what
assertive behaviour, ability to prevent and knowledge, skills and habits were acquired
resolve conflicts, communicating concise, and whether are used by soldiers in practice.
accurate and unambiguous information $QDO\WLFDOWKLQNLQJ
covering also feedback to verify the degree The analytical thinking is characterized as
of understanding the information sent as an ability to look at the problem and
well as language proficiency including consider it from several points of view and
cultural differences acquaintance, which is then select the best solution from all
particularly important whether the operation solutions offered; this procedure presents
abroad is successful or not. problems even for some experienced
6HOI-GHYHORSPHQW commanders. In our opinion, such a
Developing this competence is based on the competence should be developed
cognition of our own personality, purposefully, particularly in the tactical
developing our strengths and reducing preparation, which enables creating model
weaknesses. We assume that unless situations resembling real life ones. This
commanders are willing to work on can be achieved by applying simulation
themselves and study, they are not able to technologies, which allows recording the
develop their subordinates, and the military entire decision-making process and offer
organization will be at a standstill. A the objective feedback as well.
commander acting as an example for others
is for his subordinates an example to be 6&RQFOXVLRQ
followed: and only if he is working on The paper offered ten detailed definitions of
himself continually, is willing to learn, and commanders´ key competences, i.e.,
responds to relevant changes. Appropriately decisiveness, responsibility, goal
applied feedback belongs to efficient tools orientation, efficiency orientation, self-
used for the purpose of commanders´ development, analytical thinking, empathy,
development, e.g., career development self-confidence, communication, creativity,
193
and indicators were created to measure should be focused particularly on
them. Resulting from these indicators, a competencies covering communication,
questionnaire was developed, data collected self-development, and analytical thinking
from three groups of respondents, i.e., ability. The last part outlines methods how
participants of the General Staff course, these competencies can be developed
course for senior officer and basic officers´ among commanders. In further research, the
course graduates (officers in commander authors are going to focus on developing
and staff functions at 7th mechanized methods for individual competencies, both
brigade), which are engaged in strategic, in accredited study programs for future
organizational and direct leadership. The commanders at the University of Defence
research outcomes showed that the and in career courses and commanders´
development of commander´s competence preparation with troops.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] VRCHOTA, J. 9\PH]HQtNOtþRYêFKPDQDåHUVNêFKNRPSHWHQFtSURĜt]HQtSRGQLNĤYý5
ýHVNp %XGČMRYLFH -LKRþHVNi XQLYHU]LWD (NRQRPLFNi IDNXOWD V 'LVHUWDþQt
práce.
[2] BAUER, S. High Potentials Study. CONTACT e. V. [online]. Lecture presented at
University Kaiserslautern May 7, 2003. [quoted 10-10-2016]. Available from
http://www.unikl.de/CONTACT/docs/presentation_uni_kl_20030507.pdf
[3] The U. S. Army Leadership Field Manual. McGraw-Hill: 2004. ISBN 978-0-07-143699-1.
[4] Národní soustava povolání. [online]. [cit. 10-10-2016] Available from:
http://kompetence.nsp.cz/mekkeKompetence.aspx
[5] 9\KOiãND R SRVWXSX SĜL VOXåHEQtFK KRGQRFHQt YRMiNĤ D MHKR KOHGLVFtFK 9\KOiãND þ
189/2015 Sb.
[6] 95&+27$ - 0DQDåHUVNp NRPSHWHQFH VWXGHQWĤ () ,Q ,1352)2580
6ERUQtN ] PH]LQiURGQt NRQIHUHQFH „Global Economic Crisis - Challenge for the
5HJLRQV³ ýHVNp %XGČMRYLFH (NRQRPLFNi IDNXOWD - 6. listopad 2009, s. 421-425.
ISBN 978-80-7394-173-4.
[7] NOVÁK, P. 0DQDåHUVNp NRPSHWHQFH Y PDOêFK SRGQLFtFK %UQR 9\VRNp XþHQt
WHFKQLFNpY%UQČ)DNXOWDSRGQLNDWHOVNiV'LVHUWDþQtSUiFH
194
DEPLOYABILITY OF ARMED FORCES IN THE CURRENT ARMED CONFLICTS
Ivan MAJCHÚT

Slovakia
ivan.majchut@aos.sk
Abstract: Achieving victory in nowadays armed conflicts by using of conventional military forces
seems more and more difficult. Military solutions are not satisfying and used civilian-military effort
still needs many improvements. So-called irregular warfare requires more regular or conventional
capabilities than is usually necessary to win in regular warfare. The question is how to adapt armed
forces for the nowadays irregular environment. How to educate, train and deploy armed forces? How
to create a reliable tool of military power for using in irregular warfare?
Keywords: Capabilities, conventional warfare, irregular warfare
1. Introduction 2. The character of war

Many experts on the employment of military Politicians and soldiers often make
force warn about the contemporary problems considerable efforts to name a war and to
of education, training and deployment of characterize its various aspects. Many
military forces. If military force should be different ideas and understandings are
used for some political reasons to resolve the presented in this process. The initial effort to
crisis, whether at the beginning or during it, create a fruitful discussion to determined topic
the question is how to implement it. the establishment is lost in a military mental
The essence of the debate in the military obsession to establish the definition,
coalition is to define the position in the traceability and clear delimitation of each
spectrum of conflict and to determine the activity.
character of the military operation. Next step Military warfare is in its extreme forms,
is, to appoint the concept of realisation of process-oriented. Standard operating
meaning operation with the effort to meet procedures (SOPs) are creating and what is
defined military objectives and thereby not specified and explained in them it is
creating the conditions for achieving political managed quite difficult. Unfortunately,
goals. sometimes their processing caused more
It is expected that the use of military force frictions than the actual military art.
(and other tools to solve the present crisis) The effort to define the particular war
will be credible to the population of the (conventional, traditional, regular, irregular,
affected countries; it means those who are to hybrid …) and the effort to assign the
be supported. At the same time, it is expected particular form of warfare (regular or
that the use of the military force will be irregular) is developing the discussion about
credible to the population of the countries the capabilities creation. The need for a
from which deployed forces are posted. comprehensive understanding of the power
struggle as the cause of the war and
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0031
195
subsequently warfare is sometimes forgotten. armed forces and what capabilities to build up
Independent variables (emotions, chance, and for the fulfilment of the tasks. This issue is
a reason), which vary in every war, and new gaining in importance when many forms of
technological improvements have great effect non-military tasks are needed and necessity of
upon the character of war. They affect the close connection between military and civilian
tactics, operational art, military strategy and in elements deployed to achieve the power
some cases even grand strategy of respective struggle objectives is expected.
actors. It is now apparent that character of war The 20th century, focusing on the major wars,
is changing. [4] thrive generation of military experts and
Aspects of the power struggle are connected politicians with a single-valued view at the
to each other. No matter you have used military forces. The tool of military force was
uniformed (military) personnel or personnel theoretically prepared and many times in real
without uniform. Civil power elite use various life “tested”. Today, the same generation (as
methods, means and tools against the well as the new one) is facing the irregular
opponent depending on what is going on. If it warfare.
is necessary they use activities of uniformed Yesterday´s educational and training options
personnel, or it is without military were flipped to the present situation with
involvement. They will even do it secretly, limited educational background and
without regard to belonging to “East” or increasing necessity for practical
“West”. implementation. [2]
Collision in the understanding of political
activities and also military warfare occurs 3. The character of military operation
when irregular warfare is analysed in the same Current military operations may be in
one-dimensional way like conventional accordance with the Alliance doctrines [1]
warfare. The collision is much bigger when to classified into four basic categories:
the process are included secret activities, what - Combat (Operations to Neutralise Major
is the usual way of irregular warfare Threats),
conducting.
It might be counterproductive to study, plan - Security (Operations to Enable
and actively wage the war with specifying war Stabilization),
as a regular or irregular. More important is, - Peace Support Operations,
how the armed forces will be created for to be
the tool in all aspects of war and power - Other Activities.
struggles.
If the power struggle is not in the form state Both world wars (but also the cold war)
vs. state, it is necessary to seek limits on supported the way of thinking and preparation
conventional warfare applications and to for war in long term. The basic reason for the
determine aspects which are needed to existence of the armed forces was mainly the
change. Actors of the power struggle will do it existence of so-called great wars. Willingness
always. If they are unable to create and even the possibility of military institutions
conventional military forces, they will fight in to think outside of conventional warfare were
secret and hidden, armed depending on the very limited. That matches the structure and
situation. The context of war is all around us, training of armed forces in a substantial part
but absolutely military wars are rare and very of the “western” and also “eastern” countries.
rarely with the full deployment of all In nowadays terms of military operations,
equipment. There is still power struggle and armed forces have been preparing for the
there are still different kinds of wars existing. combat (operations to neutralise major
No matter how we will mark the “war”. threats). But today´s military operations are
Question is, what missions to specify for often conducted in a challenging context of
196
irregular warfare (operations to enable counterinsurgency, which is a difficult matter.
stabilization and peace support operations). Frequent security activities, carried out by
The states have lost their monopoly to outsourcing companies, complicate formation
conduct armed conflict and one of the parties of fundamental links with people living in the
to the conflict is often represented by an affected region and gaining their trust. In
aggressive non-state actor. The tactics of non- addition, a large number of civilian non-
state actors belong to the category of governmental organizations and various
asymmetric warfare. The asymmetry in private organizations refuse cooperation with
military point of view is confronting activities military forces. The problem of achieving a
carried out in accordance with military comprehensive approach of military and
standards and international law vs. various civilian activities of various sources is well
methods of guerrilla warfare, when they known and it causes a problem of “multi-
ignore Geneva Conventions. [6] functional coordination”.
Armed forces are supposed to be also Conventional warfare (within the military
successful in non-combat operations, where dimension) requires particular capabilities,
the armed forces are used, for example, in re- which however are not the same for
establishing of government authorities, operations to enable stabilization and peace
providing basic services for local population support operations. We are talking about
as well as in assistance tasks supporting regular and irregular warfare, and both are
security and rescue organizations. [9] needed different capabilities. The same unit
Conventional military forces were not thrilled rarely achieves such a wide range of
by deploying in operations to enable capabilities. Operational planning and
stabilization and peace support operations. For decision-making processes were originally
example, involvement in counterinsurgency designed for conventional warfare between
was something very difficult for them. the armed forces. They were not designed for
“Real fighters” do not want to deal with so- “working” with various types of insurgents,
called small wars. [3] Conventional war and rebels, terrorists, criminal formations and fully
conventional warfare have, in many military mercenary forces, supported by various
systems all over the world, very rich nations or structures. In addition, the situation
theoretical basis. Comparing to the irregular is complicated when the troops, commanders
warfare, there is fundamentally negative and staff personnel are rotated every 6 - 12
attitude. This fact creates basic obstacle for months.
armed forces to adapt themselves for post- Now, we are not interested only in sensor and
modern military operations. The military shooter on the opposite side. We are interested
academic community often focuses the in the comprehensive deployment of “boots
research on great wars and theoretical bases of on the ground” and winning “hearts and
small wars are insufficient. This causes minds”. This hybrid and mainly irregular war
complications in the creation of the modern is guided by people and between people. [5]
military thinking. Finding new ways of success against irregular
Membership in multinational coalitions opponents, it creates a problem of the scale
mentioned problem more escalates. Different and impact to the military system. Irregular
national approaches and concerns, the absence warfare is more about ideas than about
of common doctrine or its different physical targets. Covert methods and means
perception, different level of training cause of influencing the opponent are as interesting
fragmentation of joint effort. In addition, as the use of brute armed force. [8]
many operations start as a conventional war These challenges are not only strategic but
and later they are changing to the phase of also operational, and tactical. They are really
stabilization. Essentially, the same unit multi-dimensional. The issues affect
provides combat and it is used in non-combat personnel, thinking, options, operational art,
197
and tactics, doctrines, education and training, operations in the irregular environment, must
the mentality of military conventional fighter be multifunctional in capabilities, although it
versus mentality of “peacemaker”, leadership, is not clear how to achieve it. Mentioned
and potential for full-conceptual employment capabilities must be much more “miscible”
and therefore the usefulness of military force. and more universal in the military as well as
Training and deployment of troops in irregular in civilian point of view, especially if it is
warfare require a change in military thinking, about capabilities for operations to enable
especially in operational art and tactics. It is stabilization.
necessary: Solving conflicts and crises in contemporary
operational environment indicates that
- Define the needed capabilities and
military force, as long as activities of other
military instruments for current and
nation´s power instruments are insufficient,
future operations in irregular warfare,
remains the most decisive, quickest and the
- Clearly formulate the concept of the most effective element for accomplishing the
armed forces transformation, strategic political and military objectives, and
- Prepare a long-term plan for education of (though not always) establishing the
military and political generations, conditions necessary to achieve desired end
state. [7]
- At the same time, prepare a short-term, Deployed forces, it is not only the deployment
realistic transformation of training, of armed (military) forces. This category can
capabilities, operational art and tactics, also include the Special Forces, police and
doctrines and concepts development. intelligence structures with a large scale of
tools. The exact meaning of what tool is
But the creation of the armed forces, possible to use for what raises a number of
deployable in irregular warfare, mays not questions. The question is what instruments
causes the loss of basic capabilities in should be built by countries separately and
conventional warfare. what together. The interplay in coalition
operations is important. The age-old problem
4. The character of irregular warfare for traditional military force is the space of
The military viewpoint of the current irregular unconventional warfare. It is not clear how the
warfare is fundamentally influenced by the competencies of the military, police on the
concept of the United States. It affects the one hand and other government special
concept of the NATO and the EU countries (if activities on the other hand are defined. [8]
they have any concept). One thing is what it means to handle the
Mentioned countries and organizations are context of irregular warfare and another thing
trying to manage “todays” and “tomorrows” is what share of it will be civilian and military
requirements for their armed forces. These matter. Activities in power struggle belong to
forces should seek ability of “expeditionary” three areas:
deployment. The focus should be placed on
the ability to operate abroad for a long time - The use of political/diplomatic tools,
and multinational. “Expeditionary” profile is - The realization of intelligence/special
also required as an essential parameter for operations,
relevant civilian agencies and state
- The deployment of the armed forces.
functionalities which are expected operate
side by side with military functions. Military
A classical power struggle with the use of
function is important but not the only tool
foreign affairs, intelligence with hidden
used in operations to enable stabilization and
activities and uniformed military services is
peace support operations
reflected in this hierarchy.
Multinational coalition force, deployable to
198
5. Conclusions to the capabilities for irregular warfare will
Military irregular warfare is be still as problematic as it is today.
multidimensional. The core of the problem The decision about the scope of the military
lies in the limited theoretical apparatus and instruments and thereby also about their
in the traditional military approach to this development rests in the hands of
form of war. Repeated experiences, politicians. The future of military
connected with military effort in an capabilities for irregular warfare also rests
irregular environment all over the world, in the hands and minds of military system
were often neglected. members, especially members of the
Comprehensive use of civilian and military military academic environment. If neither of
instruments or the creations of new these groups recognizes the needs of
“complex units” under civilian unconventional war and warfare, more and
command/control are encouraged. more people will die and more and more
Research, theory, doctrine and obtained hearts and minds will be lost.
experiences are vital pillars. If not, the way
References
[1] AJP-01(D): Allied Joint Doctrine. Brussels : NSA, 2010. 130 p. [Cit. 2017-03-02].
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/33694/AJP01D.pdf
[2] KELEMEN, Miroslav, ANDRASSY, Vladimír: Use of simulation in actual preparing of
armed forces for military emergencies and non-military emergencies (in Slovak),
V\XåtYDQLH VLPXOiFLH Y SUtSUDYH V~þDVQêFK R]EURMHQêFK VtO SUH NUt]RYp VLWXiFLH
YRMHQVNpKR D QHYRMHQVNpKR FKDUDNWHUX ,Q %H]SLHF]HĔVWZR - XMĊFLH NRPSOHNVRZH
.DWRZLFH :\ĪV]D 6]NRáD =DU]ąG]DQLD 0DUNHWLQJRZHJR L -Ċ]\NyZ 2EF\FK Z
Katowicach, 2012, ISBN 978-83-87296-24-7, p. 253-262.
[2] NAGL, A. John: Learning to Eat Soup with a Knife, Counterinsurgensy Lessons from
Malaya and Vietnam. Westport : Praeger Publishers, 2002, ISBN 0-275-97695-5, 250 p.
[3] PIKNER, Ivo, ä,/,1ýË. Samuel: Military concepts and hybrid war. In: Forum Scientiae
Oeconomia. Volume 4 (2016) Special Issue No. 1 : Security management: local, regional
and global perspectives. 'ąEURZD *yUQLF]D : :\ĪV]D 6]NRáD %L]QHVX Z 'ąEURZLH
*yUQLF]HM, 2016, ISSN 2300-5947, p. 25-34.
[4] SMITH, Rupert: The Utility of Force. New York : Vintage books, 2007, ISBN 978-0-
307-27811-1, 430 p.
[5] 63,/é 3HWHU +51ý,$5 0LFKDO 0LOLWDU\ WDFWLFV LQ 6ORYDN 9RMHQVNi WDNWLND
/LSWRYVNê 0LNXOiã $UPHG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ RI JHQ 0LODQ 5DVWLVODY âWHIiQLN 2013,
ISBN 978-80-8040-471-0, 274 p.
[6] 63,âÈ. -iQ Operational Thinking and its Application in Operational Design. In: The
22th International Conference The Knowledge-Based Organization MANAGEMENT
$1' 0,/,7$5< 6&,(1&(6 6LELX 1,&2/$( %Ă/&(6&8´ /$1' )25&(6
ACADEMY, 2016, ISSN 1843-682X, p. 142 - 147.
[7] US DoD: Irregular Warfare (IW) Joint Operating Concept (JOC). Washington: 2007. 100
p. [Cit. 2017-03-02]. Available at: https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/iw-joc.pdf
[8] VARECHA, Jaroslav: Possible view on the combat potential parameters (in Slovak),
0RåQêSRKĐDGQDSDUDPHWUHERMRYpKRSRWHQFLiOXIn: National and International Security
2016: 6th international science conference. - /LSWRYVNê0LNXOiãArmed Forces Academy
oI JHQ 0LODQ 5DVWLVODY âWHIiQLN, 2016, ISBN 978-80-8040-534-2, pp. 569 - 577.
199
MILITARY TERMINOLOGY – MEANINGS AND GRAMMAR APPROACH
Ileana-Gentilia METEA

meteaileana@yahoo.de
Abstract: The aim of this article is to analyze the basic phrases from the operational plans / orders by
explaining concepts such as mission and execution, together with their elements, from a semantic and
grammatical approach, and also by adding plastic elements in order to facilitate the understanding of
the debated topics.
Keywords: military terminology, "execution", "mission"
1. Introduction 2. Analysis of the military terms

Standardization is a defining element of the In this analysis, we have started from very
military organization. The standardized common words in the military environment
language is part of a category of that have a connotation related to the
terminologies with newly extra-linguistic activities in the field: mission, execution,
potential. Military operational language is purpose, tasks, key tasks, end state etc.
part of the standardized language category, The second part of an operation order -
characteristic for certain areas of mission, is a common noun with strong
professional activities, science, technics and sonority and interesting etymology
technology. "[mission f. (Latin missio, -ónis, d. Mittere,
In military-specific activities we accept missum, to send.). Task, power given to
patterns that we do not master very well as someone to do something in ones behalf: a
meaning, but we accept them and diplomatic mission, for example the
implement them as we receive them. We apostles of Jesus Christ had the mission of
have developed robotic abilities that allow preaching the gospel. 1. Empowerment
us to translate certain ideas into a certain given to someone, task to do a certain thing.
format, in conformity with the old axiom 2. A group of (officials) people sent in a
according to which the communication foreign country for a specific purpose
process can be represented by transmitting (usually diplomatic); delegation. Diplomatic
the message from the emitter to the receiver Mission = Embassy or Diplomatic Office,
using a common language, encoding, a headed by an ambassador or a
transmission channel, and decoding. This plenipotentiary minister. 3. Action of
phenomenon might not be considered as Promotion of Christianity in countries with
eminently positive or negative, thus should another dominant religion; (Collectively)
be analyzed from the perspective of its priests sent into such an action; P. Ext. The
usefulness in fulfilling military purposes (in name of the religious mission center (3). 4.
the field). Role, place, duty, purpose. [Pr: -si-u-. - Var:
(vv., 1) missions. F.] - from fr. Mission, lat.
Missio, -onis. "[1]
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0032
200
Although the correspondence of terms is noun that submits to the flexion rules, that
made by the verb of the third conjugation does not deviate from the rule, does not
“to send” at infinitive, as first meaning lack and does not lose any plural or case
given by the dictionaries, both the termination. Therefore, the noun "mission"
multivalent noun and the empowerment from the "center" of the military action fits
noun are used, showing that the mission perfectly into the typical military
includes both an action that usually terminology, and is suitable, both
involves movement and also an emotional semantically and grammatically.
load of a certain magnitude. Thus, the
action is an important, value-bearing one, a 3. Terminological explication
locomotive that has the consequences of the In NATO's view, the mission is "a clear and
mission are attached. concise sentence that refers to the task and
Metaphorically, the word "mission" can be its purpose set by the higher echelon” [2].
compared with a snail with its harsh and In the Romanian military thinking, the
mysterious shell, carrying a soft core in its mission is defined as "the clear and concise
womb that is moving in a movement expression of the action and the purpose to
intended only by him or a walnut with a be accomplished" [3]. The purpose of the
spherical and hard bark, streaked with "action to be executed in combat by a
ribbons that send modulations encrypted to military or a military structure" [4] is the
the its coarse and its hard core. Unlike combat mission. "This is established by the
snail, the walnut is attracted to gravity only, commander of the higher echelon and
while the snail moves on the hard surface transmitted by order, in a clear and precise
directed by an internal neuronal command. form, together with the main elements that
So the mission can include a multitude of contribute to its fulfillment (support,
methods, processes, tracking targets, cooperation." [5] Based on the mission of
precise and multidimensional goals. The the upper echelon, the commander states
mission is therefore a powerful common the mission "reflecting the current
noun, that hides a polyvalent verb. This is situation." [6]
the descriptive value of the mission passed In order to clarify the objectives pursued in
through the filter of our subjectivism but the future, in this part are listed the
keeping the terminological objectivism. additional tasks of the mission (e.g.:
Trying to replace the term with another "destroy"," neutralize ", ...). The preferred
from the same semantic sphere, we find: form is "Who", (for example: the company,
"embassy", "apostolate", "commission", the battalion); ”What”, (for example: the
"duty", "delegation", "deputy", "deputation", main objective of the mission); ”When”,
"evangelization", "empowerment", (for example: no later than ...); ”Where”,
"assignment", "bound", "office", " (for example: in the ... area); and ”why”
purpose", "diplomatic mission", "role", (the purpose of the mission). The mission
"purpose", "priesthood", "task", "message", statement may also include the type of
"vocation", and one may find out that most operation (offensive or defense) and the
synonymous terms either express only control measures to be used (such as
partially the meaning transmitted by "targets" or "combat positions"). [7]
"mission", or the terms are totally apart The question ”who” (for example, the
from it, moving to the loss of the desired company, the battalion, ... who performs the
meaning. mission, who implements the orders)
In order to have a clear picture of the indicates the structure that performs the
flexion modulations the noun receives in mission. The question refers to the object
number and case one can observe the clarity that the subject's action is pointed towards,
of the flexion marks, the "mission" being a in accordance with the objective pursued by
201
the mission, main and secondary ones (for the enemy, precisely located in AO ZINC
example: the main objective of the and to ensure the introduction of 100 In
mission). Finally, the relatives appear: Bde in combat" ). Military specialists tend
”when” (for example: no later than ... ), to use the infinitive form of the verbs,
”where” (for example, in the area of because infinitive stands for name of
operations ...) and ”why” (mission actions (to introduce). The option can be
purpose). Time, space and relative clauses explained by the fact that the infinitive
state the coordinates of the mission (when, mode is a verbal form that gives name to an
where, how, why). action expressed in a general manner. The
Terminologically, following the mission, infinitive mode is used in the military
the term "execution" refers to an action and language because: it does not change in
can be represented by a compass: arms time, number and person, has a limited
joined at a point of origin or origin, sharp flexion in composition to other modes; in
peaks, and finally the perfect circle. I have the sentence has the syntactic role played
intentionally omitted the rotation because it by other categories of words, usually nouns;
deserves special attention in its mechanical cannot play the role of predicate in the
work which it performs according to the sentence; is not used together with the
formulas indicated. In order to execute the subject; is part of other tenses, along with
missions stated in the operating orders, the auxiliary verbs. Thus, verbs at infinitive
mechanical work done by the compass arms have only a denominational role and not a
often hides the effort of the execution predicative one, they do not have a role of
structures. The impact of the sharp peaks on action. Infinitive verbs have the role of the
contact with the surface to be explored noun, they act as nouns.
remains imperceptible. The defining The "Key tasks" are reinforcements,
importance of the execution is the product, intentional robot ligaments, rigid parts that
the circle. It must be perfect, uninterrupted, must work perfectly, as an intelligent chain
undistorted. This is a standard execution. reaction, or as a perfect key for any lock.
Execution remains an aggressive verb with Key tasks contain nouns naming actions,
a noun form - a name for an action. Taken names of verbs of movement (e.g.
apart, the circle of "execution" is a collage "conquering", "securing", "developing",
of thoughts, calculations and movements, ”ensuring”). In the description of the key
all linked together in schematic frames, in tasks we can encounter two distinct
order to move inner and outer resorts, grammatical situations: noun verbs
directed to the ultimate goal. correlated with the preposition "for" and
If we would try another terminological verbs in indicative mode, whose action is
variant, we would find it hard to find a reflected by the indirect complement:
substitute in the semantic family of participates at VHFXULQJ ĺ the alignment;
"execution": "performing", "fulfilling", Participates DWĺRIIHQVLYHGHYHORSPHQW
"accomplishing", "application" are the The desired end state bears the mark of the
translated terms from the dictionary of participle - "destroyed/captured", using
synonyms, none of which being the same as verbs cannot be misinterpreted and the
that used in the military field. reflexive diathesis of verbs that are
The intention contains a precise, concrete understood from the context (e.g.: "100 In
idea, without nuances, which has the path Bde in offensive in the … direction").
opened to materialization, being efficiently The concept of operation projects us into
marked. This idea is materialized by the the reflexive future (e.g. "The offensive
terminological name "purpose." The operation will develop in ten phases." If we
purpose is to transpose at the end of the had to deal with a text other than the
action, the result (e.g., ”to destroy / capture military, the expression would probably
202
have been "as follows". We note that the closed vocal groups and create a linguistic
military terminology is not permissive in conglomerate with a strong force of
sense but concise, with clear indications. In expression. It is unimaginable how it would
the description of the phases of the have been if instead of the expression
operations, the beginning and the final "destroy the enemy" one would use the
moment is indicated: ”…begins with and verbs such as: "abolish", "devastates," or
finishes after ...” The concreteness of some worse: "scatters", "crushes", ”massacre” …
lexically minimalized expressions explains the enemy.
a wide-ranging operational situations.
In order to determine the tasks of the 4. Conclusion
maneuver structures, the movement-action Concluding, military terminology, austere
is expressed by nouns creating visual and in its linguistic expression, referred to as a
auditory images. The verbs on indicative "wooden language" by the ignorant,
reveals the active diathesis even in reflexive contains in its elements a special
forms: "moves", "ensures", "takes", symbolism, proving that the military system
"destroys", "captures", "rejects" …, is not only a subsystem of the global social
returning to the initial form by system but a distinct element of it. Military
"regrouping". Regarding the military style terminology is the linguistic expression of
of communication, it is "distinguished by the military uniform. A coded language
the use of the active diathesis" [8]. This is appears, that uses simple words in certain
due to the fact that the active diathesis is forms but resulting in precise effects. In the
direct, clear, easy to understand. By absence of such a encoded language, which
contrast, the passive diathesis can be vague, can be decrypted by the performer, the
elusive, difficult to understand. In terms of understanding of the details of missions
communication, the active diathesis is more would be impossible, and practically
often used in the conversation than the "execution" on the field would be
other (we normally communicate in active catastrophic. In this respect, we consider
diathesis). Moreover, in line with the that the standardization format of the
specificity of the military style, the operation order is imperative, in order not
sentences in active diathesis are shorter than to give way to interpretations. We draw
the sentences in the passive diathesis. attention to the fact that because military
Analyzing the opportunity to use certain activities involve a tensioned situation, the
verbs, in the context of the military military must be concerned with the
terminology, we find that linguistic execution of the mission and not
expressions with maximum impact are used necessarily with the in-depth understanding
to describe effects on the enemy. "Destroy" of the used terms. This also stands for those
and "neutralize" are two of the preferred who issue operation orders, in the sense that
verbal forms that have the contribution of these orders must be short, clear, and
vibrant consonants "d", "r", "g", "z", which should ensure consistency of actions
together with the rest of the "deaf" without leaving room for interpretation.
consonants and linked by opened and
References
[1] https://dexonline.ro;
[2] Collective of authors, AAP-06, NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English and
French), 2016, p. 89.
[3] Collective of authors, Collection of Terms, Concepts and notions of Reference in the
Fields of Military Policy, National Security and Armed Defense, Military Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2008, p. 185.
203
[4] Collective Author, Military Lexicon, Saka Publishing House, Chisinau, 1994, p. 224.
[5] Ibid. 4, p. 224.
[6] Ibidem 3, p. 185.
[7] Collective of Authors, F.T./I-1, Mechanized Brigade Manual (Infantry, Light Infantry),
Bucharest, 2008, pp. 357-358.
[8] http://doctorat.ubbcluj.ro/sustinerea_publica/rezumate/2011/filologie/dochinoiu_
[9] fuiorea_elena_en.pdf, p. 18.
204
COMPETENCE TO THE LEADERSHIP

AND IT’S CONCEPT IN THE ARMY OF CZECH REPUBLIC
ZGHQČNMIKULKA, Ivana NEKVAPILOVÁ, Roman POSPÍŠIL

]GHQHNPLNXOND#XQREF], ivanaQHNYDSLORYD#XQREF], URPDQSRVSLVLO#XQREF]
Abstract: The performance of commanding roles in non-standard situations and cooperation within
NATO troops showed the need for the development of leadership skills among the commanders of the
Army of the Czech Republic at all levels of command. The competence to lead people hasn't been yet
systematically developed and explored in the Czech Army. It lacks not only a precise definition for the
role of commander but also specifications for each level of command. The aim of this article is to
inform about the initial approach to the concept of competence to lead people in the Czech Army, to
generate the structure of given competence and a description of its sub-skills for the position of team
and platoon from the available theoretical sources. To compare the theoretical model with the results
of the research among selected military professionals, which will permit to more accurately identify,
for the military experience, necessary elements of competence. The results will be usable for
following internal differentiation of the researched competence for other levels of command. This
article was written as a part of the project Development of social competencies of the military leader.
Keywords: competence for leadership, social competence, leadership
Preface capabilities are far from being enough

In this contribution, the authors deal with because the people who are part of these
soft skills problematics in conditions of the teams constitute a wide spectrum of
Army of the Czech Republic (ACR), personalities of a various qualities.
specifically the competencies to leadership, Managing the requirements resulting from
mostly related to the interpersonal abilities one´s own commander role, including the
and skills of commanders. skills to lead a team of subordinates, and,
Due to the fact, that the commander in the highly qualified specialists, places an
preparation and conduct of military extraordinary demand on the commander´s
activities fulfils roles that go beyond the personality and constitutes one of the key
role of a manager, the competence for prerequisites for their success.
leadership should not be absent in its list of In the ACR there has not been a profile of
competencies. For a military organization, such successful commanders created yet -
it is typically a cooperative action of not even in terms of professional
military teams that have advanced specialization, nor by the commander´s
reconnaissance, weapons, communications, levels classification and responsibility.
logistics and many other systems. There also no adequate methods to achieve
Therefore, commanders must be highly this skill, and how to develop it. The
qualified and also technically as well as success of commanders in the performance
organizationally capable. These of specific functions and especially in the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0033
205
leadership of the entrusted team (unit) is selecting for the US Army, for example, a
therefore often a matter of intuition and a significant relationship between the ability
level of social empathy. The assessment of to lead and extraversion has been
success is the subjective professional demonstrated. [15]. Research by Australian
experience of an evaluator. officers for leadership prediction lists
factors such as: extraversion, openness,
7KHRUHWLFDOEDVLV and dutifulness [16]. In the US Military
&RPSHWHQFHLQWKHDUPLHVRI1$72 Academy at West Point preconditions for
member countries leadership were identified as being
In the armies of NATO member countries, dutifulness and friendliness [17].
the proceeding pursuant competencies are Dutifulness is an important prerequisite for
already implemented, and the competency the formation of leadership which is
models are the basis for the creation of confirmed also by other authors [18].
education and training programs for Further frequently cited predictors for
soldiers in various positions, especially in effective leadership are -"dominance"- [19-
commanding positions. In organizational 20], communication skills, the ability to
practice, the emphasis is placed on the use build a team, solve problems and make
of competencies for personnel selection, to decisions. [21] Some authors emphasize
determine achieved performance, for the that effective leaders are those who have
remuneration system and the creation of high credibility. [22]
development plans. [1]. In a similar Key competencies and competency
manner, leadership in the military models
organization is systematically developed .H\FRPSHWHQFLHV
[2-6]. With the notion of competence files of
For a successful commander operation, a properties are most often associated as well
decisive criterion is the perceived ability to as the behaviour that is necessary for
effectively lead subordinates. However, successful performance [21]. Status "key
leadership is a difficult process that is not competencies" emphasize the general
easy to define. This is also the reason why nature of the selected competence. Such an
literature lists more than 850 definitions of approach is traceable e.g. in Richter,
leadership. The most widespread support whereby the key competencies are beyond
can be found for the conceptualization of the borders of individual specializations
leadership as a process of social influence [23]. To a higher degree of generality, the
leading to the achievement of common lower number of competencies constituted
goals. [8-10]. The ability to lead is then in the competency model are related. The
defined as being relatively stable and optimum number is generally considered to
having coherent personality traits that be a set of 10 to 12 competencies [24]. A
promote behaviour to lead not only in one higher number may indeed appear as more
but mostly in a wider range of situations. precise, but such a competency model is
[11]. A summary of cognitive, becoming less clear.
interpersonal and personality factors can For better orientation and lucidity, key
reliably distinguish an individual and point competencies can be structured in different
out a future leader from a person who does ways. According to Belz and Siegrist [25],
not exhibit such characteristics. the basic structures of key competencies
Most of the researches in the field of constitute:
people management are based on the a) Social competencies – teamwork and
model of the Big Five [12-14], which cooperation ability, the capability to deal
belongs to the most widespread even in the with conflict situations, communication
environment of the armed forces. When skills;
206
b) competence in relation to its own defined profile, which allows for the
personality – the competent treatment of objective comparison “of this competency
itself, i.e. dealing with its own value, to be profile with the current professional
one´s own manager, the ability to reflect on competence of a worker that actually holds
oneself, to consciously develop one´s own this position“[29].
values and human image, the ability to In terms of the typology of competency
assess and further develop oneself; models, the authors of this text favour the
c) competence in field of methods – a approach of Hartig and Klieme which
planned way, focusing on the goal of relate the typology of competency models
exercising expertise, i.e. to analyse and, to different aspects of competence
develop creative, unorthodox solutions, to constructs and the differential diagnosis of
structure and classify new information, to individual competencies [30]. It is about a
put things into context as well as, identify level and structural competency models
continuity, critically examine in order to which are not mutually exclusive but can
achieve innovation and to consider the possibly complement each other.
chances and risks. Level competency models relate to
As an example for "competence in the performance, the ability of considered
methods field" could serve the approach of individuals to fulfil the requirements
Prokopenko and Kubr to the "executive applicable to them on an appropriate level.
competence", which is characterized as These models are useful, e.g. in measuring
follows: "The competence of a manager is the results of educational processes for the
their ability to perform a specific function purpose of evaluation, etc. Compared to
or set of functions, while reaching a that, the structural competency models
certain level of performance” [26] “ relate to coping with various types of
Understanding to the term of "ability" (in requirements and also to describe the
the concept of authors of this text it is individual differences between
rather a "skill") in Prokopenko and Kubr competencies.
do not differ much from the approach of Also, the significance of those typologies is
Veteška, who defines it as “psychological "appropriately linked to school education
characteristics of personality, which by competencies, which is implemented in
determine the amount of performance in a most of the advanced countries and thus
specific activity" [27]. form a system of lifelong learning" [31].
Distinguishing one´s abilities (skills) and
overall professional competence may not The concept of competence to
be too strict in practice if we understand leadership in the Czech Army
them as part of the overall educational Characteristics
process. From the theoreticians who hold Competence to leadership is the intention
such a view, Brassard should be and will of undertaking the role of leaders,
mentioned, who believes that the skills and desire as well as determination to lead
professional competence do not stand others not only from formal positions but
alongside isolated [28]. mainly from informal authority. In a
Competency model military environment, it should be based on
When searching for an appropriate the premise that effective leaders are able
competency model, empirical research to repeatedly demonstrate a good level of
plays a crucial role as the basis for the performance at an appropriate level of
identification of measurable outcomes and classification and according to clearly
the observable effects of success. This way defined criteria.
a competency model containing Students of the University of Defence are
competence can be created with a clearly during their studies prepared for a level of
207
direct (tactical) leadership. The Defence that are preparing to perform the
competence criteria to leadership on a line position (tactical level) platoon
tactical level primarily includes the commander or its equivalent.
responsibility for the entrusted unit (team), $LPV and methods of the survey
the ability to manage subordinates, to be research
able to use formal power, conduct The aim of the research was to determine
meetings, delegate tasks, build and protect whether the specified level of competence
the entrusted unit (team), motivate and development to leadership for line
promote its individual members, provide managers by the NOP meets the
them with feedback and develop. This has requirements for the performance of the
to do with the fact that after graduation the duties of a platoon commander. The
most of the successful graduates will be required profile of a commander is to be a
assigned to the position of a platoon good manager with leadership qualities.
commander or its equivalent. A basic method of data collection was
When analysing available resources, chosen to interview selected military
characterizing the competence to leadership professionals. For implementation of the
in a way that is usable in the Czech method, questionnaire was designed
Republic and applicable to the conditions of containing nine questions covering the
military leadership within the ACR, the described partial competencies by the NOP
authors of this text came to the conclusion (to be responsible for a team, to manage
that the criteria set by them correspond best subordinates, to use formal power, ability
with the characteristics of this competence to lead meetings, delegate tasks, build and
created for the National Occupations System protect a team, motivate and encourage
(NOP) [33]. team members, provide feedback and
The underlying assumption was the fact that develop subordinates) for all levels of the
the level of platoon leader, or its equivalent, examined competency. Some items had to
complies with the level of so- called “line be operationalised due to its vagueness
managers” for civilian occupations. (e.g., "the uses of formal authority and
This fact confirms that ACR personnel power in the right way"). Respondents of
training in competence field is being each characteristic level of partial
influenced not only by the "internal needs competencies were rated on a scale of 0-5,
of the education system but also by the where 0 means: it was the least significant
reactions to demands of society, in an for the performance of the platoon
increasing degree"[32]. commander and with 5 being: the most
5HDOL]Dtion of the survey research significant level. For each item, they could,
The intention of the implemented research at their sole discretion, assign any value
survey was to confront the content and within this range. To evaluate the results
structure of partial competencies creating an arithmetic average of the obtained
the leadership competence for civilian values was used. The higher the value, the
leading positions in the National more important the characteristic was for
Occupations System, with the requirements the respondents.
of the military practice. In the first stage, The description of the surveyed
attention was paid to the position of line sample during research
manager in order to comply with the The research sample consisted of three
systematic approach to create competency groups of respondents. First, the largest
models for each level of management in group (94) were third-year students doing a
the Czech Army and also for the creation full-time study of military courses from the
of effective educational and training University of Defence. This group can be
activities for students of the University of described as the group with the lowest or no
208
professional experience in the role of a 2. What level of leadership competence is
military leader at the tactical level, but with for a platoon commander is different for
adequate theoretical preparation. The second groups of respondents?
group consisted of members of the army 3. Are there any characteristics belonging
corps non-commissioned officers and to the competence of leadership, which
warrant officers in the ACR with does not contain NOP and are important
professional experience as a squad leader, for the performance of a platoon
deputy platoon commander or platoon commander?
commander (16). This group is characterized Respondents considered the selected level
by the high level of professional experience for partial competencies rather important
and relatively low previous theoretical for the leadership competence of a platoon
preparation. The third group consisted of commander, all items were reported by all
senior officers (25), who have had personal groups with a value higher than 3. To every
experience being in the role of the platoon partial competence in level 3, by the NOP
leader, as well as a corresponding classification, they did not give the same
theoretical background. importance. Both groups believed
Students, non-commissioned officers, and enhancing team performance, the proper
warrant officers were questioned during use of formal power and authority,
their winter field training. Students in the supporting others in their development and
third group were questioned during the the regular review of the goals and aims
ongoing course of the General Staff. realization was most important.
The last two groups were combined into a As shown in the table, respondents in some
VZP group - non-student (for a small partial competencies forming the
frequency and due to minimum deviations) competencies for leadership, demand a
in the monitored factors for evaluation. For higher level than is specified by the NOP.
large differences in the size of the groups, Level 4 by the NOP requires the
the results will not be compared with each competence of responsibility for the team,
other between the groups of respondents. the ability to delegate tasks, to motivate
7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHVXUYH\UHVHDUFK subordinates, while level 5 requires the
In accordance with the research, the competence to provide feedback and
following research questions were created: develop subordinates.
1. For the performance of the platoon In the offered loose answers respondents
commander, according to military did not add significant or substantively
professionals, it is sufficient to achieve important parts of competencies for
Level 3 by the NOP to develop the leadership.
competence of leadership?
209
Image 1: The evaluation of partial competencies significance - the position of platoon commander -
Level 3
The ability to build and
The ability to motivate

The ability to delegate
The ability to develop

The ability to manage
To be responsible for
The ability to give

The ability to lead
The ability to use
protect the team
and encourage
formal power
subordinates
subordinates
feedback
meetings
the team
tasks
VZP -
4 1 3 3 4 3 4 5 5
students
VZP –
non- 4 1 3 3 4 3 4 5 5
students
NSP 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Table 1: The preferred level of partial competencies - Platoon Commander Position
Conclusions
Competence for leadership for classification of leadership competence
commanding positions is necessary to levels for all levels of management in a
understand as the key competence, military environment.
belonging to social competence and The completed research survey shall be
structured. Based on the content analysis perceived as piloting since there has been
of competence to leadership in literature no other research with similar conditions
and the NOS, the authors came to the conducted for the Ministry of Defense of
conclusion that for some levels it is the Czech Republic. It emerged that even
necessary to specify a description of partial for the Platoon Commander Position, some
competencies for the original civil line partial competencies shall be developed at
management and create its own the highest level.
210
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212
DEFENDING THE TRUTH AND COUNTER INFORMATION WARFARE IN

EUROPE
Silviu NATE *, Aurelian RA‫܉‬,8**
*“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania

“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\RI6LELX, Romania
silviu.nate@ulbsibiu.ro, aurelian_ratiu@yahoo.com
Abstract: Information warfare has gained new valences, although some states have historical roots in
developing subversive and manipulative tactics; the action pattern is supported today by the use of
new information propagation vectors, access to new technologies, and a mix of themes with political,
economic, military, cultural and social collective interest. The aim of the propaganda is that the
aggressor demoralizes and minimizes the trust of citizens in domestic institutions and policies.
Hypotheses and work themes are combined with false news, counterfeit media, capable of creating
ambiguity. On such a media of open sources, non-kinetic threats and elements of the hybrid war
manifest themselves in the information space and create the ambiguity much hoped to diminish the
establishment that reflects the aggressor’s opposition. The study presents relevant cases and
recommendations for members of the Euro-Atlantic community related to the management of Russian
information actions.
.H\ZRUGVinformation warfare, kinetic threats, SURSDJDQGDGHIHQVH, Russia
1. ,QWURGXFWLRQ transforms it into a decisive tactical

Information is a key substitute of instrument.
manipulation. Analysis of conflicts in the Analysis of the public’s structure and
proximity of Romania submits that North profile is critical to operational success. The
Atlantic Treaty Organization and the public has a significant importance for
European Union should adjust to the new operational success. Although the campaign
actuality in which the dominance of of information aggression has managed to
communication strategies, in relation to the influence its audiences, it also has a certain
defense command, is getting more degree of counter-productivity, because it
importance. Regional security instability has radicalized the local public that belong
was often associated with Russia's to NATO countries, the EU and the US.
involvement in the region. Thus, in the Information operations are often an
current information environment that is integrated part of hybrid warfare’s
constantly evolving, influence can certainly ambitions and tactics. Frank Hoffman
be achieved by manipulation techniques labeled “hybrid war” as a “blend of the
that disturbs not only the economic lethality of state conflict with the fanatical
markets, or national policies, but also and protracted fervor of irregular war”[1].
effects discernments, feelings and behaviors Usually, the broader concept of information
of society. Although information itself has warfare is reflected into refined information
an extraordinary value, the way it is offered operations that associate small scale
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0034
213
traditional and special media campaigns; and other structures, to undermine the
aggressive cyber-attacks; and psychological political, economic and social system, and
maneuvers that use social media and effect massive brainwashing of the
traditional information vectors to influence population for destabilizing the society and
public perceptions and opinions[2]. the state, and forcing the state to make
decisions in the interests of the confronting
2. 7RZDUGV DSRVWPRGHUQSURSDJDQGD party”[3].
Since early 2000, Russia's National Russian intrusion of western nations’ public
Security Concept has highlighted an networks and social media would consist,
increasing risk to national security in the under this conceptual approach, a
field of information. Russia's 2007 Foreign declaration of war on the pattern of soft-
Policy Review recommends to multiply the power techniques and tools.
number of media diffusion abroad of news According to American thinker Joseph Nye,
agencies in the Russian state and expanding “Soft power is the ability to affect others to
their offices in other countries. obtain the outcomes one wants through
The Russian Federation conceptualized in attraction rather than coercion or payment.
2009 its national security strategy, which A country's soft power rests on its resources
was linked with the former Foreign Policy of culture, values, and policies. A smart
Review (2007) and contributed relatively, power strategy combines hard and soft
to enhance later the operations in Eastern power resources”[4]. Public diplomacy
Ukraine. The Russian State Security becomes a decisive instrument which
Strategy contains a section dedicated to completes smart power, but to become
cultural issues, emphasizing a collective sustainable it should embrace democratic
area of information incorporating Russia, values, to be open to self-criticism, and be
the Commonwealth of Independent States fully credible or provable.
and adjacent countries. Propaganda is emotionally charged and
This common sphere of information for the based on aggressor’s interest, it exploits
Russian communities is preserved and public persuasion to cultivate the collective
augmented by the application of the policy mindset to the advantage of the aggressor’s
of compatriots, which is seen as a method intentions and goals; while public
to exert soft power over the neighboring diplomacy, advance a visible public ideas
regions. It is obvious that the policy of exchange which is less unscrupulous than
compatriots operates as an effective propaganda. Involved participants are more
instrument for geopolitical impact, serving proactive, it is based on a coherent feedback
Russia to achieve particular objectives between public institutions and societal
abroad. actors.
The Russian doctrine called Conceptual Russian information warfare is not able to
Views Regarding the Activities of the achieve results on the long run in Europe;
Armed Forces of the Russian Federation in the competition to win hearts and minds in
the Information Space (2011) specifically western countries is undermined by her
refers to war when it calls to information own political weakness, lack of
operations, as a totally different contrast by demonstrative facts and actions. Russia's
the Euro-Atlantic societies’ approach, seen manipulation techniques are known for a
as a public and open campaign tool. The long time, but diversification and
Russian doctrine, labels information war as concentration of tactics are growing
a: “confrontation between two or more significantly. Late, other countries began to
states in the information space to damage comprehend that info-fabrication is a real
the information systems, processes and danger to the Euro-Atlantic space.
resources, which are of critical importance, Frequently, Kremlin uses disinformation in
214
the West to contaminate the medias, frontier between the Orthodox world and
intensify societal segregation, and the western countries and civilizations. The
deteriorate the collective confidence in the concept of clashing civilizations has
democratic system. Those engagements frequently emerged in the rhetoric of the
encourage, on a false pattern of information Russian leaders and thinkers, and other
operations, the decline in trust in national counterparts between 2004 and 2007. The
institutions and western alliances. culmination is President Putin's speech,
Supporting this phenomenon, Walter issued at the Munich Security Conference
Lippmann states that propaganda is in 2007, where he condemned the US for
impossible without censorship, because continuing to preserve a unipolar order,
censorship is allowed a barrier between the therefore orthodox civilization “would seem
company and the event, thus preventing incomplete” without Ukraine.
individuals from forming their own version Kremlin's communication strategy for
of the events. Poland is focused on the promotion of the
The magnitude of the fake news promoted message that the western countries
by Russia, and the expose of their undermine national values. A similar
prominent display, would narrow its rhetoric is found in Eastern Europe and The
intangible capital to European public arena. Baltic countries which are pictured for their
Disinformation campaigns erodes over time own citizens as failures - affected negative
as they discover hidden or misleading vulnerabilities and threats like poverty,
information. It remains to be seen whether chaos, corruption, expatriation; led by evil
Russia has won a long-term enemy from elite of Westerns with fascist sympathy.
Western Countries. The Russian information warfare targets
The examination of the Russian storyline also Scandinavian states. Finland is
generates the assumption that the Russian threatened with the Third World War by
broadcasting exhaustively promoted a sense Russia, and Denmark is intimidated that
of worry and apprehension in the Russian will become a nuclear target if it chooses to
ethnic population of Ukraine, but also joins the NATO missile defense
inside the non-Ukrainian groups. program[5].
Throughout the first stage of the Russian
“intervention” in Crimea, the whole 3. ,QIRUPDWLRQDODJJUHVVLRQSHUFHLYHGE\
Ukrainian population was “stimulated” to other states
get a sense of uncertainty regarding its In the Annual Risk Assessment published
economic potential for development and by the Danish Defence Intelligence, the
security. The Kremlin’s rhetoric concluded document highlights that “Russia uses a
that a rapprochement of Ukraine to the wide range of instruments, including
European Union values and market would information campaigns through Russian
represent a more withdrawn economic state-controlled media targeting Western
cooperation of Russia, and it was frequently audiences; dissemination of partially false
insinuated that the European Union efforts and biased information through Russian
to approach Ukraine into a native business think tanks, research institutes, official
instead of planning to help advance the news outlets, bloggers, and commentators
economy of Ukraine. who pretend to be independent”[6].
When analyzing the stories of Russian Danish Minister of Defence Claus Hjort
propaganda, it is critical to keep in mind Frederiksen expressed, in April 2017, his
that this phenomenon began before 2014. concerns regarding the Russian hacking of
Samuel Huntington's civilization theory has Danish military email accounts. “This is
become very useful to the Russian thinkers part of a continuing war from the Russian
as an option to route an imaginary cultural side in this field, where we are seeing a
215
very aggressive Russia”[7]. Submitting the frequently contradict each other. The new
general vision and hypothesis of the Russian’s strategy of communication is
Russian Doctrine, it becomes obvious that aimed to encourage extremist and radical
Russia is at war with the West; is it quite political parties’ ascension in Europe, as
complicated to understand when the war well as to any public movement in
started, but is predictable to assume that it contradiction of the extremists’
never ends because it already has become a competitors.
part of the western mainstream media and While reporting on events in Ukraine, state
politics. broadcasting journalists have systematically
Kremlin's propaganda overthrows and distorted recorded audiovisual material to
removes any condemnation of Russia's own deliver media products that fit into the
actions. Undesirable comments about Russian’s propaganda agenda and dominant
Russia are described as being imaginary or storyline. They manipulated photography
bigoted, the consequence of western ego from wars in Chechnya, Kosovo and Syria,
and preconceptions. In a CEPA research and presented them as coming from the
paper, Ben Nimmo, NATO intelligence East of Ukraine and proved to be
expert and former NATO spokesman, particularly effective in social networks.
exemplifies these methods as critical Another falsification trend was filming the
rejection, distortion of facts, distraction same person in different roles and
from the principal problem, and public situations. This person played a multiple
astonishment[8]. Russian information role of participant in Anti-Maidan, Resident
warfare uses challenging offensive tools, in Kiev, the Crimean activist, and the
with a long history. soldier's mother[10].
In the Fog of Falsehood study, the Finnish As usually seen on Baltic states and
Institute for International Affairs identifies Ukraine, Kremlin efforts its propaganda to
the persistence of the concept of reflexive stimulate a message of unification and
control[9]. We discover a new type of war attracts the support of compatriots with
in which the aggression does not dominant pro-unionist views and beliefs.
exterminate the adversary by acting The history of suffering and melancholy of
externally, but it can drive to self- Soviet grandeur are urged to intensify the
destruction. Reflex control practitioners try feeling of dissatisfaction of Russian ethnics
to find a fragile connection in the enemy's in the Baltic states. Lithuania seems to be a
filter – experience, perceptions, beliefs, proper ground for the propaganda that
awareness, are the prerequisites for targets cultural feelings. Russian energy
collective judgements. enterprises advocate for the national cause
Although the instruments seem to be and interest in Germany.
connected to the traditional pattern, the The labeling as Russian propaganda of
tactics and vectors used have changed. critical views about Romania's current
Russia’s new propaganda symbiosis is not military capabilities, or the strategic or
centered anymore to promote communism tactical place occupied by Romania in
in sight or on the glory of the values NATO's plans, frizzes the security
promoted during the Cold War. Instead of (Securitate) paranoia of the past which is
these highly articulated ideologies, we find totally futile. Certain television stations
a postmodernist repudiation of the entire have been encouraged into the position
liberal view of European democracies. taken by institutions not in line with the
Democracy is not suitable for Russia; it is imperatives of "anti-corruption". On the
rather a fiction; elites are corrupted and informational level, it seems that Russia
unreasonable. Russia doesn’t use an prefers to invest in the troll-like information
articulated meaning, and storylines war, rather than in an open propaganda war
216
in Romania. Trolling at this level may mean attractive and more effective for the
not only the dissemination of visions or aggressor. A special benefit for Russia is
information but also the use of discursive that the non-kinetic war achieves
tactics to intimidate, confuse, demobilize comparable goals as a conventional
target audience, and challenge, etc. warfare.
The large number of media available create Writing for the NATO Review, Peter
a suitable field for generating confusion in Pindjak, a Slovak diplomat, emphasizes
the space of targeted population, and NATO's effort on a rapid military response
usually becomes difficult to distinguish with 3 prospective vulnerabilities. Firstly,
between imaginary stories and real facts. Member States may find it problematic to
Instead of searching for veracity, the get a consensus on the origin of a non-
general public prefers to stay in the comfort kinetic threat, generating an obstacle to take
zone and don’t care about it too much. A common attitude. Secondly, to counteract
research directed by the Open Estonia asymmetrical threats, the only hard power
Foundation illustrates that compatriots who is inappropriate (...) in the end, a disaster
live in Estonia and watch media from based only on the military intervention will
Estonia and the Kremlin end up believing not be convincing. As for asymmetric
no one and aren’t able in fact to formulate threats, NATO cannot refresh its massive
an opinion. retaliation strategy or rely solely on an
Today’s Russian propaganda is intelligent, action path[11].
technically capable and cynical without It is hard to project and identify a maximum
facts. Postmodern propaganda is very level when the propaganda or the military
emotional; it brings together the intimidation become the prologue to a
melancholy of Soviet glory and the public demonstration of muscles or a capability
media showbiz. experiment. This new kind of “information
deterrence” represents an annoying and
4. Non-kinetic threats harassing mind game. If the non-kinetic war
Kinetic war is intense and influential, but represents a common threat, a joint answer
restricted in its efficiency, while non-kinetic cannot be easily developed in the West.
war is extensively less violent, but more There are no military-civil ties that underlie
successful. Using a mixture of cyber and IT a culture of security – similarities,
warfare, economic war, its determination is behaviors and common practices permit
to proliferate ambiguity or weariness at the societies to address a mutual danger.
level of aggressed nation.
A list of elements in the non-kinetic range 5. Response paths
would comprise the following: Today's information environment is deeply
the open and hidden propaganda; fractured. Cross-border media and internet
placement of funds in media, think- create parallel patterns for getting
tanks, political parties or academic information and develop attitudes/reactions.
institutions; We present several collected
targeting corruption to gain access recommendations to handle those threats at
at decision-making panel; tactical and strategic level:
use organized crime networks to a. Developing a European analysis, target
discourage opponents, raise funds outside audience, media, and social network
groups, and demoralize target groups; analysis centers. At a smaller community
exploiting identity and symbolism level, it is easier to identify and analyze
connected to collective beliefs. what security needs are and what are the
The usage of economic weapons develops a targets for propaganda. This makes it easier
proper ground to make corruption more
217
to propose countermeasures for various historical heritage. Russia's involvement
social segments. has often led to the undermining of citizens'
b. Developing a strong regulatory body, an trust towards their own institutions and
alternative where internal public media has leaders, the discrediting of their political
weak standards. An ethics code for rivals or threatened to interrupt mutual
journalists and monitoring programs relations. The same reaction we find today
developed by civil society’s advised groups when Russia threatens Romania with
would alert and limit the spread of hate interruption of all kinds of relations because
speech and noxious info-fabricated Romania supports military exercises and
products. the deployment of NATO military forces in
c. Creating an inter-departmental hub for the Black Sea.
non-kinetic intelligence analysis and Russia uses thematic frameworks that refer
response, able to deal with soft-power tools to Soviet glory, the desire to reunite the ex-
and strategies, capable of deciphering Soviet states under the one dome, the theme
propaganda and false storylines. of legitimacy to recover a lost cultural
Consequently, the “need to share” principle patrimony with the help of compatriots, the
is needed more than ever and would theme of the failed and immoral Western,
contribute to expose malicious information Russia's alternative to a civilization in
tactics and help the policy-makers to shape collapse, etc. Of all this arsenal, in fact
coherent counterstrategies. superficial, more as an act of masquerade,
d. Block streams and webpages that the general public does not make a deep
promote false manipulative audio-video correlation with the political and economic
content and fake news. Exposing reality and landscape of Russia. These lying and
directing real content to end-users. This can distorted themes, accompanied by the lack
help to increase civilian awareness and of authentic democracy in Russia, and its
grow the level of security culture. Also, monochrome economic landscape make it a
those tactics, which are similar with the surrogate in international relations, an
aggressor’s techniques, but positively artificial actor who becomes more
oriented, would be aimed to avoid dangerous because it is hiding in the
radicalization. shadow of deceptive interests and non-
e. A 2016 Stratcom NATO's report, the transparency. This trick of circus
Hybrid Battle Instrument, advises accentuates the gap between Russia and
governments to “increase critical public democratic states, and Russian society is
thinking and media literacy”. The invited to consume the mirage of some
information society is exposed to a totally excessive theories of self-exclusion.
new phenomenon and technologies; it Russia acknowledges the economic needs
should put their efforts in media and and interests of European Union members
internet education. and speculates their difficulty in obtaining
f. Programs to avoid the proliferation of consensus on common issues. Europe
hate speech, demonizing LGBT people, survived and stood up after a tumultuous
incitement to violence, on local media history, but the need to strengthen
channels. confidence with eastern Europe still has
historical grounds. All these are topics and
6. Conclusions working hypotheses for Russia in an
Subversive action in a state's policy is part attempt to question the Euro-Atlantic
of Russia's tactical arsenal and military cohesion.
218
References
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Potomac Institute for Policy Studies, Arlington, 2007, p. 38.
[2] Military Balance 2015, The Annual Assessment of Global Military Capabilities and
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International Institute for Strategic Studies, p.97, 2015.
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[4] Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Public Diplomacy and Soft Power, The Annals of the American
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World, p. 94, Mar., 2008.
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[7] https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/world/europe/russia-denmark-hacking-
cyberattack-defense-ministry.html?_r=1.
[8] http://cepa.org/files/?id_plik=1896.
[9] Katri Pynnöniemi & András Rácz (eds.), Fog of Falsehood Russian Strategy of
Deception and the Conflict in Ukraine, Helsinki, The Finnish Institute of International
Affairs, Grano Oy, p.33, 2016,
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[10] http://bit.ly1uSMe01.
[11] Peter Pindják, Deterring hybrid warfare: a chance for NATO and the EU to work
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2014/Deterring-hybrid-warfare/EN/index.htm.
219
PHYSIOGNOMY OF THE OPERATIONS AGAINST TERRORISM
Mihai Marcel NEAG

mmneag@yahoo.com
Abstract: In current conflicts, the terrorist networks already represent a major player and the
terrorist threats remain highly topical. In the physiognomy of the actions of the forces engaged in
counter-terrorism operations offfensive actions must prevail, but there will be situations in which the
military forces will have to undertake defensive actions aswell, because the neutralization of the
terrorist entities does not necessarily mean removal of their infrastructure. The operations against
terrorism require, for the military structures present in theaters, the review and reconsideration of
their own tasks, forms and methods of action, profound transformation of the adopted strategies, a
multi-dimensional vision on the effects to be achieved, a comprehensive approach to planning
operations, that will help the management of the situations and achievement of the desired end state..
.Keywords: terorrism, insurgency, comprehensive approach, stability
1. Introduction civilians and politicians in their level of

Model of the war against terrorism reflects security, the general strategy of the actions
the fact that the way of carrying it is in a will be aimed at weakening international
constant evolution. The threat of the public support given to the military or
terrorist networks and the states that security force and for separating the local
support them, remains a universal feature of population from the armed forces.
armed conflicts and future military It is very clear the fact that many active
operations. The war on terror establishes a terrorist armed groups that continue to
new generation of war in which the military emerge on the political scene, will be a
counter-terrorism operations have a special challenge to the way in which the military
status due to considerable changes in how forces carry on their operations and on the
they are perceived and addressed.These physiognomy of counterterrorism
operations are of a special type and are not operations. At the same time, the terrorist
like the offensive or defensive operations of actions aimed at achieving specific policy
a usual war only to a small extent and they goals, acting on some individual and / or
do not resemble with special operations collective human entities and goods, to
either. (Balint Mario, 2015) produce effects with a strong psychological
The terrorist networks use the method of impact on the population and public
indirect action, avoids attacking strong opinion.
military points of the democratic countries The force structures involved in the fight
and employs the weak points and non- against terrorism must take into account
military targets (FM 3-24, 2006). While the that acts of this kind are committed with
terrorists will try to attack less secured premeditation, are the result of beliefs and
targets and installations in order to produce attitudes hostile to various institutions and
fear, panic, and to weaken confidence of social groups, that terrorists practice violent
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0035
220
and destructive ways of expressing the capabilities, providing informational
desire to impose values they believe in. We support, mobility and employment of the
must also take into consideration the fact opponent, of support, insurance and
that in order to combat terrorism the protection as well as the influence of the
military structures execute specific tasks perception, attitudes and behaviors,
under the circumstances in which in the assistance for the post-conflict
theater of operations is usually carried out reconstruction.
an ample movement of insurgency, a type In terms of their physiognomy the main
of reaction that aims at depriving of feature of the military operations to combat
legitimacy the existing government and terrorism is that actions are carried out,
gaining political power by using in an where appropriate, in areas under
organized way, direct armed actions. government control of the host nation and /
The military operations to combat terrorism or areas where control is virtually
and counterinsurgency have in common the nonexistent, it largely belonging to terrorist
fact that it requires effective cooperation of and / or insurgent entities.
the military structures, international In the first situation, to ensure the public
organizations, government and non- security, the military operations target to
government agencies as well as that they restore / regain or maintain control of the
finally aim to obtain or regain the territory, in order to restore essential
legitimacy of the government of the host services and resume normal social life. In
nation, because it can provide essential the second situation, a more complex one,
services for the population, the elimination the first objective should be to identify and
of the causes that led to the terrorist and support the elements that could lead to the
insurgent movement and the prevention of stabilization of the area politically. In both
other crises and similar phenomena. situations, the military operations against
terrorism may be carried out in the presence
2. Characteristics of the military or absence of insurgency movements.
operations against terrorism Another feature of the physiognomy of
Viewed from the perspective of the overall these operations is the staging of the
missions of the military organism, the operations. If the military action specific to
participation in the fight against terrorism is the classical meaning includes a preparatory
part of the national security missions. The step, the the decisive step and the
military operations to combat terrorism, as stabilizing step, in the fight against
part of the stabilization mission, involve the terrorism, the military action is carried out
use of forms and methods of action carried in three stages, as follows: the immediate
out in coordination with the instruments of reaction stage;the stabilization stage; the
power of the host nation, to create transfer of authority stage. Within these
conditions for the reconstruction of stages neutralization, security and
essential infrastructure elements and reconstruction missions are run when
humanitarian aid. These tasks force the offensive, defense and stability type
military structures to adopt a operations are combined in different
comprehensive approach in the conduct of proportions. The offensive type operations
operations. are primarily aimed at discoving and
One such approach to the structures of the eliminating terrorist entities, the defensive
military force an integrating design is ones aim at protecting the local population
required regarding the use of civilian and and the stabilityoperations, at rebuilding
military instruments to generate the desired infrastructures, restoring the legitimacy of
effects. Likewise, the structures of the local government, the establishment of law
military forces need command and control and order in the area of operations. (Fig.1)
221
.
Figure 1: The stages of the military actions and the proportion of military operations
Immediate reaction stage.The operations Specific to this stage is to maintain the

within this stage must start with actions to advantage obtained against terrorist
take control of the area and to complete the structures and create the conditions
creation of a secure operating environment, necessary to conduct future attacks. These
through actions to combat terrorism, missions can be accomplished through
elimination from the fight of the terrorists defensive and stability operations, to isolate
and support of the civilian population the area, block the external support for
against terrorist actions. Within this stage, terrorist entities, neutralize or capture the
the military forces carry out offensive type terrorists trying to leave the area, enforce
missions mainly. The main tasks to be patrols to identify and eliminate terrorist
fulfilled at this stage are neutralizing elements and to ensure the population's
actions to eliminate the terrorist forces and security, deployment of the security forces
their resilience in the area entrusted, by throughout the area to ensure public safety
annihilation, capturing terrorists or by and to facilitate the transition to the next
forcing them to withdraw from the stages of the mission.
area. The action methods to accomplish Stabilization phase.At this stage, after
these missions are searching, patrolling, ensuring the security of civilians, the final
ambushing or executing raids on the of the first stage, the focus must be on post-
terrorists’ important targets. conflict reconstruction actions, the
Preparing military operation at this stage stabilization and reconstruction of the
should consider the identification of the capabilities of the security forces, ensuring
necessary means to strengthen the of the essential services and stabilization of
neutralization of the terrorist entities within the relations between the host nation
the entrusted area, the elements to government and the security forces on one
coordinate actions for the collection and hand and the civilian population, on the
dissemination of data and information and other one. At this stage, the structures
the cooperation with other forces in the area participating in operations to combat
of responsibility. The carrying out of the terrorism, could perform, as appropriate,
operation involves engaging the forces over striking actions to neutralize the terrorist
a long period of time and ensuring the unity entities, that might help the civilian
of effort between the multinational forces, population and resource protection against
civilian authorities, security forces of the the action of terrorist entities that should
host nation and agencies involved in the complement the security efforts of the first
stabilization process. stage. At the same time the forces engaged
222
in counter-terrorism operations must forbit forces.The force structures of a tactical
any possible retaliation of the terrorist level must carry out permanent patrol
entities by occupying forward operations service, and if it requires dealing with
bases in key locations in their area of terrorist or insurgent elements, they must be
responsibility, secure the infrastructure able to switch to the proportional use of
elements vital to the stability in the area. force. If the host nation’ security forces are
This stage focuses, in particular, on insufficient, within the cooperation with the
defensive operations. The military government and local authorities of the host
structures may be involved in the nation, the employment and training of
stabilization phase, to support the local paramilitary forces should be
management and administrative structures considered, to ensure security of
at the local level. The actions aimed at settlements and surrounding areas.
restoring the essential services for the At this stage, the transfer of responsibility
population, economic development and to combat terrorism and insurgency should
infrastructures support through measures be done gradually towards the security
and actions meant to involve local forces and the political and military
population in the reconstruction effort. leadership of the host nation. The role of
Depending on the operational capabilities the multinational military forces is to
and logistics sustainability, at the tactical support the host nation’ forces, both by
level, the host nation security forces should combat actions but also by maintaining, as
act to ensure public safety and continuity of far as necessary, the fire support
the local government. capabilities.
Having in view the experience of the An important objective is, at this phase of
military actions carried out to combat operations, the continuing actions to
terrorism, effectiveness maintaining of the destroy the infrastructure elements of the
secure areas resulted, by establishing bases terrorist entities remained unaffected,
within or in the proximity, out of which the because they will continue to pose a threat
forces engaged in combating terrorist and will affect the local people's attitude to
entities can focus their actions to identify the mission of the multinational forces.
and eliminate them, mainly having as Simultaneously, within the reconstruction
priority targets the leaders and the process, the government of the host nation
infrastructure of their organizations, and by must take measures to restore the
limiting or even eliminating terrorist functioning of the government institutions
support of the local population and winning and restore viable administrative
its support for the authority of the legally procedures, and the agencies of national
constituted government. and international development should
Transfer of authority stage. This stage has rebuild the infrastructure necessary for a
as a political-military aim, to restore in the normal social and economic life, a process
long run, the capabilities and create in which finding, training and vesting with
conditions for economic and social authority of local leaders is very important.
development. The strengthening of the
institutions of the governmental authority, 3. Comprehensive approach to the
the progress in establishing a climate of law actions of combating terrorism
and order do not exclude a future ensuring The contemporary terrorism is a major
of the protection of the population. threat to the stability of the international
At a military level, at this stage the stability security system at a multidimensional
operations predominate versus the offensive level. Although the terrorists justify their
and defensive ones, with the support, if actions by the fight for liberation from the
possible, of the host nation’ security developed countries’influence, which have
223
certain interests in the region or against the Within the comprehensive approach of the
totalitarian regimes, the used means, operations against terrorism measures to
infliction of loses among the civilian ensure the security of civilians are taken
population in order to influence the into consideration, by the presence and
governmental authorities to adopt certain control exercised by the government forces
measures, does not justify reaching these in the area of operations and on the
purposes and does not exclude, under any population, activate the local paramilitary
circumstances, the terrorist character of the forces and their integration in operations,
actions. train and support of the police forces, fight
The objectives of the terrorist actions against crime and strengthen the law
include "attacks on symbols, monuments, enforcement.
cemeteries, major buildings, bridges, The success of the counter-terrorism
architectural works etc., in an attempt to operations may be favored by the
show the world that there is a force above continuous contact at various levels
states, armies, parties, institutions and between the military structures and the
existing order, that will punish those who population in the area of operations. Such
do not believe in it, causing virulent opportunities, to establish contacts and
reactions of the authorities, so as they can exchange information with people, can be
be charged and thus attract, to their side, easier if the military base is located in the
the public opinion, causing panic and middle of the local population or as close as
insecurity." (Center for strategic studies, possible to it. Creating the connection
Bucharest, 2002, p. 73).The diversity of the between the military and the local
terrorist actions requires a comprehensive population can be achieved from the first
approach to combating terrorism. days of the forces’ presence in the area, by
Fighting against or countering terrorism is a deep knowledge and respect of the
generic term used to describe all terrorism traditions and local customs by the military.
and counterterrorism measures. To achieve The contacts with the civilian population
the necessary conditions for success against are required to obtain a more realistic
a terrorist threat one must pass the picture of the situation and obtain support
traditional barrier of an exclusive of the locals for the government authorities.
application of a lethal force by integrating The quality of these relationships depends
the full range of actions / capabilities that upon the observance of the principles
are to generate an adequate combat power governing the civil-military relations
against the threat and the specific situation (knowing and respecting the cultural
of ongoing confrontation such as: identity of the local population, identifying
information operations, electronic attack, the common goals and shared
psychological operations, civil and public responsibility, consensus in dealing with
relations activities. The fact that many governmental, nongovernmental and private
citizens of the planet live in areas with a volunteer ones, transparency and effective
high potential conflict risk, in poverty, with communication with public authorities,
political, ethnic, religious, territorial international organizations, NGOs and
disputes, in states that do not have a civilians).
monopoly of power or with totalitarian However, a comprehensive approach to the
regimes, should not justify the support of operations against terrorism requires certain
the terrorists. The terrorists speculate features of their planning process, in that it
dramatic realities, distorted perceptions and requires the development of optimum
frustrations in order to implement their integrated operations plans within the
insidious and harmful aims. (Col. overall plan of operations for the
Constantin-Valentin BORDEI, PhD, 2015) stabilization of the conflict area, to
224
concentrate efforts in the long, medium and flexibility and lack of moral guidelines of
short run, taking into account that, as a rule, the actions of terrorist entities. This
during these operations the expected effects approach imposes on the force structures to
are slow and can be measured with use a wide range of means, to cooperate
difficulty. Planning and carrying out the with different actors and to effectively
counter-terrorism operations take place in a combine different political, civilian and
multidimensional environment, which are military actions to achieve these objectives
peculiar to surprising challenges typical to and generate defining effects for the desired
stability operations. We should also end state.
consider the fact that without careful In the combat terrorism operations, to
preparation, with strong prospective generate cumulative effects, the capabilities
meanings in terms of information of the of the military structures must be supported
area of operations, to facilitate a properly, through a good coordination with
multidimensional understanding of the the central and local authorities of the host
operational environment, technical and nation and the international governmental
doctrinal strengths of the military forces can and nongovernmental organizations and
easily be countered by the suppleness, agencies located in the conflict zone.
Figure 2: Comprehensive approach to the actions against terrorism
The comprehensive approach to combat greater extent, not only at a military but
terrorism requires a direct relation to the also a political, diplomatic, economic,
entire conflict and integration of the effects psycho, social and humanitarian level, as
within the multinational joint operations to the "operational environment consists of
facilitate stabilization. Thus, it is beyond conditions, circumstances and influences
the military action, as it includes effects that affecting the context of capabilities and
involve the entire society, consisting in decision taking by commanders". (FM 3-0,
achieving and maintaining a stable and safe p. 1-1).
security environment. Regardless of their
level (strategic, operational or tactical), the 4. Conclusions
military multinational joint operations to The new paradigm of approaching the
counterterrorism have effects, to a lesser or confrontation the terrorist entities
225
determines a careful approach both from the security forces of the host nation to be
perspective of the complex issues of the offensive type actions, while the defensive
particularities of the operational type operations should be the exception to
environment and in terms of the training of the rule. The military forces must be
the force structures.The actions of the concerned with ensuring efficient,
terrorist entities generate a multitude of continuous and permanent support with
social and humanitarian problems due to current information, to combine, depending
the fact that many leave behind them on the course of actions, the forms and
human and social drama in the short, fighting skills appropriate to each of the
medium and long run. The present reality in stages.
Afghanistan, Syria, northern Iraq and from An important role in the success of counter-
the areas controlled by ISIS shows this.One terrorism operations is the continuous
of them is the migration, due to the fact that contact between the military structures and
in most cases, civilians are either evacuated, the population in area of operations, to
or self-evacuated, that turns into a mass of exchange information and create bridges
people trying to escape from the conflict to between the military and the local
avoid being caught plunged into battles or population. The fight against terrorism
to protect from reprisals and atrocities of involves the military forces, beyond the
the terrorist organizations. issues of legitimacy and legality, part of the
The counterterrorism operations should be commitment to the principles of
based on a prevailing attitude of conquest democracy, human dignity and fundamental
and maintain an ongoing initiative. This human rights.
requires prevailing forms of action for the
References
[1] Balint Mario, http://mariobalint.blogspot.ro/2010/04/operatiuni-militare-externe-
in.html, accesat la data de 14.02.2017.
[2] Field Manual, FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency, Departament of the Army, USA, 2006,
chapter II.
[3] Col.drd. Constantin-ValentinBordei, Managementul ĠLQWHORU înconflictele moderne,
Buletinul 8QLYHUVLWăĠLL 1DĠLRQDOH GH $SăUDUH Ä&DURO ,³ LXQLH SJ SH
http://www.spodas.ro/revista/index.php/revista/article/viewFile/122/144, accesat la data
de 26.03.2017.
[4] Centrul de studiistrategice, Terorismul. Dimensiune JHRSROLWLFă èi
JHRVWUDWHJLFă5ă]ERLXO WHURULVW5ă]ERLXO împotriva terorismului, EdituraAcademiei de
Înalte Studii Militare, Bucureèti, 2002.
[5] FM 3-0 Operations, Headquarters Department of the Army, Washington, 2009.
226
CRITERIA DETERMINATION FOR OBSTACLE EFFECTIVENES EVALUATION
Tibor PALASIEWICZ, Jan KYJOVSKÝ

tibor.palasiewicz@unob.cz, jan.kyjovsky@unob.cz
Abstract: Up to date concept of warfare is characterized by a high mobility of units, in spite of this
counter-mobility is currently disregarded. However, military engineers try to keep and develop this
capability. One of the most important elements for the development in the field of counter-mobility is
man-made obstacles effectiveness evaluation. The process of evaluation is applicable to the obstacle
employment design, to the estimation of a battle progress as well as to the development of mine-laying
means, including mines and explosives for obstacle creating. The article is focused on determination
of the appropriate obstacles effectiveness evaluation criteria. The criteria can be applied within
planning of barriers as well as other complexes of obstacles (obstacle areas, zones, belts), which
allows to optimize the engagement of engineer units and means to fulfil the engineer tasks.
Keywords: military engineering, military obstacles, effectiveness, evaluation, criteria
1. Introduction intention of fighting, firing system, with a

The publication AJP-3.2 Allied Joint view to crossing ability in close relation to
Doctrine for Land Operations states that the the existing obstacles with regard to the
fundamentals for all land operations are the manoeuvre possibility of own forces and
manoeuvrist approach and mission coordinate to create a coherent complex
command. The manoeuvrist approach is (barrier system) [2]. Barrier system is
characterized as need to seize, retain and composed of explosive, nonexplosive and
exploit the initiative. In combat, the combined obstacles, destruction of objects
manoeuvrist approach invariably includes and lines of communication. Explosive
elements of movement, firepower, and obstacles, mainly antitank minefields, are
positional defence. There will almost basic elements of barrier systems.
always be a need to fix the enemy, deny
him access to routes and objectives, and 2. Evaluation of obstacle effectiveness
secure vital ground and key points. To fix is Obstacle effectiveness evaluation has wide
to deny the enemy his goals, to distract him application. Obstacle effectiveness means
and thus deprive him of his freedom of loss of ability to use terrain by enemy
action [1]. troops and reduce the success of their
It therefore follows that an obstacles are a operation activities. Obstacle effectiveness
significant support element of operation. is applicable to the obstacle employment
Obstacles can significantly increase the design, to the estimation of a battle progress
effectiveness of own fires and decrease the as well as to the development of mine-
possibility of movement in the area. laying means, including mines and
Barriers are created in compliance with the explosives for obstacle creating. In
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0036
227
commander decision-making process, addition, requirements for parameters of
effectiveness evaluation can be applied barrier can follow from obstacle
within planning of barriers as well as other effectiveness evaluation.
complexes of obstacles (obstacle areas, Effectiveness can be defined as the ratio
zones, belts), which allows to optimize the between the resolution of certain activities
engagement of engineer units and means to (outputs) and the cost of the activities
fulfil the engineer tasks. Obstacle (inputs) for a specific period. Expression of
effectiveness evaluation allows to select an obstacle resolutions must be based on the
optimal barrier according to the criteria general objectives of obstacle emplacement
considered, eventually choose the best (Figure 1).
technology (method) for barrier creation. In
Figure 1: Expression of obstacle resolutions
Firstly, it is necessary to determine inputs x Possible use of means in situation and

that have, in varying degrees, influences on terrain
the requirements of obstacle effectiveness. x Possibility of means protection
Three basic elements are default: x Possibility of cover barrier with fires
x Own forces From the viewpoint of the enemy, it is
x Enemy forces necessary to take into account in particular
x Terrain the available means for breaching, their
In terms of our own forces it is necessary to technical possibilities and rules for using
take into account the strength and means these means. It is also important to take into
that are available for obstacle emplacement. account unit tactics and procedures within
Especially the number of units and their the area without the presence of barriers
level of training for conducting the tasks in and the area where the barriers were
obstacle emplacement, the amount of detected. The main data will be:
equipment and materials which will be x Speed of breaching
directly involved in obstacle creation in the x Amount of breaching means
area and their tactical and technical options x Speed and method of moving in area
for the obstacle emplacement. It is also without barriers
necessary to take into account the time that x Speed of gap-crossing
is available for obstacle creation and the x Organization of gap-crossing
restriction resulting from the legislative and In the area of responsibility, where it
managing documents. Thus, important data intends to create barriers, it is necessary
will be: first of all to pay attention to the existing
x Speed of obstacle creation obstacles (rivers, urbanized areas, forests,
(emplacement) etc.), condition and number of routes and
x Amount of means for obstacle creation objects. It is necessary to check up
(emplacement) information about soil characteristics and
possible local resources of material for
228
obstacle creation. Important information creation) in terms of necessary inputs for
relating to the obstacle creation are: real evaluation of obstacle effectiveness.
x Impact of terrain (obstacles) to activities The difficulty of criteria determination for
(Mobility Corridors, Avenues of obstacle effectiveness evaluation is given
Approach) by the needs expressed by a number of
x Possibility of terrain shaping factors, which can work in certain
x Possibility of using local resources of conditions in varying degrees. Part of the
material criteria has general validity (apply to all
kinds of barriers regardless of creation
3. Evaluation criteria of obstacle period). But a number of criteria can be
effectiveness applied only to certain types of barriers or
Expressing of barriers must be based on the has meaning only in relation to a period
general objectives of obstacle emplacement. when it is possible to create the species
Amongst these goals, according to current barrier. It follows from custody barriers on
doctrines, include: the terrain, climate and weather conditions,
x Cause losses to enemy forces the occurrence of material from local
x Restrict, slow down or stop the resources etc. It is necessary to define the
movement of the enemy meaning and extent to each criterion for
x Deny enemy to use areas that are effectiveness evaluation of obstacle
advantageous for own units emplacement, depending on specific
x Create advantageous conditions for the conditions. The criteria, which in terms of
destruction of enemy with firepower practical importance in a particular situation
It is necessary to choose the appropriate need not to be considered, shall be
effectiveness criteria in order to express the determined on the basis of this delimitation.
level of objectives achievement of obstacle Basic evaluation criteria must
emplacement. It is necessary based on the unambiguously correlate with the
actual participation of barriers to the objectives of barriers (Figure 2) and should
fulfillment of those objectives. reflect the effect of the barrier on the
Effectiveness criteria of obstacle enemy. The criteria must be measurable to
emplacement must allow expression of simplify the planning and evaluation of the
influence on result of enemy’s activity obstacle effect for the use of automated
inside area with obstacles against command and control systems.
conditions without presence of obstacles. It
is necessary to express the costs associated
with obstacle emplacement (difficulty of
229
Figure 2: The relationship between inputs, objectives and criteria of barriers
The primary criterion for effectiveness influencing of enemy activities. The

evaluation of barriers is the number of presence of the barrier disrupts the
destroyed (retained) combat vehicles or formation and tempo of the enemy,
losses on the living power of the enemy – interrupts his schedule, restricts freedom of
combat effectiveness, which expresses maneuver in the area, slows the enemy
ability of the obstacle to cause direct losses. within a certain area, where can be
Combat effectiveness can be mainly identified, targeted and destroyed. Time
determined for explosive obstacles. This effectiveness indicates the time required for
determination is difficult for unexploded enemy activity, which is associated with
obstacles, because most unexploded overcoming or removing an obstacle. Time
obstacles by their nature are not intended to effectiveness can be expressed as the time
causing direct losses to the enemy. In this required for overcoming (removing) the
case, it is obstacle participation in combat obstacle by using the optimal way of
effectiveness of own fires. This overcoming (removing) obstacle (Figure 3).
participation expresses mediated effect of Difference between times ¨7, needed to
obstacle on efficient utilization of own overcome the distance L in the area without
firing systems. the presence of obstacles and with
Combat effectiveness is understood as obstacles, is the result of hold effect of
conditional probability, because it ignores obstacles, which created advantageous
the many factors (eg. the probability of conditions for the destruction of the enemy
targets entering into a minefield, the forces. The time necessary for the
probability of finding a minefield and breaching of an obstacle (TA) can be
breaching of gaps by enemy, the probability determined by the procedures and means
of operational reliability of landmines etc.). that enemy can use. Time effectiveness can
The value of combat effectiveness is also be expressed according to the
ranging between 0 and 1 and gives a estimated values of depth of enemy
probability of target elimination in the penetration in the case of barriers presence
minefield. on the direction of his movement and
Another significant quantity that expresses penetration in the event that obstacles are
the effect of the barrier is time. Time not on a given direction.
effectiveness plays an important role in
230
Figure 3: Schematic expression of obstacle time effectiveness
Another important criterion, which reflects 4. Conclusion

the effect of obstacles on the enemy, is the Barriers provide a significant advantage in
restriction in the use of areas. The presence the operational area in the fulfilment of
of barriers disrupts enemy not only during tasks in military operations. They play a
movement, but also on the front edge and in role in providing protection of deployed
the depth of the area of deployment forces and obstruct enemy to use of
(responsibility). Barriers restrict the important areas and communications
possibilities of maneuver and possibilities regardless of the type of operation. Barriers
for deployment of troops in the area, are used to restrict the movement of enemy
channel the enemy into areas that are forces, increase the effectiveness of own
advantageous for its destruction, and create fires, restrict the use of terrain, disrupt the
the conditions to keep decisive areas, which sustainability of forces and cause losses of
may significantly influence the battle. enemy forces.
To express this criterion, it is necessary to For each operation, it is necessary to
know the principles of tactics and determinate appropriate criteria for
procedures of enemy forces. Based on this evaluating the effectiveness of barriers for
knowledge, it is possible to determine the assessing the desired effect on the enemy.
fulfillment of the criterion as a ratio between These criteria must be consistent with the
the amount of enemy means in a given area general objectives of obstacle emplacement.
without the presence of obstacles and the By an analysis of individual objectives, for
amount of enemy means in a given area with the basic criteria can be considered:
obstacles. Simply we can say that there is a x Combat effectiveness
ratio of the density of means in area with x Time effectiveness
obstacles (Hz) and without them (H0): x Density enemy means in a given area
Combat effectiveness is the ability of
obstacle to cause losses to enemy on
where just the density of means within the combat means and manpower, either as
area without the presence of obstacles is the direct losses on explosive obstacles or
value, which is based on the principles of indirectly, when the obstacle allows the
tactical use of enemy means in battle. destruction of enemy forces by own fires.
Time effectiveness is the ability of obstacle
231
to retain (stop) enemy forces for a certain management of military engineering.
period and where success is achieved by During the planning, effectiveness criteria
reducing enemy tempo of movement. of evaluation are useful for determining the
Density of enemy means represents the parameters of barriers. Based on this
ability of obstacle in limiting the use of determination it is possible to calculate the
area, or the grouping enemy in areas that necessary time, manpower and means for
are suitable for the destruction of enemy obstacle emplacement. During the battle,
forces with own fires. effectiveness criteria of evaluation are
These criteria can be, depending on the type useful for assessment (validation) of
of operation, situation, terrain, means planned (predicted) enemy activity.
available and other factors, supplemented Based on the evaluations, using of basic
by additional, e.g. the possibility of direct and other criteria, it can determine the
influence of situation, time influence of appropriate means requirements for
obstacle, psychical effectiveness, usability obstacle emplacement. These requirements
in various conditions, the possibility of are applicable for further development of
further use of the material, etc. means and procedures of obstacle
Effectiveness evaluation of obstacles plays emplacement.
an important role in the planning and
References
[1] AJP-3.2. Allied Joint Doctrine for Land Operations. Brussels: NSO, 2016.
[2] äHQ-2-9. äHQLMQtSUiFHYãHFKGUXKĤYRMVN. Praha: Ministerstvo národní obrany, 1981.
[3] AJP-3.12(B). Allied Joint Doctrine for Military Engineering. Brussels: NSO, 2014.
[4] ATP-3.12.1. Allied Tactical Doctrine for Military Engineering. Brussels: NSO, 2016.
232
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF NATIONAL APPROACHES TO MILITARY

CAPABILITY PLANNING
Zdenek PETRAS
Centre for Security and Military Strategy Studies, University of Defence, Brno,
The Czech Republic
zdenek.petras@unob.cz
Abstract: National defence planning processes are often compared with the NATO Defence Planning
Process (NDPP). Taking into account that NDPP needs commonly agreed criteria to evaluate military
capabilities of the different nations, and given the significant effort invested in performance measurement
by several nations, it would be beneficial to examine how respective nations are currently assessing their
performance within the capability-based planning process, with a view to establishing potential common
measures that would benefit individual nations while addressing the needs of NATO at the same time. The
principles which the NDPP is based on are referred to in some of national defence strategic documents,
although there is no explicitly statement that the national defence planning process should be tailored in
the same way as it is the case of the NDPP. In order to find an answer to the above mentioned issue and
identify common practices and lessons to support capability planning within nations and NATO an analysis
was carried out with the objective of identifying to which extent national planning processes of respective
nations correlate with principles of NDPP as well as with principles of the EU capability development.
Keywords: capability planning, shortfalls, assessment, prioritisation
1. Introduction planning processes of respective nations

The defence planning process, as set up correlate with principles of NDPP as well
within some of NATO nations is often as with principles of the EU capability
matching against the NATO Defence development;
Planning Process (NDPP) even if there is x identifying positive findings and best
no explicitly stated that the national defence practices from national capability
planning processes should be tailored in the planning processes to be exploited when
same way as it is the case of the NDPP. It is conceiving a specific national approach to
absolutely unquestionable that one of main capability planning.
objectives of all NATO nations and their
national defence planning processes must 2. Setting Up of Analysis Framework
be to fulfil the Alliance ambition The basic prerequisite for starting out the
requirements. However it is questionable analysis was to construct a suitable
whether this fact calls for in-depth structure of nations to be submitted to the
analysing NATO approaches to the defence comparative research. Selecting of nations
planning with a view to implement them was thereupon based on criteria a follows:
into national defence environment. In order x only European nations of NATO and EU
to find an answer to the above mentioned were taken as the subject of the research;
issue, it was carried out an analysis whose x research included NATO nations and EU
objective was specifically aimed at: member states as well members of both
x identifying to which extent national NATO and EU;
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0037
233
x objective was to scrutinise small and the United Kingdom, Sweden, Finland and
medium-sized nations as well as nations Norway. Regarding to the expected
which are considered as large from outcomes, the research was based on the
geographical and population point of literature review arisen from conceptual a
view; strategic documents dealing with defence
x research included both longstanding planning and capability development within
members of NATO/EU and nations the context of nation defence and security
joining NATO or EU recently, i.e. after policies (see the table 1).
1999 as for the NATO and the EU after Even if results of the research stem from the
2004; group of only 12 nations (which can be
x research was made only on nations for hardly considered as a statistically
which there were available national significant number, taken into account the
conceptual documents such as defence total of 22 nations being members of both
white books, national defence strategies, EU and NATO), an overall structure and
doctrines etc., dealing with defence characteristics of scrutinised nations allow
planning and capability development. to draw up a few important conclusions.
Finally, 12 nations met the eligibility
criteria: Belgium, the Netherlands, France,
Germany, Denmark, Italy, Estonia, Poland,
Table 1 – List of publications used for the literature review (Source: Author)
Nation Title
Belgium The Modernisation Plan 2000 – 2015 of the Belgian Armed Forces
Netherlands Netherlands Defence Doctrine
France Défense et sécurité nationale 2013: livre blanc
Germany White Paper 2006 on German Security Policy and the Future of the Bundeswehr
Denmark Danish Defence Agreement 2010 - 2014
Il libro bianco per la sicurezza internazionale e la difesa
Italy
La Dottrina Militare Italiana
National Security Concept of the Republic of Estonia - 2004
Estonia
Estonian Long Term Defence Development Plan 2009 – 2018
Defence Strategy of the Republic of Poland: Sector Strategy of the National
Poland Security Strategy of the Republic of Poland
%LDáDNVLHրJD- White paper
A strong Britain in an age of uncertainty: the national security strategy
UK
Delivering Security in a Changing World: Future Capabilities
Sweden´s Security in the 21st Century.
Sweden Swedish Government Bill 2004 -2005: Our Future Defence - The Focus of
Swedish Defence Policy 2005–2007
Finnish Security and Defence Policy 2012: Government Report
Finland
Securely into the Future: Ministry of Defence Strategy 2025
Norwegian Defence 2008
Norway
Norwegian Defence 2013: Facts and Figures
3. Research Method Setting Up planning approaches and to assess the

As a methodological principle for extent with which selected nations give
conducting the research, a set of priority to their national concerns against
comparative determinants was established NATO or EU strategic objectives. These
to compare respective national defence determinants came out as a result from the
234
combination of the Strategic Map method procedures through planning, preparing and
and operational art elements - Means, Ways executing military operations led by the US
and Ends (see the figure 1). The Army. However this method is frequently
combination of the Strategic Map and applied by many NATO and EU nations not
operational art is described in the Joint only for operations planning purposes.
Operation Planning [1] which specifies
Figure 1 – Combination of Strategic Map and Operational Art Elements (Source: Author)
Subsequently, the element Ways was The political guidance, assisted by a

modified accordingly in order to military advice giving a general overview
specifically reflect a generic design of of operational environment, is followed
defence planning processes as applied respectively by conceiving scenarios of
within scrutinized nations. potential military engagements,
The modification of the element Ways identification of capability requirements
stems from a generic framework of defence and force units structure which are needed
planning process that is basically launched to accomplish given ends of military
by a political guidance reflecting quite missions.
number of political, military, economic, The overview with characteristics of
legal, civil and technological factors having respective comparative determinants is
direct or indirect impact on global or local specified in the table 2.
security situation.
Table 2 – Overview of determinates and their characteristics (Source: Author)
Determinant Characteristics
Prioritization of measures to eliminate security threats
Politico--strategic stemming from the analysis of global and local security
environment
Role of armed forces within national and international
Military strategic
context
Delimitation of scenarios for operational engagement of
Operational
armed forces
Identification Capability Delimitation of capability requirements needed for
Requirements accomplishing expected ambitions
Development of force units structure with respective
Force Units Structure components as a tool for accomplishment of expected
ambitions
235
4. Outcomes of Determinants Application between national strategic concerns and
The comparative determinants applied on NATO’s collective defence principles or
scrutinised nations enabled to disclose their EU’s common security and defence policy
priorities in term of national concerns was playing a crucial role while setting
against ambitions as specified in the NATO orientation in national capability
or EU defence and security policies. The development process. Outcomes resulting
leading factor of the research leant on the from the research are summarised in the
premise according to which the relation table 3.
Table 3 – Outcomes from application of determinants to individual nations (Source: Author)
4.1. Politico-Strategic and Military nation to nation basis. For almost all
Strategic Determinants nations, with slight exception of France, it
Results from application of both politico- is typical that principles as applied through
strategic and military-strategic determinants the NATO defence planning are far more
express that all 12 nations accentuate a need traceable than it is the case of EU planning
for a strong coexistence of national interests principles. The only distinct exception is
with NATO/EU ambitions, when Denmark which is not participating in EU’s
conceiving their national security and defence and security policy.
defence policies and accompanying Results of research showing which one of
capability development plans. Nevertheless, NATO or EU approach to defence planning
the extent of preferences, with which is influencing individual nations are
nations reflect the NATO or EU planning summarised in the table 4.
principles, distinctively differentiate on
236
Table 4 – Impact of NATO/EU approaches on national defence planning processes (Source: Author)
NATO EU
Belgium X X
Netherlands X
France X
Germany X
Denmark X
Italy X
Estonia X
Poland X
United Kingdom
Sweden X
Finland X
Norway X
4.2. Operational Determinant, Capability 4. adaptability of national defence

Requirements and Force Unit Structure technological and industrial base to
However, for detailed depicting how provide with those weapon systems and
individual nations are shaping their national technologies being able to fulfil
defence planning processes, determinants - respective capability needs.
Operational Determinants, Capability For establishing the specific sub-processes,
Requirements and Force Units Structure are the structure of the EU’s Capability
determining. From national perspective, Development Plan (CDP) [2] was taken as
identification of capability requirements a methodological base. CDP provides an
reflects a resultant of a few separate sub- analysis of the security environment in the
processes which have a crucial importance world within medium to long term
for shaping further development of national prospective and identifies capabilities
armed forces and their potential to achieve needed to eliminate arising security
expected ambitions. These sub-processes challenges. The document proposes a
are: common approach of EU member states to
1. identification of capability requirements capability development based on four sub-
as a result of analyses of short and processes. In a perfect case, all these sub-
medium-term perspective security processes are supposed to be in close cross-
threats, connection. The approach as described in
2. identification of future trends in the CDP was applied on all scrutinised
developing capability needs reflecting nations. The result of this application
long-term perspective of security illustrated that not all of scrutinised nations
challenges, proceed to the cross-connection in the same
3. analysis of lessons learned from way. Outcomes from the analysis of
planning, preparing and performing national positions to respective sub-
military operations, processes are shown in the table 5.
237
Table 5 – Overview of national positions to sub-processes having impact on capability development
(Source: Author)
Sub-process
Sub 1 Sub 2 Sub 3 Sub 4
Nation
Belgium X X
Netherlands X X X
France X X X X
Germany X X X
*)
Denmark X X
Italy X X X
Estonia X X
Poland X X
United Kingdom X X X X
Sweden X X X
Finland X X X
Norway X X X
Notes:
Sub-process 1: Defining capability requirements in short-to-medium term perspective
Sub-process 2: Analysed lessons learned from military operations
Sub-process 3: Defining capability requirements in long term perspective
Sub-process 4: Adaptability of national defence technological and industrial base to meet capability
requirements
*)
Denmark is not participating in EU’s Common Security and Defence Policy structures.
From outcomes, as presented in the table 5, finding significantly stress the fact that only
it is evident that all nations carry out France and the UK have clearly shaped
identification of capability requirements in priorities in the area of national security and
short-to-medium term perspective in defence policy.
combination with analysis of lessons Taking into consideration all results, which
learned from military operations. Nations, stems from application of Operational
such as the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Determinant, Identification of Capability
Sweden, Finland and Norway, use to Requirements and Force Units Structure,
proceed also the identification of capability the three principal approaches to defence
requirements in long term perspective and planning can be derived:
provide assessing to which extent their 1. planning exclusively based on principles
national defence technological and reflecting above all national defence and
industrial base is able to reflect newly security policy (UK),
arisen capability requirements. For all 2. planning which is mainly focused on
scrutinised nations it is quite symptomatic providing a collective defence within the
that their processes of identification of Euro-Atlantic area in combination with
capability requirements tend to be broadly national security and defence concerns
applied across their national military force (the Netherlands, Germany, Italy,
structures. [3] Norway, Estonia, Poland),
In fact, only two nations, France and the 3. planning focused on covering national
United Kingdom, have set up a really security concerns in combination with
functional cross-connection between all ambitions stemming from EU’s common
defined sub-processes. In other terms, this
238
defence and security policy (France, standard format and required parameters
Sweden and Finland). related to capabilities of their armed forces.
5. Synthesis of Analysis Outcomes 6. Conclusions

The synthesis of findings coming from the The analysis of national defence planning
research of national approaches to the processes came out to conclusion that
capability planning can be summarised as nations are using specifically tailored
follows: national approaches to capability planning.
1. there is no national capability planning Diversity and fragmentation of national
process which could be strictly approaches to capability planning is due to
considered as identical with NATO or different strategic concerns stemming from
EU planning processes, national security and defence policies
2. regarding a complexity of national which may not be necessarily consistent
concerns and interests in the area of with NATO collective defence ambition or
foreign and security policy, it is not all EU common security and defence policy.
conceivable to create a standardised Results of the analysis illustrate that no
planning mechanism which might be nation have implemented planning
accepted and implemented by all procedures in the form of an integral
nations. This finding is applicable for process as used through NATO or EU.
both NATO nations and EU member Even though any nation does not use
states. NATO nor EU planning practice as a
Outcomes from the comparative analysis whole, principles as applied through NATO
point out that the principles of defence are commonly influencing national
planning, as used within the NATO approaches far more than it is the case of
planning structures, influence the national EU planning principles.
approaches far more than the EU principles. With regard to national specificities as for
Despite of lack of a common approach to politico-military ambitions, nations are also
capability planning, it is however possible using approaches specifically tailored for
to trace up a clear coherence between conceiving military force structures,
principles as applied within NATO, EU and envisaged operational engagements of force
national planning processes. This coherence units and capabilities which are identified
consists in a need for harmonising and as indispensable for achieving expected
synchronising national planning processes military and political end states. In certain
with NATO/EU ones as well as for cases, nations are using some of fragments
standardising elaboration of national inputs from the NATO or EU capability planning
to NATO or EU planning process. [4] processes, but appropriately modified to
The point is to elaborate accordingly national purposes. For individual national
national chapters to the NATO’s Defence approaches to defence planning, it is
Planning Capability Survey (DPCS) in emblematic a close interconnection between
which nations periodically submit their identification of capability requirements
national contributions to the NATO. One and existing military force structure. At the
part of the DPCS is dedicated to summary national level of planning, it is typical that
of national contributions to the EU. That identified capability requirements are
means that the DPCS is a unifying element affiliated in advance to relevant force units.
for summarising national contributions for Especially while assigning priorities in
both NATO and EU planning purposes. capability development, nations usually
Therefore the key issue for NATO nations tend to pre-identified force units which are
and EU member states is to submit only supposed to get relevant capabilities.
those national contributions which respect However a common factor correlating
approaches of nations, on the one side, and
239
NATO and EU, on the other side, is a form cooperation between both national and
under which individual nations are to send NATO/EU sides. This is also a reason for
their national contributions to the NATO or which Alliance and Union planning
to the EU. These national contributions structures are permanently seeking to
containing respective capabilities are a key harmonise and synchronise national
input for fulfilling expected ambitions of planning processes with NATO/EU ones.
both NATO and EU. Thus, regardless the diversity of national
As a general rule, national contributions approaches to capability planning, the final
should accordingly reflect capability conclusion, which is likewise applicable
taxonomy, which has been agreed to be into the Czech Ministry of Defence, is as
commonly used by both NATO and EU. In follows:
October 2011, NATO issued a new Instead of an in-depth analysing of NDPP,
document titled Bi-SC Agreed Capability national planners had better concentrate, in
Codes and Capability Statements [5] which their efforts for optimising planning
provides a common language for procedures, on setting up a national
capabilities that links defence planning with planning process to be able:
operations planning, and defines the x to generate contributions to NATO and
capabilities requirements used in DPCS. EU which strictly meet identified
This document was furthermore followed by capability requirements;
another Alliance document, titled Bi-SC x to put national contributions in due form
Capability Hierarchy [6], whose aim was to by using agreed NATO/EU capability
introduce a single terminology and taxonomy and terminology with a view
hierarchical structure of Main Capability to provide smooth transfer of declared
Areas. national capabilities into NATO or EU
A reflexion of NATO/EU capability capability planning procedures.
requirements into national contributions is
so a critical issue for an effective
References
[1] JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF (ed.). Joint Publication 5-0: Joint Operation Planning.
Washington, D.C.: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2011, 1 v. (loose-leaf). Chapter III. Available at:
http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp5_0.pdf
[2] EUROPEAN DEFENCE AGENCY (ed.). Future Trends from the Capability
Development Plan. European Defence Agency. Brussels, Belgium, 2008. Available also
at: http://www.eda.europa.eu/docs/documents/Brochure_CDP.pdf
[3] NATO STO (ed.). RTO-MP-SAS-081 - Analytical Support to Defence Transformation:
Analytic Implications of the NATO Defence Planning Process. Paris, France: CSO, 2010,
p. 9 - 18. ISBN 978-92-837-0116-3. Available also at:
https://www.cso.nato.int/pubs/rdp.asp?RDP=RTO-MP-SAS-081
[4] NATO STO (ed.). Cost Efficiency Implications of International Cooperation: Final
Report of Task Group SAS-090. Neuilly-sur-Seine, Francie: NATO Science and
Technology Organization, 2015, p. E-1. ISBN 978-92-837-0219-1. Available also at:
https://www.cso.nato.int/Pubs/rdp.asp?RDP=STO-TR-SAS-090
[5] SHAPE/ACT (ed.). BI-SC Agreed Capability Codes and Capability Statements.
SHAPE/CPPCAMFCR/JM/281143. Mons, Belgium, 2011.
[6] SHAPE/ACT (ed.). Bi-SC Capability Hierarchy. SH/PLANS/JCAP/FCP/15-310118.
Mons, Belgium, 2015.
240
LEADERSHIP IN THE PROCESS OF COMMAND AND CONTROL, PLACE AND

ROLE OF COMMANDER-MANAGER
Milan PODHOREC, Pavel HRINÍK, Gustav LAKOŠ

milan.podhorec@unob.cz, pavel.hrinik@unob.cz, gustav.lakos@unob.cz
Abstract: The paper clarifies the place and role of a commander as a manager in the process of
command and control. It explained the concept of the competences model that the commander should
possess. The authors define the basic requirements for the capabilities of all military professionals.
The paper focused on the commander manager s ability to actively and creatively adapt to changing
environment as well as on the ability to regulate negative psychological impacts. Emphasis is placed
also on the ability to make decisions in uncertainty and on the ability to regulate commander's
internal and external activity due to the current situation.
Keywords: leadership, management, competences, communication, organization
1. Introduction Primary focus on decision making. Main result

The mission of managerial approach is to give of an analysis must have direct exercise in
managers quantitative basis for decision making managerial operations. Decision making is still
with regards to operations and activities which central activity of today’s commanders and
fall under their command. Managerial science is managers of all degrees of management.
occupied with the description, recognition and Relying on economic effectiveness criteria.
prediction of complex social systems (people The comparison of alternative options is to be
and objects) which operate in natural based on measurable values pointing at future
environment. Ideas and conceptions of consequences of a decision (options of the
managerial science basically represent certain enemy and own forces, competition etc.)
extensions of scientific management which are Relying on formal mathematical models.
parts of classic approach. The purpose of Mathematical models represent a description of
managerial science is to give managers presented problem and allow for finding its
quantitative and qualitative basis for decision solution. Method for finding the solution has to
making. be explicit enough, so that any other solver can
Managerial scientists emphasize mathematic use it to reach accordant solution. Requirement
modelling of systems. During the times of war, of repeatability is also typical for scientific
operational experts successfully overcame a (behavioural) approach to management. In
number of military problems including reality, repeatability is typical for all scientific
logistical tasks and search for optimal analyses.
command and control strategy of a military Dependence on computers. This dependence
operation. It is very difficult to unambiguously results from the complexity of mathematical
distinguish clear outlines of managerial science model application, the amount of processed
process, but it is possible to identify its data or large number of mathematical
characteristic features. It is therefore possible to operations in objective lack of time.
say that the majority of instruments and It is also important to formulate competencies
techniques used in managerial science are of military professionals, specifically
marked by: commanders who are responsible for command
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0038
241
and control process in units and installations of manager. It should always contribute to
the Army of the Czech Republic. effective organization activities.
Managers´ function within human resources
2. Commander as a manager - role, area – main goal should be always to achieve
assignment, competences assurance that managers´ but not only
Commander has to solve problems regarding managers´ positions are occupied by the
with planning, organising, coordination, qualified employees able and willing to fulfil
leadership and control during daily activities company aims.
and duties. Commander has to apply managers´ Managers´ control function – main goal at all
functions also in possible conditions of times is to achieve assurance that plan is
computer absent during battle. Mathematical successfully realized.
models can managers functions/roles Commanders at the all level of the command
substantially make easy. Modern and smart during their leading activities should apply
commanders must fulfil 3 basic managers’ tasks following persuasion and principles for the
outgoing from 3 basic approaches to leading of subordinates and for the unit task
management supplemented by systematic and accomplishment under their command. For the
contingent approach: task fulfilling commander – manager use these
x Manage organization, principles:
x Manage employees, Principle of objective conformity – more
x Manage preparation a conducting of managers are able to harmonize personal aims
operation. of individuals with aims of organization then
Managerial and executive staff of each organization will be more effective and
organization in disregard of what is matter of efficient.
business is in interference with those tasks of Principle of motivation – it is not only simple
leading. It must be studied and executed matter of reasons and consequences. That is
everywhere we want to gain upon rivalry why managers will judge more preciously
(enemy) in its activity. system of extra pay (with consideration to the
Managers must primarily rely on knowledge current situation) and they will implement it
coming from classical approach of leading of more into the whole system of leading and
work and organizations. For the leading of motivation program would be more effective.
people they need behavioural knowledges and Leadership principle – people have a tendency
for the operation control is useful knowledges follow person diffusing atmosphere, skills and
form management science. resources to satisfy their personal goals.
Modern approach of leading, asserted from the Clear communication principle –
managers´ level in face of subordinated communication would be simpler if the way of
management (certain group of employees, coy communication, language and the manner of
commanders and platoons etc.) includes several transmission to recipient is more obvious.
areas: Originator is responsible for the clear and
Managers´ leading function – it is a way / understandable message formulation.
approach how a manager coordinate Communication integrity principle – better
subordinate group of employees (himself led and sophisticated integration and consistence
team). Basically this function should be realized written, verbal and nonverbal communication
with the regard on task organization also moral behaviour from originator make
achievement with the methods in order to contents more acceptable by the recipient.
positively affect creative problem solving Supportive application informal
accomplishment (Performance of the tasks by organization principle – communication
the subordinate management). would be more effective if managers use more
Managers’ planning function – it depends and informal organizational structure to support
it is result of level leading skills of manager. In communication channels of formal structure.
principle this function should support tasks Managers should use this instrument for
accomplishment of organization. completing of inaccessible information and for
Managers´ organizing function - it depends providing of information in the situation of
and it is result of level leading skills of unavailable information from the formal
communication system.
242
Authors Saliger, Pindešová and Pokorný (2008, Competence includes:
2010) based on analysis of environment - Ability to define usefulness of one’s own
requirements NNEC present that competency competencies and activities and to include them
model of the military professionals (managers – to the context of working in a team or a system.
commanders) includes: - Ability to lead people to a common goal, to
a) Core competency: support and help them.
To understand a meaning and share Aforementioned competence model is meant as
(communicate) meanings and values, perceive a framework, which formulates qualities useful
the context and usefully be in context, system for survival and evolution of an individual in a
and process, to think critically, to create system and an environment in every possible
recognition, to make decisions and act. situational context.
b) Part competencies: Criteria for competence quality and
1. To use different processes andsituational professionals’ abilities rise in general.
contexts for a conscious development of one’s Following conclusions can be identified from
abilities and resources. Competency also an NNEC analysis’ results:
includes the ability to learn, evolve and to a) rise in input criteria – qualification
create one’s abilities and abilities of the system presumptions;
(team). b) rise in requirements on cognitive abilities
2. To think creatively, create recognition and values of all professionals;
appraise the knowledge, responsively adapt for c) rise in requirements on general intelligence
the environment and make decisions. Perceive level, professional readiness and
the change as a basic and natural part of life, professional specialization.
profession and the world. Evolve the ability of General requirements on abilities of all military
perceiving, suggesting and realizing of changes. professionals can be characterized
3. To consciously, usefully in regards to given subsequently:
context, use own sources and sources from 1. Ability to keep situational awareness.
one’s environment to reach the meaning, values Examples of parameters satiating the criteria:
and given objectives. To orientate in social, a) Pointers of effective capacity of one’s mind,
information and communication systems, to be insight and creativity and related abilities and
able to competently exploit them and to be able functions.
to establish stable supporting grounds. b) Understanding of certain situations;
4. Constantly reflect on specifics of military Independent judgment; Systematic reasoning.
and managerial professions and military c) Concentration and persistence of awareness.
activities in organizational, systematic and 2. Ability to adapt, to actively and creatively
social continuum. implant.
Competence includes: Examples of parameters satiating the criteria:
- To transform knowledge of the importance of a) Adaptability to changes; Prediction of
sharing (communicating) to an evolution of changes; Creativity in processing and managing
one’s own communicational abilities. of changes.
- To cope with the burden of change and to b) Objectively evaluate situations and options;
enhance this ability min a team or a system. Adapt to reality; adequately react; Adapt in
- To cultivate useful standing competencies and informational and communicational
to progress in new sources and competencies. environment.
Priority is a flexibility in expertise for different 3. Ability to make decisions in situations with
contexts (expert, commander, member of a multiple choices connected with unpredictable
team) which allows to utilize every situational outcomes.
context, a change to evolve ourselves, our team Examples of parameters satiating the criteria:
or a system in a sense of reaching object ability a) Resolve and responsibility for one’s
or an effect. decisions and actions.
5. To be beneficial member of a team or a b) Orientation in situations with multiple
system and to lead and take care of the team or outcomes.
a system in various situational contexts. c) Ability to formulate goals, objectives and
means to reach them.
4. Mental durability.
243
Examples of parameters satiating the criteria: Nevertheless, it could be assumed, that the style
a) Change and stress management; Reaction to of leadership will be definitely based on
stress; Resistance to frustration; Ability of experience of commander (manager) and his
self-control. superiors. It could be also expected, that the
b) Means of dealing with stress situations – profession of commander will not disappear in
effectiveness of stress management; Control the close future, and will be more oriented to
of situation and reactions. commander’s ability as a leader within the
5. Ability to regulate one’s own inner and outer organization structure of the army, and
activity (actions) in regards to actual situational commander will subject to many requirements
contexts. in relations to competence listed above.
Examples of parameters satiating the criteria:
Ability to take risks adequate to a situation; 3. Conclusions
Ability to control emotions [5,6]. Generally, the commander (manager) as a
Role of manager in process of command representative of an organization is crucial
and control representative and spokesman with superiors
Functions of manager are typical function and subordinates. In the partial role of the
which leader-manager uses within his work. leader is the main person to lead the team of
This conception of view could be sometimes colleagues in the unit, which he can more or
softened by opinion, that functions of manager less staff, organize, coordinate, motivate,
are key knowledge, which is must for the stimulate and meaningfully develop their
leader-manager to deal with his area of professional and qualification profile by
responsibility at work. It is based on himself. In the partial role is even link and
assumption, that the best way to fulfill visions intermediary of information transfer and
of organization, fulfilling the meaning of contacts.
manager’s work included, is to harmonize We all feels that the success in leadership is not
specific functions of manager. Not even World based on obeying the rules, but is more based
goes through changes, but even environment on changing the rules to fit the situation. It
does so. Many experts are convinced that looks like that the capabilities of commander
organizations are going to go through important are in many cases come from desire to rule own
changes, which will affect the management life and working environment, more than from
importantly. any moral principle. People who have power
Managers (commanders) of the 21.st century over other people need some socially acceptable
are more often forced by cuts in budgets to justification to found their power legitimate.
work with petty working teams, which will According to Machiavelli, means used by rulers
definitely lead to lose jobs for many soldiers, are justified if everything goes well for them.
even to lose their loyalty to be a good soldier. However, to convince the people, ruler must be
Weakening of guarantees of long term seen as an altruist. It is clear that this principle,
employment affects negatively also loyalty to to sell the idea, convince others, look like
organization of top managers, middle managers someone who cares, is indispensable political
and operations manager too. Reducing the action. It is said, that it is insincerity of others,
number of employees leads even to change in that ruler, who acts every time according to his
organization’s structure, especially to reduction clearest intentions is trapped and loses his
of number in controlling levels. It power. This hypocrisy was hated by Socrates,
simultaneously affects the character of who has believed, that the attempt to convince
planning, organizing, leading, staffing and audience by eloquence to agree with something,
controlling process of middle and operations which is not true, is dishonest act and
managers. dishonesty is always unacceptable. The moral
In this situation units will need more and more order for today’s informational society must yet
managers, who don’t use authoritarian to be created. What could be found, with high
leadership, but rather act as a coordinators, level of confidence, as a leading principle is
leaders and coaches. There is no way, consensus of agreement – the form of
especially in the army, to resign to use of basics democracy, which must manager (commander)
of management instead of coordination. use, to get support from his subordination?
244
References
[1] DONNELLY Jr., J. H., GIPSON, J. L., IVANCEVICH, M.: Management, GRADA
Publishing, 1997. ISBN 80-7169-422-3.
[2] 92'Èý(. / 92'Èý.29È 2 0DQDJHPHQW 7HRULH D SUD[H Y LQIRUPDþQt
VSROHþQRVWL, 3. Vydání, Praha: Management Press, 1999. ISBN 80-85943-94-8.
[3] TYSON, S., JACKSON, T.: 2UJDQL]DþQt FKRYiQt, Grada Publishing, 1997. ISBN 80-
7169-296-4.
[4] WEIHRICH, H., KOONTZ, H.: Management. Praha: Victoria Publishing, A. G., 1993.
ISBN 80-85605-45-7.
[5] SALIGER, Radomír, PINDEŠOVÁ, Eva a POKORNÝ, Vratislav. Trendy zkoumání
a PRGHO\SURUR]YRMVFKRSQRVWtNYDOLWNRPSHWHQFtOLGtDOLGVNêFKV\VWpPĤSURSURVWĜHGt
NATO NetZRUN (QDEOHG &DSDELOLW\ Y SURIHVQt SĜtSUDYČ Y]GČOiYiQt D YêFYLNX ,Q
6ERUQtNSĜHGQiãHN]PH]LQiURGQtKRNRQJUHVX,QWHURS-Soft Protect [CD-ROM]. Brno:
17s., 2008. ISBN 978-80-7392-023-4.
[6] SALIGER, Radomír, POKORNÝ, Vratislav a PINDEŠOVÁ, Eva. KogniWLYQt
management. Brno: Univerzita obrany, 173s. 2010. ISBN 978-80-7231-768-4.
245
PREVENTION AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT
‫܇‬tefan POP

popstefan2000@gmail.com
Abstract: Crisis management should always be proactive and not just reactive. Every organization
must engage in proactive crisis management by monitoring issues related to its business and to society
in general, by assessing risks and developing a crisis communication plan. Proactive crisis
management helps organizations anticipate a crisis before it occurs. This said, a great part of crisis
management is reactive management, as it is about dealing with a crisis once it hits.
Keywords: crisis, tension, management
1. Introduction Adela had done the most important step in

Having in mind that crisis management her life without having been able to tell me
should always be proactive, we will about it” [3]. To think about all possible
furthermore understand what the prevention solutions and to do whatever necessary
concept really means and what we have to actions before their starting moment, to try
do in order to help people not to make everything just to avoid danger.” [4] To
mistakes. If we try to give a prevention stop the union of two enemy armies,
definition, we have to underline that there fighting the weakest first and the strongest
are several theoretical concept. So DEX afterwards is one of the most beautiful
says that “to prevent”means to draw operation concerning military art [5] To
attention the negative consequences some fulfill somebody’s desires before they have
actions would have ; to previously inform ; been revealed by means of words: “ What
to warn ; to praise or to have precocious are you doing there? I help your unspoken
measures to avoid any unpleasant aspect ; wishes to come true: I open this door” [6]
to see before happening ; to fulfill Preventive activity is not only a theoretical
somebody’s desires by guessing them / concept because it is not, first of.all, in all
from prevenir in French and praevenire in every days life’s domains.
Latin. It also can means to use people’s
awareness before acting on the 2. General considerations
consequences their actions would have Any kind of actions which could hurt an
(usually aiming to stop those actions) ; to isolated person or society on its whole,
inform before having asked ; to announce gives birth to a preventive defense reaction
before being too late ; to warn in a civilized that generates taking some anticipative
way. measures in order to stop the generating
“ I warn you,dear Petre Ivanescu : you find cause in further producing or repeating.
yourself in front of a serious danger” [1] “ I Any kind of preventive actions organized
had warned you. I am not good to be a either by individuals or groups suppose
referee.” [2] She warned him as soon as she both less efforts and costs than solutions to
had heard that he wanted to get married”. “ consequences. If that cause which
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0039
246
determined a specific phenomenon is biological, psychological social factors to
followed by own effect it is much more explain what exactly determines the subject
difficult to solve damaged aspects. For to violate penal law. Thus, the subject’s
instance if we speak about a murder action action appears as an effect of some
followed by the victim’s death, nothing can determining causes. In the second case, we
be solved after it because the killer gets the study to clarify the causal link between the
right punishment while the victim never subject’s material activity and the find
comes to life again. If by appropriate taken resulted product. In such a situation, the
measures, we prevent the murder subject’s action appears as being the cause
commitment those tragic consequences do while the result asked by the law is called
not appear any longer. It’s about the same effect. By cause, as seen in this context we
when speaking of society’s level: to take name all factors which determine infraction
preventive measures which stop generating commitment. These factors that favour an
causes to produce their effects is more infraction commitment are circumscribed in
beneficial and cheaper than the produced the condition concept sphere.
effect. Furthermore, preventing acts much The way into which causes and conditions
more deeper and just really having an mix in the final result produced by a man’s
influence on the actions wholeness, while actions approves to be extremely complex,
fighting work develops only in relation to both of them being practically inseparable
each specific case and following the road of through a volitive act. That why we
bad behavior recognition. frequently we use the idea of criminogen
factors is the meaning of objective elements
3. Causes, infraction and infractionality which interfere in an infraction
The preventing activity is highly linked to commitment. Some criminologist use the
the explanation of the infraction causing motion of condition in a larger meaning (
origins. To prevent means to act in advance more precisely any kind of happening
in view of stopping a probable cause without which a certain behavior wouldn’t
process to appear suspecting that it could have developed and externalized ) thus
lead to the violation of social behavior giving up at the difference between the
rules. This also implies to know the cause cause and condition. the cause analyzed
which could determine violating some from a subjective point of view, is also
social living rules, in order to find out what named infraction mobile by some authors
exactly should be prevented. If we don’t for example O. Kinberg
have such helpful information, the action For an etymological point of view, no
would take place into a anarchical resultless matter what exterior manifestation, even
way. that of an isolated person, is considered “ a
The cause of any executed infraction could phenomenon” ( in Greek language
never be identical to the cause of the phenomenon means “what appears”, “ what
material result production ( if that infraction is outside manifested” ). Giving that
does suppose such a material result ) as complete and systematic analysis of the
shown in the worn content. Regarding the infraction causality as an individual action
former convention, we have in mind the does not make the objective of the present
main causal process which has as a direct topic, we won’t insist on it only within the
consequence violation of any form or minor limits enough to the subject
disposition of a penal law ( criminalistics comprehension but having in mind to
aspect ; while speaking about the latter deeply develop it in another work especially
connotation, we think about a secondary destined to this important problem.
causal process and we are interested to Crisis are complex phenomenon which can
establish the penal responsibility ( penal affect by their development not only
aspects). In the first case, we follow the individuals but also the whole political
247
system, the entire economical lives they can - at the organization level
personalize financial – banking systems, - at the society level
they can block social structure as well as - at the system level
affect international relationships. From the point of view of the military
At present, there is neither an elaborated science, when analyzing a crises evoluti,
nor or unanimously accepted theoretical to we’ll have a scale from peace to as the
exactly define the motion of crisis but only following : table, peace, unstable peace,
an authors unanimity who try to name it. crisis, war, reconstruction, post conflict
So, in more authors opinion crisis could be crisis, reconciliation. Limits among these
defined as being: periods could be traced only by operational
-manifestation of economical, political, reasons, real ones among them being
social difficulties, period of tension, extremely vague. [7]
troubles, attempts sometimes decisive and At this level, crisis is defined as being a
dramatical ones which that occur in society scale of the conflict, characterized by
; deep lack of merchandise, time, work free tensional conflicts among implied army
- critical, climbing moment in the evolution forces such as: the case of the cold war’s
which proceeds healing or intensifying of relationships between the United States of
an illness, sudden appearance of a hidden America and The Soviet Union in the
sickness or of an on-the-spot access in case ‘50ties ; relationships between North and
of a chronical illness. South Korea. After the war period, the post-
- tension moment of great soul’s sufferance conflictual crises is present. Passing from
( from French : crise source : EXD 1998 one level to another within a certain crisis
added by IoanSoleriu) could be determined by the following
Crisis is defined as a period characterized factors of confusion, of trouble, of actions
by intense accumulation of difficulties by sometimes violent which take place into
conflictual tension rising in a system society.
dynamics, the leading to difficulties in its R. Boudon and his collaborators present
normal functioning thus being pressed crisis in another dictionary in 1996 as being
powerful pressions towards changes- that moment when controlling mechanisms
definition given by C. Zamfir and and a certain group’s identity are tested by
L.Vlesceanu in their coordinated Sociology strong conflicts, generally not forseen,
Dictionary. period considered as transitory, dangerous
The Explicative Dictionary of the and waiting for an uncertain resolution. [8]
Romanian Language mentions the crisis
motion as being “ manifestation of 4. Causes, forms of manifestation and
economical, political, social difficulties, types of crises
period of tension among groups of states. We can’t speak about any crisis as long as
This is a logical conception which put the we don’t know its origin as well as the
basis to the leadership nowadays world’s causes that have generated it. Any person
destinies.Unfortunately, it actually reveals could interact with crises depending on
more and more its ability limits when their causes and getting out of them either
thinking about correspondingly solving by winning or loosing something. If the
people’s interests societies problems and entire community does not treat very
the natural equilibrium. seriously any appeared crisis in order to
In order to become able to efficiently solve solve all its conflicts, everybody could live
present crises, we have to understand their important damages.
origin, their nature, their typology and their That’s why throughout historical times,
specific periods. mankind understood the necessity that this
There are four important crises sources : fight can’t be won otherwise than by
- at the individual level unificant forces and actions aimed to stop
248
conflictual situations. Following society’s The most important objectives in this
evolution, mankind understood that the situation must be done at once but also on a
only concentrated action of stopping crises long term taking into consideration:
is no longer sufficient, a careful preventing - going back to normal behavior
action is necessary in order to evaluate speaking about action an inter-actions of the
moments of appearance besides its solving conflictual sides, achieving the reform and
strategy. economic re-structure, the security services
When we speak, there are great inequality reform, rehabilitation of social service
concerning social and cultural development sector and of the institution.
not only among different states but also the
intensity and the number of the people’s 5. Phases characteristics and effects of
complaints , different perceptions and the crises
attitudes of the implied forces ones towards Any crises appears on a time, having a
the others emotional intensity, specific evolution, according to the domain
psychological investment in forces, it appear. Any crisis is for most of the times
positions, the level of the mobilization and proceeded by a preliminary period during
political organizations, the collision which the conflict grows higher and higher
between those forces leaders and the and which announces the appearance of the
group’s members the density of hostile crisis. From this cause, the so-called critical
behaviours, the threatening stade or the use phase surprises and shatter the normal order
of arms, the number of each involved part’s of the system. The way in which the
sustainers. system’s management founds solution to
During a crisis period environment could be the crisis process can shorten or longer the
characterized as following: crisis time. We may find ourselves in front
- disbelief, polarizing social and political of three phase during crisis evolution :
differenciesarms usage development of before-the-crisis, preliminary phase, the
changing actions, of some isolated effective crisis ( the critical phase) and
actions, even not well organized having after-the-crisis ( the reconstructing phase )
a low-levelled violence character, Before-the-crisis ( preliminary crisis begins
intergroups repression, insurgence, on the very moment when destructions
systematic violation human rights, appear against the usual interactions of a
national mobilization, and so on. system’s elements, destructions which can
In such a case the action time is short- constitute real threats for the system’s
primary objectives focusing on reducing objectives. Thisphase determines a state of
and controlling specific means of managerial vigilence accompanied by an
coencision which could be used during atmosphere of tensional excitement.
evident conflicts to block violent actions, to The effective crisis ( the critical phase )
reduce tensions, to frozen hostilities, to could manifest through violence or calm
solve political disputes, to maintain could be from a shorter to a longer period
security, primary safety security by level to of time, waited or coming by surprise.
create some non-violent means to come out During this phase, the following events take
from the crises. phase.
Past conflict crises can also manifest by the In case of financial, econonomic, energetic
following forms: or prime matters crisis, violent
-great number of victims, low-levelled transformations occur in the normal
political support for armed functioning of all system which deeply
forces,psychological institutional affectcitizens life under all possible aspects
infrastructure destruction, lacs of social such as education, incomes, work places,
services, political instability, political health, etc. Specialized expertsinterference
transition. is immediately needed in order to offer
249
fundamental anticrisis plans to be crisis implied actors declare by themselves
decisional making political factors ; its overpassed point due to the fact that
problems connected to fundamental values usual practices have been retaken within a
such as : freedom, democracy, national certain regularity and all confrountations
identity, territorial identity, statal had stopped or the system broke down and
sovereignity are the so-called declared a new one is to be prejected at an waiting
nontangible problems ; they can’t be horizon.
negociated, they lead to army conflicts, In any of these two cases, the new system
generally speaking ; in the case of to be born, still keeps crisis secrets till its
geopolitical crisis during the critical period, renaissance day, after having passed
fundamental values and institutions of through an invertion period. There re also
thestate are put into danger because of the situations in which during the rebuilding
armed interactions while some of the of the period a new project could appear, a new
specialized structures focused on achieving beging within which the dynamics of the
national sefaty and security become or can power relationships produce a change by
become overcome by the created crisi linking new energies into a coherent
solutions. practice.
At an organizational level, the dynamics of
world’s powerful relationships modify the 7. Conclusions
poles role so that the dominant one After a crisis, we could say that the power
becomes from self-protector hostile, dominant pole, based on new principles,
arbitrary, incoherent while the dominated gets a minimum percentage of accepting
pole does not anymore recognize the and using those energies into practice. The
formers authority and supremacy, the way into which the dominant pole of the
dezintegration of the dominatig pole’s system is recepted by the dominated one,
power relantionships has a natural moderates a new situation, the
consequence individual colapses, organizational climate. Both poles pass
depressions, alchoolism, violence and, in during this period from influencing to
the end, the social exclusion. During te negociations. The evolution analysis of any
critical period, the management has to face conflictual situation in a crisis case shows
diverse challenges and as a direct that its appearance supposes a step-by-step
consequence any crisis effects could be accumulation of tension during time. To
totally different because they are strictly sustain this, more phases of the conflictual
connected to the management’s ability of situation could be put into evidence and all
solving the conflict. of then are characterized by a series of
challenges to which implied conflict parts
6. Post-crisis ( he rebuilding period) have to face and solve, too.
We can say that the critical period
disappeared the very moment when either
References
[1] Agarbicean, S.P. 238, https://dexonline.ro/definitie/preveni
[2] Sebastian T.96, https://dexonline.ro/definitie/preveni
[3] Ibraileanu A, 33, https://dexonline.ro/definitie/preveni
[4] Rebreanu R.I.137, https://dexonline.ro/definitie/preveni
[5] Hasdeu I.V.133, https://dexonline.ro/definitie/preveni
[6] Stefan Pop, ”Crimiology-Preventing and International Police Cooperantion”, Ed Sitech
2013,
[7] Explicative Romanian Dictionary, 1998
[8] R.Boudon and collaboratores, Dictionary 1996.
250
DIPLOMACY AND SECURITY
‫܇‬tefan POP
“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania,

popstefan2000@gmail.com
Abstract: Changes in diplomacy are especially visible by the involvement of many new actors in the
area of international cooperation. A fast developing international system opened doors to many new
actors, including international organizations, transnational corporations, and important interest
groups.Diplomacy that, from the middle of the 15th century, was known as an important tool of
foreign policy became wider in the post-Cold War era. In fact, the transformation of diplomacy has
not been completed yet. Nowadays, for instance, governmental diplomacy must deal with various non-
state actors that shape its agenda.
Keywords: diplomacy, security, external affairs
1. What is the diplomacy and when it Diplomacy, says Valeria Mohoc, acts as a
appeared. mixture of gesture and words that a
We can’t speak about the diplomacy before diplomat has in mind both addressed to
the appearence of the state. Studying the influential person just to make him or her a
documents which treat diplomacy history, successful one. [1]
we see that this history covers , in fact , the According to Oxford Dictionary ,
international relationships history . This diplomacy represents the leadership of
confusion relies on the manner how lots of international relationships by means of
authors treat the evolution of statal specific methods as well as negociations ,
exchanges in their works using the term of all possible due to participations of
“history diplomacy” or “ diplomatic ambassadorsand special sent national
history”. If we try to comare international representatives. [2]
relationships history and diplomacy history, Diplomacy-familiar noun:
we understand that the former studies the 1. Activity done by the state workers as
appearance and development of the great well as its abroad representatives or
internationat problems by making an agencies meant to achieve the external
analysis of their psychological sauses , political aims of a certain state.
interests and interactions. 2. Sometimes with a pejorative meaning:
ability to behave in a diplomatic routine
2. Definitions way. To this central ring one has to link lots
To better understand what the term of of convergent threads , a whole and full of
diplomacy covers , I will furthermore shades diplomacy . Galaction , O ,I 396
present several definitions given by the Our romanianwriter ,I.L.Caragiale mentions
personalities who studied and worked with diplomacy in his literary works by saying :
this throughout its history . “ One has to have a little diplomacy!”
Here are some of these definitions:
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0040
251
3. Career , working as a diplomat, job, the achievement of the understanding
diplomatic structure , Diplomatic as he was among world’s states.
,he could have enter diplomacy , too . [3]. Speaking about achieving form, the
Another Romanian ,Cezar Petrescu, used diplomatic activity among different states is
the term of diplomacy as well: “I have some possible thriugh special national institutions
dresses for Sabina. Some diplomacy will be created inside states just for their external
necessary to make her accept them”. Cezar relationships. This activity is done inside
Petrescu. [4] each state by the chief of the state , the
The Explicative Romanian Language government, the Ministry of External
Dictionary gives the following definition to Affairs and outside it by the diplomatic
diplomacy: All methods, means and missions, the commercial representatives
activities used by a state in the field of and consulates.
international relationships in order to As a consequence of mankind’s evolution
achieve its objectives and sins of external and the conflictual problems appeared in
polities. Tact, ability, dexterity, elegancy, the middle of diplomatic relationships at on
intelligence and wisdom. [5] an international level, was born the necesity
of creating some international institutions
3. Short history of diplomacy which should be able to ensure unique
Appeared from Antiquity, diplomacy control and fair solving of all problems
evaluated during history on different forms regarding relationships among states. For
being determinated by the type of this purpose, each state must at national
relationships among states. Speaking about level an institution which could represent
diplomacy in its today forms , we have to its interests. That’s why The Diplomatic
underline that it appeared only in the XIVth Service was created and it includes:
century, after the neissance and spreading - The Ministry of External Affaires having
of the commercial and political the status of central institution;
international relationships due to the - The Diplomatic Missions including the
appearance of the first permanent permanent representatives affiliated to the
diplomatic relationship. international organismes as well as on-the-
Starting with the XIXth-XXth centuries, as spot delegations and missions ;
a result of the international relationships , - The Consular Offices ;
the diplomatic activity is no longer - some other units created to facilitate the
centered on cutumiar norms but it develop activity of the diplomatic services , here
in respect of norms and principles of including , for example , the instruction and
international law such as: respecting state recycling process of all the necessary
sovereignity, refering norms to diplomatic diplomatic staff.
imunities and priviligies, diplomatic levels The Ministry of External Affaires (M.E.A)
and classes. this is the period when the [6] was created on 20th of July 1862 , with
achieving diplomacy form is different from the name of “ The Ministry of Foreing
the previous ones because it takes place Affaires” it’s one of the ministries in
under the shelter of diplomatic romanian government . The name of
negociations, people use diplomatic Ministry of Foreing Affaires (MFA) was
correspondence while another important kept till the proclaiming if The Socialist
role is played by the participation at Republic of Romania , when it was
diplomatic conferences and congreses. chamged into Ministry of External Affaires
The appearance of the international ( MEA) which is still avalaible nowadays.
organizations, those high leveled reunions Source Wikipedia
inside these organizations and implications The Ministry of External Affaires is
of the diplomatic missions , all contribute to responsible with the external polities of the
Romanian State as well as with romanian
252
status of member in the International functional diplomatic representative while
Organisations. It also colaborates to the at art.14-17 classes of head missions are
elaboration, fundamentation and specified.
achievement of the economical polities of In order to achieve eficiently the diplomatic
Romania according to the legal rules and functions, the Conventions establishes
the governing programme. imunities and priviligies focused on the
Romania according to the legal rules and diplomatic missions as well as those to be
the governing programme. enjoyed by the members of the missions
staffs, respectively, their families.
4. The External State Institutios for Throught art 21,25 and 26 the Convention
Diplomatic Relations underlines the duties of the diplomatic
Romania signed on 8th of July 1968 The mission towards the acreditar state
Convention regarding diplomatic essentialy fosusing on respecting lawes, not
relationships , convention resulted from involving into internal affaires of the states.
The International Conference held in In a corelative way The Convention
Viennes in 1961 under the patronage of the specifies the duty that acreditar state has to
United Nations . The conventionon do all its best to fullfill the mission
diplomatic relationships was signed by 63 functions.
states when held in Vienne and it became At present, 61 states became part of this
officially applied starting with 25th April convention by signing and accepting its
1965. The Vienne Convention took into conditions.
consideration the fundamental principles of
states sovereignity, their rights equality and 5. Cooperation to diminish internationl
established the basis if developing criminality
diplomatic relationships and missions , Criminality has no frontiers. Criminals act
exchanges only by respecting the mutual regardless existing cinventional borders .
consignment of acreditant and acreditor Lately overborders criminality increased
states subject of the diplomatic reports , so both in to greater number of participantsin
that diplomatic missions , must exercise an an organized form as well as in its diversity
active role in consolidating and developing forms starting from minor criminality and
international relationships , just by doing climbing to its most powerfull organizing
functins of reoresanting the acreditant state form- human traffic and terrorism.
by protecting its interests , its citiens As an answer to this phenomenom, the
interests and those if the acreditar state as police institutions founded the so-called “
well. [7] Internal Attached” which cames to
It also has to exercise: complete the activity of the existing
- the negociating function with the traditional international institutions such as
government of this state the Interpol and Europol. [8]
- the informing role by legal strategies; The Internal Attached offices founded for
about the conditions and the events he first time in 2002 constitute the modality
evolution from the acreditor state and , not of achieving the external represenation of
last of all, to promote friendship reports to the Minstry of Internal Affaires. By means
develop economical, cultural and of this institution, international police
scientifical relationships between those two cooperation gets more successful in a direct
states (art.3) bilateral plan. The internal affairs attached
Throught art 4-7 , The Convention also office founded within a Romanian
specifies the nominating procedure for the diplomatic mission abroaded has got the
head of the diplomatic misssions throught following members: internal affaires
art 8. , the citizenship of diplomatic staff at attached , internal affaires second attached
13th article , the starting moment of the
253
or connecting officer as well as auxiliary affairs as written in the legal instruments
staff. dealt by the Romanian Ministry of Internal
By “ Internal affaires attached” we mean Affairs or the Romanian Government with
the nominated person by order of Ministry the authorities of the accredited state;
of Internal Affaires to represent this state in To accomplish the mission of external
the acreditating state . representation, the internal affairs attached
By “ Connecting Officer” we mean the does the following activities:
nominated person designed by the Internal Monitorising - the registered evolutions
Minister to develop activities of concerning criminality state phenomenon:
international cooperation as well as certain -the adopted measures to prevent and
types of external representation of the fight against it;
institution , everyhing being planned for a -the development of political,
determinated period and in a specific legislative, social order in the accrediting
specialits domain within the accepting state;
space or nearby an international -stating corresponding ways
organization. addressed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs
By “ Auxiliary Staff” we mean staff in order to elaborate new politics or to
behaing to the Ministry of Internal Affaires adopt new decisions linned to all these
possessing various tehnical specialities aspects;
aimed work inside the Internal Affaires Participating to prepare, project and execute
attached office , in order to suport activities programmes within the logistic assistance
of international representation at abroaded as well as to prepare and instruct
positions. specialized staff detached by Romania in
The diplomatic mission which involves the order to subscribe to the European
attached person proves to the authorities standards and ways of practice in all
form the acreditating state the personal domains found inside the Ministry of
dates , acreditating that he is part of the Internal Affairs competence;
diplomatic personnel for that mission. Offering consultancy and assistance for the
To exercise his duties, the internal affairs specialized institutions from the accrediting
attached respects sovereignty, laws and state concerning problems fund inside the
jurisdiction of the acreditar state. Ministry of Internal Affairs competence;
Achieve the information exchange which is
6. Internal attached’s duties necessary to the police authorities and the
Promotes and facilitates bilateral and Romanian border police, as well as to
multilateral cooperation into the internal facilitate procedures of penal observation
affairs domain regarding offering, receiving throughout contacts with
assistance by the Romanian specialized -authorities responsible to prevent and
authorities for: fight against criminality from the accredited
- Fluent exchange of operational state;
information necessarily to prevent and fight -the National Central Interpol office from
against criminality, maintaining and the accredited state;
respecting public order; -internal affairs attached parsons;
- Facilitate solutions to police assistance -linking officers to other states;\
requests as well as to the judiciary ones -residents into the accredited state or other
concerning penal matters; ones who cover the respective space under
- Exercise involved missions to control multiple acceptances;
borders and respect foreigners’ living -other Romanian representatives abroad;
conditions; -other persons, institutions, authorities.
- Facilitate contacts and achieve
collaborating objectives concerning internal
254
7. Conclusions state at their requests, respecting their
Accord both assistance and support own procedures in penal analysis,
according to cases both having the according to the way in which all these
acceptance of the Ministry of Internal do have any connection with
Affairs, police officers, Romanian clerks Romanian citizens or other physical or
being in mission in the accredited state, juridical persons from Romania;
concerning problems focused on the police - Initiating, at orders, both announcing
information exchanges, solving some and effective participation in preparing,
mutual assistance requests, both police and organizing and achieving of some over
judiciary; organizing or participating to borders, operative actions;
conferences, international work reunions, - Supporting the process of both
mainly in the middle of specific activities European and Euro Atlantic Romanian
aimed to the process of European integration to aim the legislative fitting
integration as well as by these: to adopt practice and standards in the
- Participating to the process of the legal justice field and the internal affairs;
and juridical assistance as well as to - Sustaining lectures and courses or
that of international criminals’ chasing; presenting information to those
- Being present when suspects or institutions which have obligations in
witnesses are questioned, participating the accredited space;
as an observer to their personal control - Participating to conferences and
or other specific questioning methods; specialty meetings;
- Analyzing and using the found - Participating as an representative of the
documents or those which have been Ministry of Internal Affairs to different
given; ceremonies and other protecting
- Supporting , having the Ministry of activities from Romania;
Interior’s acceptance, the responsible
authorities in preventing and fighting
against criminality in the accredited
References
[1] Valeria Mahoc definition diplomacy Explicative Romanian Dictionary
[2] Definition diplomacy - Oxford Dictionary
[3] M.I.Caragiale, C.116 Explicative Romanian Dictionary
[4] C.Petrecscu, C.V.227 [Trahanache] Explicative Romanian Dictionary 1993
[5] Explicative Romanian Dictionary 1993-2009
[6] The decision n.16/2017 regarding the Ministry of Internal Affair’s organisation and
functions
[7] The convention concerning diplomatic relations signed at Vienne
[8] Stefan Pop , Corneliu Alexandru , Gelu Olteanu – “Policeman or Diplomacy
Representative? The Internal Affaires Attached Guide” Ed. MAI 1996.
255
SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON SEEDRO (SOUTH EASTERN EUROPE DISASTER

RELIEF OPERATIONS) CONCEPT
Ioan- Dan POPA
„Nicolae Bălcescu“ Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

paragon1971@gmail.com
Abstract: SEEDRO (South Eastern Europe Disaster Relief Operations) Concept was approved on
21st October 2009 during SEDM Ministerial Meeting in Sofia and open the way for SEEBRIG to be
engaged not only in PSOs (Peace Support Operations) but also in DROs (Disaster Relief Operations).
In this paper, I present some considerations about the importance of this concept for SEEBRIG
(South Eastern Europe Brigade), the main activities developed related to this concept and what
should be the way ahead in the evolution SEEDRO Concept.
Keywords: SEEDRO, SEEBRIG, disasters; relief operations, engineer forces.
1. Introduction particular diplomatic and historical

Disasters are a regular part of a global life, relations with the affected country.
whether caused by act of nature or acts of
a man. These events become humanitarian
emergencies when their effects impact on
a society or population whose inherent
resources are insufficient to absorb the
impact and deal with event's
consequences. In the last period of time,
the global physical environment is in
permanent changing and the consequence
of this is the increasing likelihood of
environmental failures (earthquakes,
floods, droughts etc.). Figure 1: Disaster management
Our region cannot be out of these
environmental changes, throughout its SEEBRIG (South Eastern Europe
history, Southeastern Europe has Brigade) was established by the MPFSEE
experienced multiple disasters that have Nations to contribute to peace and stability
caused significant loss of life, human in Southeastern Europe. With 2nd
suffering and property damage. Different Additional Protocol, Nations established
actors become involved in different an Engineer Task Force (ETF). ETF’s aim
disaster responses, mainly acting as it is was to provide the Parties with a Rapid
depicted in Figure 1. The role they play Relief and Humanitarian intervention
usually depends on a combination of capabilities. This initiative is to be
factors: the nature of the disaster, the oriented towards small-scale civil
country’s general approach on the use of assistance in the interest of the Parties.
military assets, the location of the disaster
site, and national interests and the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0041
256
2. Considerations on SEEDRO (South Concept dated 26 February 2009. This
Eastern Europe Disaster Relief version was proposed for approval during
Operations) Concept 22nd PMSC Meeting and was approved on
Considering the evolving number of 21st October 2009 during SEDM
disasters in South Eastern Europe, Ministerial Meeting in Sofia.
SEEBRIG nations have started to develop As it has already noticed, it was not an
SEEDRO (South Eastern Europe Disaster easy process to obtain the final approved
Relief Operations) Concept. The first document of SEEDRO Concept (it took
ideas about this concept were raised almost 6 years) but it was very important
during CMEP-Civil Military Emergency because this was the starting point for
Planning Seminar held in Plovdiv, during future developing of all related
the period 15-19 February 2003. documents concerning DROs (GDP-
SEEBRIG representatives participated in Generic Deployment Plan, GOP-Generic
this meeting and presented the possible Operational Plan, SOPs and Contingency
role of the Brigade in Disaster Relief Plans for DROs).
Operations. Immediately after, acording to Previous planning for SEEBRIG,
the decision of the 9th PMSC Meeting operations did not include disaster relief.
held in Sinaia, on 12-13 March 2003, a The current force structure of ETF is
SEDROWGM-SEDRO Working Group organized for small-scale civil assistance
Meeting was established to develop TOR- like:
Terms of Reference and Concept, based 9 Limited road construction and
on existing ETF-Engineer Task Force repair;
structure and capabilities. In this respect, it 9 Limited bridging;
was issued the 1st draft of SEEDRO 9 Limited rail repair;
Concept dated 09 May 2003 in order to be 9 Earth moving;
discussed during 1st SEDROWGM in 9 Drainage;
Plovdiv, in the period 26-30 May 2003. 9 Limited de-mining;
After this meeting it was issued the second 9 Unexploded Ordnance clearance;
2nd draft of SEEDRO Concept dated 30 9 Any other agreed functional areas
May 2003. within capabilities.
After PMSC-Politico Military Steering The Crisis Engineer Cell (CEC), once
Committee guidance and Nations activated, will coordinate all Engineer
comments, SEEBRIG prepared 3rd draft Task Force (ETF) actions.
of SEEDRO Concept dated 23 January In order to be effective, the concept was
2004, which was discussed in the next based on the following assumptions:
SEDROWGM held in ConstanĠa, from 10- 9 A nation affected by a disaster
13 February 2004. or a relevant International
After considering again the Nation’s Organization (e.g. UN, NATO, EU
comments and proposals the 4th draft of etc) requests SEEBRIG’s assistance;
SEEDRO Concept dated 18 April 2005 9 The PMSC tasks
was issued. COMSEEBRIG to provide
After all these steps, the process was assistance with ETF to the affected
postponed because SEEBRIG focused all nation in accordance with the
resources in getting FOC-Full Operational Concept;
Capability for mission in Afghanistan. 9 SEEBRIG is not already
Eventually, as a result of HLEM-High involved in PSO or DRO, when the
Level Expert Meeting held in Istanbul, disaster occurs;
during the period 23-26 February 2009, it 9 The financial burden of
was issued the 5th draft of SEEDRO assistance provision is approved by
257
the MPFSEE nations, and sufficient reconnaissance.
funds are allocated in the HQ An important instrument of
SEEBRIG yearly budget; certifying the validity of SEEDRO
9 HN at permanent HQ location Concept was SEESIM (Southeastern
fulfills all the necessary Europe Simulation) series of Computer
requirements described in the Assisted Exercises (CAX) within the
Concept. framework of the South Eastern Europe
All the intervention process will be Defense Ministerial (SEDM) process. In
occurred in three phases, as follows: this kind of exercises, SEEBRIG usually
9 Phase 1: Crises Engineer Cell acting as a response cell or as an interface
(CEC) activation; between nations and other actors which
9 Phase 2: Engineer Task Force are involved in the exercise (GOs, NGOs
(ETF) involvement; etc.), the main objectives for this exercises
9 Phase 3: Redeployment of being as follows:
Crises Engineer Cell (CEC) 9 To exercise and improve SEEBRIG
and Engineer Task Force HQ Command and Control in DROs
(ETF) (Disaster Relief Operations);
9 To enhance cooperation and
coordination with civil-emergency
organizations, national and
international;
9 To review and revise all SEEBRIG
documents related to DROs;
9 To identify and exercise rapid
procedures for involvement in
emergency situations;
9 To train SEEBRIG HQ Nucleus Staff
personnel to react in emergency
situations.
SEESIM is an excellent opportunity for
Figure 2: Activation process SEEBRIG HQ to review and revise all the
documents related to DROs and to
In accordance with the approved version enhance cooperation and coordination
of SEEDRO Concept, for any DRO with civil-emergency organizations,
mission, an ad-hoc task force will be national and international.
constituted with the following core At the same time, this kind of exercises
assets: SEEBRIG Nucleus Staff, give to SEEBRIG HQ the chance to be
SEEBRIG HQ Coy, SEEBRIG Signal Coy familiarized with the proper channels of
and ETF-Engineer Task Force. The need communication with other Emergency
for other units with specific capabilities Operation Centers - EOCs, national
depending on the DRO needs, skilled authorities as well as with various
personnel, special equipment (both international organizations and to gain
provided by MPFSEE-Multinational significant knowledge and enhanced their
Peace Force South Eastern Europe or third own abilities and expertise in DROs.
parties) and SEEBRIG Contingency
Establishment Personnel (if needed) will 3. Conclusions
be determined at the Force Generation There is a real need of actualization of
Conference and after the FPLT – Forward some aspects of SEEDRO Concept and
Planning and Liaison Team during this process should be clarified all
258
aspects related to possible discrepancies personnel and equipment (SAR-Search
between MPFSEE Agreement and and Rescue Teams, MMT-Mobile Medical
SEEDRO Concept, to consider the Teams etc).
shortening of decision making process and As a conclusion, if we want to have
preparation phase (Rapid Response is vital SEEBRIG involved in real DROs
for DROs), the readiness status of the missions in our region, for the benefit of
units which will be involve in DROs (need our countries, we need a strong
of high readiness units in order to be determination from our nations to
engage in the early stages of disasters), the develop SEEDRO Concept, otherwise this
financial aspects (would be ideal to have project will remain only a paper in
some money in the budget designated in SEEBRIG archive.
advance, only for DROs) and the need to
reinforce the units with specialized
References
[1] www.seebrig.org;
[2] Doctrine of engineer forces in joint operations, Edition 2016;
[3] I.D. Popa, SEEDRO Concept-Quo Vadis?, Stars Informers-South Eastern Europe
Brigade Review, July 2011, Issue III, page 21
259
BREXIT – MAJOR CONSEQUENCES ON THE PROCESS OF EUROPEAN

MILITARY INTEGRATION?
Marius PRICOPI
³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

pricopimarius@yahoo.com
Abstract: The United Kingdom’s choice to withdraw from the European Union (Brexit) took many by
surprise, including a good part of the „Leave” voters. The repercussions of this vote are in full display
and affect each and every area of the community life. Considering different indicators (such as the
number of troops deployed by the United Kingdom to military operations conducted by the European
Union or the British contributions to the Battlegroups), in this paper we submit to analysis the United
Kingdom’s stance in the process of military integration within the European Union in the period
before the Brexit Referendum (2011-2015); we mainly argue that – although regrettable – Brexit will
not significantly affect the day-to-day activities and projects conducted within the Common Security
and Defence Policy.
Keywords: Brexit, common defence, European Union, military integration, United

Kingdom
1. Introduction will not be severely affected by Brexit; on

Many agree that, following the June 2016 the contrary, the absence of the United
referendum in the United Kingdom (UK), Kingdom from the decision structures of
this country’s withdrawal from the the European Union may actually put back
European Union (EU) is just a matter of on the table the possibility of a functional
time. The Brexit, either a „soft” or a „hard” and credible European common defence.
one, is expected to impact all areas of
cooperation and integration within the EU, 2. Method
including the defence area. In writing this paper, we applied in an
Yet regarding this aspect of defence, it is extensive manner the case study method, as
well known the fact that the UK has never described in a book edited by Detlef Sprinz
truly been an active sponsor of the military and Yael Wolinsky-Nahmias and published
integration process under the auspices of at the University of Michigan Press [1].
the EU – opting, instead, for a more
substantial contribution within the North- 3. UK’s added value to the European
Atlantic Alliance (NATO) and a closer military integration process
cooperation with its long-standing trans- In the years before the Brexit Referendum,
Atlantic partner (the United States). UK supported the military integration
Therefore, in the following we argue that, process within the EU in the following two
unlike other trademarks of the European ways: through its considerable military
Union (such as the four fundamental expenditures and through the
freedoms), the military integration process
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0042
260
Europeanisation of the Operational Poland and Estonia) who met the 2% of the
Headquarters in Northwood. GDP defence spending target [3].
Thus, in 2015 the military expenditures of Actually, UK’s defence budget alone
UK rose to 36,445 billion pounds (59,730 translated into no less than 23% of the total
billion US dollars), representing exactly 2% defence spending by all European countries
of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (Figure 1).
(GDP) [2]. UK was, therefore, one of the
four EU countries (along with Greece,
Figure 1: National Defence Expenditures in Europe in 2015

(one year before the Brexit Referendum) [4]
Then, it is important to mention that UK is Referendum as a modest one, when

one of the 5 EU member states who hosts referring to the following aspects: UK’s
on its national territory an EU Operational contribution with troops to the main on-
Headquarters (the other 4 countries are: going military land operations of the EU,
France, Germany, Greece and Italy). The UK’s sharing of military facilities for
British Headquarters is located at common training and UK’s contribution to
Northwood, and it is currently employed for the EU Battlegroups.
conducting the military operation EU First of all, UK’s refrain from the European
NAVFOR Atalanta, which aims to boost military integration process is underlined by
the maritime security on the coast of its rather modest contribution to the main
Somalia. Following Brexit, it is unclear three on-going military land operations
what will happen with this Headquarters, or conducted by the EU (EUFOR Althea,
(if the case) from where will EU NAVFOR EUTM Mali and EUTM Somalia). As can
Atalanta be conducted in the future. be seen in Table 1, in 2015 UK contributed
with approximately 5% of the total number
4. UK’s not so spectacular stance within of subscribed troops to operations EUFOR
the European military integration Althea, respectively EUTM Mali; the
process percentage in the case of EUTM Somalia is
On the other hand, we appreciate UK’s even lower, revolving around 2,5%.
performance within the European military
integration process prior to the Brexit
261
Table 1: Troops subscribed by UK to the main on-going EU military land operations in 2015
(one year before the Brexit Referendum) [5]
Troops subscribed
Troops
Total no. of by UK (percentage
subscribed by UK
subscribed troops of total no. of
(no.)
troops)
EUFOR Althea 600 31 5,15 %
EUTM Mali 506 26 5,13 %
EUTM Somalia 195 5 2,56 %
Table 2: Member states’ contribution to the EU
Therefore, although the UK is involved in Battlegroups between 2011-2015 (last 5 years
numerous operations around the world, before the Brexit Referendum) [7]
either under the auspices of NATO or as
part of multinational coalitions, the British No. of
Country
contributions to the EU military land contributions
operations have not been very generous. By Austria 2
comparison, for example, in the same year Belgium 2
(2015) Germany deployed no less than 209 Bulgaria 2
troops in EUTM Mali only. Czech Republic 1
Second of all, when discussing shared Cyprus 2
military facilities, UK’s performance Croatia 0
before the Brexit Referendum was also a Denmark 0
modest one. According to documents made Estonia 2
available by the European Union External Finland 3
Action Service (the diplomatic corps of the France 4
EU) [6], UK shared with the other member Germany 4
states only 3 facilities for common military Greece 3
training. Other countries have been more Hungary 1
generous with their own training facilities; Ireland 2
for example, France shared 10 facilities, Italy 3
Romania and Sweden – 13, Italy – 19, Latvia 2
while Spain lead the top, with no les then Lithuania 3
22 military facilities shared for common Luxemburg 2
military training. Malta 0
To offer the entire picture, out of the total Netherlands 2
113 shared military facilities, only 3
Poland 1
belonged to the UK (less than 3%).
Portugal 2
Considering, again, UK’s defence budget
Romania 2
and the size of its armed forces, we can
Slovakia 0
definitely affirm that the contribution is a
modest one. Slovenia 1
Third of all, we also analysed data Spain 3
concerning UK’s contribution to the EU Sweden 3
Battlegroups. In the last 5 years before the United Kingdom 1
Brexit Referendum (2011-2015), UK
subscribed troops and military capabilities But in the case of its main counterparts in
only once to these Battlegroups (Table 2). the EU, the situation is different: France
and Germany contributed, each, to no less
than 4 Battlegroups during the same period;
262
Finland, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Spain and of the total number of subscribed troops;
Sweden had 3 contributions each, while also, out of the 113 shared military facilities
even considerably smaller countries than for common training within the EU, only 3
the UK had higher contributions (Austria, belonged to the UK; and finally, in the 5
Cyprus, Estonia or Luxembourg). years before the Brexit Referendum, the
British contributed only once to the EU
5. Conclusions Battlegroups, whereas countries like France
The United Kingdom’s choice to withdraw and Germany had, for the same period, no
from the European Union has been a crucial less than 4 contributions.
moment for the European integration To conclude, we consider that Brexit will
process. But regarding the military not disrupt the European military
integration process – as the data analysed in integration process; on the opposite, it may
this paper demonstrate – the consequences actually boost it. While the UK will
have a more significant impact on the grand probably continue to exert its influence as
strategy and the future of the EU’s common an important member of NATO, the EU
defence, and a rather low impact on the will finally have the long awaited
operational conduct of the day-to-day opportunity to deepen its military
projects and activities. integration and enhance its (extensively
Indeed, the UK had the highest military criticized) Common Security and Defence
expenditures of all the EU member states, Policy.
and was one of the five members which
hosted an EU Operational Headquarters on Acknowledgment
its territory (at Northwood). This paper has been elaborated during the
But then again, financial resources have sustainability period of the project entitled
never been an issue in the process of UK’s „Horizon 2020 – Doctoral and
military integration in the EU; what the UK Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the
lacked in order to be more active within the National Interest through Excellence,
EU’s common defence were not the money Competitiveness and Responsibility in the
(as is, unfortunately, the case of other Field of Romanian Fundamental and
member states), but the consensus and the Applied Scientific Research”, contract
political will of the British leadership. number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This
Therefore, despite the impressive defence project was co-financed by European Social
budget and the high number of active Fund through Sectoral Operational
military personnel, in the year before the Programme for Human Resources
Brexit Referendum, UK’s contribution with Development 2007-2013. Investing in
troops to the main on-going military land people!
operations of the EU revolved around 5%
References
[1] Detlef Sprinz (Ed.) and Yael Wolinsky-Nahmias (Ed.), Models, Numbers and Cases,
University of Michigan Press, 2004.
[2] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Military Expenditure Database,
https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex, accessed on 1 March 2017.
[3] International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance – 2016, Routledge,
2016, p. 20.
2016, p. 62.
263
2016, pp. 155-156 and p. 103; European Union External Action Service, EU Military
Operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina, http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/csdp/missions-
and-operations/althea-bih/pdf/factsheet_eufor_althea_en.pdf , accessed on 7 March
2017; Ibidem, EU Training Mission in Mali,
http://www.eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/csdp/missions-and-operations/eutm-
mali/pdf/factsheet_eutm_mali_en.pdf , accessed on 7 March 2017; Ibidem, European
Union Training Mission – Somalia,
https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/factsheet_eutm_somalia_en.pdf, accessed on 7
March 2017.
[6] European Union External Action Service, Sharing training facilities in the EU in the
military field, http://www.eeas.europa.eu/csdp/structures-instruments-
agencies/trainings/sharing-training-facilities/index_en.htm, accessed on 8 March 2017.
[7] House of Lords, European Defence Capabilities: lessons from the past, signposts from
the future, https://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201012/ldselect/ldeucom/
292/29202.htm, accessed on 10 March 2017; Marius Pricopi, Integrarea militară
HXURSHDQă, Sibiu, Editura Techno Media, 2014, pp. 246-247.
264
Vol. XXII No 1 2017
CIVIL PREPARATION OF THE BATTLESPACE - NECESSITY IN THE

IRREGULAR OR HYBRID WARFARE
Aurelian 5$‫܉‬,8
³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\RI6LELX5RPDQLD
DXUHOLDQBUDWLX#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: The lessons learned from the most recent conflicts or theatres of operations in Iraq,
Afghanistan, Ukraine, or Syria prove that the Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB)
process is no longer sufficient. Why? Because in the irregular and hybrid conflicts the centre of
gravity is represented by the civilian population, which requires precise understanding of the
operational environment, including aspects about the local communities, and profound knowledge of
the people, their social structures, their culture, their customs, and their way of thinking and reacting
to certain internal and external stimuli. In such an operational environment, protecting the civilian
population becomes the main mission of the armed forces.
Consequently, we present the most important stages through which the Civil Preparation of the
Battlespace (CPB) can be accomplished.
.H\ZRUGV RSHUDWLRQDO HQYLURQPHQW FLYLOLDQ SRSXODWLRQ FLYLOLDQ HQYLURQPHQW civil

SUHSDUDWLRQRIWKHEDWWOHVSDFH
,QWURGXFtion territory. The purpose is to undermine the

The current operational environment is the authority of a government, non-state
framework for the manifestation of hybrid organizations or groups or an ideology by
threats, assuming the complex and influencing the population. In the IW, the
combined configuration of the multitude of population represents the center of gravity
actors, means, actions and effects that for both parties involved in the conflict.
converge in concert and, most of the time, A careful analysis of the considerations
secretly, towards the fulfillment of political, regarding the civilian population is essential
economic, or military goals. It should allow to accomplish the objectives in conflict or
all kinds of military and non-military in the theater of military operations, but
actions, emphasizing, thus, not only the especially to achieve long-term success.
need to focus the actions on controlling and For an accurate analysis of the civilian
influencing the local civilian population, population and the Intelligence Preparation
but also the imperative of integrating all the of the Battlefield process, including the
capabilities (forces) into joint actions. human terrain perspective, a few stages
In classic/traditional warfare, the centre of must be taken into consideration.
gravity should be identified in the enemy’s
troops. 'HILQLQJ WKH FLYLOLDQ HQYLURQPHQW
Irregular Warfare focuses on influencing or ZKHUHWKHRSHUDWLRQVWDNHSODFH
controlling the civilian population, not This first stage involves collecting,
controlling the forces of an opponent or its classifying, organizing and registering the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0043
265
information and the results of the the use of an infrastructure element, they
intelligence activities regarding the civilian must analyze the ratio between the gained
population and the local communities. military advantage compared to the extent
In the operations of the latest hybrid of the damage.
conflicts a series of methods, mechanisms, C) Capabilities refer to the ability of
methodologies were introduced in the government authorities to provide citizens
decision making process, analyzing, administrative, civil protection, emergency
extensively: assistance, strict needs (food, water), etc.
On the one hand, specific aspects services.
regarding the local population, such as: Capabilities also refer to the resources and
ASCOPE (Areas, Structures, Capabilities, services provided by the host nation, which
Organizations, People, Events)[1], these can be contracted in support of military
fields represent, in fact, the meaning of the operations, such as interpreters, cleaning
acronym ASCOPE; services, providing materials and
On the other hand, the socio-cultural construction equipment. The commanders
factors that might influence local and the staff need to analyze capabilities
population action, through PMESII-PT from the perspective of saving, maintaining
(Political, Military, Economic, Social, and improving the quality of life.
Infrastructure, Information, Physical This field describes infrastructure variables,
Environment, and Time)[2]. with focus on the following elements[5]:
A means of analyzing and understanding drinking water supply network, electricity/
this important factor of the hybrid conflict, gas supply network, educational facilities
the local population, is ASCOPE network, medical facilities network,
methodology. sanitation system, facilities network specific
A) The first ASCOPE field – Areas, refers to police and civil protection, sewerage
to the inhabited areas (towns, communes, network and others.
villages, refugee camps, etc.) where D) Organizations are represented by
different ethnic groups live and the physical affiliated/non-affiliated institutions/groups
territory (the area of responsibility and the that carry out activities within the area of
area of influence in an area of operations). operation, influencing and interacting with
B) The existing structures elements can the population, with the military units and
have a significant role in the development with each other.
of the military and the civilian-military Some organizations may come from outside
operations[3]: the operations area, such as multinational
x Harbors, airports, railways, roads, corporations, UN agencies, government
bridges, power plants, dams, radio or TV agencies of coalition states, international
relays are important infrastructure assets organizations.
that can be converted into military The requirements for this area,
objectives or can be used for military organizations, are to have a hierarchical
purposes; structure and well-defined goals, to carry
x Elements such as churches, mosques, out pre-established activities, to have
libraries and hospitals are objectives that headquarters or meeting places as well as
must be protected, inclusive ballistic logistic and financial support.
protection[4]:, as they are of interest to the E) People - this category includes the
community. civilian population located in the area of
Infrastructure analysis involves determining operations or in the area of interest.
the benefits of location, functionality and In this field, the following questions should
capability of such elements in the conduct be answered: How many people live in the
of operations. When commanders decide on area of operations? Which are the
266
demographic aspects? What is the impact of goods and services, illicit markets);
the population (the psychological, political, 4. The Social variable describes the social
economic, illicit component) on operations? structures in the operational environment
In the analysis of individuals, the most (the population whose members have the
important aspects are: historical, cultural, same political authority, occupy a common
ethnic, linguistic, economic and territory, have a common culture and share
humanitarian[6]. the same sense of identity);
Other elements related to the identification 5. The Information variable analyses both
of formal and informal means of the access to and the collection, use,
communication/transmission of handling and distribution of information
information, visual signals (video/ TV and knowledge by local communities,
images, posters, graffiti), audio signals through media and the civilian and military
(radio shows, speeches) are also relevant. educational systems;
People who speak on behalf of the 6. The infrastructure variable includes
community - local leaders, religious leaders, facilities, services and installations that are
trade union leaders must be included in the essential and necessary for a community to
analysis matrix of this variable[7]. function.
F) The conduct of military operations, the The final product of the first stage is to
activities of the organizations in the area of integrate all aspects regarding the civilian
interest and of the population are influenced population, compiling the ASCOPE and
by the public or private events[8]. These are PMESII tools.
routine, cyclical or spontaneous activities,
such as: national or religious holidays, +XPDQWHUUDLQDQDO\VLV
cultural events, seasonal fairs, election In the second stage, the focus is on
campaigns, economic events, or civil analysing the information collected during
disturbances. the first stage. The analysis considers the
The analysis of the civilian population is operational variables, the operational
carried out by making the ASCOPE matrix culture and the dynamics of stability and/or
and its graphical materialization on a map instability. The final products include: the
or overlay. The multinational forces, host matrix of identified civil factors (their
nation security forces and local government relevance), the cultural-operational panoply,
officials contribute to this materialization and the analysis of the stability/instability
by providing relevant data on the local factors.
population. At this stage, the initial effort is to carefully
Following the classification of information consider the considerations regarding
on local communities, the operational civilians, by using the PMESII operational
variables PMESII can be used: variables to determine the factors relevant
1. The Political variable describes the to coalition operations, and to help
distribution of responsibility and power at understand the stability/instability dynamics
all levels of government to include political in a given area, in the following way[9]:
power structures (formal and informal); a) The political variable / areas: What is
2. The Military variable includes all the political situation in the area of
existing military capabilities: the military operations? What are the political limits?
forces of the host state, police forces, What is important from a political
insurgent forces, local militias; perspective?
3. The Economic variable consists in b) The military variable / areas: What
general economic aspects in the area of military capabilities are there in the area of
operations (energy, raw materials, labor operations? What are the limits of the
distribution, income, accessibility to food, military structures? What is important from
267
a military perspective? local population in an areal) provides the
c) The economic variable / areas: What are military a proper framework for planning
the most important economic activities in and conducting coherent operations,
the area of operations? achieving a strict control of the
d) The social variable / areas: What is the proportionality between the assigned tasks,
social climate in the area of operations? the carried out actions and the behavior of
What are the key factors affecting the local population.
operations in the area of operations - radical The dynamics of stability/instability.
ethnic enclaves, high crime areas, etc.; ASCOPE/PMESII analysis is a flexible tool
e) The information variable / areas: How is that can be used to provide a clearer picture
information collected and / or disseminated of the human field in an area of operations.
in the area of operations? What are the Understanding the stability/ instability
essential requirements regarding the could include identifying the grievances
information in the area of operations? (instability) and the resilience level
F) The infrastructure variable / areas: (stability) of the local population, deducting
What are and where are the key and anticipating key factors and events that
infrastructure elements in the area of could affect the stability of an area of
operations? operations. Such key factors can be:
To have the best representation of the most individuals, groups, infrastructure elements,
relevant civilian considerations, it is socio-cultural values/beliefs that could have
necessary to compile the information in a a significant influence on mission
matrix of civilian factors and their accomplishment, and should be considered
relevance from the perspective of in the planning and conduct of operations.
ASCOPE/PMESII - Areas.
Such an analysis should be done for each 'HWHUPLQLQJ D PRGHO RI WKH FLYLOLDQ
ASCOPE component (as described above in HQYLURQPHQW ZKHUH WKH RSHUDWLRQV WDNH
the Areas domain) taking into account the place
mission of the force, the intent and the A model of the civilian environment in the
concept of operations. area of operations should describe the
In addition to the matrix of civilian factors, complexity of the system of the factors that
both the operational culture and the have a major impact on the mission. Such a
dynamics of stability/instability are model includes:
examined in combination with the x A detailed analysis of what is meant by
ASCOPE/PMESII methodology. This is the civilian environment specific to the area
done to determine the relevant factors from of operations (the elements from the
two different perspectives, which are of previous stages are used);
great importance to arrive at an in-depth x A list of major impact factors deducted
understanding of the human terrain. by analytical methods;
The operational culture is also analyzed x The graphic materialization of major
from the perspective of five dimensions that impact factors on a map or overlay.
can influence the conduct and the attitude of Regarding the identification of the key
the civilian population, on the one hand, factors that have a major impact, answering
and the operational behavior of the questions like below could be useful[11]:
insurgent groups, on the other. x What are the sources and nature of
These dimensions of the operational culture factors that may affect the operations of the
involve: physical environment (geography), governmental/coalition forces?
economic culture, social structures, political x How do factors influence the operations
structures and cultural beliefs/symbols[10]. of the governmental/coalition forces?
Knowing the culture of the target group (the x How and how quickly is the effect of
268
factors seen, and what is the impact on population: those that a benefit for the
operations? governmental forces and those that are in
x What is the magnitude of the effect of their disadvantage.
some factors (number of people, group size,
location)? &RQFOXVLRQV
If the answers to the above questions To conclude, we can state that by being
indicate that the factors could have a aware of the importance of the human
significant impact on operations, then they terrain and by using these tools and stages,
should be included in the civilian model. the in-depth knowledge of the civilian
This model should also present three population is achieved, facilitating
aspects: cooperation, harmonization of activities,
x Motivation and goals; information exchange, planning and
x The capabilities and the means of the management of operations to reach the
”key factors”; center of gravity: the control of the civilian
x The impact that these factors may have population.
on operations/the achievement of the Civil Preparation of the Battlespace
objectives. complements the database with regular
information from the field, outlining the
'HWHUPLQLQJ FLYLOLDQ SRSXODWLRQ socio-cultural profile of the local
DFWLRQV population. This analysis is a scientific one,
At this stage, the activity focuses on the use much deeper and more accurate than the
of previous information, analyzes and assumptions formulated by the forces in the
matrices to predict, as accurately as field.
possible, the actions of the civilian Integrating the socio-cultural profile in the
population; on the one hand, those decision-making process is a very important
supporting the actions of the governmental factor for the conduct of the operations and
forces, and on the other hand those that the achievement of the expected effects.
support the insurgent groups. These Estimation of the effects caused by cultural
elements provide a realistic image of what deployment in the operational environment
human terrain means, allowing planners to can be done with much accuracy. Also, the
integrate the efforts of all involved forces contact between individuals from different
for a successful accomplishment of any the cultures, the so-called ”cultural shock”, can
mission: stabilizing the conflict situation be diminished. Evaluating the effects of the
and supporting the civilian population. military action and recommending some
In order to determine the actions of the adjustments to avoid breaking relations as a
civilian population that can influence or result of inevitable cultural clashes is a
modify the approach to the mission, one process at which CPB brings an important
could take into consideration aspects such contribution.
as: Knowing the culture of the local population
x Historical patterns of the population; in a (hybrid or irregular) conflict area
x Conditions/desiderata that the population provides the military a proper framework
is trying to reach; for planning, decision-making and
x Work agenda and objectives of the key conducting coherent operations, carrying
factors in the operation area. out strict control of the proportionality
The outcome of this final stage is between the assigned tasks, the carried out
represented by the description and the actions and the behavior of the local
graphic materialization of the most population.
important possible actions of the civilian
269
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Department of the Army, FM 3-0 Operation, February, 2008, chapter 6, p. 10.
[2] Ibid, chapter 1, p. 5.
[3] United States Marine Corps Marine Corps, Civil-Military Operations School, Student
Outline. Civil Preparation of the Battlespace (CPB), Virginia, USA, 2015, pp. 3-4,
http://www.trngcmd.marines.mil/Portals/207/Docs/wtbn/MCCMOS/0530%20Civil%20
Preparation%20of%20the%20Battlespace%20(CPB).pdf, accessed at 10.03.2016.
[4] Ilie Florin, 3URWHFаLHEDOLVWLFă, Ä1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH6LELXS
[5] Laviniu Bojor, Conflictul iregular – conflict militar caracteristic primelor decenii ale
secolului al XXI-lea, Ä1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVH6LELX2016, pp. 120.
[6] Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3-24 - Counterinsurgency, SUA, November
2013, chapter IV, p. 13, on http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_24.pdf, accessed
at 10.03.2016.
[7] Department of the Army, FM 3-05.401 - Civil Affairs Tactics, Techniques, and
Procedures, Washington DC, USA, 2007, chapter 3, p. 25.
[8] Ibid, chapter 3, p. 25.
[9] United States Marine Corps Marine Corps, Civil-Military Operations School, Op.cit., p.
7.
[10] US Army Combined Arms Center, Center for Army Lessons Learned, Handbook –
Commander’s Guide. Employing a Human Terrain Team in Operation Enduring
Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures,
Leavenworth, United States of America, March 2009, pp. 16-17,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/call/call_09-21.pdf, accessed at
08.02.20117.
[11] United States Marine Corps Marine Corps, Civil-Military Operations School, Op.cit.,
pp. 14-15.
270
SLOVAK TROOPS IN ITALY DURING SECOND WORD WAR
Juraj ŠIMKO

Slovakia
juraj.simko@aos.sk
Abstract: This article deals with activities of Slovak military troops in Italy during the World War II
in the period from October 1943 to the end of war. Article describes the construction of field
fortifications on the German defensive lines in central and northern Italy.
As well it describes the appearance of resistance to the alliance with Nazi Germany, the involvement
of the Slovaks in Italian resistance and the culmination of the fight against Nazism. The resulting
manifestation was the creation of the 1st Czechoslovak division in Italy, which fought against German
troops alongside the Allies at the end of the war.
Keywords: Second world war, Slovak troops, Italy, defense lines, resistance
Introduction Archive Bratislava, the interviews and

The history of the Slovak nation is rich. correspondence with the living participants
However, Slovakia is a small country and of the mentioned events, as well as the
therefore its history was often influenced by analysis and synthesis of the small amount
larger political entities. For its history is of the accessible primary sources.
valid, that the small and weak states In March 1939 Slovakia became an ally of
become a politician tool or even the victims Nazi Germany and its armed forces
of the other strong and more powerful states participated in the attack against Poland
[1]. The fate of Slovakia and Slovaks in (1939) and in 1941 also against the Soviet
World War II is the proof of the idea. Union. However, since 1942 Slovak troops
The theme of activities of the Slovak troops started to be perceived as unreliable by
in Italy during the World War II is nearly German Command due to growing
unknown even in Slovakia, not to mention sentiment against war and German as well
abroad. Nobody has ever analysed the due to multiplied cases of desertions to the
impact of the Slovak troops and their enemy and cooperation with local Soviet
operations in Italy before, except for the guerrilla groups In autumn 1943 by the
Slovak historian Václav Štefanský. This order of German Command the 2nd Slovak
article is the first attempt to acquaint the Infantry Division was changed to Technical
foreign community with the aforementioned Brigade and sent to Italy.
topic, since it brings the closer look at the
elementary facts describing the activities of 1. New role of Slovak troops in Italy
the Slovaks in Italy since 1943 to 1945. In October 1943, a Technical Brigade was
The methodology that was used to prepare transported along the route Minsk -
the material involved the research of the Warshaw - Gorlitz - Munich - Brenner to
archival material of Military Historical the area of Imola - Ravenna - Cervia.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0044
271
The Technical Brigade (TB) started its overcome these obstacles, which always
activities on October 25, 1943 under the required a lot of losses, and therefore their
command of Lt./CRO.UQiþ,WEHFDPHWXOOH advance was incredibly slow. German
non-combat unit and should have been used defenders managed to hold back the
by German Army Group C as a single unit progress of the Allies line until the next rear
under the Slovak command. The task was to positions was prepared.
build fortifications - trenches, foxholes, fire From In January 11, 1944 the TB was
positions - along the Adriatic coast that transferred to the more endangered front
should have served the German defense. area. Its task was to construct lines called
The brigade was subordinated to the Orange line, Hitler's line and Dora line. The
German 90th Mechanized Division and lines created the second defensive zone of
since November 28, 1943 to the 362nd the main defense line situated in the South
Infantry Division. In case of attack of the of Rome called Gustav's line, which was
Allies amphibious landings the TB should aimed to protect the Liri River Valley.
have been immediately withdrawn as a non- Slovak units were located just 20km far
combat unit to the back [2]. from the main battle line. TS's units were
The first dislocation zone of the TB's deployed in the area of Pico - Fondi - Itri.
infantry regiments was the area of Ravenna- Slovak soldiers found themselves in front
Cervia. In December 1, 1943 the command nearby zone. The assigned work sections
of the TB was taken over by Col. Ladislav was under the Allied air force attack almost
Bodický. on daily basis. Despite the problems with
The Technical Brigade in Italy consisted of supply and accommodation, commander of
two Infantry Regiments - the 101st and the German engineering units in Italy
102nd Infantry Regiment. Each regiment Lieutenant general Hildemann evaluated the
was divided into three battalions, each performance of Slovak soldiers as above the
battalion consisted of three companies. average, after visiting the TB work sections
Furthermore, the TB was formed by: Staff [3]. January and February 1944 were the
Autocolumn, Cargo Truck Column, Field most difficult periods of Slovak operation
Bakery, Field Slaughter, Field Hospital, in Italy. Poor supply conditions, cold
Field Post Office and the 12th Railway weather, and frequent Allied air attacks on
Construction Company and Antiaircraft the TB positions, caused the soldiers heavy
Battery which was returned back to strain. Some soldiers were killed or injuried
Slovakia in the beginning of 1944 due to by strafing. There have also been cases of
the lack of weapons and other materials. refusal to start work.
The number of soldiers accounted for about Slovak Prime Minister Tuka, asked the
3000. German Command to transfer the TB to less
The TB suffered initial losses in Ravenna dangerous area of the front line. However,
after bomb attack carried by the Allies on the brigade was transferred just after
30 December. 23 Slovak soldiers died and German decision to use the TB in another
19 were injured. Dead men were burried at area of the front line.
the cemetery in Faenza. At the beginning of March 1944, the
In November and December 1943 brigade was moved up to a new sector. A
Technical Brigade was focused on new task was to build the positions of
adaptation to the new area of operations and Caesar's line in the Abruzzo Mountains near
apprised new tasks on less vulnerable areas the towns Tagliacozzo and Avezzano [4].
of the German defense system in Italy. The There were bad roads and sidewalks in this
German defense strategy relied on fortified area were wretched. All the materials had to
lines across Italian peninsula. The Allies be carried by troops or donkeys. Slovak
that were marching from the South had to soldiers had to dig trenches, build firing
272
positions and concrete casemates that were In early August 1944 the division started
armed with tank turrets. The soil was hard the retreat to river Po. The situation was
and rocky. The soldiers were exhausted, as complicated due to losses, desertion (which
they worked seven days a week from the became more frequent from late of June)
beginning of 1944. Supply of food and and an insufficient reinforcements from
building material was deficient. Just a few Slovakia. The declining morale in the
men came from Slovakia as reinforcements. division was proved by the fact that the new
Morale in the unit degraded while the commander col. Imro fled to the Allies
Slovaks were building the lines without during the retreat. Lt./Col .PLFLNLHYLþ
German advisors. temporarily took command of the 2nd TD.
Some Slovak commanders ignored the He commanded the division until August
construction plans. For example, Captain 25, 1944, when the command was taken
Hujsa, commander of I/101 (the first over by colonel. Veselý. On September 1,
battalion of 101st inf. Regiment) moved 1944 the 2nd TD had following numbers:
spacers pins into the soft soil to make the 101st inf. Regiment: 23 officers, 23 non-
work for soldiers easier. German Command commissioned officers, 1 060 men 102nd
discovered the "mistake" and assigned inf. Regiment: 28 officers, 11 non-
Slovaks their own advisors. Slovak modern commissioned officers, 1 128 men [6].
historians call it “the pin case”. From October 24 to November 21, 1944
On June 4, 1944 the TB Headquarter Slovak soldiers were working in the area of
received command to move to the Gothic Ostiglia (situated 50 km west of Rovigo)
Line (the Germans also called it and Borgoforte. The 101st Regiment
*UĦQVWHOOXQJ) that was stretched from constructed the connecting path in Ostiglia
Pesaro on the Adriatic coast to Viareggio in in Cooperation with German Engineer
the Ligurian Sea. Battalion no. 7. while the 102nd Regiment
400 km retreat lasted until June 20. The TB constructed the bridge in Borgoforte.
was under attack of the Allied air forces. On November 21, 1944, the division
During the retreat it suffered heavy losses. moved into the area of Pavia in order to
The 101st inf. Regiment reported 61 build and repair railways and bridges over
missing, 102nd inf. Regiment reported 8 the River Po. The division remained in this
dead, 20 wounded and 144 missing soldiers zone until the surrender of German troops
[5]. Many of the missing soldiers deserted in Italy (May 2, 1945).
to the Allies or Italian partisans. Division ability to realize their assigned
When transfer to the Gothic Line was tasks had been constantly declining.
finished, the TB was subordinated to the Soldiers worked inconsistently. A lot of
staff of German general Bessel, who them collaborated with the Italian resistance
commanded the construction of and several dozen soldiers deserted to the
fortifications in Italy. German engineers Italian partisans. Division commander Col.
were assigned to collaborate with the Veselý was not able to prevent desertions.
brigade. Work on building the fortified In mid-February 1945 reinforcements, that
Gothic line lasted until beginning of consisted of 3 000 men, came from
August. They included the construction of Slovakia. The number of division members
firing positions for machine guns, mortars increased to 7000. They were quickly
and artillery. mobilized reservists and prisoners of the
In July 1, 1944 the Technical Brigade was rebel army (The 1st Czechoslovak Army in
renamed to the 2nd Technical Division (2nd Slovakia – resistance army of the Slovak
TD). On July 6, 1944 Colonel Imro became National Uprising). In some cases it
the new commander, who replaced Colonel involved former members of the 2nd
Bodický. Czechoslovak Airborne Brigade in the
273
USSR. Mobilized reservists didn’t have a In April 25, 1945 Slovak soldiers arrested
military training, not even a uniform. divisional commander Colonel Veselý that
Construction work had been slowed down was replaced by Antifascist disposed
due to the lack of material. The headquarter Lt./CRO .PLFLNLHYLþ [7]. .PLFLNLHYLþ
of the division ordered the soldiers to announced to the Italian Resistance, that the
borrow working tools from local people and Slovak division would cooperate in the
use it carefully, so they could return them fight against the Wehrmacht and therefore
undamaged after the work was finished division had been recognized as part of the
At workplaces of The 2nd TD the German anti-nazi coalition troops. Due to the
technical officers met with disinterest in involvement in the anti-fascist resistance
work, Slovak soldiers inventing various the name of the division was changed to the
excuses such as "we don’t have wood, we 1st Czechoslovak Division in Italia. It
don’t have shovels, we don’t have a watch" consisted of 6272 men bust just one third of
and so on. More and more members of the soldiers were active in combats as the
Division cooperated with the local division did not have enough weapons. In
Resistance and deserted to the partisans. addition, many Slovaks, who previously ran
The Headquarter of the division prescribed from the division, fought at that time in the
transfer almost every month in order to sections of the Italian partisans.
prevent "kidnapping" of soldiers from Operations of the Slovak soldiers against
companies. the German troops in Northern Italy
continued until early May, when the first
2. Changing the side Allied units arrived to the rebels territory.
In April 1945 the Allies started an offensive The 6th South African division, which
across the River Po. In Northern Italy it responsibility was to supply the Slovak
mobilized the guerrilla movement and the Division, did not receive an order that the
Uprising broke out. The German army 1st Czechoslovak Division in Italia was
began collapsing. In the units of the 2nd TD considered as the Allied and handled with
mass desertion began. In April 19, 1945 205 Slovaks as they were prisoners.
men deserted from the 8th company of the In late July 1945, Slovak units were
101st inf. Reg., and in April 25, 1945 173 transported to Slovakia.
men from the 5th company of the 101st inf.
Reg. Conclusion
To prevent desertions to local resistance Slovak soldiers in Italy did not have enough
and to eliminate the threat of the Allied weapons and material for active resistance.
advance, the divisional headquarter ordered First of all, they just sabotaged the assigned
a retreat to the Alps. work. Several soldiers and officers deserted
However, battalion and regimental to the Allies or joined the Italian partisans.
commanders did not accepted the order. In the last two months of the war the
Since April 24 the units of division had division passed to the Italian resistance and
started to cooperate with Italian resistance one third of the team actively liberated
or even, in some cases within their cities and towns in Northern Italy.
capabilities, they had been fighting against In these ways, the Slovaks in Italy had been
the retreating German columns. Thanks to demonstrating their negative attitude
that they took control over several villages towards fascism and Nazism.
and important crossroads.
References
[1] /LćiN -iQ International relations - International politics (in Slovak: Medzinárodné
Y]ĢDK\ - Medzinárodná politika/ Bratislava, SOFA, 2000, page 27.
274
[2] Military Historical Archive Bratislava (MHA), Fund ZD, sig. II/8, order from December
20th ,1943.
[3] MHA, Fund ZD, sig. I/53.
[4] Štefanský Václav, Slovak soldiers in Italy 1943 – 1945 (in Slovak: Slovenskí vojaci v
Taliansku 1943 – 1945), Bratislava, Ministry of Defence of Slovak Republic, 2000, page
28.
[5] MHA, Fund ZD, sig. III/9, order from june 25th ,1944.
[6] MHA, Fund ZD, sig. III/42, War diary.
[7] Štefanský Václav, Slovak soldiers in Italy 1943 – 1945 (in Slovak: Slovenskí vojaci v
Taliansku 1943 – 1945), Bratislava, Ministry of Defence of Slovak Republic, 2000, page
71.
275
INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION OF THE BATTLEFIELD AS A PART OF

KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT
Pavel SKALICKÝ, Tibor PALASIEWICZ

pavel.skalicky@unob.cz, tibor.palasiewicz@unob.cz
Abstract: The aim of this article is to introduce an approach to intelligence preparation of the
battlefield (IPB) as a part of knowledge development in conditions of the Army of the Czech Republic
(ACR). Numerous of NATO publications and Stanags has been analyzed as well as Czech national
documents. Based on results of the analyses and personal experience of authors, the current state of
IPB applied in ACR has been outlined and main imperfections of this process have been emphasized
such as a disregard of dynamic changes of terrain in time and so on. It the closing section of the
article a few possible ways of IPB development have been suggested. Those suggestions show possible
form of this process for needs in 21st century.
Keywords: military engineering support, intelligence preparation of the battlefield,

knowledge development, terrain, land slide
1. Introduction analysis is used for description of the

A terrain analysis has a long history in the operational environment. It means that we
military and basically goes back to its analyse the engagement space in P -
beginning. Already commanders in political, M - military, E- economic, S-
antiquity and the middle Ages chose a social, I - information, I- infrastructure - P -
convenient place to build their defensive physical terrain, T- time domains. In this
positions and sought appropriate step, respective commanders and staffs
communication to move its own troops. The encounter with the evaluation of a terrain
Analysis of an operation area played, play for the first time. This evaluation is further
and will play an irreplaceable and key role elaborated in a process Intelligence
in leading any military operation. Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB).
Outputs from this process are crucial for
2. Basic terminology and principles commanders during the Operational
Knowledge development (KD) is a Planning Process and mainly for their
continuous, adaptive and networked activity intelligence requirements.
carried out at strategic, operational and The IPB process consists of four steps >2@:
tactical levels of command. It provides x Define the Operational
commanders and their staff with a Environment/Define the Battlespace
comprehensive understanding of complex Environment.
environments, including the relationships x Describe Environmental Effects on
and interactions between systems and actors Operations/Describe the Battlespace
within the engagement space>1@. Effects.
This space we can term as an operational x Evaluate the Threat/Evaluate the
environment. A method PMESII-PT Adversary.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0045
276
x Determine Threat COAs (course of for command and information important to
actions)/Determine Adversary COAs. support.
Description of the Environmental Effects or Information important for command
Battlespace Effects on Operations is includes data which are crucial for the
primarily a task for military engineering. direct conduct of combat operations. It
includes an overview of natural or man-
3. Analysis of current state made phenomena that constitute barriers for
Physical terrain, we can imagine as a set of our troops, or they can identify possible
technical data and information. Members of manoeuvre of the enemy.
engineer intelligence are responsible for Information important to support is
management of the relevant information. particularly important for the engineer staff
The Czech document Pub-31-17-01 (Joint officers. There are contained sources of raw
Operations and Engineer Intelligence matters) materials, energy, potential production
is based on alliance publications. This capacity and possible supply routes.
document delimits following groups of Generally speaking, this includes all
engineer information in relation to terrain >3@: information essential for the sustainability
x geographical information; and support of allied forces.
x geological information; We will focus just on information important
x roads (routes); for command in the following work.
x watercourses, rivers; The simplified process of terrain analysis is
indicated on the figure 1. Each layer
x railway;
(X1, …, n) represents particular phenomena
x airports and landing points;
such as watercourses, forests, slant of slope,
x barriers information; bearing capacity, etc. Evaluation is done
x resources for water supply; either directly to paper maps or using of
x engineer resources; digital maps. After completion of individual
x equipment local infrastructure available phenomena evaluation, all layers are
on the battlefield; overlaid (summed) and the final product
x ability of forces (allied forces, enemy, gives a comprehensive picture of obstacles
Host nation). or impassable terrain. It serves as a basic
Stated survey of areas contains two main layer in a common operational picture.
sets of information, information important
Figure 1 Simplified process of terrain analysis

During implementation of the terrain known that many factors occur in real life
analysis there is usually done one mistakes let alone in the battlespace, which change
in many cases. The terrain is in fact relief of terrain but those factors are
considered as a static object. It is generally neglected. For the most striking factors we
277
can state: in real photographs (Figure 2) from
x combat action (destroyed buildings, operations MFO (Multinational Force and
dams, bridges, roads…); Observers) running on the Sinai Peninsula.
x effects of nature and natural disasters Next natural factors which can change
(floods, landslides, sand storms, ...); terrain features are landslides. The literature
x seasons and weather conditions (snow, states four basic groups of this movement
changing vegetation, ...); >4@, >5@:
x underground spaces; Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady,
x slope instability. downward movement of slope-forming soil
or rock. The velocity of this movement is
4. Natural factors and their influence on approximately from 1 millimetre to 10
changes of terrain meters per year.
Changes in terrain caused by combat Slide is a movement similar to creep. The
operations cannot be predicted very well, so most significant difference is in the velocity
we will not consider them further in the of the slide which is measured from,
following text. We will focus on the effects approximately meters per day to meters per
of nature and state some practical examples hour.
of changing terrain that can affect the Flow; there is large number of types of this
performance of operational tasks or some movement such as mood flow, debris flow,
Joint Functions - Manoeuvre, Force earthflow and another. The most important
Protection, and others. information concerning flow is against its
The first types of factors are atmospheric velocity. For example the velocity of
phenomenon such as storm, sand storms, mudflow is approximately 25 kilometres
torrential rain, rainfall etc. per hour. We have to highlight that
avalanche includes into this phenomenon
too, and its velocity can approach more than
hundred kilometres per hour.
Topple is the fasters type of landslide. The
speed of this movement can be close to
Free fall velocity. It means approx. 9,81
Figure 2 Terrain affected by natural disasters meters per second in our geographic
(a – torrential rain, b – sand storm) position.
The effects of these phenomena are shown
Figure 3 Types of Landslides (a – creep, slide; b – flow; c – topple)

Landslides occur most frequently in Less tragic experience with landslides we
mountainous and hilly terrain. have from the deployment of Czech soldiers
On this issue it is necessary to recall the in KFOR, too. There were landslides which
catastrophe that took place in 2007 in interrupted the supply routes in the
Afghanistan, where one Czech soldier was mountainous areas of the Balkan.
killed and two were seriously injured in the The last mentioned types of phenomena
landslide while executing operational tasks. that belong to the changing terrain factors
278
are underground spaces. Those spaces are According to information provided in
possible to divide in two groups: previous chapters, it is obvious that the
x Natural underground spaces (caves, cave current state of the terrain analysis process
complexes) is not on level, which requires the
x Artificial underground spaces (tunnels, battlefield of the 21st century. In real
mines, wells, storage facilities etc.). practice it depends on experience and
Underground spaces will have a significant diligence of analysts - staff officers, how
impact on the conduct of ground operations. they conduct the terrain analysis and what
They will directly affect the bearing information outputs submit. Manual
capacity of the ground (Figure 4); also can evaluation of terrain is also time consuming
be used as enemy caches in the framework relatively. The most suitable solution seems
of insurgent activities, or IED chain. From to be special software either to support or
history of conflict we know that directly for analysing of terrain. For the
underground space can serve as an commander and his staff it is very
additional dimension of the battlefield (such important to realize spatial depth of the
as tunnels during the Vietnam War or cave Battlefield both in direction above the
complexes in Afghanistan. surface and below the surface – Figure 4.
5. Possibility of development
Figure 4 Proposed model of terrain analysis

Comprehensive digital maps with advanced abilities, skills or experience of individual
applications are ways to better understand actors were determined. It was important
and comprehend characteristics of the area for the definition how they can contribute to
of deployment. The commander, who has real implementation. In conclusion part of
crucial information, first, is advantaged. the method, we have proposed certain areas
Based on the experiences and authentication of activities and actions for involved actors.
by method Brainstorming, they were The whole procedure and a graphical
defined possible branches and institutions representation of the used method are
to participate in this project. In the next step presented in Figure 5.
279
Figure 5 Proposed solution using method Impact mapping
6. Conclusions about an evaluation terrain can provide a

From the text is obvious that area of realistic picture of a situation in the area of
operation is not just a static flat surface. interest and contribute to achieving of
When we want to be successful in operational tasks.
operations we have to revise our approach Any time we have to keep in our heads that
to terrain analysis as a part of IPB. Only information is the most effective weapon on
timely and comprehensive information a contemporary battlefield.
References
[1] NSO - NATO Standardization Office. ATP - 3.12.1 (A), Allied Tactical Doctrine For
Military Engineering. Brussel: 2016.
[2] Department of the Army, FM- 34- 130- Intelligence preparation of the battlefield.
Washington, DC: Department of the Army
[3] Pub - 31 - 17 - 01, Joint Operations and Engineer Intelligence matters.VeV - VA
Vyškov, the Czech Republic 2013
[4] http://geology.com/usgs/landslides/
[5] http://www.sci.muni.cz/~herber/
280
PRINCIPLES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN MILITARY ART
Ján SPIŠÁK
University of Defense, Brno, The Czech Republic

jan.spisak@unob.cz
Abstract: This paper focuses on the issue of military principles in terms of their meaning and
significance for the personnel applying the military art. The author argues that principles are
important factors that influence the planning and conduct of wars; some of them exist since antiquity
but their application may differ according to the environment and specific circumstances. More than
a focused discussion about each of the principle the author reveals approaches to their application
in military thinking as well as their value for the military operations planning process.
Key words: principle, military art, operation, doctrine.
1. Introduction operational and tactical levels. In the

Since ancient times, rulers, warlords, context of military operations, the
commanders and prominent theorists of principles are generally associated with the
military art equated with the idea that there terms such a war, warfare, a campaign, an
exist a set of guiding tenets and ideas that operation, a military art or the operational
govern the study, preparation, and conduct art.
of wars. They continually attempted to In the books, military manuals, treatises or
define the relevant rules, which, if properly military doctrines can be found the phrases
exploited, could lead to success in military war principles, principles of warfare,
campaigns and battles. In the military principles of operations, principles of
environment, these basic tenets and rules military art or principles of operational art.
are known in the term principles. [1] Single term that would unite a common
Generally, the meaning of the word understanding of the principles, therefore, is
“principle” (from the Latin principium, the not a dogma.
beginning) indicates the major and widely Over the centuries there were raised,
recognized intellectual theme (theses, rule accepted and used various principles which
or law) of any teachings, from which may were understood differently by individuals,
be derived further consequences for communities or the whole societies. The
behaviour or knowledge in practice. Just as principles were also different in the way
these principles exist in every scientific they were presented and applied by the
discipline, they also exist in the military. generations of commanders and military
The principles represent important theorists. However, the common view on
intangible factors that influence the the general principles demonstrates a basic
planning and conduct of wars, campaigns, continuity in the development of the most
operations and battles at the strategic, of them. [2]
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0046
281
It can be stated that there are only minor consisted not in understanding the
differences between the principles raised principles of the war, but in a guarantee that
roughly 2,500 years ago by the Chinese they will realistically abide by politicians as
philosopher and strategist Sun Tzu, and well as military officials during the
those which accept modern armies in campaign.
dealing with the current military conflicts. In reality, however, this progress is often
It's also noteworthy that the principles hampered by a large number of existing
applied in the era of medieval, are equally variables and the very complexity of the
valid in the age of computer-guided campaign or operation. It should also be
missiles. Generally, the basic principles are noted that not all the principles are
constant, unchanging and timeless. [3] applicable in all situations during the
conflict. It may often be necessary to
2. Significance of principles replace the use of one principle over
Generalized from the studies of past wars, another, depending on which is more
campaigns, operations, and battles convenient and rewarding.
principles are useful analytical tools. Their Although the principles of war can be
value as a guide for commanders, however, expressed quite simply, they cannot be
depends on their understanding of a given studied and understood in a purely
commander, his knowledge, and skill academic way. Given that they relate
in applying the principles of use of military directly to the conduct of the war, it is the
force within a certain operating scenarios. best way to learn and perceive them in the
Principles of war and military art are context of the specific situation. Principles
valuable not only for analyzing of the are certain "statements" and generally do
previous campaigns and their lessons not provide an explanation or justification,
learned but also for utilization of this through which their understanding will be
knowledge for the current armed forces to more simple. Therefore, there is a
improve their battle skills, readiness, and possibility of misinterpretation due to
performance. In addition, these principles, failure to understand the consequences of
defined by the needs of a particular nation their use.
and its priorities are also a clear sign of Thus the principles are not a set of laws and
attitudes the nation and intentions how to rules that in case they are blindly followed,
deal with the issues of national security. will lead to the desired success. Their
Most countries and their armed forces, compliance does not always produce a
respectively, declare its own list of predictable result; as well as their
principles based on the military culture, disobeying may not ultimately result in
history, heritage, and experience. These unfavorable effects. Principles are merely
principles also act as a set of guidelines for sophisticated indicators extracted from
the planning process at the national historical experiences, which were found to
strategic and military-strategic level before have an almost timeless application,
the launch and during the campaign or the contributing to the successful conduct of
military operation. wars, military campaigns, and operations.
The principles are simple and logical rules, Principles do not replace professional
according to almost all military activities knowledge, experience, skills and
can be controlled. A history offers education; they only help to better
numerous examples of unsuccessful understand the rules and way of waging
campaigns; their analysis indicates that this war. The principles are rather a guide for
failure often stemmed from breaching the management activities of military forces
fundamental principles of war. than unquestioned truth with universal
As experience has shown, the problems application for each individual operation. In
282
this respect, they are guidelines, not the initiative
regulations, formulas, recipes or list for x Mass: To concentrate the effects of
success. Principles are important elements combat power at the place and time to
of the military art, but mastering this art achieve decisive results
requires a deep understanding far beyond x Economy of Force: To allocate minimum
the principles themselves. essential combat power to secondary
Knowledge of the High Command can only efforts
be obtained by studying military history and x Maneuver: To place the enemy in a
actual experience. There are no strong and position of disadvantage through the
rigid rules; all it depends on plans of the flexible application of combat power
general, on the status of his troops, the x Unity of Command: To ensure unity of
season and thousands of other effort under one responsible commander
circumstances which dictate that no case for every objective
will resemble other. x Security: To never permit the enemy to
Napoleon (1769-1821), von Freytag- acquire an unexpected advantage
Loringhoven, Generalship in the Great War, x Surprise: To strike the enemy at a time
1920's. [4] or place or in a manner for which it is
unprepared
3. Features and application of principles
x Simplicity: To prepare clear,
For the conduct of operations, it is
uncomplicated plans and concise orders
important to understand and know the main
to ensure thorough understanding [5]
principles (rules) that have proven
The role of the commander, among the
successful in the past conflicts. These
others, is to know where to put the
principles have not absolute validity and
emphasis on the specific principle at the
even individual states may not put the same
given moment. The principles are not
emphasis on different principles. However,
immutable laws, but only a general guide to
there is general agreement about their
the way of thinking and acting of the
importance and relevance. Merely applying
commander. Throughout the history, they
of principles will not guarantee victory;
retain their severity, applicability, and the
common sense, balanced judgment, and
relative importance despite dramatic
feeling of commander play a critical role.
changes in methods, techniques and war
The relative importance of each of the
weapons. The situation may require a
principles is dictating by circumstances; in
greater emphasis only on some of the
some cases, the commander cannot cling
principles. For example, the principles of
only on one principle, without neglecting
surprise, security or mass may have a
the others.
different meaning in large-scale combat
The principles of war guide warfighting at
operations contrary to stabilization and
the strategic, operational, and tactical
peace support operations.
levels. According to the military doctrines
Among the aforementioned principles
applied in the most of the countries there
applicable to all operations it may be
are several fundamental principles which
required to respect and apply additional
can be involved in any particular
specific principles in operations such as
application concerned. Using the American
peace support, stabilization, and
military approach the following lists the
humanitarian assistance. These include
purposes of each:
impartiality, consent, restraint in the use of
x Objective: To direct every military
force, perseverance, legitimacy, credibility,
operation toward a clearly defined,
mutual respect, transparency, freedom of
decisive, and attainable objective
movement, environmental protection, and
x Offensive: To seize, retain, and exploit others.
283
In various joint (allied) and national 4.2 Assistance in the course of actions
doctrines there are given additional rules as development.
an art of leadership, sustainability, initiative According to experience, some
and decisiveness, aggressiveness, commanders can use the principles as a
intelligence security, combat support, guide for their staffs in the development of
logistic support and host nation support, alternatives. For example, a commander
endurance and force protection, may discuss all principles or only selected
multinationality and others. Designation of principles and tell his/her staff how to
certain principles enumerated in the sense develop a specific course of action
of "principles" can often appear according to this principle. He/she can use
inconsistently. As visible from doctrines, in all principles or just focus on a few. Again,
many cases, these principles are apparently it is only a method that can be used by
joint or operational functions whose commanders in the right or wrong way.
doctrinal meaning is different. It is 4.3 Support in the course of action
necessary to note that in this respect, analysis and comparison.
understanding of such differences is an The staff members can also use the
issue of individuals and their personal point principles during comparison of course of
of view how to approach to this action developed when they assist the
discrepancy. Current doctrines also identify commander in their selection. A staff can
other specific principles for planning, use all the principles and attribute
logistics, protection, counterinsurgency, advantages to the specific course of action.
command and control, principles of Before the comparison, the staff members
multinational joint command and further may consider certain principles they feel
principles related to the organization and they are important for the operation. After
the use of various forces and services. Many the comparison, the course of action which
of these principles are important for has more advantages related to the
preparation, conduct, and support of principles is an alternative which will be
military operations. recommended to the commander for
approval.
4. Value of the principles 4.4 Understanding the strengths and
The question is how to use the principles? weaknesses of the plan.
There are several ways the principles can be After the plan was developed and approved,
beneficial regardless of they are defined in the principles can be useful for performing
NATO publication, the American, British or a quick analysis of the strengths and
other national doctrines. These include: weaknesses of the plan. Understanding of
4.1 Study and understanding of history. each may facilitate a development of
One of the ways how to use principles is the preliminary plans. Such plans can take
analysis of battles, campaigns, and even advantage of these strengths, or they will be
war. A scholar or student can take a list of activated if the weaknesses are exploited by
principles and determine why and where the enemy.
one of the parties lost because it failed to 4.5 Assistance in the evaluation of
apply some principle (or more principles). performance.
He or she can also take these principles and In every effort regarding tactics, it is a wise
compare where the one party could have an commander who looks objectively at the
advantage over another. That advantage performance of his/her units. A one way to
could finally lead to victory. Simply the analyze the performance is a utilization of
principles are mere instruments. the principles. The commander and his/her
staff observe the operation or battle and
analyze its course according to the
284
principles selected. To conclude, the specific situation. While the principles
principles can always be utilized in a certain remain the same, their list varies according
way, according to one of the to time and place and always depending on
aforementioned methods. the context.
Principles of war have become an When studying the principles two aspects
interesting topic for discussion of military are important. The first is that the basic
experts for decades. In the context of their principle (of war, military art, operations ...)
significance, there are two aspects above can never be entirely passive. This means
which circulate debates in military circles. that even though the principle is the time-
At first, are the principles of war still tested it is still further developed and
relevant? Is it possible to link the success or "cultivated" in relation to the role of
failure on the battlefield with a list of military forces in the wider security context.
principles? Such questions could certainly Secondly, it must be clear that while the
become one of the focal points of constant principles themselves are independent of
debates about the operational art. Secondly, one another, in their application they are
if possible to attach the success or failure of interconnected. To be clear, the application
the operation to the principles, which are of one principle should be done only after
the principles that should be used? Does the consideration of the primary and secondary
technology change the method of applying impacts and influences that this application
these principles? Vary these principles will have on the other principles, which
depending on the type of conflict or the may or may not have the same priority.
operation? These and other similar ideas Although the principles do not require great
could employ the minds of not only military erudition and genius to be appreciated, their
theorists but also their colleagues in study must be analytical and tailored. It
practice. [6] should again be stressed that the principles
of war provide, at best, only a holistic
5. Conclusion guidance on the conduct of military
Principles are tenets expressing the rules of operations. Inflexible insistence on them
military thinking and acting. Their without adequate understanding and
application varies at different levels of flexibility in thinking can easily lead to
command and for different operations. It errors.
can be expected that their relative
importance will vary, depending on the
References
[1] Malick, K. P., Principles of War: Time for Relook. Manekshaw Paper. The Centre for
Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS), New Delhi, 2009. p.2.
[2] 6SLãiN -iQ 3ULQFLS\ YRMHQVNpKR XPČQt Y WHRULL D SUD[L 6WXGLMQt WH[W %UQR 8QLYHU]LWD
obrany, 2016, s. 7, ISBN 978-80-7231-388-4.
[3] http://www.2worldwar2.com/principles-of-war.htm
[4] Tsouras, Peter G., 6ORYQtNYRMHQVNêFKFLWiWĤ. Baronet a.s., Izraelská 6, Praha 10. 2007. p.
89. ISBN 978-80-7384-048-8
[5] http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/pub1/appendix_d.pdf
[6] 6SLãiN -iQ 3ULQFLS\ YRMHQVNpKR XPČQt Y WHRULL D SUD[L 6WXGLMQt WH[W Brno: Univerzita
obrany, 2016, p. 76-77, ISBN 978-80-7231-388-4.
285
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS ON MILITARY

STUDENTS’ EDUCATION
Robert STĂNCIULESCU, Stelian POPESCU
“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHVAcademy6LELX5RPDQLD
UVWDQFLXOHVFX#DUP\DFDGHP\UR
Abstract: The complexity of military actions on the modern battlefield, as well as the increase in
high-tech weaponry call for a professional instruction system that requires an optimal organization, in
order to be effective. The efforts to achieve this purpose are mainly targeting the didactic strategies.
The paper presents a brief exposition of the forms and methods of instruction used in preparing
military students, with focus on the major impacting methods used along this complex process.
.H\ZRUGVPLOLWDU\RUJDQL]DWLRQHGXFDWLRQSURFHVVLQVWUXFWLRQ
,QWURGXFWLRQ integrate in. Modernizing the methodology

Modernizing instruction in the military of instruction stays in- between social
organization includes both the educational command (specialist model) and the
system and the educational process. Only by necessity of providing efficient instruction.
putting them together into a unitary whole, Modernization is a logical process
will we be able to encompass the real consisting of a series of actions aimed at
meaning of modernization. This is due to the achieving consistency of the instruction
fact that the system offers the institutional process with the requirements of life in
framework for the educational process and general and with the fundamental changes
the latter, in turn, provides the necessary that have occurred in society, economy,
means for meeting the educational science and technology, culture, and in the
objectives. It can be stated that any military organization, in particular.
modification or intervention into the system
will have an impact on its outcome, namely 7KHWUDLQLQJPHWKRGV
on the quality of military students’ The modern training process based on
instruction. effective training methods offers access
An approximate delimitation of the to a quick, lasting instruction, developing
modernizing process is only possible to the in accordance with the modern
extent to which it is based on this requirements of the battlefield. In recent
interdependence between the system and years, there have been relevant
process. Put together as “instruction”, they achievements pertaining to possible
are to be compared against the social taxonomies and boundaries of training
context, with its increasing norms and methodology, to reconsiderations of
requirements derived from the necessity of military, pedagogical concepts and to
a training process compatible with that of concordance between methodology,
the Euro Atlantic armies we aim to principles and educational methods. There
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0047
286
are several classification criteria: the c) it must be logically sequenced, from
historical criterion with traditional or concrete facts to generalizations or
modern (interactive) methods, the scope conversely, underpinning the main ideas of
criterion with general and particular each issue
methods, the didactic load criterion with d) it must appeal to the student not only
teaching-learning methods, methods of through the value of its content and
information dissemination, organization delivery but also through its practical
methods and evaluation methods, the connections and examples.
instruction process criterion and the e) it must be clear, with simple phrases
learner-type criterion. The discrepancies easy to comprehend, expressed in a correct
among these classifications point out the literary form as attractively as possible
dynamic aspect of the instruction avoiding irrelevant details or empty
methodology as well as the progress of phrases
instruction techniques. f) It must be plastic in content, ideas and
The modernization of instruction facts, in style, delivery and wording
methodology from its primary forms to the 7KH /HFWXUH is different from the
present day methods (modern exposition in that it does not involve
methodologies of different subjects) is a questions. It is used:
process which has been contributing to the – in teaching introductory, theoretical
increase of efficiency within the classes with a more general content;
educational process. For example the
classic methods (the presentation, the
– for the detailed analysis by the
instructor of an important, fairly ample
conversation, the exercise, etc.) that have
issue;
been solely used by instructors for a long
time, are still used today together with – for revising and summarizing a study
other methods agreed by educational chapter (summary lectures).
practice. “The choice of educational At the end of the lecture, questions may be
methods depends on the operational asked about issues that were not fully
objectives of the class, on the content to be understood. The lecture must meet the
taught, on the students’ level, on the same requirements as the exposition.
material resources and the time span 7KH ([SOanation is a short, clear
available”. exposition consisting either in a rational
0HWKRGV RI LQIRUPDWLRQ argumentation, or in the discovery and
GLVVHPLQDWLRQ statement of the logical principles
The H[SRVLWLRQ is the oral presentation of underpinning facts or phenomena. In this
information by the instructor, in a logical case, it is presented as a series of
sequence. The main requirements it has to conclusions, drawn after a reasoning
meet are the following: process, which underline and clarify the
a) to present exact information based on connections between phenomena or facts.
scientific facts . This information should The explanation can also consist in a
be chosen according to the topic of the concise issue discussed in more extended
lesson; it should be explanatory and must terms, by comparing it against concrete
lead to the clear understanding of the cases.
subject matter. It should persuade the Sometimes, the explanation accompanies
student of the righteousness and the demonstration of a movement (action,
authenticity of the content. physical exercise) or that of an object or of
b) it must always rely on and connect to a physical or chemical process. A special
previous knowledge form of explanation is the demonstration
through calculus of a mathematical rule, a
287
physical phenomenon or, more frequently, to the one being taught (for example,
of primary data such as the width of an when one compares a certain type of
action area, strengthening norms or work weapons, a vehicle or an engine to the type
possibilities. In addition, a conclusion which is being taught) and also to be based
drawn from a tactical situation analysis of on the previous study of class
the time necessary for finishing an bibliography.
engineering task for P.O, can be Using the conversation as a teaching
demonstrated through calculus. method calls for thorough preparation and
7KH 'HVFULSWLRQ is a logically sequenced strong methodological skills on the part of
presentation of the results of observation, the instructor so that the dialog between
of a phenomenon (process, action, the instructor and the military students lead
movement), of an object or of its directly to the “discovery” of new
representations (images), and of previously information and to the right conclusions.
perceived facts and objects. Using this conversation method, the
It is used especially in the teaching instructor will guide the military students’
sessions, for getting to know the material thinking through questions that will use
(weaponry, battle techniques) but also in and combine their previous knowledge
other forms of the instruction process such leading the discussion in such a way that
as practical classes and in the evaluation the students would come to clear and
process. The explanation and the informed conclusions about the topic of the
description are often combined with the teaching session.
exposition and the lecture. The methods of The questions addressed by the instructor
continuous and sequenced exposition are must not suggest students’; answers but
used in all the forms of the educational only shape the issue under discussion. The
process. They are the main teaching and conversation can be applied easier if it is
sometimes tutoring methods and they based on realia (by observing the real
apply less to the other forms of the phenomenon) such as an electronic device
educational process. During the practical or a weapon type, etc.
sessions the use of these methods has to be c) Acquiring and deepening the new
reduced as much as possible (short knowledge with the help of conversation
exposition of the tactical situation, of work occur by students’ answering the instructor’s
organization, short explanations etc.). questions, by revising the main ideas and the
7KH &RQYHUVDWLRQ GLVFXVVLRQ WKH summary of what has been taught.
LQWHUURJDWLYHPRGHORILQTXLU\ d) Revising the information- in this case
7KH&RQYHUVDWLRQ is the teaching method the conversation is based on a series of
in which the instructor addresses the logically sequenced questions addressed by
military students sequenced questions in the instructor, which target the revision of
order to stimulate their thinking, to help more previously taught units, in a unitary
them acquire new knowledge, deepen, way.
organize or revise previously taught As the partial evaluation revision cannot
information. [1] include all the information taught during
The conversation is used in almost all the more sessions, the conversation is limited
forms of the educational process for the to the fundamental problems presented in
following purposes: the previous sessions, which must be
a) Linking previous and new information approached in a logical sequence.
b) Teaching new information, in this case, The main requirements of the questions
the conversation needs to build on data or asked by the instructor in order to ensure
facts form the military students’ efficiency of the conversation are:
experience, on previous knowledge similar
288
a) To be precise from the point of view of training, the physical exercises, various
the content, to be short and accurately interior and exterior ballistic phenomena etc.
asked, so that they justly direct the d) The movement (action, process) should
thinking of the military. be repeated as many times as it is
b) To stimulate the thinking of the military necessary to be understood.
students, to elicit the use of information in The demonstration takes different forms
new combinations, to reveal various due to the great diversity of the
aspects of the issues, new connections demonstrative (intuitive) material:
besides the ones pointed out during - Demonstration of real (natural) objects
teaching, to make the military students and phenomena (processes, actions,
analyze critically and draw new movements, physical exercises).
conclusions, to ask them to support their - Demonstration using films (feature films
opinions with arguments. or videos)
c) To be addressed, regularly, to the entire -Demonstration using photos, overhead
subunit, to give some time for the answer projector and graphic materials (drawings,
to be analyzed and organized. charts, whiteboard drawings, diagrams,
7KH 'HPRQVWUDWLRQ tables, etc.).
The Demonstration (demonstrative or The Practice
intuitive method, the “do like me” method) The practice (execution of exercises) is
consists in: [2] used not only for developing skills and
– presentation of real objects abilities, but also for improving knowledge
(phenomena, processes) or their images and learning its practical application.
(shapes) reproduced from the real object in The Practice - is repeated execution of the
two and three dimensions (movies, photos, action (motor or intellectual), organized in
models, miniatures, etc.); a certain way and always oriented (with
each repetition) towards a particular
– performance by the instructor or the outcome (improved quality of execution).
subunit (team work) of how to execute a
Under the influence of the conditions
movement, action, work.
specific to development of motor or
The main requirements of effective
intellectual skills, the practice method has
demonstration are:
certain peculiarities when used in one or
a) the object or phenomenon to be
the other of these processes.
perceived by as many senses (analyzers) as
For developing motor skills and abilities,
possible.
the practice is twofold:
b) the observation of the military to be
- practice for learning the motor action and
guided by the instructor through statements
for developing the skill and the ability;
or questions in order for them to notice the
- training (practice to maintain and
characteristic, essential features of the
improve the skill).
works (materials), the main phases of the
When learning any motor action, there are
process (action, movement).
some essential rules that should be
c) whenever possible and appropriate, the
followed.
phenomena (processes, actions,
- to explain the necessity for learning the
movements) to be demonstrated in various
motor action; learning should take place in
stages of development or transformation.
conditions similar to those where the motor
This requirement must always be met in
action will be used (applied conditions).
demonstrating the functionality of
- it is absolutely necessary that the
equipment, weapons, engines, etc., the
components of the movement (action) be
movements during battery (platoon) field
always and rigorously practiced in the
same order, that the structure of the
289
movement (action) be always the same, 7KH,QGLYLGXDOVWXG\
during every practice, until it turns into a Manuals, regulations, instructions, lectures
skill. and the other works suggested by
- whenever it is possible, the instructor biography represent, together with
should verbally emphasize (approve, teaching activities and instructors’ words, a
evaluate) the correct execution of the source of knowledge. [3]
movement (action), the obtained results Generally, the methodology of the
should be specifically known. individual study has two main directions:
- the initial learning of the motor action - to establish a right correlation between
should take place at a slow pace. teaching and individual study;
During motor action learning, regardless - to acquire efficient methods and
of the process through which it is done techniques of study and to turn them into
(full or by parts) attention should be skills and abilities (to study a text and
focused on correct execution (continuous divide it into chapters, to establish main
decrease in the number of mistakes until and secondary ideas, to underline and take
their complete elimination). notes, to make a presentation agenda, to
As a result of repeated practice, as it was make a summary, to make a chart or a
pointed out, the component movements of graphic design, to learn by memorizing
the motor action are made increasingly logically and by synthesizing). [4]
faster. The main condition that must met The individual study is necessary because
when executing the motor action, before full acquisition of the information
moving to the automatization stage, is presented (learning the new information)
correcting the errors of execution (of the does not always take place; what happens
permanent mistakes that result from not is understanding it; the new knowledge is
knowing the right action). During the acquired partially and the notes reflect only
automatization stage, accepting the the essential part; the work for acquiring
existence of execution mistakes is a serious the new knowledge (learning) consists not
pedagogical error because, by continuing only in studying the notes, but also the
practicing, the wrong execution will manuals, the regulations, the scientific
become an automatism, and, because of the works; the teaching sessions cannot
durability of the temporary connections include all information regarding a specific
after developing the skill, subsequent issue, only the most important aspects; in
correction will be difficult. order to complete the research and acquire
Regarding training, after building the more knowledge about the taught issues, it
motor skill we should not stop practicing is necessary to study individually, to study
it, but do it more rarely, at longer time scientific works and specialized
intervals. The practice for maintaining and magazines. It should also be indicated
improving the motor skills is characterized what aspects, included in the regulations
by the fact that it can take place in various (manual), were not approached and should
circumstances and in changed conditions. be acquired through individual study.
In the educational process of the military
organization, integrating the developed &RQFOXVLRQV
skills for completion of complex activities The effectiveness of training depends,
is common practice: the skills developed largely, on methodical teaching, on the
during field training, engineer training, right, skilful use of the teaching methods
NBC protection, signal training etc. are all applied in the educational process.
integrated within artillery training, Consequently, the value of a method can
execution of tactical exercises, artillery be seen only by applying it. A good
shooting training. method fully corresponds to the particular
290
conditions of a certain part of the teaching conditions. At the same time, the
session and ensures that its operational efficiency of the methods employed
objectives are fulfilled and that the mental depends, at a large extent, on the art of the
process corresponding to the objectives of teaching staff involved in training
the teaching session takes place in the best activities.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] CERGHIT I., 0HWRGHGHvQYăĠăPkQW, Bucureúti, (GLWXUD'LGDFWLFăúL3HGDJRJLFă1980.
[2] COSMOVICI, A., 3VLKRORJLHJHQHUDOă,DúL(GLWXUD3ROLURP
[3] CRISTEA S., 3HGDJRJLH *HQHUDOă 0DQDJHPHQWXO (GXFDĠLHL %XFXUHúWL (GLWXUD
'LGDFWLFăúL3HGDJRJLFă5$
[4] &8&2ù&-tin, Istoria pedagogiei,DúL(GLWXUD3ROLURP
291
DIDACTICS OF THE MILITARY SPECIALTY – PEDAGOGIC PROCESS WITH

MAJOR IMPLICATIONS IN THE CURRICULAR ARCHITECTURE OF
MILITARY LEADERS’ TRAINING
5REHUW67ĂNCIULESCU*, Elvira BELDIMAN**
*“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

**Bucharest Bar, Romania
rstanciulescu@armyacademy.ro., avoelvira@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract: Didactics is, in the etymological sense, the science of learning, a science that has evolved
over time under the influence of the maturing of the other sciences of education and as a result of
relations with other scientific fields. Through the common subject (the learning process, training
through the learning process), didactics is associated with the training theory.
Keywords: didactics, leader, education, training, functions
1. Introduction mathematical experimentation and

In the last decades, didactics began to lose computation - which facilitated the
the traditional sense of theoretical and establishment of causal relationships
practical foundation of the teaching- between different educational phenomena
learning process, receiving a new meaning and pedagogical laws);- development of
(developed by the US educational context), new training models: B.F. Skinner, J.
that of empowering the teaching staff to Piaget, P.I. Galperin (substantiating the
apply the laws and rules of teaching in line training models on specific theories of
with its contents and strategies (Doyle and learning); - development of a working
Westbury, 1992)[1]. Miron Ionescu model by J.S. Bruner (development of an
presents, in a nutshell, the most important explicit learning theory).
contributions to the development of the
theory and practice of training[2]:- 2 Didactics - branch of the sciences of
development of a working model by J. A. education
Comenius and its description in Didactica The foundation of didactics as a theory of
Magna (the first pedagogical system, the training involves passing three distinct
first theoretical model on education and stages, extended, according to current
instructional issues); - development of a interpretations, to the level of curriculum
pedagogical system based on a theory[3]: Traditional didactics stage;
conventional model by J. F. Herbart and his Modern didactics stage; Postmodern
disciples (based on a unique structure of didactics stage.
lessons; the formal steps of the lesson); Wincenty Okón considers that the purpose
crystallization of a global pedagogical of didactics is: a) to analyze: the aims and
conception through the contributions of J. content of training, the educational process
Dewey, E. Meumann, M. Montessori and its principles and b) to make known:
(introduction of new research techniques - the teaching methods and means, the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0048
292
organization of education, the planning of we will not refer), and they cause great
teaching, the personality of the instructor harm in the practice of military leader
[4]. Studying the process of education in (instructor) training. Given the fact that the
what is essential and general, general requirements of a science-based activity are
didactics orients the methodologies in necessary in all sectors of life, it appears
discovering and solving specific problems, almost paradoxical that the training of the
related to the teaching and learning of future "builder" of human personalities
knowledge and skills specific to a teaching should be left to chance and be realized, to
subject. Didactics is the theoretical basis of the extent that it is done, only on the basis
methodology. This does not mean that of self-training, empirically. Intuition,
methodology would only take the theses common sense can lead to the training of
and the conclusions of didactics to practitioners, but in no case to the training
concretize them to a subject of study. As a of leaders who meet the demands of
special theory, didactics deals with the modern education. In order to prove the
relationship between teaching and learning usefulness of systematic and permanent
in a field of phenomena circumscribed by training in the field of didactics, it is
the internal logic of the subject matter, necessary to analyze, even briefly, at least
explaining the pedagogical process that is two problems:
constituted, and prescribing ways of its a) the relationship between specialized
operation[5]. If didactics provides the training, didactic training and the
theoretical basis of methodologies, they personality of the leader
also provide concrete material for the b) the role of the personality of the leader
generalizations that are developed in in the current stage
didactics. The relationship between general Undoubtedly, the thorough knowledge of
didactics and special didactics is one of the specialty is a postulate in the discussion
mutual influence. Some theorists reinterpret about the professional status of the military
its traditional sense: “The relationship leader. No didactics can prevent the poorly
between special and general didactics can prepared teacher (the instructor) from
be highly operative by learning the putting himself or herself into a
practical and instrumental theories. There compromising situations and, worst of all,
is no contradiction and no hierarchical from compromising sometimes the object
relationship between general didactics and he or she represents. At the same time,
special didactics. Their relationship is practice has shown that some very well-
rather of substance and form and it depends trained people fail to convey what they
on the central point of interest: general or know, fail to capture interest and
individual”[6]. communicate with the trainees, a situation
2.1. The role of didactic (methodological) created by the ignorance of pedagogical and
knowledge in the training of military psychological issues or of some methodical
leaders aspects. Selecting information, organizing it
Sometimes it is suggested that there can be no into a certain structure, subordinating it to
systematic scientific training in the field of knowledge and training goals are some of
teaching a subject, that teaching is a strictly the most important methodological issues
personal matter and that each military leader that cannot be solved by a poor military
has his or her own teaching method. Other leader, and cannot be solved exclusively by
times, it is claimed that thoroughly knowing the specialty either. With the
mastering the content of a scientific increasing primacy of training and
discipline fully ensures the effectiveness of interdiscipline in the educational-training
teaching. The above statements can find process in the army, and the socially
countless counterevidence in the motivated need to train professionals with a
instructional-educational reality (to which soft and creative thinking able to adapt to
293
the challenges of the "third wave" society, acquisition of all pedagogical sciences and
the specialty of the military leader becomes is part of the joint creative effort with its
a tool for training a professional. Of course, own results, with its specific characteristics.
the tool must be solid enough to increase We also believe that although they can be
work efficiency. But "the purpose" remains, included in a group, the didactics can
however, in the field of psycho-pedagogical legitimately claim their status as stand-
and methodological issues. The students, alone processes, whose main distinguishing
during teaching practice stage, and the mark is given by the specifics of the
leaders in the first years of practicing the knowledge covered by the training process.
profession, classify in hierarchical order, 2.2. Didactics – the pedagogy of military
among the greatest difficulties encountered, specialty
the methodical ones, such as: The history of any methodology is
a) detailed knowledge of specialty problems indisputably related to the history of the
without having an overview of the specific establishment and development of a
subjects; training process, and ultimately to the
b)difficulties in making a real and history of building the whole body of
motivated selection of the information they knowledge that can serve as a teaching
have about one topic or another and the object. By virtue of their reporting to
need to handle psycho-pedagogical criteria; distinct fields of human knowledge, the
c) making the teaching-learning process different methodologies differ
accessible without lowering exigencies; fundamentally from each other. The issue
d) correlating the knowledge in the process of didactics of specialized instruction with
of forming the new notions. subunits has few common points with
This is significant in order to emphasize the physics teaching didactics, and mathematics
importance of a permanent methodical teaching didactics will not be able to use
approach, and it proves that some the logical schema of biology teaching
investigations are necessary. didactics. The differences are determined
Accepting that methodologies in general by the cognitive specificity, the functions
and, thus the didactics of specialized and the internal logic of the scientific
training with the subunits, are part of the process. Didactics differ from each other,
system of pedagogical sciences, we also because within these processes there are
implicitly mention the relations between special problems, special rhythms of
methodology on the one hand and general accumulation of knowledge and skill
pedagogy (military pedagogy) on the other development, typical means of obtaining
hand, between methodology and other information, and various relationships with
scientific processes of the system. The other educational processes. The content of
relationships that are established are the different methodologies is determined,
multilateral and complex. The correlation first of all, by the content of their respective
between the pedagogical processes is processes, as well as by their relationship
presented as a multidimensional network with other processes. The didactics of the
within which particular sciences are defined military specialty, in this case, is a complex
and developed. In spite of the enormous process that, besides the specific problems
differentiation, of the emergence of new of the technique and apparatus, integrates
branches and intermediary branches, the the cognitive, psychomotor and emotional
whole system of pedagogical sciences, as capacities acquired in other training
well as the entire contemporary science, has processes. As a result, the content of the
an internal gnoseological unity, and military specialty has characteristics which
progresses in direct or mediated are determined ultimately by the typical
dependence on the needs of the practice. particularities of the training. This is made
Didactics, for example, benefits from the even clearer if we take into account the
294
ultimate goal of didactics - to optimize the educational importance are revealed. It is
instructive-educational process. In the indisputable that specialty didactics finds its
didactics of the specialty (methodology), reason to exist only to the extent to which it
which is a scientific process that focuses on fulfills the tasks specific to a certain field of
the applicative and normative character, we scientific knowledge. Formulating and
can distinguish several levels as follows: a solving of such tasks, in parallel with the
general level, where the central system of evolution of the knowledge in the field,
specific categories is formed, establishes remains an ongoing problem. The
the main relations with pedagogy, successive stages of the process create a
psychology, logic etc. and emphasizes its new meaning and a new sense for the entire
lawfulness; a particular level at which, body of knowledge, forcing it to constantly
based on the symbiosis with the respective redefine the domain and its relations with
scientific processes, the main content of the other areas of knowledge. In order to fulfill
different methodologies is achieved; and, its purpose, the didactics of the specialty
finally, the level at which special problems carries out a continuous research of the
of the knowledge subgroups are addressed, specific field from the perspective of the
at which the pace of change is faster. The general instructive-educational objectives.
dynamics of this level depends on a number The didactics of the specialty follows and
of social and individual factors, among translates into its own terms the movement
which we should mention the cultural and within the knowledge system.
scientific level of the macro and micro 2.3. The functions of military specialty
group, the type of motivation, the existing didactics
intellectual work skills, the group and In the last decades, the words "method" and
individual working style, the typical "methodical" have been used up to
physical and mental state of the subjects, saturation in the specialty literature in
the personality traits of the person in charge various fields, in journalism and in
with the instructive-educational process, everyday speech. Their undifferentiated use
etc. That is why methodological "recipes" has created ambiguities which have altered
have a very limited sphere of application, the original, authentic meaning of the
and, if used indiscriminately, they can lead terms. Beyond the constant need for science
to unwanted effects even by those who to redefine its notions in relation to the
develop them. At the same time, they do advances of knowledge, it becomes clear, if
not stimulate the creative capacity of an we analyze the usual sense in which these
educator or the full manifestation of the words are used, that there is a major
personality of the trainee. Of course, imperative of modern thinking. In the
methodical guidelines are useful, helping to current speech, "having a method," "being
solve a situation. In order to introduce these methodical", "mastering the methodology of
guidelines into the respective didactic a paper" means working systematically and
heritage, such indications must be validated having the strategy necessary for achieving
by research and subjected to a theoretical a determined goal. Modern thinking is
approach. Didactics finds its content predominantly economical and practical
through the investigation of the scientific and, therefore, it does not have great
process, respectively from the point of view variations from the simple the goal-strategy
of the instructive-educational objectives. scheme. And, as we have seen,
Some authors rightly define the didactics of methodologies are all about finding the best
the specialty as the strategy by which, strategies to improve educational practice,
within the process of training, aspects such to optimize one of the processes through
as the content of a given process, its which society ensures its continuity and
meaning for practice, its relations with progress. In a very conventional way, we
other scientific processes, and its can distinguish between the theoretical and
295
practical functions of didactics in general theoretical reconstruction of the knowledge
and the didactics of specialized instruction, accumulated by the military students and,
with subunits in particular. Didactics is a obviously by the military-trained leader,
science of practical social action, which aiming at certain concrete instructive-
justifies its research efforts only in so far as educational tasks. Didactics also aims at
it contributes to the optimization of the suggesting to the future military leaders the
studied processes. The didactics of a subject problems to be solved, as well as the
(study) really exists only when it has an possible research ways and to provide them
active role in fulfilling the content of the with the existing solutions, the methods and
scientific process, respectively in the the didactic techniques known and verified
training activity, when it contributes to the in the current activity. In addition, in
revealing of the educational values of the accomplishing the tasks, in the didactics of
subject, when it facilitates the passing from the military specialty, the two sides,
the scientific fact, to conviction and, hence, theoretical and practical, are inextricably
to action. Therefore, the theoretical linked. The former raises the methodical
functions of didactics have immediate problems of the respective
practical implications, and its practical discipline/subject of education (instruction).
functions involve a theoretical approach. The latter presents the didactics of teaching,
Not every approach to the process of the systematic way in which the military
learning a body of knowledge leads to students and the military leaders are trained
improved solutions, and not every solution to learn and to love this discipline/subject.
can be validated. Only an informed Together, the two sides express the function
scientific approach performed with with which teaching, along with
appropriate means of control and pedagogical practice, provides young
investigation gives rise to a real would-be military leaders the necessary
improvement in the teaching-learning methods and techniques after graduation.
process of a particular discipline. The competence of the future military
As a scientific process, didactics is enriched leader of the Land Forces will be achieved
through the continuous study and perfection through the procedural confluence of
of the current instructive-educational "knowing," "doing," and "being."
activity. The research functions of didactics "Knowing" is the imperative seal of
are both theoretical and practical at the knowledge. In its form, the agent of action
same time, all the more so since, nowadays, becomes an expanding informational
research is not only done by researchers but universe, being "pressed", and assuming its
also by all those who want to scientifically role of selectively and critically taking over
substantiate their actions. In the instructive- the existing information and creating new
educational process, most Land Force information, communicating, distributing
leaders are convinced of this need. The and effectively using information in
unity between the theoretical and the transformative actions. By the last aspects
practical aspects of the didactic functions of pertaining to the "know" imperative, the
the specialized instruction is emphasized passage into the space of the imperative
not only by the analysis of didactics in its "do" is already visible, the norm of all
quality as a scientific process, but also by action being effective action. As a result,
emphasizing its role as an object of "to be" comprises the agent's own being, the
instruction. As part of the educational plans matrix of its expression in "sets" of
of the "Nicolae Balcescu" Land Forces concrete acts, "roles" and social
Academy and of those of the Weapons "functions". On the stage of “being”, the
Training Centers, after going through the agent of action reaches the fullness of "is."
major specialty subjects, the military The triple hypostasis of the human action
specialty didactics has the role to perform a agent in "knowing," "doing," and "being,"
296
engages an essential prerequisite for the improvement of the current instructive-
intrinsic nature of competence. It will feed educational activity. The research functions
and express itself not only from and not of the didactics are both theoretical and
only through knowledge, the abilities of practical especially that, nowadays, the
transformation or the moral-existential research is done not only by researchers but
"texture" of the agent of action. also by all those who want to scientifically
Competence will mean all of these at once substantiate their actions. In the instructive-
and together. educational process, most military leaders
in the Land Forces are convinced of this
3 Conclusions necessity.
As a scientific process, didactics is enriched
through the continuous study and
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2001,p. 10.
[2] Ionescu, M., Radu, I. (coord.), 'LGDFWLFDPRGHUQă(GLĠLDD ,,-DUHYL]XLWă&OXM-Napoca,
Editura Dacia, 2001 p. 25.
[3] Cristea S., PHGDJRJLH*HQHUDOă0DQDJHPHQWXO(GXFDĠLHL%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD'LGDFWLFăúL
3HGDJRJLFă5$S
[4] Ionescu, M., Radu, I. (coord.), op.cit., p. 20.
[5] Nicola Ioan, 7UDWDWGHSHGDJRJLHúFRODUă%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD'LGDFWLFăúL3HGDJRJLFă5
A., 1996, p. 273.
>@ % ,XFX 5RPLĠă ,QVWUXLUHD úFRODUă 3HUVSHFWLYH WHRUHWLFH úL DSOLFDWLYH ,DúL (GLWXUD
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297
International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANISATION
NON-MILITARY INTERVENTION THROUGH SANCTIONS
Veronika STOILOVA
“Neofit Rilski” South-West University, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria

veronikabg@gmail.com
Abstract: Humanitarian intervention has been perceived as one of the most debatable points between
diplomats, jurists and scientists for a long time. It is also a very complex and multifaceted issue, which
incorporates a number of ethical, international and military aspects. At the present time the topic of
humanitarian intervention is seen primarily in terms of the application of military forces in order to
achieve a specific aim, which may only in certain cases be humanitarian. However, the relevant non-
military intervention, expressed in a variety of sanctions, should also be considered.
Keywords: Humanitarian intervention, non-military intervention, sanctions, United

Nations
1. Introduction against acts, perceived as illegal, whether

At the present time the humanitarian they are criminal, such as the alleged acts of
intervention issue [1] is seen primarily in aggression, or civil considered as breach of
terms of the application of military forces in international obligations.
order a specific aim, which may only in According to Chapter VII of the Charter of
certain cases be humanitarian, to be the United Nations, the Security Council
achieved. However, the relevant non- may take enforcement measures in order to
military intervention, expressed in a variety keep or restore international peace and
of sanctions should, also be considered. security in the form of sanctions. The
Sanctions are a tool of a diplomatic or instrument of coercion is used in cases
economic character that seeks to induce where diplomatic efforts have failed, with
changes in actions or policies that can be the aim of putting pressure on a country. In
breaches of human rights, of international the 1990s sanctions were imposed on Iraq,
law, or policies which do not respect the the former Yugoslavia, Liberia, Rwanda,
rule of law or democratic principles. Somalia, Libya, Afghanistan, Haiti and
International economic and political others.[2]
sanctions in the form of various embargoes Economic sanctions include trade relations
were spread in the 1990s. They are an restrictions and sometimes an embargo on
essential part of so called "non-military" import and export, shipping, cargo flight,
intervention and have the purpose to force a investment and also confiscation of
conduct course, which includes a change of property of the country bearing embargo in
policy, to a country by prohibiting or another state. Sanctions concerned with
limiting the relations regarding economics, politics are related to arms embargoes,
army or politics of this country with other refusal of training or military assistance,
countries in the international community. actions against illegal act being committed
Sanctions are punitive countermeasures by state, restrictions on admission of listed
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0049
298
persons, freezing of assets belonging to significant, therefore, that OAS and the
listed persons or entities, etc.[3] General Assembly condemned the military
coup d'etat in 1991 which overthrew the
2. Major trends in the analysis of government that was elected. Subsequently,
sanctions the Security Council banned certain cargo
Three major trends in the analysis of the and passenger flights to Haiti and limited
sanctions used and supported by the United the access of the political elite to the
Nations in the period of and after the Cold territories of the United Nations’ Member
War can be outlined. The first one is related States. The Security Council imposed an
with the period between 1945 and 1990. embargo on supplies of arms and oil of the
During this period some individual National Union for the Total Independence
countries and the United Nations take of Angola (UNITA), militant organisation
different combinations of unilateral or that fought with the government of Angola
collective sanctions. Most clearly it can be due to the failure of the peace deal signed in
observed during the process of Lusaka (November, 1994).[7] The
decolonization [4] (Chapter XI - XIII of the Economic Community of West African
United Nations Charter): 1) against countries have also started "economic
Portugal concerning Angola and blockade" against the junta in Sierra Leone
Mozambique before 1975; 2) during the in 1997.
announcement of the Unilateral Declaration An interesting example is the intervention
of Independenceof Rhodesia in 1965; 3) in of the British Commonwealth. Under
connection with the illegal presence of Harare Declaration [8] signed in 1991 it
South Africa in Namibia [5], including the imposed economic and political sanctions
period of apartheid (1975 - 1979).[6] Just in against the military governments that in
the clear cases it there was a possibility for some way hinder the development of
the Security Council to decide upon the democracy or cause the overthrow of
collective use of sanctions. Subsequently, democratically elected governments in Fiji,
the General Assembly passed a lot of "non- Nigeria and Pakistan.
binding" resolutions imposing sanctions With regard to the sanctions undertaken it
during the debates related to the should be noted that the assessment of their
decolonization process. influence and efficiency in relation to the
The second trend is related with the period purposes they were imposed for poses a
after 1990s. There is an increasing use of serious difficulty.[9] Therefore the United
unilateral or collective sanctions in the Nations Security Council established a
context of enforcement measures under the Sanctions Committee [10] whose aim is to
Chapter VII of the UN Charter. The consent ensure the effective implementation of the
with the sanctions regime is in many cases measures imposed. In this regard, the EU
voluntary in the beginning to achieve an adopted a Regulation [11] connected with
agreement. Later, as the case may be, the restrictive measures regarding the current
imposed sanctions may be compulsory state in the Central African Republic. The
according to Chapter VII. types of sanctions that Member States may
Another (third) important point is the usage establish and also are applicable to ensure
of sanctions as a means of intervention in their implementation are listed there.
support of democracy. This is by the UN According to that Regulation the sanctions
and the Commonwealth as well as the provided for have to be effective,
European Union (EU), the Organisation of proportionate and dissuasive.[12]
American States (OAS), including other According to the UN Charter, the Security
regional organisations. Haiti’s case is Council has the power to take decisions
299
which are binding on all member states of period after 1990) sanctions are directed
the Organisation concerning all restrictive towards individuals or groups and most
measures necessary to keep or restore often were imposed along with export or
international peace and security where there assistance restrictions. A good example of
is a threat to peace, violation of the peace or the above mentioned fact is North Korea.
any act of aggression. In this regard, under The UN Security Council sanctions were
Article 41 of the Charter such measures directed towards the head of the country
might include complete/partial interruption Kim Chen Ir. Instead of imposing general
of economic relations, of rail, sea, air, sanctions the UN Security Council bans the
postal, radio, telegraphic as well as other selling of luxury goods to North Korea and
means of communication, including the freezes some assets abroad in response to
severance of diplomatic relations. nuclear tests conducted in the country in
Very often sanctions in the form of October 2006 (restored in 2007 as a part of
embargo, economic restrictions [13], etc. the American carrot-and-stick diplomacy
damage the economic and social welfare of towards North Korea).
the people as a whole than the political Another attempt for the implementation of
leadership against which the coercive smart sanctions is the UN Security Council
measures have been imposed. What is list of measures adopted in March 2007 on
particularly interesting in this context are so the regime of the former Iranian President
called "smart sanctions" [14] that target the Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. [17] The measures
ruling elite. They can be applied through taken are intended to strike Iranian rulers
measures such as freezing of foreign assets, through restrictions on the oil and gas
a ban on the direct or indirect provision of exports. To a considerable extent sanctions
economic resources and limiting access for succeed in achieving this goal. In
travel in the countries imposing this November 2013 a compromise in the
sanction, such as the ban on senior officials nuclear dispute was achieved. An
to travel to EU countries and the USA. [15] agreement was signed in Geneva under
Under certain conditions related to the which Tehran should freeze part of its
provision of humanitarian aid, food and nuclear program and the West should ease
medical assistance to the civilian population the restrictions imposed. However, the
in a particular country, some exceptions are results for the population are more severe
possible, but only after a United Nations than expected.
Security Council approval. Consequences, negative for civilians rather
It should be noted that the notion of smart than for the regime, suggest that economic
sanctions as an alternative to broad sanctions and embargo are unlikely to be
economic ones is comparatively modern. the preferred instrument for intervention in
Chronologically reviewed, travel and asset the future, although at the present moment
restrictions have been imposed in the they are imposed on the Russian Federation
context of wider measures taken against after the outbreak of the conflict in Ukraine
certain leaders. In this regard, a survey of and after the Crimea referendum. In this
the sanctions applied during the 20th regard, former UN Secretary General
century was made by the Institute for Boutros-Ghali determined the sanctions as a
International Economics (IIE), which special tool presented in the Supplement to
showed that only in 20 of the cases smart an Agenda for Peace in 1995. [18]
sanctions were imposed (such as arms According to him, their imposition is a
embargoes, travel and asset restrictions) legitimate means of putting pressure on
beyond the overall embargo. [16] Even in political leaders whose behavior is not
these 20 cases (nine of which are in the likely to be affected by the plight of the
300
citizens. Furthermore, he noted that The creation of special war crimes tribunals
sanctions, as it has always been, have [19] for the former Yugoslavia (1993) as
unintended or unwanted effects, as they well as Rwanda (1994) is a main
cause greater suffering among vulnerable innovation. In spite of the initial skepticism
groups, can make the work of humanitarian and significant critics on the successful
agencies more complicated by denying work of these bodies, a lot of senior
them particular categories of supplies, can officials were convicted there and also a
damage the productive capacity of the progress has been made in clarifying
target state and could also create serious various cases. Furthermore, they contribute
consequences for the relations with to the development of international criminal
neighboring countries and trading partners. jurisprudence. As a result of their activities
On the other hand, sanctions could cause it was made clear that there is a criminal
backfire by provoking population rallying responsibility for crimes of war in the
and support of leaders whose behavior the internal armed conflicts as well as for the
sanctions aim to change. crimes against humanity after the end of the
armed conflict.
3. International criminal prosecutions Some scientists believe that there are
International criminal prosecution could significant gaps in the rules related to the
also be considered as a form of unarmed Heads of State inviolability. They try to
intervention. In the 1990s, almost half a turn our attention to the rule, perceived
century after the war crimes tribunals in until recently, which is: leading officials,
Nuremberg and Tokyo after the Second which includes retired ones, cannot be tried
World War, this type of sanction begins to in courts in a foreign country for acts
apply again. Changes in the international committed in their own state in the period
environment also cause changes in in which they hold the position. [20] In
international criminal law regarding this 1989 the former Panamanian General
type of intervention. In fact, using this tool Manuel Noriega was caught and
is important for humanitarian activities, subsequently convicted by the United
which were planned to be undertaken. States, which can be considered as the first
Mass breaches of the international law in major crack in the international law on
the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda these matters. The House of Lords (United
provoke the Security Council to establish Kingdom Supreme Court after 30 July
two international tribunals in order to 2009), which acts as the highest court of the
prosecute those responsible for these United Kingdom, in the third case against
violations. The two tribunals were created former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet
under Chapter VII of the UN Charter that [21], created a strong precedent related to
describes the coercive measures and cessation of the practice senior officials to
subsidiary bodies of the Security Council. be protected from charges of crimes
The Special Court for Sierra Leone was set committed during their rule, stating that he
up as an independent legal body in January does not have immunity from arrest and
2000 under an agreement between the judicial investigation.
Government of Sierra Leone and the United The arrest and trial of the ex-President of
Nations. It aims to pursue persons who bear Chad Hissène Habré in Senegal is a proof
the greatest responsibility for crimes against that this practice began to apply almost
humanity, war crimes, and crimes against worldwide. Similar legal grounds were
the laws of Sierra Leonean law committed accepted in the practice of the Tribunal
in the country after 30th November, 1996. Arusha [22] who convicted the former
Prime Minister Jean Kambanda of Rwanda
301
for genocide and crimes against humanity. jurisdiction. In this regard it could be
Biljana Plavsic, ex-President of Republika concluded that the application of universal
Srpska, surrendered voluntarily to the jurisdiction remains dependent in each case
Hague tribunal after an accusation of on the favorable political context.
genocide and complicity in genocide in The issue of the future framework of
March 2001. The indictment for war crimes universal jurisdiction is the subject of a
against the President of the Federal wide discussion in the Sixth Committee of
Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan the UN. The International Committee of the
Milosevic on Kosovo is another precedent. Red Cross also emphasizes the importance
International criminal prosecution is not of universal jurisdiction to prevent and
directed only to heads of state. An deter the most serious breaches of
interesting example is the trial against the international humanitarian law.
former Rwanda Minister of Women's It is therefore reasonable to draw a
Development and Family Welfare Paulina conclusion that the universal jurisdiction is
Nyiramasuhuko, who has been sentenced to not the only way to tackle with the
life imprisonment for genocide and crimes impunity of international crimes, which is
against humanity. She was the first woman why it should not be considered in
convicted of genocide by the UN Tribunal isolation. The idea that is receiving more
in Rwanda after a 10-year judicial process. and more support is that the universal
Moreover, in 2001 in Belgium there began jurisdiction should be exercised as a last
a trial against two Rwandan Catholic nuns measure when courts that can take action
accused of complicity in genocide in the based on the territorial principle or active or
country in 1994. [23] The process was passive personal responsibility have no
brought under a law allowing Belgian capacity to do so or decide not to do so for
courts to judge every inhabitant of the some other reason.
country, who is accused of war crimes,
regardless of where they are committed. 5. Conclusion
Such examples raise the question of the It should be noted that the threat to
establishment of a universal jurisdiction for international peace and security is
grave violations of human rights. Non- becoming increasingly widespread, which
interference in the internal affairs of other requires the emergence of clearer grounds
states is left behind in favor of the concept for an international response for
of universal humanitarian intervention or humanitarian reasons.
universal jurisdiction. Attention should always be increased
during the discussions devoted to the usage
4. Universal jurisdiction of force in the international relations.
The concept of universal jurisdiction [24] is The new realities related to the issues of
not a universally accepted idea. According international peace and security require the
to Henry Kissinger there is a strong creation of clear criteria for the conduction
possibility the International Criminal Court of armed interventions in conformity with
(ICC) to degenerate into "tyranny of the international law and the UN Charter.
judges". [25] In this sense, the The sanctions imposed by the UN Security
representatives of African and Arab Council till now as a whole have not
countries define the ICC as a court against achieved their goals. Their failure is not due
their leaders. On behalf of the African to their own shortcomings as a tool of
countries at the initiative of Tanzania there impact but to a lack of consistency in their
began a discussion within the UN on the implementation. The imposition of
implementation of the principle of universal sanctions takes place despite the criticism
of most politicians and researchers about
302
their political inefficiency and humanitarian and the preventive use of force continue.
consequences. Discussions on so-called Issues related to the legality of
intelligent sanctions, intended to exert humanitarian intervention are relevant to
pressure on particular leaders and ruling non-military intervention.
forces, rather than on the general public,
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ɋɛɨɪɧɢɤ ɨɬ Ƚɨɞɢɲɧɚ ɧɚɭɱɧɚ ɤɨɧɮɟɪɟɧɰɢɹ Äȿɜɪɨɩɟɣɫɤɨɬɨ ɛɴɞɟɳɟ ɧɚ Ȼɴɥɝɚɪɢɹ
ɉɪɚɜɧɢɚɫɩɟɤɬɢ´ɋɨɮɢɹɝ
[2] ȻɟɥɨɜɚȽɄɨɧɮɥɢɤɬɢɬɟ– ɦɟɠɞɭɧɚɪɨɞɧɨɩɪɚɜɧɢɚɫɩɟɤɬɢɋɢɟɥɚɋɫɬɪ;
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Sanctions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter"
[3] ȺɥɟɤɫɚɧɞɪɨɜȿɊɟɱɧɢɤɩɨɦɟɠɞɭɧɚɪɨɞɧɢɨɬɧɨɲɟɧɢɹɌɪɚɤɢɹ-Ɇɋɫɬɪ
[4] UN Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples.
Adopted by General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960
[5] International Court of Justice Pleadings, Oral arguments, Documents legal consequences
for States of the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970) Volume 1 Request for
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cij.org/docket/files/53/9361.pdf
[6] United Nations General Assembly Resolution 204 (XX) of 11 November 1965; UN
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November 1965, S/RES/216 (1965)
[7] The first United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM) was established in
1988 and was transformed in 1991 into UNAVEM-2
[8] The Harare Commonwealth Declaration, 1991 (Issued by Heads of Government in
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[9] Simons, G. L., Imposing Economic Sanctions: Legal Remedy or Genocidal Tool?, Pluto
Press, London, 1999; See: Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, Kimberly Ann
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[10] The Security Council Sanctions Committee established pursuant to resolution 2127
(2013) concerning the Central African Republic (CAR) was created on 5 December
2013 to oversee the relevant sanctions measure (arms embargo) and to undertake the
tasks set out by the Security Council in paragraph 57 of the same resolution. See:
http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2127%282013%29
[11] Council Regulation (EU) No 224/2014 of 10 March 2014 concerning restrictive
measures in view of the situation in the Central African Republic. See: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/BG/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32014R0224
[12] In recent years, the EU has often imposed sanctions (restrictive measures) either on its
own or in compliance with binding UN Security Council resolutions. Restrictive
measures imposed by the EU may target third country governments or non-state entities
and individuals (such as terrorist groups and terrorists). These may include arms
embargoes, other specific or general trade restrictions (import and export bans),
financial restrictions, access restrictions (visas or travel bans) or other appropriate
measures.
303
[13] 'HVLJQ ɚQG ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ ɨI $UPV (PEDUJRHV ɚQG 7UDYHO ɚQG $YLDWLRQ 5HODWHG
6DQFWLRQV 5HVXOWV ɨI WKH µ%RQQ-Berlin Process ’Bonn International Center for
Conversion in cooperation with the Auswärtiges Amt (German Foreign Office) and the
United Nations Secretariat, Bonn 2001
[14] Smart sanctions are a new scheme for the implementation of an economic embargo
introduced by the United States in 2001 and directed against the regime of Saddam
Hussein. They were legalized on May 14, 2002, when Iraq officially became part of the
"axis of evil" announced by George Bush. See: Kostov, V., The Wars of Saddam, Trud,
S., 2010, p. 257
[15] Eyler, R., Economic Sanctions. International Policy and Political Economy at Work,
Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, pp. 60 – 62
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Publishing, 2007, p. 516; See: Hufbauer, G. C., Oegg, B., Targeted Sanctions: A Policy
Alternative? Paper for a symposium on "Sanctions Reform? Evaluating the Economic
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papers/targeted-sanctions-policy-alternative
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Sanctions Reconsidered, 3d ed., Peter G. Peterson, Institute for International
Economics, Washington,2007, pp. 138 - 139
[18] Boutros Boutros-*KDOL 6XSSOHPHQW WR ɚQ $JHQGD IRU 3HDFH 3RVLWLRQ 3DSHU ɨI WKH
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3.01.1995, paras. 66–76. See: www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/50/plenary/a50-60.htm
[19] The term "war crimes" and its criminal-law characteristics are regulated in the Statute of
the International Military Court in Nuremberg. By virtue of this Statute, war crimes are:
"a violation of laws or customs of war". These include: murders and torture of prisoners
of war or hostages; Pillage of public or private property, etc.
[20] United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property
General Assembly resolution 59/38 of 2 December 2004. See:
http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/4_1_2004_resolution.pdf
[21] Geoffrey Robertson, Crimes against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (London:
Penguin, 1999), p. 398.
[22] UN Security Council, Security Council resolution 955 (1994) [Establishment of the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda], 8 November 1994, S/RES/955 (1994),
available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f2742c.html [accessed 21 April 2017]
[23] Max L. Rettig,Transnational Trials as Transitional Justice: Lessons from the Trial of
Two Rwandan Nuns in Belgium, 11 Wash. U. GlobalStud. L. Rev. 365 (2012)
[24@Ʉɚɦɟɧɨɜɚɐɍɧɢɜɟɪɫɚɥɧɚɸɪɢɫɞɢɤɰɢɹɋɪɚɜɧɢɬɟɥɧɨɩɪɚɜɧɨɢɡɫɥɟɞɜɚɧɟɇɚɭɱɧɢ
ɬɪɭɞɨɜɟ ɧɚ ɂɉɇ ɬɨɦ ȱ9 ɝ; See: Ʉɚɦɟɧɨɜɚ ɐ Ɉɬɧɨɫɧɨ Ɋɟɡɨɥɸɰɢɹɬɚ ɡɚ
ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɚɥɧɚ ɸɪɢɫɞɢɤɰɢɹ ɧɚ ɂɧɫɬɢɬɭɬɚ ɩɨ ɦɟɠɞɭɧɚɪɨɞɧɨ ɩɪɚɜɨ ɋɩ Äɉɪɚɜɧɚ
ɦɢɫɴɥ´ɛɪɝɫ– 62.
[25] Solis, Gary D., The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War,
Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 306; See: Henry A. Kissinger, "The Pitfalls of
Universal Jurisdiction," Foreign Affairs 80, no. 4 (July-August 2001), pp. 86–87.
304
THE DRONES AND ISSUES CONNECTED WITH THEIR USE IN

CONTEMPORARY CONFLICTS
Richard STOJAR

richard.stojar@unob.cz
Abstract: The text deals with the development and methods of use of Drones or Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles in contemporary conflicts or special operations. The contribution tries to present the main
advantages of these vehicles as being the main reasons for their current use in armed forces of state
as well as non-state actors and their dynamic proliferation in global space in past years. We can
observe a new trend in the armed conflict in the last two decades – use of advanced systems of
unmanned vehicles in such a range that many military and academic experts talk about a new wave of
revolutionary changes in the military affairs. This wave, or we could even talk about military-
technological breakthrough should lead to imminent use of these systems in contemporary as well as
future conflicts which would result in the partial or complex robotization of the battlefield. Specific
attention is dedicated to controversies tied to the use of Drones/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in so-
called Drone Warfare and current discussion in the context of cultural or societal dimension of their
use and perspectives for further development.
Keywords: Drones, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, contemporary conflicts, robotization
1. Introduction occurred in this field, allowing

In the last two decades, it is possible to unprecedented development. In the case of
observe a new significant trend in armed the contemporary resources we can really
conflicts, consisting in the deployment of talk about at least a partial military-
advanced remotely controlled technological revolution, as it is defined at
reconnaissance and weapon systems, to the expert level, based on the substantial
such an extent that some military and shift in their capacities [1].
academic experts speak of a new wave of
revolutionary changes in the military field. 2. Evolution
This wave or even the military- In the last 15 years, global attention was
technological breakthrough can lead to an directed in particular to the strikes of armed
increased use of such systems in UAVs implemented by the CIA against
contemporary and future conflicts and result terrorist and insurgent groups in the Near
in either partial or full robotization of the and Middle East as well as the dynamic
battlefield. The deployment of unmanned proliferation of reconnaissance drones in
systems is not a surprising novelty, and the armed forces of a number of states and
their use corresponding to the respective also non-state actors. There is a clear
technical possibilities can be traced back to general trend toward intensification of the
the second half of the 20th century, UAVs and their utilization for air strikes.
however, technological progress has also The first actual deployment of the UAVs
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0050
305
for reconnaissance and observation identified large quantities of false targets,
activities can be dated to the period of the and several of the drones were eliminated
Vietnam War, where American troops, by the Yugoslav air defence. The overall
faced with an increasing air defence of the usefulness of the concept, however, was
adversary, started to use reconnaissance confirmed also here, and further positive
drones, thus eliminating the potential losses experience was soon obtained with
of human crews in high risk missions. deploying drones in Afghanistan after 2001.
Despite the positive experience, in the Still based on the experience from Kosovo,
1970s this program was not further in an experiment, the Predator drone was
developed in the US, however, several armed with the Hellfire anti-tank guided
drones of this type were received by Israel missile, the first tests starting in February
as part of the military aid. In the following 2001. The US operations in Afghanistan
decades this country became their principal then allowed an unusually quick transition
innovator and practical user in combat from the experiment to the practical
deployment. After the experience of Yom application in combat. With the military
Kippur War of 1973, when the Israeli army involvement of the US in Afghanistan and
faced strong air defence of the Arab states, Iraq, there was a real boom of drones, both
Israel sought an efficient tool for its reconnaissance and armed ones, leading to
elimination. In the conflict with Syria of further major development in this area.
1982, the Israeli side fairly robustly used Former CIA director L. Panetta described
reconnaissance drones for the detection and the program of targeted liquidation using
subsequent inefficient activation of the armed drones as the only measure that is
adversary’s air defence weapons. The able to fight al-Qaeda effectively on a
positive Israeli experience with the global scale [3]. The increase in the
unmanned aerial systems attracted the numbers of unmanned military aircrafts in
attention in the US, arousing a revival of the US was demonstrated also by the fact
interest in these technologies. The United that in 2010 their number was 40 times
States subsequently started the development higher compared to 2002 [4]. The economic
of a new generation of drones, and their dimension of the introduction of drones
first operational deployment occurred among the weaponry is also significant
already during the Gulf War in 1991 [2]. nowadays. In addition to the low cost
This demonstrated not only their compared to the use of piloted fighter jets in
effectiveness in reconnaissance tasks but the operations there is a significant
also the psychological impact they had on comparative advantage in the acquisition
the Iraqi opponent. In 1995, the first drone process. For the price of one military
of the Predator type was produced in the airplane of the fifth generation F-35, now
US, which was, despite its name, intended introduced in the western armed forces, at
only for exploratory purposes. It was first present it is possible to acquire a
directly put into service in 1999 during the multifunction system with approximately
so called Kosovo crisis, to perform 10-12 multifunction drones including the
reconnaissance tasks and mark targets to be complete associated logistical equipment,
subsequently attacked by piloted combat while the probability of operational
aircrafts. At that time, Yugoslavia became deployment is now even greater than it is in
an area of so far unprecedented deployment the case of a piloted machine.
of several types of reconnaissance drones by A relatively specific category of armed
the alliance states. The analysis of the use unmanned aircrafts is currently represented
of drones revealed their extensive potential, by the self-destructive units, so called
albeit with certain downsides. The kamikaze drones. These drones are a
machines that were used, for example, product of the partial improvisation and
306
they are not such sophisticated systems as The Russian Federation, for instance,
the American types Predator or Reaper, but presented an ambitious project of
for many users they are more accessible, developing hypersonic multi-functional
even though they are intended only for a fighter drones of the sixth generation, with
one time use. The deployment of these the first flight expected in 2025. The
machines in combat was seen in the case of deployment of these resources should be the
the short-term escalation of the conflict in mix of one to two piloted machines, the
Nagorno-Karabakh. In April 2016, operators of which would coordinate the
Azerbaijani forces utilized a modified action of 5 to 10 unit swarms using the
Israeli drone of the Harop type in the attack elements of swarming tactics. Similar
on the Armenian military convoy. A similar intention was declared previously by the US
use took place in early October 2016 by the Navy, planning prospectively to replace the
Islamic State in the attack on the base near F-35, still not in service, by currently tested
Erbil in Iraqi Kurdistan. These recorded unmanned supersonic units [6].
incidents can be assessed from the Currently, there is a specific advantage in
perspective of the user as successful, as the the use of armed drones by the US side for
drones caused significant human casualties targeted liquidation of enemy individuals,
among the enemy with a small cost in which may often have a preemptive
comparison to the conventional weapons. In character. There are also opinions that the
the case of the Islamic State, the drone used increase in the quantity of application of
was probably only an inexpensive civilian this approach under the Obama
commercial model equipped with an administration was caused by the effort to
explosive charge, which confirms the avoid the complications the previous Bush
anticipated trend of exploiting these administration had with the status of people
accessible resources for asymmetric forms suspected of hostile activities. These
of struggle and terrorist attacks. individuals, mostly captured in operations
in Afghanistan, were detained at the base in
3. Perspectives Guantanamo without enjoying the
The prospective utilization of drones in the protection resulting from the international
future, however, includes a far greater range conventions and, in a number of cases, also
of military activities than it is the case without any charges, thus, their status
today. Because of the reduced physical outside of the law raised strong criticism.
capacities of a human organism, full and Physical liquidation of similar persons
complete replacement of piloted fighter during special operations using drones helps
aircrafts by unmanned air systems can be avoid similar controversies, albeit at the
expected in the future. A trained human can cost of loosing the possibility of
withstand a maximum load of 8G, whereas intelligence exploitations of such
a drone has no such restrictions and its individuals. On the other hand, the program
design does not need to take account of of targeted eliminating of enemy persons
additional needs or limits of the human raises new controversies. UAVs, according
crew [5]. The future of air battles and to critical voices, reduce the threshold of
achieving dominance in the air will political sensitivity toward using force, as
probably also become a domain of piloted machines have never been used to
machines from which the human element such an extent for intelligence controlled
will be completely absent. In this respect, extrajudicial neutralization of individuals
some countries have already declared on the territory which the operating state
initiating their own program of was not in a state of war with. Flexible
development of unmanned supersonic or deployment, efficiency, absence of human
hypersonic combat airplanes of the future. crew as well as the low cost of drones may
307
reduce barriers for the political actors in prospective struggle of values may not
deciding whether or not to use violence and resound favourably for the West. The
make it easier to authorise problematic population in the areas of drone operations
kinetic operations. The employed modern facing the collateral damage caused by their
technology, therefore, does not represent a strikes is not a suitable material for winning
neutral tool in terms of values in this case, the hearts and minds. A number of expert
rather, it creates structural conditions for the treatments argue that despite their deadly
action of human actors itself. From the efficiency, drones produce more enemies
point of view of the critics, drones also than they manage to eliminate. Therefore,
allow the elites of leadership to wage war the debate over the current use of armed
almost constantly without significant costs drones can result, in some cases, in the
and without more profound interest in the reluctance or refusal to use these resources
matter or resistance from the public, thus by the political actors, if they are subjected
becoming a tool of unethical and immoral to strong social disfavour as a result. An
policy [7]. example can be seen in the current
controversy about the introduction of armed
4. Controversies drones into the equipment of the French
There is also a problematic cultural and army. This trend is not welcome by the
societal dimension of the use of drones. public opinion under the influence of left-
This is obvious namely in the conflicts that leaning intellectuals, regardless of the fact
the West conducts in an entirely different that from the practical point of view there is
cultural environment. Even though drones no difference between using drone and any
are not autonomous robotic systems and in other standard means of combat. In
practical terms there is not a big difference addition, unlike the American operators, the
whether the target object has been hit by a French ones are still active in situ, that is
remote-controlled drone, piloted aircraft or directly in the area of deployment, thus, we
artillery, from the point of view of a cannot speak of the unethical absence of
contemporary adversary and regional personal risk. The current debate includes
population it is not perceived this way. also differing opinions claiming that combat
Present day drones are often viewed as an drones are entirely legal and legitimate
almost robotic weapon which, despite its weapons, which are, contrary to their
technological sophistication, represents a negative image and owing to their high
symbol of cowardice and decline of the accuracy, more humane than other
West. This is especially due to the contemporary and socially accepted combat
perceived reluctance to risk or engage the weapon systems. Along with the negative
lives of their own soldiers for the values perception of the armed drones, the concept
that the West is trying to import into the of drones as operator risk free weapons can
local environment. An unwanted contrast be also challenged. The drone operators,
arises between the dedicated combatants - based on several studies, suffer from
martyrs on the one hand and the murderous comparable psychological stress as soldiers
robotic weapons these heroes have to resist, in the field, while it is more difficult for
engaged in an uneven fight. The technical them to overcome this stress due to their
superiority already ceases to be seen as a physical isolation from the area of
manifestation of power and the strength of deployment. Moreover, these operators are
the opponent, as it was the case in the only a part of a wider complex, as the
recent past, instead, it becomes a symptom deployment of drones is inextricably
of their weakness. The military inferiority connected to the activities of the special
of insurgent or terrorist groups can turn into forces in the target area and the drones are
an ideological advantage and the in some cases directly piloted by them.
308
Furthermore, it is not possible to rule out 5. Conclusions
the risk of attacking one’s own or allied Over the last few years, UAVs have
troops while there is also a concentration of significantly influenced the way of waging
the opponent’s effort toward people or wars and counter-insurgency operations,
objects associated with the deployment of while their potential, despite the dynamic
drones. The suicide attack from 2009 development of this system, is still far from
against the US military base in eastern exhausted. Developed armed forces
Afghanistan, which resulted in the death of increasingly use these resources to replace
eight CIA agents, was primarily motivated the former piloted air technology in the
by the fact that the rebels identified these field of reconnaissance activities and a
people as collecting information for targeted similar trend is to be expected also in the
drone attacks. French soldiers in Afghanistan case of armed combat resources. Today,
had a similar experience when their base was armed drones are used primarily in the areas
exposed to a series of attacks by the of targeted elimination of enemy
insurgents after commencing the exploratory combatants. Their more extensive military
activities of their Harfang drone [8]. use in conventional fighting, at least at a
The risk factor of deployment can also have tactical level, may be expected in the near
a technical nature, in other words the future. The present and prospective use of
opponent’s drone can be seized and military drones is the subject of controversy
potentially used or directly applied against and criticism, often associated with the
their own forces or the civilian population. concerns that this trend will result in
This option cannot be entirely excluded, as significant robotization of the battlefield
it is illustrated by the case of the Iranian and the associated adverse effects. These
capturing of the US drone Sentinel, which effects include possible misuse of the
probably resulted in the Iranian success in unmanned weapon systems, based on their
decoding the data of a drone of the same expected availability, or employing an
type active in the Afghan Kandahar. A unethical, dehumanized way of combat,
similar incident was taking control of the which will, furthermore, generate new
US drone by the Iraqi Shiite rebels in 2010 enemies and their asymmetric reaction.
using a commercially available application Still, it is more than likely that confronted
called SkyGrabber worth only EUR 18. We with the efficiency of drones and similar
can also mention the penetration of an systems all of these concerns and
outsider person into the system of the assumptions will be outweighed by the
research drone used by NASA in 2015, so political and military arguments and the
the concerns about the potential enemy logical effort to take advantage of the
takeover of drones in the future are not economic benefits associated with their use,
totally unjustified. In combination with the while minimizing the potential of human
use of commercial and generally available losses on the side of their user.
drones, there is a significant increase in the
risk that, using open source resources, an
asymmetric adversary can also obtain
effective and inexpensive means to
strengthen their capacities and destructive
potential [9].
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310
PARATROOPERS IN THE INTELLIGENCE CONFRONTATIONS DURING

THE SECOND WORLD WAR
0LUFHD7Ă1$6(
Ministry of National Defense, Bucharest, Romania

mirceatanase2003@yahoo.com
Abstract: Characterised by the capability to rapidly penetrate the enemy disposition, at long
distance, by air, using transport aircraft, by parachuting or landing, as well as by own combat
capacity, airborne troops could successfully execute a wide range of specific missions, either
independently or in cooperation with other units or large units in the land, air or naval forces, to meet
the operational and strategic goals. Mention should be made that almost all belligerents in the Second
World War successfully employed groups of well-trained fighters, parachuted behind the enemy
disposition, to execute intelligence missions: information collection, “commando”-type diversionary
actions, as well as supply of weapons for local partisans and resistance formations.
KEYWORDS: airborne troops, paratroopers, intelligence, commando, partisans
1. Introduction aerodrome and communication lines etc., as

In the major airborne operations of the well as arming local partisan elements.
Second World War intelligence has played For the Soviets, at least, we can say that
a decisive role in gaining success or diversion operations have been more
compromising this, if we talk only about successful than actual airborne operations,
the Allied landings in Normandy representing an outstanding adjuvant in the
(Operation Overlord in June 1944), when successful guerrilla war in 1943 and 1944,
the intelligence built a spectacular surprise but these will be the subject for other
that supported success of the action and article.
airborne operation in Holland (operation
Market Garden in September 1944), when 2. Airborne and special German actions
the lack or ignoring the information made Germany created the first battalion of
as a renowned historian concluded, "to be paratroopers from January 29, 1936, at the
written an odyssey and a tragedy to be initiative of Colonel (later General) Kurt
played "[1]. Student, supported by Herman Göring, head
Along with these airborne operations, of the Luftwaffe, prestigious aviator of the
fighter paratroopers were used in the broad World War I, and after 1920 representative
spectrum of the intelligence community, we firms parachutes "Heinecke" and
could define the active side, with direct "Thörnbland"- who convinced Hitler of the
actions specific for that period, when need to create this elite corps of the German
technical means had not reached the army. On April 1, 1938, the battalion of
possibilities we know - or just we suppose - paratroopers became 1st Paratroopers
today, research assignments and diversion Regiment, part of the 7th Airborne
type "commando" attack and neutralize Division/7 Fliegerdivision, founded in the
enemy vital centers of major commands, summer of that year, whose commanding
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0051
311
officer was General Student. In the same leaving any reaction time for the Dutch.
year, 1938, there were established the Meanwhile, a group of paratroopers, who
feared "Brandenburg" detachments, landed on a stadium, on the southern side of
comprising excellent trained volunteers, the bridge, supported their colleagues that
fluent in several languages, trained for were parachuted from the seaplanes, and
missions by parachute into the enemy lines. during all this time they commandeered
On September 1, 1939, a group of 80 several trams. Paratroopers of Captain Karl-
soldiers from the elite corps, led by Lothar Schultz were dropped east of the
Lieutenant Gräbert acted in triage Katowice Waalhaven airfield, drawing into battle the
in Poland, opening the series of hostilities Dutch forces that were trying to defend it,
of the Second World War [2], where the in order for a battalion from the 16th
German Airborne troops will be both Airborne Infantry Regiment to land without
winning and losing during all this war.For any difficulties and in a short period of time
the occupation of Denmark and Norway in conquered the airfield. In the Hague,
April 1940, nearly 500 transport aicraft, German paratroopers in Dutch uniforms
three-engined Junkers Ju-52, heavy Junkers managed to confuse the local people, being
Ju-90 and Focke-Wulf FW-200 transported confused with the Dutch army. At 15th
by air paratroopers and airborne units. May 1940, 9.30 a.m., "The Netherlands
Liddell Hart stated that "it was also used a surrenders. General Henri Winkelman
battalion of paratroopers - to capture the orders the cessation of hostilities. The
airports in Oslo and Stavanger. It was for Hague surrenders without fighting.[…]In
the first time in the war when airborne Belgium, nazi paratroopers conquer the
troops were used, their contribution proving bridges in the area of Maastricht-
to be extremely important [...]. The mission Veldmezelt and Vroenhoven on the Albert
to capture Oslo was assigned to Canal. Paratroopers of Lieutenant Colonel
paratroopers, who landed on Fornebu Mikosch reach the front of the fortress
airport; in the evening, this symbolic force Eben-Emael" [5].
marched through the city, in what was For the assault of this fortress, ranked as the
supposed to intimidate the Norwegians" [3]. most modern in the world, and designed to
For Operation Gelb - the German Offensive protect the three bridges, nine of Lieutenant
against Netherlands, Belgium and France, a Witzig's gliders landed on her
"Panzerdivision" should have been attacked superstructure, German pioneers managing
the central part of the Netherlands, and to neutralize artillery sites and observation
another division, the southern part of the posts. Almost 1,000 Belgian soldiers were
country and then to move forward to taken prisoner and their surprise was greater
Belgium. The airborne corps, under the when they saw the small number of German
command of Lieutenant-General Kurt paratroopers who had occupied the fort. On
Student, had to conquer the vital points to May 27, 1940 the Belgian King Leopold
ensure the advance of the armored troops surrendered. At June 21, 1940, France, who
and to interconnect with them. "Airborne was also defeated, was forced to sign an
troops get in action. They are launched on armistice [6].
Vaalhaven airfield, near Rotterdam, on the In anticipation of the operation Mercury -
Hague and on Dordrecht island, near the big the conquest of Crete in May 1941 -
port of Moerdik. In the Netherlands, the Germans launched several airborne
main airfields and communication nodes formations in the islands of Limnos, Thasos
are intercepted" [4]. and Samothrace, in northeast Aegean Sea,
12 Heinkel-59 seaplanes landed paratroopers between April 24 to 29, 1941, and captured
from the detachment commanded by on 26 April 1941 the metallic bridge over
Lieutenant Schrader, who went up to the the Corinth canal in to cut the withdrawal
double bridge over the Meuse, without means through Peloponnesus for the British
312
troops and the Commonwealth ones. The first step, a commando company whose
element of surprise was represented by people speak English, and entered with 40
sappers-paratroopers, carried by three jeeps into the alloy when the front was
gliders DFS-230, which landed precisely pierced. Their mission was to disrupt phone
and smoothly at both ends of the bridge, lines, to redirect traffic signs and
neutralizing guard and devices to destroy it suggestions to the roads are blocked.
before the defenders to react, 200 aircraft Confusion among Americans was able to
Junkers -52 have dropped by a battalion of lead them to take the most severe measures
paratroopers on each side of the channel. clamping teams walked freely to the rear,
The British managed to destroy anti-aircraft with the first resulting in a huge traffic jam
Bofors gun using the bridge, which hit a for search saboteurs. Panic created by the
bunch of explosives disconnected. assumption that many of these gangs
On September 12, 1943, a company of operate freely and rumor that tasked
paratroopers under the command of Otto assassinate Eisenhower and other senior
Skorzeny, landed gliders near the hotel military commanders allies have imposed
"Campo Imperatore" in Gran Sasso, their taking precautions exaggerated and
Abruzzi Mountains, at over 2,200 m embarrassing, they have hampered
altitude, where Benitto Mussolini was considerably freedom of action over almost
arrested by their compatriots and without ten days [9].
encountering any resistance from Italian
guard, "Il Duce" was on board a glider and 3. Allied paratroopers in airborne
transported to the German base "practice di operations and special missions.
Mare" near Rome, and from there to Vienna In 1940 England created the first battalion
[7]. Battalion 500th SS, created in the same of paratroopers and on September 1, 1941
period of Skorzeny, the SS officers and was established 1st Aerotransport Brigade,
volunteers, as well as rehabilitation of which soon will increase herds and become
prisoners eager, was tasked with other First Airborne Division [10]. In 1942 it was
special missions. Trying to capture created the 6th Airborne Division and the
Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, in June two structures together with bands like the
1944, it resulted however in failure after US, particularly Divisions 82nd and 101st
three days of fighting with paratroopers Airborne, created in mid-August 1942,
Germans he managed to escape through a were covered with glory in major airborne
secret exit of the cave that is his point of operations allied in the second part of the
order. The same SS battalion in October Second World War. Simultaneously, small
1944, imposed a new pro-german groups of paratroopers behind enemy
government in Budapest, baffling Admiral launched, would it create its
Horthy's intention to conclude a separate unpleasantness, some of the most
peace with the Soviets. spectacular consequences.
During the riposte in Ardennes, in In France, on February 27, 1942, he was
December 1944, through which the executed a raid to destroy airborne
Germans hoped to conquer again the (removal) radar station at Bruneval near Le
strategic advantage in Western Europe Havre, which was part of the coastal
which can be a model in terms of creating network installed by the Germans to rein in
diversion by misinformation to the effect aviation English. Operation entrusted Major
exceeded the expectations of its initiators Frost and Company "C" of the 2nd
[8]. Otto Skorzeny, now commander of the Battalion Parachute English, recently
150th Brigade Commando, sent his men to established, was the launch of three groups
the rear allied team uniforms American to of paratroopers, after previously had been
occupy the bridges of the Meuse and to executed an airstrike. The first group
cause confusion among allied troops. In a neutralized German defenses at Bruneval
313
second blocked a nearby German position, mountains Abruzzi in southern Italy, which
where there were over 100 people, and the supplied drinking water ports serving the
third took radar station itself and foundation German-Italian North Africa.
dismantled it. Upon successful completion Unfortunately detachment could not be
of the mission, 119 British paratroopers recovered with a submarine the next
were boarded ships were waiting for them morning and was fully captured.
with the most important parts of the radar In June 1940, Major David Stirling, from
station. Their losses amounted to three the Scottish Guard, established a Special
dead, seven wounded and six missing [11]. Forces unit called Detachment L/SAS
In Norway, the plant in Vemork, located a Brigade, to refuel existing rumors about the
few kilometers from Rjukan, in a presence of a parachute brigade in North
mountainous region, the Germans were Africa. The unit was to be transported to the
producing heavy water needed for making target group Deep Desert Journey/Long
atomic bomb. For destruction of the plant - Range Desert Group/LRDG and would
Operation Freshman - on November 19, perform strategic missions deep
1942, a detachment English be among underground to destroy German airfields
paratroopers Companies 9 and 267 troops and installations in the Middle East.
genius, under Lieutenant Allen and After the first operation failed - Crusader,
Matthew, was embarked in two gliders attacking an airfield German assaulting
Horsa, towed aircraft Halifax at based on airborne - due to loss/capture of 42 of the
Skitten, Scotland. One of them was broken 61 officers and soldiers who landed in a
glider towing cable and was struck by wrong area during one of the biggest storms
mountains, its survivors being trapped and of the past 30 years groups commando
executed. No other crew had a better fate made up of four people, continued to be
and thus the operation failed. On February launched at 10 to 12 miles of enemy
27, 1943, a detachment of Norwegian airfields, after executing reconnaissance
research has managed to destroy the plant over 100 enemy planes were destroyed on
in Vemork [12]. the ground with fire bombs, plastic
In many of their actions in Europe, and explosives delayed, inserted into the
especially in France, paratroopers allies reservoir. Meanwhile, terrestrial nocturnal
have supported cooperation with the raids into enemy ports and airports, where
resistance elements, especially the French planting bombs and incendiary devices
Resistance who were asked to mark areas have been very successful (Lewes bomb,
where he would parachute research groups the first portable explosive and incendiary
and later if permitted land, jeeps armament invented by Jock Lewes). At their turn
necessary. In France they were created over American Jeeps, which have mounted
43 bases action and small groups consisting machine guns, proved very suitable harsh
usually of four people, which included desert conditions. In August 1942 these
often and French or Belgian trained in groups were the 1st Regiment SAS
England for such missions were launched in commando, composed of four British
German bullying communication lines. squadrons, one French and one Greek and a
In June 1940, when the British founded the special boat squadron.
first school of paratroopers, a first subunit - Diversionary raid on the port of Benghazi
Commando 2 - was transformed into a body (Operation Bigamy) led directly by Stirling,
dedicated to particular tasks by parachute was not as successful as expected because
under the name Battalion 11 SAS (Special of the presence of English in the early
Air Service). On February 10, 1941, a morning. Following actions on Jalo oasis
detachment under the command of Major (Operation Nicety) and aerodrome BARC
Pritchard, 7 officers and 31 paratroopers (Operation Caravan), where British
destroyed aqueduct from Tragino in the commandos destroyed 16 aircraft and
314
damaged many others and the main In Italy, SAS fighters were engaged in the
barracks aerodrome. It is supposed that, in operation Begonia, airborne component in
reality, the operations had other codenames, the Jonquil operation (2 to 6 October 1943),
which are still kept secret. when 61 people were parachuted from
In Tunisia, after the battle of El Alamein, Ancona and Pescara, with the mission to
along the 900 km of coastal road linking recover the prisoners of war allies. Also on
Marbl Arsh with Tripoli, SAS groups October 27, 1943, two SAS Regiment
executed several night raids on columns executed an airborne raid - operation
German, forcing them to move on and Candytuft - on the east coast of Italy
British aviation expose bombing. between Ancona and Pescara, with a
Stirling himself personally led most of mission to destroy the railway bridges.
these actions like hit and run, which gave SAS, since the beginning tried to supply
him notoriety, but he was captured by the and train the French Resistance units, which
Germans at the beginning of 1943 by a sometimes caused them considerable losses
special German anti-SAS unit. He spent the due to the hard strikes by the German
rest of the war as a prisoner, escaping many occupiers, but this support it was best seen
times until he was moved in Colditz Castle. during landings in Normandy - Operation
Under his command, in the 15 months of Overlord in June 1944 - when elements of
activity before being captured, SAS the SAS brigade were launched behind
managed to destroy more than 250 aircraft German lines in support of the French
on the ground, dozens of deposits, hundreds resistance. Thus, 144 people from 1st SAS
of vehicles, railways and telecommunications. Regiment took part in the operation
Field marshal Montgomery described the Houndsworth between June and September
Stirling him as "mad, quite mad", but 1944, in areas Lyon, Chalon-sur-Saône,
admitted that it took people like him during Dijon, Le Creusot and Paris, while 56
the war. people participated in the operation
1st SAS Regiment continued commando Bulbasket , near Poitiers. Perhaps betrayed,
action in Sicily and southern Italy, before these were surrounded by an impressive
being brought to England, and in April German force and 32 of them were captured
1943 was reorganized as Squadron Special and executed.
raids and Special Boat Squadron [13]. The In mid-June, 150 people in the French SAS
second unit has operated in the Aegean and Regiments and 3,000 members of the
the Balkans by the end of the war, was French Resistance took part in the operation
disbanded in 1945. Dingson. During the same period, SAS
The second SAS regiment was created in French fighters were engaged in the
Algeria in May 1943, under the command operations Cooney, Samwest and Lost.
of Lieutenant Colonel William (Bill) In August 1944, during Operation Loyton,
Stirling's brother David, and will play an 91 people from 1st Regiment SAS were
important role in Europe's future launched in the Vosges, but the bad weather
actions.Operation Husky - Allied invasion prevented their supply by air, and
of Sicily in July 1943 - was supported by surrounded by Germans, 31 of them were
Special Raids Squadron /1st SAS Regiment captured and executed. Instead, the fighters
and 2nd SAS Regiment: operation of the 2nd Regiment SAS were supplied
Narcissus (a raid carried out 40 fighters on from the air and led successful actions in
a lighthouse on the south-eastern Sicily) cooperation with the French resistance in
and operation Chestnut (two teams of 10 the forests of Rennes and the Loire, in the
people in northern parachuted in the night woods of Darney to Belfort
of July 12, 1943, with a mission to disrupt Towards the end of 1944, elements of the
enemy communications path). 2nd Regiment SAS were parachuted in Italy
in support of resistance Italian in Operation
315
Tombola, acting alongside guerrillas Italian In turn, SAS lost 330 people. In September
and Russian prisoners of war escaped 1945, Brigade SAS was disbanded by
behind German lines to destroy airfields, passing the 5th SAS Belgian Regiment to
attack convoys and the trains. In early 1945, the new Belgian army starting from 1
a detachment of two SAS Regiment, under October. Also, the 3rd and 4th French
the command of Major Roy Farran, raided Regiments to were assigned to the French
the German Corps Command located in Army, and at October 8, 1945, the 1st and
Valley Pro, finished killing the chief of 2nd British SAS regiments were disbanded.
staff of the body.
In March 1945 the SAS Brigade command 4. Conclusions
was appointed Brigadier Mike Calvert, Allies and Axis countries have successfully
former commander of Chindits/Indian used groups of well-trained fighters, start
Special Forces. by parachute behind the enemy lines,
At the end of the Second World War, the throughout the war, and after, in what
balance of SAS was 7733 enemies killed or would be called the Cold War.
wounded and more than 23,000 prisoners.
References
[1] 3RSLúWHDQX&ULVWLDQ3UHIDĠă la Cornelius Ryan, 8QSRGSUHDvQGHSăUWDW%XFXUHúWL
(GLWXUD3ROLWLFă1977, p.9.
[2] Soare, Vasile, )RUĠHOe speciale-FRPDGRXULDHURSXUWDWHvQDFĠLXQH%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD
Ziua, 2002, pp.69-75.
[3] Hart, Liddel, Istoria celui de-DOGRLOHDUă]ERLPRQGLDO %XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD2UL]RQWXUL
Editura Lider, vol.1, f.a., pp. 87-89.
[4] Loghin, Leonida, $OGRLOHDUă]ERLPRQGLDOcronologie), %XFXUHúWLEditura Politică
1984, p.33.
[5] Loghin, Leonida, $OGRLOHDUă]ERLPRQGLDOFURQRORJLH %XFXUHúWLEditura Politică
1984, p. 35.
1984, Op. cit., pp.39, 47.
1984, p.300.
[8] Loghin, Leonida, Loghin, Leonida, $OGRLOHDUă]ERLPRQGLDOFURQRORJLH %XFXUHúWL
Editura Politică p. 419.
[9] Hart, Liddell, Istoria celui de-DOGRLOHDUă]ERLPRQGLDO %XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD2UL]RQWXUL
Editura Lider, vol. 2, pp. 347-349.
[10] Soare, Vasile, )RUĠHOHVSHFLDOH-FRPDGRXULDHURSXUWDWHvQDFĠLXQH%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD
Ziua, 2002, p.101.
[11] ***Histoire des opérations aéroportèes, Bruxelles, (OVHYLHU6HTXRLHGLĠLH
IUDQFH]ăWUDGXVăúLDGDSWDWăGXSăAirborne Operations, London, Salamander Books
Ltd., 1978, p. 77.
[12] ***Histoire des opérations aéroportèes, Bruxelles, (OVHYLHU6HTXRLHGLĠLH
IUDQFH]ăWUDGXVăúLDGDSWDWăGXSăAirborne Operations, London, Salamander Books
Ltd., 1978, p. 78.
[13] Hedny, Philippe, Malcros, Christian (coord.), Histoire mondiale des parachutistes,
Société de Production Littéraire, Paris, 1974, p.71.
316
IS RUSSIA THAT POWERFUL IN HYBRID WARFARE?
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Abstract: Short answer is yes. As it is stated in a NATO reference hybrid warfare actions can be
applied to the full DIMEFIL (Diplomatic, Information, Military, Economic, Financial, Intelligence,
Legal) spectrum. This paper will demonstrate that Russia has significant elements which makes this
country very well suited for this type of war and gives her some advantages on all DIMEFIL areas. In
my view those elements are: current leadership, history and political mentality, size and geography,
economic and financial power and military power.
.H\ZRUGV K\EULG ZDUIDUH PLOLWDU\ SRZHU HFRQRPLF ILQDQFH UHVRXUFHV KLVWRU\ DQG
PHQWDOLW\
,QWURGXFWLRQ Security and Cooperation in Europe),

“We do not intend, as some do, to walk and CSTO (Collective Security Treaty
waved the sword in the world. But all must Organization), or SCO (Shanghai
understand that we also have something Cooperation Organization) formats.
like that in our arsenal” President Putin Actually they have already started doing
2014[1] that.
I started writing this article just after In theWarsaw Summit Communiqué
observing the attitude of Russia towards (2016) it is stated that: “Russia's
what happened in Syria on the 6th of April, destabilizing actions and policies include:
when the Syrian regime launched a the ongoing illegal and illegitimate
chemical attack on their òpponents`. I annexation of Crimea,… the violation of
decided to put on paper some of my sovereign borders by force; the deliberate
thoughts. This is not about denying destabilization of eastern Ukraine; large-
Kremlin`s intentions, also it is not my scale snap exercises contrary to the spirit of
intention to clarify the hybrid warfare the Vienna Document, and provocative
concept, neither to argue on different views military activities near NATO borders,
on that, nor to develop the discussion over including in the Baltic and Black Sea
NATO’s capacities. My purpose is to prove regions and the Eastern Mediterranean; it’s
that Russia is very good on such kind of irresponsible and aggressive nuclear
warfare because is very well fitted for that, rhetoric,…. and its repeated violations of
and using hybrid warfare mechanisms can NATO Allied airspace. In addition, Russia's
challenge NATO in his own courtyard and military intervention, significant military
outside of this in places such as: Syria, presence and support for the regime in
Arctic area, Mediterranean, Black and Syria, and its use of its military presence in
Baltic Seas, and in organizations such as the Black Sea to project power into the
United Nations, OSCE (Organization for Eastern Mediterranean have posed further
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0052
317
risks and challenges for the security of $ERXWK\EULGZDUIDUHFRQFHSW
Allies and others”[2], and I think that is Dr. John Lennox, a professor of Oxford
self-explanatory. University, says ” New things are old things
At the end, I expect that those who still happening to new people” [5]
think that the actual Russian leadership’s In order to have a better understanding of
strategic objectives are not so dangerous the subject I will present some
and NATO is overreacting by tacking considerations on hybrid warfare, but first
serious response measures, to reassess their what does it means? Difficult to say, there
position and way of thinking. I agreed with are many point of views in the analysts and
col. Mastriano when he stated that: “NATO researchers family throughout the world,
nations have divergent views of how to but I will present to you one of the best
contend with the aggressive Russian definitions, coming from a NATO reference
approach. The nations near Russia seek I discovered in a NMSG Conference held in
assurance and deterrence measures, while Bucharest in 2016: “Hybrid Warfare is
those further away often call for underpinned by comprehensive hybrid
moderation. Yet, the notion that strategies based on a broad, complex,
accommodation will reduce the threat is adaptive and often highly integrated
viewed more in hope than reality. Of this combination of conventional and
Winston Churchill brilliantly said, “The unconventional means, overt and covert
appeaser feeds the crocodile hopping that it activities, by military, paramilitary,
will eat him last.” The U.S. and its NATO irregular and civilian actors, which are
Allies have hard decisions to make. Will it targeted to achieve (geo)political and
take sufficient action to deter further strategic objectives. They are directed at an
Russian aggression? Or, will the nations adversary’s vulnerabilities, focused on
deliberate and delay action until it is too complicating decision making and
late?”[3]. conducted across the full DIMEFIL
The biggest danger is to wait until Russians spectrum in order to create ambiguity and
will `knock out` at their door. In my view denial. Hybrid strategies can be applied by
Europe should prove solidarity and both state and non-state actors, through
cohesion first of all on itself and then under different models of engagement, which may
NATO format. I`m confident that after the vary significantly in sophistication and
last 100 years of common history Europe complexity. Adversaries employing hybrid
cannot be cheated anymore by Russia. Do strategies will seek to remain ambiguous,
not forget cheating is part of the game in claim pursuit of legitimate goals and aim to
hybrid warfare … and not only. To sustain keep their activities below a threshold that
this point I will quote James Nixey results in a coordinated response from the
“Obama has been let down by Putin too international community. This includes
many times and, like Merkel, has become avoiding direct military confrontation, if
disillusioned. The biggest failing, however, possible; although the use of overt military
has been the self-delusion of expectations. action as part of a hybrid strategy cannot
Too much was invested in the ‘Reset’ and be discounted”[6].
there was no contingency plan”[4]. There There could be many other definitions on
are contingency plans but the problem is the subject and also many scientists and
that they do not solve the problem between researchers could disagree with this
NATO and Russia, they just keep it away concept, but I suggest you keep in mind this
on do not recognizing that there a hybrid one as a reference used to demonstrate and
warfare type of conflicts started and is sustain my arguments about Russia. As we
evolving. can see the hybrid type of actions could be
used in the entire DIMEFIL structure by
318
both state and non-state actors. Here, I vulnerabilities of targeted nations and
would argue with the composition of the international organizations in order to
spectrum and I will add the social and achieve strategic objectives ……
political field which, in my opinion, must Increasingly sophisticated cyber-attacks,
be part of it. In the social field might be far reaching complex propaganda and
included all the issues related to the misinformation campaigns, as well as
population of the targeted state such as targeted and coordinated political and
ethnic and religious composition. Best economic pressure are indicative of modern
example is the way how Crimea was taken hybrid warfare scenarios, … Furthermore,
under Russian control just by using Russian hybrid strategies aim at complicating,
ethnics vote, or how Moscow managed to delaying and impeding timely decision
put pressure on Moldova using an old making and undermining the ability of an
frozen conflict, namely in Transnistrian Ally or the Alliance as a whole to respond
province, as well as in Georgia or Baltic to such a threat swiftly, firmly and
states using the same entity. Does the effectively”[7].They are effective mainly
political field need an argument? because it is very difficult to prove who did
Diplomacy itself is just a tool of the it and even more difficult to be legally
political domain. Everything in our days is accounted for by the international
about political decisions and nothing can community. Best examples are provided by
happen without them. Lastly, all conflicts Russia`s actions in Ukraine and more
have always had significant outcomes, first recently in Syria.
of all, in political and social fields. But this Why is Russia, in order to achieve its
could be a very good subject for another strategic objectives, using this type of
article so, I will stop here and I will warfare? My short answer to this question
continue with the hybrid warfare would be: because it is very well suited for
characteristics. this. Furthermore I would add that this
Many analysts and researchers, after the country has a lot of mechanisms to manage
events in Ukraine argue that Russia applied the process such as: political, social (offered
hybrid warfare type of action in order to by frozen conflict areas, historical
take Crimea and to help the separatists from background and the use of Russian ethnics)
Donbas region. So, the question is why and economical pressure over a large number
hybrid? of European states, and of course enough
Probably because this type of action allows military power to engage any country in
the promoter to achieve strategic political Europe if the situation gets worse.
objectives a lot easier and cheaper than a In this sense, the next question would be
regular warfare. Another reason would be what makes Russia very well fitted for the
that these types of actions are effective hybrid warfare? From my point of view
when the promoter cannot afford to engage there are several reasons of which I will
the targeted country or organization in a present, not making a hierarchy, five of
direct conflict conducted under classical them as it follows: size and geography,
war premises. Also hybrid strategies and combat power, energy and financial
actions are very effective against an resources, history and mentality and the
Alliance such as NATO, a point sustained actual leadership.
also by same Turkish specialists in the area:
“The use of hybrid strategies in conflict are :K\LV5XVVLDWKDWSRZHUIXOLQK\EULG
not new, but what is new for NATO is the ZDUIDUH"
way a wide range of political, civil and “I cannot forecast to you the action of
military instruments are combined and Russia. It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery
coherently applied, aiming at particular inside an enigma; but perhaps there is a
319
key. That key is Russian national often used when they want to close a
interest”[8] subject, this country has a substantial
Winston Churchill, October 1, 1939 conventional military power. In some areas
First argument is the size and geography. such as tanks, air power, A 2 AD (Anti –
Russia is the largest country on Earth and Access and Area Denial), special and
because of its position Russians are airmobile forces, cyber and submarines
neighbors with everybody important in the Russia is at the top level along with the
Northern hemisphere. This situation allows other military powers. Recently (after
Russia to easily interfere in European and involvement of Russia in Ukraine and
Arctic continents, Caucasus and Central Syria) Russia is developing a strong A 2
Asia, Atlantic and Pacific oceans and AD belt in order to protect its Western
nonetheless on the Arctic Sea routes. Also boundaries against NATO. Moreover, I
that creates significant advantages on the would say that even though Russia has just
trade of energy resources and on the a single air-carrier (which is old and the
military actions scheme of maneuver, by pilots do not prove as much capability as
having the facilities to conduct direct they expected to in recent action in Syria),
ground operations without significant they have created three “ground air-
strategic mobility requirements. This carriers” in order to control Baltic Sea (via
geography also imposed Russia as a very Kaliningrad), Black Sea (via Crimea) and
important political and economic player in Eastern Mediterranean (via Latakia and
Eurasia. In this sense James Nixey said: Tartus bases in Syria). Moreover, as col
“Putin’s Eurasian Union is still a long way Mastriano observes: “It may be just this that
from becoming a real political entity….The is in the back of Putin’s mind with his
alliance evolved from a straightforward stunning announcement to modernize and
customs union in 2005 to a Eurasian expand Russian’s nuclear arsenal and
customs union in 2010, becoming the armed forces. In just few years, Moscow
Eurasian Economic Union in 2015 – all will have both a modernized conventional
useful economic preliminary steps towards ground force and robust unconventional
a full – i.e. political – Eurasian Union. force, backed by a large nuclear arsenal”
This, finally, is intended to provide Russia [10] and those specific Russian actions, do
with the instruments for control in creating threaten the countries located in the Eastern
an alternative pole to the EU-centric order. NATO border. We can observe that Russian
Eurasianism provides the ideological glue military system offers to Kremlin`s
and Russia, of course, is the self- appointed leadership significant capabilities to
head of the Eurasian civilization. The maneuver a targeted state on all DIMEFIL
concept of Novorossiya is an ideological areas including political and social
extension and historical justification of this domains.
project,” [9]. The third one is the economic and financial
In addition, size provides to Russia huge power. The power in these areas is given by
and divers resource stock which in the the significant amount of strategic energy
future will constitute a fundamental resources such as gas and oil and also by
advantage. Connecting those elements with the constant rise, in last decade, of the
DIMEFIL we can observe that they grant military equipment sales. According to the
significant capabilities at least on the Russian approach “gas means power and oil
political, diplomatic, military, economic means money”, and those key words were
and financial domains. successfully used by Moscow when dealing
Second one is the combat power. Keeping business or doing politics with some
aside the nuclear capability that provides to European and Asian countries (some of
Russia a strong deterrence posture, which is them very important ones, members or not
320
of NATO). As we all know all main recognized as within Russia’s ‘sphere
important gas and oil pipelines are going of strategic interests’, and must not be
from Russia to Europe and in return the permitted to act in ways or form
money goes from Europe to this country affiliations that are deemed to be
and by that everything is explained. But contrary to Russia’s strategic
that means also that Russia is depending on interests”[13].
Europeans as Mr. Nixey shows: “Yet the Always this political objective was in the
Kremlin well knows that it is economically forefront of Russia`s foreign policy and
and culturally bound to Europe, still the especially in the last century since the
destination for 48 per cent of Russia’s communist era started. Even in our days
trade, 78 per cent of its tourists and 80 per they expect to control and influence most of
cent of its pipelines"[11] and because of the countries in their vicinity in Europe and
that at least the good relations must be kept. Central Asia.
In addition to that I would like to take into Last 70 years proves also that Moscow
consideration the significant military never paid a great respect for all other
industrial complex that Russia has. With smaller European countries located between
respect to this it is important to be former USSR and Germany. Even now
mentioned that Russia it was the third there are criticisms regarding the
largest exporter of military equipment after èxpansion` of NATO towards East.
US and France (in 2015) as it is presented Amazing how after 27 years, since the fall
on The Guardian in Dec 2016[12]. That of communism and disintegration of
means a lot of money and creates an Warsaw Pact it is not clear that all those
important military and political countries, after 1989, applied for EU and
connectivity with the ones which buy them NATO membership because they wanted to
and nevertheless provides required financial be far from the Eastern type of democracy
resources in order to develop Russian which they already know. Furthermore,
military power. Going back to DIMEFIL why such a great problem from Kremlin
we can observe that those elements offers to when none of them can represent a threat
Russia important strategic advantages at for Russia, so where is the issue?
least on military, economic and financial In that old mentality of course which is
fields. very difficult to fight with. However, this
The fourth important argument is the problem will disappear only after some
history and mentality. On this subject there generations when nobody will remember
are written books and articles starting with about the communist era in Europe. Until
Peter the Great period to our days. then it is clear that in our days a significant
Essentially Russian leadership always part of Russian leadership and politicians
considered as normal to control from are strongly influenced in their political,
Moscow its smaller neighbors (especially diplomatic and economic decisions by the
former soviet states) and here is the past which is the origin of their `hybrid`
concept, as Ambassador Lyne stated:“In mentality.
the Russian view, these states are a The fifth, and the most important argument,
greater or lesser extent historically is the actual Kremlin leader mentality and
part of Russia, acquired independence personality. For me, President Putin is the
accidentally rather than through a most important factor, among the others
formal settlement of the post-Cold War presented above, for one big reason: it is the
order, are intimately linked to Russia only one which changed over the years,
through myriad personal and economic most of the others four arguments having
connections, and form Russia’s security remained stable. His strong personality
perimeter. They must therefore be launched him as the strong man in Russia
321
and since 2002, he proved that to his nation facts. As Mr. Nixey observes:“Others in
over the years. First mandate of his and Europe are even less embarrassed in their
during President Medvedev, he was busy support for the Russian leadership’s course
consolidating his power internally, but in of action. In June 2014, for example, Putin
the last decade President Putin leadership received red-carpet treatment in Austria,
makes the difference on Eurasian political where Moscow has extensive networks; and
arena. he got a hero’s welcome in Belgrade and
There are very good results on political area Budapest in late 2014 and early 2015
and financial indicators, but also are many respectively”[14].
others, especially internal problems, which If the approach to Belgrade might be
are going wrong. Here might be mentioned explained by the events that happened in
the high level of corruption, low Western Balkans between1994-1999, the
demography, low life expectancy rate, friendship with Budapest looks strange.
depopulation of rural areas, big suicide rate, Officially they discussed about
decline of the economical products (out of strengthening economic relations but `what
exporting oil and gas) and social if` they discussed over the future of the
inequalities. At the end what will happen Hungarian aspirations concerning them
with Russia when he will be over? minorities located mainly in neighboring
But those are his problems and going back countries from Central Europe. As
to the subject I would say that out of his everybody knows, periodically, Hungarian
strong personality, `forever young` sport leadership agitates the Hungarian minorities
attitude and popular character, his power is spread across the countries of Central
coming from the fact that he has something Europe, sometimes creating internal
which most of the other world leaders do problems or diplomatic incidents. Adding
not poses, and this is the hybrid warfare to this the control over the Black Sea by
mentality. He was born and raised on Crimea, Baltic Sea by Kaliningrad, Georgia
hybrid warfare type of actions through by Abkhazia and Ossetia, Moldova by
KGB service and education. This war Transnistrian territory, Baltic countries by
becomes evident and it was developed Russian minorities, Western Balkans by
during Cold War period and since then he Serbia, East Mediterranean Sea by Syria
just applied it because it was his job. He we can identify a large hybrid warfare
doesn’t need somebody to explain to him mechanism ready to function if necessary.
about that because he already knows I will conclude that President Putin
everything. Moreover he is the one who personality and skills makes him a powerful
gives orders and guidelines and the others STRATCOM player and an even more
are listening and executing. powerful infoops manager. As everybody
Being armed with such skills, President observed most of the time Russian
Putin challenged EU and NATO unity and leadership take the lead on STRATCOM
resolve while he simultaneously developed and NATO or EU most of the time are
strong partnerships all over the world, reacting to that and also in most diplomatic
especially in the Eurasian region. He issues Russia is getting out as `white` as the
skillfully identified all individual political pure milk. Also he is a bright user of all
weaknesses or misunderstandings at the EU four tools, presented above, that Russia has
and NATO level and capitalizes on them to at his hand in order to regain the position
his advantage. In short, in political field, they had in Cold War period even though
Russia is about to regain a global status that it will be hardly difficult in the new
which make Moscow a mandatory stop in post - Cold War era environment. And that
our days. Putting aside global victories I is a reality because out of the US many
will direct your attention to some European
322
other players shows up and they want them This is on the solidarity and cohesion
slice from the global power. subject which I want to address. Probably
there are some members which consider
:D\DKHDG that this hybrid warfare is threatening only
“The question is: will Russia hold?!?”[15] the countries at the Eastern border of
Should NATO engage with Russia on his NATO. If so, I think this might be a very
hybrid warfare style? The Alliance answer “speedy” conclusion taken very fast and I
was diplomatic and peaceful but firm, as it would recommend they ask themselves
was approved at the Warsaw Summit in “what if?”.The events, related to Russia,
2016: “As we agreed at our Wales Summit, that occurred in the post – Cold War era,
we will continue our strategic discussion on prove that the prevision of the Washington
Euro-Atlantic security and our approach to treaty in Article 5 remain not only valid but
Russia. As we also agreed at Wales, we necessary and mandatory in order to protect
continue to believe that a partnership ourselves successfully against any threat.
between NATO and Russia ….would be of At the same time, let’s hope Russia will
strategic value. We regret that despite realize that time is working in favor of the
repeated calls by Allies and the Alliance and Kremlin will avoid escalating
international community since 2014 for the present situation. I recall from one of
Russia to change course, the conditions for my article wrote in 2014 that:“During
that relationship do not currently exist. The Gorbachev’s, USSR gave up the arms race
nature of the Alliance's relations with just because it could not sustain the
Russia and aspirations for partnership will economical and financially effort …
be contingent on a clear, constructive Currently, the significant internal problems
change in Russia's actions that of social, economic and demographic faced
demonstrates compliance with international for a few years by Russia might no longer
law and its international obligations and be possible to be “kept under blanket”, and
responsibilities. Until then, we cannot so Kremlin could be forced to change the
return to "business as usual"[16]. direction of political and economic effort
Until now, surprisingly Russia is from outside on the inside”. [17] I hope that
responding by duplicating his efforts in President Putin, before the end of his career
Europe and in Middle East (Syria). If will understand that the future of his
negotiations and attempts to return to beloved country is more important than the
“business as usual” fail, looks like we are present. Moreover, if Russia wants to have
going to a new Cold War period. What can a bright future that must be only along with
the Alliance do in such circumstances? Out European and Euro-Atlantic partners facing
of military superiority the Alliance already together the unexpected threats which
asked for solidarity and cohesion in both surely will come up till the end of this
NATO Summits in Wales (2014) and century.
Poland (2016).
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Tomescu, T.C., “The influence of the crisis in Ukraine on the strategic political-military
directions set at the Alliance’s Summit in Wales in 2014 and of the NATO – Russia
relation”, Land Forces Academy’s Review, vol. XX, No 1 (77), Q1, 2015, p 26
[2] Warsaw Summit Communique, art. 10, p. 3
[3] Col Mastriano, D., PHD, (Collective of authors), Project 1721: A U.S. Army War College
Assessment on Russian Strategy in Eastern Europe and Recommendations on How to
Leverage Landpower to Maintain the Peace, Strategic Studies Institute of the U.S.
Army War College 2016, p. xi
323
[4] J. Nixey, J.and all, Chatham House Report, ”The Russian Challenge”, The Royal Institute
of International Affairs, June 2015, p. 38
[5] Col Mastriano, D., cit.ed., p. x-xi
[6] (dD\ÕUFÕDQGDOOPresentation on Modeling and Simulation for Hybrid Environments, at
NMSG Conference, Bucharest, Oct 21-22, 2016
[7] Ibidem
[8] Col Mastriano, D., p. ix
[9]J. Nixey and all, cit.ed., p. 35
[10] Col Mastriano, D., cit.ed., p. 23
[11] Nixey, J. and all, cit.ed., p. 36
[12] Helmore, E., “US increased weapons sales in 2015 despite slight drop in global arms
trade”, The Guardian, Dec 26, 2016
[13] Lyne, R. and all, Chatam House Report, p. 7
[14] Nixey, J. and all, cit.ed., p. 37
[15] Tomescu, T.C., cit.ed., p. 27
[16] Warsaw Summit Communique, art. 15, 3-4
[17] Tomescu, T.C., cit.ed., p. 27
324
THE RELATION CULTURAL AWARENESS – TACTICAL MULTINATIONAL

MILITARY STRUCTURES’ EFFECTIVENESS
Paul TUDORACHE*, Lucian ISPAS**
*”Carol I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania,

**”Nicolae BăOFHVFX” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania
p_tudorache@yahoo.com, ispaslucian04@yahoo.com
Abstract: Addressing the problem of tactical multinational military structures’ effectiveness is not
new, this becoming an important concern of military specialists once with the participation of national
contingents to different multinational missions. Today, recent hybrid threats generate the necessity for
it to be analyzed and stressed more, because the interoperability level of NATO’s multinational
military structures must ensure a common, timely, coordinated and effective response. The analyses of
multinational military structures’ effectiveness from the perspective of cultural diversity have
highlighted not only the positive aspects but also the negative ones. Lessons learned from numerous
multinational military operations have demonstrated the fact that the reduction and elimination of
negative manifestations of cultural diversity, both in static military structures (multinational
commandment) and multinational maneuver structures depend largely on the cultural awareness’
level of military personnel. In this regard, the proper understanding of cultural awareness’ concept
and its role in achieving the effectiveness of tactical multinational military structures and also the
definition of the relationship between these two variables become significant milestones that will be
addressed in this article.
Keywords: cultural awareness, cultural competence, effectiveness.
1. Introduction to solve, we cannot say the same thing

The ongoing transformation of the current regarding to cultural interoperability which
security environment challenges and the together with the doctrinal one form the
difficulty of allocating the armies’ budgets behavioral interoperability [1]. Unlike the
necessary to put in practice their specific others, achieving the cultural
activities have determined the North interoperability requires much more time,
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to because it is addressed to education and
identify new solutions based on the training of military personnel from
common commitment of overall member intercultural perspective in order to form
states. One solution identified was to and develop the cultural awareness, then it
conduct common military operations, in takes a period for integrating within
this way increasing the importance of multinational team and improving its
cooperation between partner states and behavior necessary to relate positively in a
achieving the interoperability within the multinational military context, especially in
alliance more than ever. high intensity situations which require an
Beyond the problems generated by optimum level of emotional intelligence.
organizational, technical and logistic Certainly, we are tempted to say that
interoperability that are theoretically easier NATO is the only one responsible for
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0053
325
integrating and facilitating the adaptation of military field, a multinational military
national contingents to the multinational structure, for example a multinational
team, actually largely true, but we must not commandment is considered effective when
neglect the aspect that for a member state to it:
be interoperable is not sufficient having just - is capable to fulfill its objectives;
the motivation needed to participate to the - promotes a good leadership;
common effort of the alliance, contributing - orients the commanders;
with required capabilities, in accordance - takes quick decisions;
with its possibilities, but also it must take - has the ability to adapt to changes and
itself hard efforts in order to have its adjust its behavior to changing
capabilities compatible with those of the circumstances;
allies, based on the interoperability - learns from mistakes;
requirements previously established. - gives valuable information to its
Furthermore, the lessons learned from structures;
numerous participations of military - has initiative;
structures to multinational operations, and - is opened to cultural diversity [4].
the military researchers’ concerns in the Also, in order to develop the subject in the
field of multinational military structures’ right direction, we feel the need to make a
effectiveness have highlighted the short clarification regarding the differences
importance of educating and training the between effectiveness and efficiency which
cultural awareness to the military personnel do not have the same meanings, in some
in order to achieve an optimum level of situations these concepts being used in a
cultural interoperability within wrong manner even by some specialists in
multinational military structures, the field of military operations. Thus,
prerequisite to increase the effectiveness according to Herbert Simon the efficiency
and efficiency of military actions in a “dictates that choice of alternatives which
multinational context. provide the best result in the application of
the resources.”[5].
2. Binom analysis: cultural awareness – From the perspective of military structures’
tactical multinational military behavior, if the term effectiveness is related
structures’ effectiveness to fulfilling the roles and missions by
The analysis of military structures’ results
effectiveness from the perspective of military forces ( o max ), the
objectives
cultural factor represents a permanent efficiency is linked with the use of
subject of researches in the field of resources required to their achievement (
multinational military operations, where
results
cultural awareness has become essential, o max ) [6].
being considered a kind of gravity center of resources
the common military actions’ effectiveness. The second variable, cultural awareness is
Having as a starting point the definition of generically defined in the international
effectiveness within multinational military literature as the ability to recognize and
structures and cultural awareness, we will understand the effects of culture on values
try to find the type of relationship and behaviors of people [7], in other words
established between these two variables. it reflects “the capacity of understanding
Generally, the effectiveness of an and analyzing the cultural differences in
organization refers to the capacity to fulfill order to adapt and evolve the behaviors
its objectives [2] or from other perspective necessary to reach the objectives
“an action is effective if the results match established.” [8]. On the other hand, it
with the objectives” [3]. Specific to the should be understood that in a military
context there are several stages of cultural
326
awareness generated by the levels of stage should be applied at all levels. What
understanding/cognitive hierarchy (data, is sure is the fact that the level of
information, knowledge, understanding) understanding required at certain echelons
[9]. In this regard, Wunderle William varies in relation to the mission specifics
identifies the following stages of cultural [14].
awareness: We notice that in Wunderle William’s
- cultural consideration (How and opinion cultural awareness manifested at
Why): lies on the “incorporation of the highest level must be understood as
generic cultural concepts in common cultural/intercultural competence that
military training – knowing How and ensure to a person “the ability to adapt his
Why to study culture and Where to attitude, behavior and knowledge to the
find cultural factors and expertise” interaction with people from other cultures,
[10]; this stage is required to all the ability to manifest openness, flexibility
personnel, no matter the category, and a positive attitude towards people
rank, gender are; belonging to other cultures, and the
- cultural knowledge (specific capacity to review their beliefs and values
training): represents the “exposure to from the perspective of other cultures.”
the recent history of a target culture. [15]. Different from his view point the
It includes basic cultural issues such United Kingdom (UK) Joint Doctrine Note
as significant groups, actors, leaders, 1/09 make a distinction between cultural
and dynamics, as well as cultural awareness and cultural competence, the
niceties and survival language skills.” differences being that the first calls for
[11]; usually, this stage can be basic knowledge of cultural issues, while
reached at the end of pre-deployment the second focuses on an advanced level of
training period; cultural issues. Also, if cultural awareness
- cultural understanding (advanced allows the application of knowledge, skills
training): focuses on “a deeper and attitudes to predictable scenarios for
awareness of the specific culture that creating the desired effect, the cultural
allows general insight into thought competence gives the possibility of their
processes, motivating factors, and application in unpredictable scenarios and
other issues that directly support the the analyze and evaluation of the effect in
military decisionmaking process.” order to generate an improved effect [16].
[12]; it is required to the military Furthermore, between the level of cultural
personnel with key positions; awareness and cultural competence it is
- cultural competence (decision considerate an intermediate level of cultural
making and cultural intelligence): is capability named the cultural understanding
generated by “the fusion of cultural that requires “intermediate knowledge of
understanding with cultural cultural issues, the comprehension of their
intelligence that allows focused importance and impact, the ability to apply
insight into military planning and this knowledge, skill and attitude to
decisionmaking for current and future unpredictable scenarios and contribute to
military operations. Cultural com- analysis of the effect.” [17]
petence implies insight into the Based on defining the concepts, studying
intentions of specific actors and the sources of expertise and especially on
groups.” [13]; this stage is the most personal experience in analyzing previously
comprehensive and it is adressed to the correlation between the variables of this
the military decision makers. study, we determine that between cultural
We cannot say that a stage is more awareness and tactical multinational
important than another or that a certain military structures’ effectiveness there is a
327
directly proportional relationship, in other to analyze the relationship between
words the level of tactical multinational intercultural competence and the
military structures’ effectiveness is directly effectiveness of multinational military
proportional with the level of cultural action. On short, the correlation index value
awareness reached by military personnel. obtained of 0.80216 confirmed the main
Our statement is also sustained by the hypothesis of the study: the intercultural
results obtained from previous researches, competence level is directly proportional to
from which the most significant is that the level of multinational military action’s
achieved in 2010 during ISAF TASK effectiveness in a positive fashion. Figure 1
FORCE ZABUL mission with the 811 shows the graphical representation of
Maneuver Battalion in the theatre of results.
operations from Afghanistan, which aimed
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
180 450
160 400
140 350
120 300
100 250
Intercultural competence – multinational military action’s effectiveness

80 200
60
0.5<CORREL=0.80216<1 (strong correlation) 150
40 100
military action effectiveness

20 50
intercultural competence
0 0
Figure 1: Correlation between intercultural competence and multinational

military action’s effectiveness [18]
3. Conclusion to improve the education and development

Taking in consideration the cultural factor of military personnel from
in the conduct of multinational military cultural/intercultural perspective. Besides
actions does not represent only an adapting curricular programs of military
ascertainment, but also an imperative for academies it is necessary to establish some
current and future military operations. If cultural training centers that focus on
states like United States of America (USA), cultural/intercultural education and training
Canada, Australia, and so on understood of military personnel.
this, taking measures for educating and If education represents the job of military
training its military personnel in order to academies, not being necessary to divide
achieve a certain level of cultural the personnel per categories, because
capability, there are some states that still education addresses to all, the training must
seek solutions to solve this matter. be conducted in training centers on
NATO’s member states, generally, and personnel categories, in accordance with the
Romania, especially, should take measures positions that will be occupied within the
328
multinational military structures and in understanding. The last but not the least, the
relation to the mission specifics. ultimate stage of cultural capability,
As we are concerned about the stages of intercultural competence represents a
cultural capability that must be reached, we request for the personnel with key
consider that all military personnel should positions.
have a cultural training that is appropriate Starting from the principle that the cultural
to the cultural awareness level. The awareness represents the fundamental level
personnel with duties in the field of of cultural capability that must be achieved
interaction with mission partners and local by every soldier, no matter the position in
population such as the personal from the multinational military structure is we
multinational commandment, liaison strongly consider that it becomes an
officers (LNOs), personnel with duties in amplificatory for the tactical multinational
the civil-military cooperation (CIMIC) and military structures’ effectiveness,
Key Leader Engagement (KLE), and so prerequisite to conduct successfully
forth should achieve the stage of cultural multinational military operations.
References
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partners in an era of technological innovation, Royal United Services Institute for
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Hall, 1964.
[3] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, 'LPHQVLXQHD LQWHUFXOWXUDOă D IRUPăULL RILаHUXOXL GLQ
)RUаHOH 7HUHVWUH (GLWXUD 8QLYHUVLWă‫܊‬LL ³/XFLDQ %ODJD´ 6LELX S DSXG -DNH
Sherman, The Afghan National Development Strategy: the Right Plan at the Wrong
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[4] Yantsislav Yanakiev, Joolen S. Horton, doc.cit., p. C-3.
[5] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op. cit, pp. 86-87, apud Simon A. Herbert, Administrative
Behavior, New York: Macmillan, 1961, p. 179.
[6] Ibidem, p. 87.
[7] Wunderle D. William, Through the Lens of Cultural Awareness: A Primer for US Armed
Forces Deploying to Arab and Middle Eastern Countries, Fort Leavenworth, KS, Combat
Studies Institute Press, 2006, p. 9.
[8] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op. cit., p. 146, apud Henriette M., Rakotomena, Les
ressources individuelles pour la compétence interculturelle individuelle, in Revue
internationale sur le travail et la société, Vol. 5, No. 2, Octobre 2005, p. 682.
[9] Wunderle D. William, op. cit., p. 10.
[10] Ibidem.
[11] Ibidem.
[12] Ibidem, p. 11.
[13] Ibidem.
[14] Ibidem.
[15] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op. cit., pp. 146-147.
329
[16] Multinational Interoperability Council (MIC), Cross-Cultural Awareness & Competence
– A Guide to Best Practices, 3rd edition, 7 November 2012, p. 2, apud UK Joint Doctrine
Note 1/09, The Significance of Culture to the Military, Assistant Chief of the Defence
Staff (Development, Concepts and Doctrine), January 2009, annex 5A, p. 5A-1/5A-2.
[17] UK Joint Doctrine Note 1/09, The Significance of Culture to the Military, Assistant Chief
of the Defense Staff (Development, Concepts and Doctrine), January 2009, annex 5A,
p.5A-1.
[18] Paul Tudorache, Mircea Cosma, op. cit., p. 157, apud Paul Tudorache, Analiza binomului
FRPSHWHQĠă LQWHUFXOWXUDOă – HILFLHQĠD DFĠLXQLL PLOLWDUH vQ WHDWUXO GH RSHUDĠLL GLQ
Afghanistan, in Volum 3: 7DFWLFă úL DUWă RSHUDWLYă-)RUĠH 7HUHVWUH at international
conference Strategii XXI 8QLYHUVXO ùWLLQĠHL 0LOLWDUH, ,,Carol I”National University of
Defence, Bucarest, 14-15 April 2011, ISBN 978-973-663-896-1, pp. 215-223.
330
OPINIONS REGARDING THE FUNDAMENTAL DOMAINS OF

NATIONAL SECURITY
Gheorghe UDEANU
“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\6LELX5RPDQLD
XGHDQX#DUP\DFDGHP\UR
Abstract: “The multiple dimension of national security in the international contemporary context –
characterized by accelerated, radical changes – is determined by the necessity of constantly
promoting and permanently defending our national values and interests against the extraordinary
diversity of insecurity factors – destabilizing vectors that manifest themselves in a surprising manner
and create difficulties in the process of assessment of the specific disruptive effects. This complex
framework of social evolution offers numerous perspectives for the analysis of the concept of security,
but these studies do not need to dilute its fundamental connotations, but it is necessary for these efforts
to particularly relate to the subsystems that are really relevant for individual and collective security
and maintenance and, on the basis of a very good documentation, be exactly circumscribed into the
legislative coordinates that correspond to the reference domain.” [1]
.H\ZRUGVQDWLRQDOVHFXULW\SURWHFWLRQRIFULWLFDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHFLYLOSURWHFWLRQSXEOLF
RUGHU FRQVWLWXWLRQDO RUGHU QDWLRQDO GHIHQFH QDWLRQDO VHFXULW\ DVVXPHG ULVN VRFLHWDO
YXOQHUDELOLWLHV
,QWURGXFWLRQ on the balance of social systems” [2].

The concept referring to VHFXULW\ is
frequently employed in contemporary usage, )DFWRUVRILQVHFXULW\– ULVNVGHILDQFHV
but the diversity of perceptions regarding the FKDOOHQJHV GDQJHUV WKUHDWV DQG
sphere of influence and integration of its DJJUHVVLRQV 7KH DPSOLI\LQJ LQIOXHQFH RI
reference domain has configured the VRFLHWDO YXOQHUDELOLWLHV RQ WKHLU QHJDWLYH
existence of different analytical perspectives HIIHFWV
and not allowed for the possibility of In the contemporary context of the evolution
promoting a unanimously accepted of international society, the accelerated
definition. development of global informational,
“This multitude of investigating options does political, economic, financial networks or of
not at all reflect the fact that people are not any other nature is simultaneously associated
aware of the fundamental role of security in with a process of amplification of the
providing feelings of peace and confidence structural vulnerabilities [3] of these social
in the future of humanity, but rather complex sets, caused by the strong influence
expresses the full attention and multiple of the diversity of defiances [4], challenges
concern paid to determining all the factors of [5], dangers [6], threats [7] and aggressions
individual and collective insecurity, as well [8] that can seriously affect the
as to promoting organizational and organizational and functional protection and
functional sets of measures necessary to stability, producing effects with negative
prevent or annihilate their negative effects consequences at a planetary level. The
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0054
331
described framework certainly requires In the process of political, political-military
continuous taking risks [9] in the decision- decision-making process of high
making process meant to re-configure these responsibility, it is necessary that the risk
macro systems and permanently adapt them factors should be analyzed from the
to the new environment conditions. perspective of the amplified intensity of their
“5LVN represents the possibility that the negative influence over the state and its
structure of a social system can be affected power structures – defiances, challenges,
to the extent of shutdown, if the decision dangers, threats and aggressions – on the
makers do not adopt a proper attitude basis of criteria allowing to most accurately
required for reducing or annihilating some determine their characteristics, so as to select
possible perilous effects determined by and classify them, eliminating any confusion
defiance, challenge, danger, threat or in terminology. This analytical logic ensures
aggression against its existence” [10]. setting the level of risk assumed with a high
Thus, the risk is consciously assumed, being degree of certainty and gives the opportunity
imposed to a decision or associated with it as to unitarily coordinate the activities designed
a collateral random, unexpected and initially to maintain consistency in the organizational
unconscious factor. "There are no rules for and functional flows within the macro state
assessing risk, as there are no rules for the and armed forces systems” [12] .
choice of a good solution; risk assessment is In the existential contemporary context,
a matter of intelligence, but also of amplifying the effects of insecurity factors is
knowledge and experience." [11] the result of both the decisional risk assumed
“Being a complex set of judgments, analyses and the vulnerabilities of societal systems.
and syntheses, directly influencing the Identifying the vulnerabilities and their
decision making, its character is obviously multiplying effects on the factors generating
subjective. Risk-taking requires rigor and crises is an extremely complex analytical
accuracy in the evaluation of possible process, but absolutely necessary for an
influences of defiances, challenges, dangers, effective security management.
threats and aggressions on the social system “The difficulty of this study is given by the
being run and, in this regard, the specialized phenomenon of globalization that influences
literature suggests several matrices to the structure and internal relations of any
quantify their scientific determinations. social system, causing their frequent shaping
Although contemporary society generally and reshaping due to the need to maintain its
evolves towards prosperity and comfort, connection to a broad and deep information
there are many areas characterized by network of ultra specialized forecasting,
extreme poverty, which increases the range planning, organization, coordination and
of socio-economic crises. These major execution. The numerous modifications
imbalances are caused by the unwise having an adaptive purpose may affect the
distribution of resources and results of efficient functioning of the system because
human activity. Consequently, the insecurity the time allotted for a detailed analysis of the
factors – the defiances, challenges, dangers, risk taken is insufficient and thus its
threats and aggressions specific to the vulnerabilities go entirely unnoticed, which
contemporary world – influence any enhances the possibility of their
decisional act, determining risk-taking, but manifestation in a surprising manner.
they act with the greatest intensity in the The vulnerabilities of a social system are
management of the state power structures made present and disseminate their negative
during the actions meant to restore public influences as a result of the mismatch
and constitutional order and, particularly, in between the purpose, objective or its core
the context of an armed conflict or war, mission and the real potential of the
becoming major risk factors. component subsystems, resulting in even
332
major imbalances and functional and terror are caused by the direct attack on
deficiencies, including the ones on the life, most often on absolutely innocent
systems with which it interacts. beings.
Consequently, the weaknesses of any social Terrorism is not, as sometimes they try to
and human organization are internal and justify it, a reaction of the weak against the
have two major causes: inadequate structure strong, but a premeditated punitive and
and dysfunctions of the component vindictive, inhuman, criminal action – often
subsystems. suicidal and always fierce – which aims to
At the level of national security system, the destroy, to cruelly kill and frighten.
vulnerabilities are consequences of the Terrorism is not justified and cannot be
inadequate formation of its structure, in justified in any way, since it does not appear
disagreement with the real evolution of the either as a way to unlock a strategic situation
state, which determines the faulty functional – as war is shown in general – or simply as a
processes of the component subsystems, reaction of revenge against an enemy that
reducing the preventive potential and you cannot hit otherwise, but as an
producing the ineffective response when unexpected and criminal aggression against
crises appear and proliferate” [13]. the human being, civilization and systems of
values” [15].
7HUURULVP –SULQFLSDO VRXUFH RI VRFLDO In the specialized analytical environments,
LQVWDELOLW\ the terrorist defiances, challenges, dangers,
“Terrorism constitutes one of the most threats and attacks are estimated to be the
serious existential situations of modern most difficult to understand, accept and
society, expressed by intolerance, violence, manage after the ones represented by the
destructiveness, extremism and absurd direct existence, proliferation and the possibility of
attacks on human life, taking place using weapons of mass destruction. There is
indiscriminately and without any moral and a clear tendency for terrorism to expand in
legal norms. Through its imagologic and all spheres of social activity and to have in
psychological effects propagated sometimes view the destruction of the character of
on a global scale, it has a direct influence efficiency and progress of mankind.
over the individual and collective safety, “The main sources of generation of
causing high consumption of resources and terrorism can be found in the diverse array
specialized forces for prevention and of contemporary society and tremendous
deterrence” [14]. diversity of spheres of interest and influence
The gravity of contemporary terrorism is of states and transnational companies:
given by the diversity and complexity of the – the unpredictable, contradictory and
specific networks, the surprising nature of conflict-generating effects of the process of
terrorist acts and the major psychological globalization, laid over the regionalization
effects. process and the trend of state de-structuring;
“The causes of terrorism are complex, and – the huge technological gap between the
their genesis is determined by the dynamics Western societies and the rest of the world,
and diversity of political, economic, cultural, causing the accumulation of particularly
social and even military crises. The terrorist economic and financial values in confined
phenomenon is extremely dangerous, spaces, while amplifying the phenomenon of
focusing on violent religious extremism and poverty in larger and larger areas;
political extremism manifested by – the impossibility of circumscribing
unpredictable actions carried out in urban terrorist acts in consecrated unanimously
areas, public places and institutions in the accepted legal terms, with the view of
context of which, without discernment, with condemning and stopping this phenomenon;
fast and extreme violence, generalized panic
333
– the use of uncontrollable financial cultivation of dogmas perceived as
resources for the preparation and conduct of indisputable, supreme truths, involving
terrorist actions resulting from illicit revenge by extreme violence” [18].
trafficking in drugs, arms and people;
– the presence of large masses of young )XQGDPHQWDO GRPDLQV RI QDWLRQDO
Muslims in the Western societies and the VHFXULW\
enhance of their existential state of “The studies on the concept of security have
uncertainty and despair caused by the major multiplied in recent years, so that out of the
difficulties to integrate into the socio- original concept numerous derivatives have
economic activities; been promoted: national security, zonal,
– the awareness of the deeply impoverished regional, continental, international, common,
societies, that are on the borderline of democratic, political, informational,
existential threshold, of the fact that their technological, military, economic , financial,
national territories have rich natural critical infrastructure, energetic, of strategic
resources, which are clearly and defiantly resources, social, public, human, individual,
capitalized, to the detriment of their own community, food, environmental, health and
nations” [16]. others” [19].
“The sources generating terrorism are The diversity of terminology relating to
directly proportional to the overall evolution security is determined by the obvious
of human society. In this sense, the more amplification of cross-border implications of
spectacular the technological advances in the contemporary crises, which are
the highly developed areas are, producing a characterized by the surprising appearance
steady growth in the high comfort and and rapid, extensive and profound
standard of living, the greater the manifestations, propagating the major
disproportion between these societies and adverse effects on the stability of societal
the areas of extreme poverty and the lack of systems for a long time.
minimum conditions of existence” [17]. This In this highly complex environment, the
contradiction amplifies the feelings of strategic decision-making, specific to
frustration, injustice, despair and national security, expresses with difficulty
abandonment of large masses of people who its anticipatory character and potential for
are easily manipulated in the name of ideals effective coordination of preventive actions
regarding justice, equity and truth. In this because it frequently involves taking many
context, the possibility of selecting and risks, configured by the insufficient relevant
training people prone to the ultimate information on the forms of real
sacrifice through actions without any manifestation of the possible defiances,
discrimination, with incalculable challenges, dangers, threats and
consequences is increased. aggressions, a context that certainly
“Contemporary terrorism – system, increases the vulnerabilities of the state
networking, fault, mosaic etc. – is mainly specialized structures, meant to preserve the
directed against the overdeveloped societies, fundamental national interests.
and the areas generating and regenerating The studies on the defining elements of
groups, organizations and networks cross national security show many options: the
borders and have numerous channels. The inexistence of threats to the national values;
recruitment base is the young population that the ability of a nation to protect its internal
lives feelings of dissatisfaction and deep values in the context of the existence and
discrimination, easily embracing extremist- proliferation of external threats; the creation
fundamentalist concepts, characterized by of national and international conditions
deep contempt for life and promotion of the favorable to protecting the fundamental
ultimate sacrifice as a result of the values of the state against any kind of threat;
334
the promotion and defense of national consequences and to provide protection for
interests, including the use of military force the population, property and the
against dangers, threats or potential attacks, environment against the adverse effects of
whatever their nature and forms of the emergency situations and armed conflicts
manifestation. and to rapidly remove their consequences
The depth analysis of the physiognomy of and to ensure the conditions necessary for
the contemporary international environment the survival of the affected persons” [23].
and of the determinations of its possible “Public order is the part of national security
dynamics involves the study of national represented by the state of legality, social
security as a macro system, simultaneously balance and peace corresponding to a
made with the detailed scientific socially acceptable level of compliance of
investigation of its elements considered law and civic conduct, which allows for the
essential for the promotion and protection of exercise of the fundamental rights and
state interests, vital for its existence. freedoms of man, as well as for the
“From the described perspective, national functioning of the state structures of law and
security is the regulatory, organizational, is characterized by the credibility of the
structural and functional framework for institutions, the health of morals, the
maintaining individual and collective normality in organizing and carrying on the
security, protecting critical infrastructure political, social and economic life in
and civil protection, ensuring or restoring accordance with the legal, ethical, moral,
public and constitutional order and religious and any other norms, generally
defending the independence, sovereignty and accepted by society” [24].
territorial integrity of Romania” [20]. “Constitutional order is the part of national
“Romania’s national security means the security which expresses the societal
state of legality, of social, economic and existential state conferred by the imperatives
political balance and stability, necessary for of the Romanian Constitution, necessary for
the existence and development of the the organization, coordination and
Romanian State as a sovereign, unitary, uninterrupted functioning of the state
independent and indivisible state, for the institutions and for ensuring opportunities
maintenance of public order, as well as for for exercising the fundamental rights,
the climate of unhampered exercise of the freedoms and duties of citizens in
fundamental rights, freedoms and duties of accordance with the general interests of the
citizens in accordance with the democratic Romanian people” [25].
principles and norms settled by the “National defense is the component of
Constitution. [21] national security represented by the set of
“The protection of critical infrastructure is measures, actions and countermeasures
the national security component which carried out in the information, political,
consists of any activity that aims at ensuring diplomatic, economic, financial,
the functionality, continuity and integrity of psychological, media, technological,
national and European critical infrastructures intelligence, counterintelligence,
in order to deter, mitigate and neutralize a administrative-territorial and armed conflict
threat, risk or a vulnerable point” [22]. areas, undertaken nationally and
“Civil protection is a component of national internationally, in the context of an armed
security and is an integrating set of specific aggression against the country or if the state
activities and organizational, technical, gets involved in a war with a view to
operational, humanitarian and public achieving and perennially maintaining the
information tasks, planned, organized and sovereignty, independence, unity and
carried out according to the law, to prevent territorial integrity of Romania” [26].
and reduce the risks of disasters , their
335
The national legal framework underlines the recently in a modern sense, due to the
six defining elements of national security – stringency of developing all social structures
national security, critical infrastructure within the European Union in perfectly safe
protection, civil protection, public order, conditions. This complex set of specialized
constitutional order and national defense – management is permanently made active and
which give the institutions with strategic has the purpose of unitarily coordinating the
responsibilities in the field the prerequisites efforts necessary to ensure the stable and
for the multidimensional study and the efficient operation of systems, components
possibility of promoting concepts necessary or elements essential for the maintenance of
to ensure the correlation between the vital societal functions, the health and safety
fundamental, major and immediate interests of citizens, regardless of context;
of Romania as options for a harmonious and – the Management System for Emergency
balanced development of society, and Situations – conceived for the specialized
probable factors that can affect them. management of the emergency situations
“These imperatives have led to the and civil protection in an integrative
institutionalization of the 6\VWHP RI framework;
1DWLRQDO 6HFXULW\ - macro structure – the Management System of Public Order –
designed and operationalized to ensure the operationalized for maintaining, ensuring
functioning of state bodies and the carrying and restoring public order, depending on the
out of socio-economic activities in a severity of the contexts in which the process
domestic and global environment of implementation of the norms of normal
characterized by tensional states, distortions citizen cohabitation is affected, but
and setbacks generating and proliferating particularly for managing the serious events
crises of a diverse nature in the Romanian involving the imposition of the emergency
area of strategic interest” [27]. state, situation caused by the existence of
“The precise analysis of the dynamics and imminent dangers to national security or the
temporality of each critical possible situation need to quickly remove the consequences of
which could affect the overall balance of the disasters;
Romanian society is at the core on which the – the Management System of Constitutional
logic was based, being necessary for Order - alerted when the state of siege is
designing and producing complex networks established, situation in which it is
intended for the harmonized management of mandatory that a set of exceptional political,
the six key areas of national security, military, economic, social or any other
operationalized in accordance with the measures should be urgently adopted, which
forecast scenarios, assumptions and are meant to adapt the defense capacity of
actionable variants drawn up in advance so the country to the serious dangers directly
as to ensure the permanent functional threatening its sovereignty, independence,
balance of national security macro systems: unity and territorial integrity;
– the System of National Security – the National Defence Management System
Management – characterized by a high – operationalized in the unwanted existential
conceptual, organizational and functional context, but of the most serious gravity for
privacy, was conducted in order to the Romanian state, imposed by an armed
permanently supervise the evolution of the aggression against it, or if the situation
insecurity factors and timely warn the causes the declaration of the state of war”
intervention forces within the other [28].
components of the System of National The successive transferring from a system of
Security; general management to another, of the
– the Management System of Critical responsibilities of integratively coordinating
Infrastructure Protection - conducted the supervision and action forces in the area
336
of Romanian strategic interest (structures Security should be employed, according to
which, depending on the institution to which the amplitude and intensity of each type of
they belong, are organized and trained for a manifested crisis.
wide range of interventions) is achieved The essential coordinate of the entire
according to the likely development of the legislative set for the management of
destabilizing vectors - defiances, challenges, national security reveals the very clearly
dangers, threats and assaults - whose defined intention of inserting a variety of
negative effects on the societal systems are preventive measures and actions that directly
hard to predict with a high degree of manage any situation in which the Romanian
certainty. society could find itself in, including the
The difficulty of this complex process can be medium term very unlikely context when
amplified both by some organizational- our country would face a crisis of maximum
functional deficiencies caused by social gravity – the political-military one.
vulnerabilities and the lack of information “The contemporary security environment
relevant for planning and carrying out reflects significant changes in its evolution,
actions aimed at restoring the state of including the obvious tendency of insecurity
normality to the Romanian society – less globalization determined both by the so
frequent contexts, but which will involve powerful transnational interconnections and
taking the strategic decisional risk. by the propagation, through resonance, of
the crisis-generating factors that rapidly
&RQFOXVLRQV expand their negative influences in a
The diversity and depth of contemporary veritable cascade of consequences which are
studies on the structure of national security very difficult to assess” [29].
and, in particular, of those that highlight the The high degree of unpredictability of the
importance of each of its areas in the process undesired effects of defiances, challenges,
of general social evolution reveals the strong dangers and threats on the possibilities of
attention paid to the strategic decision field stagnation or even of involution of the whole
for determining and promoting the action societal ensemble determines the frequent
modalities destined to neutralize the possible reshaping and adaptation of the acting
influences produced by the factors of potential of the System of National Security
insecurity through reducing the Romanian to the real, concrete imperatives, specific to
state’s vulnerabilities to these vectors the Romanian society’s development
generating instability. framework.
In this respect, the contents of regulations From this perspective, the complementarity
specific to national security point to the of the action capabilities of its component
obvious concern that in any situation subsystems must be a permanent feature,
requiring the firm and decisive reflected in the operational plans of
implementation of their terms – contexts cumulative intervention and effective
determined by possible gaps configured in management of any type of social crisis.
the development of our society, the reaction
or action potential of the System of National
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Gheorghe Udeanu, 0DQDJHPHQWXO VHFXULWăĠLL QDĠLRQDOH, Sibiu, Editura Academiei
)RUĠHORU7HUHVWUH³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´S
[2] Ibidem, p. 13.
[3] Vulnerable – that can be easily attacked, that has weak, faulty, criticable parts. Cf.
'LFĠLRQDUXOXL ([SOLFDWLY DO /LPELL 5RPkQH %XFXUHúWL (GLWXUD 8QLYHUV (QFLFORSHGLF
Gold, 2009, p. 1209.
337
[4] Defiance is, at the same time, challenge or ignorance, that is an ignorance that
challenges, but also an attitude that ignores. Defiance is a directed, often threatening
ignorance, Ibidem, p. 1012.
[5] Challenge means a series of gestures, realities or actions directed against someone in
order to produce a reaction. Cf. ***, &UL]D FRQIOLFWXO Uă]ERLXO YRO , %XFXUHúWL
(GLWXUD8QLYHUVLWăĠLL1DĠLRQDOHGH$SăUDUHÄ&DURO,´S
[6] Danger – situation, event that endangers or may endanger the existence, integrity of
someone or something. Cf. 'LFĠLRQDUXO([SOLFDWLYDO/LPELL5RPkQH%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD
Univers Enciclopedic Gold, 2009, p. 803.
[7] Threat – is a hostile action, with the purpose of deterring /…/ in the relations between
states, the issues related to threat and its perception as such are very sensitive. Cf. ***,
&UL]DFRQIOLFWXOUă]ERLXOYRO,%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD8QLYHUVLWăĠLL1DĠLRQDOHGH$SăUDUH
Ä&DURO,´S
[8] Aggression – attack against a person or state. Cf. 'LFĠLRQDUXO ([SOLFDWLY DO /LPELL
5RPkQH%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD8QLYHUV(QFLFORSHGLF*ROGS
[9] Risk – possibility of getting into danger, of facing trouble or of incurring a loss. Ibidem,
p. 957.
[10] Gheorghe Udeanu, op.cit, p. 52.
[11] Apud ***, &UL]DFRQIOLFWXOUă]ERLXOYRO ,%XFXUHúWL(GLWXUD8QLYHUVLWăĠLL1DĠLRQDOH
GH$SăUDUHÄ&DURO,´S
[12] Gheorghe Udeanu, op.cit., pp. 55-56.
[13] Ibidem, p. 59.
[14] Ibidem, p. 56.
[15] ***, &UL]D FRQIOLFWXO Uă]ERLXO, vol. I, %XFXUHúWL (GLWXUD 8QLYHUVLWăĠLL 1DĠLRQDOH GH
$SăUDUHÄ&DURO,´p. 122.
[16] Gheorghe Udeanu, op.cit., p. 57.
[17] Ibidem, p. 58.
[18] Ibidem.
[19] Ibidem, p. 13.
[20] Ibidem, p. 14.
[21] /HJHD QU GLQ LXOLH SULYLQG VLJXUDQĠD QDĠLRQDOă D 5RPkQLHL SXEOLFDWă vQ
Monitorul Oficial nr. 163, din 07 august 1991, art. 1.
[22] 2UGRQDQĠD GH XUJHQĠă D *XYHUQXOXL 5RPkQLHL QU GLQ QRLHPEULH SULYLQG
SURWHFĠLD LQIUDVWUXFWXULORU FULWLFH SXEOLFDWă vQ 0RQLWRUXO 2ILFLDO DO 5RPkQLHL QU
din 12 noiembrie 2010, art. 3, lit. c).
[23] /HJHD QU GLQ QRLHPEULH SULYLQG SURWHFĠLD FLYLOă SXEOLFDWă vQ 0RQLWRUXO
Oficial nr. 1.094, din 24 noiembrie 2004, art. 1, alin. (1).
[24] +RWăUkUea *XYHUQXOXL 5RPkQLHL QU GLQ RFWRPEULH SHQWUX DSUREDUHD
6WUDWHJLHLGHRUGLQHSXEOLFă-SXEOLFDWăvQ0RQLWRUXO2ILFLDOQUGLQ
octombrie 2010, Index de termeni, 1.
[25] Gheorghe Udeanu, op.cit., p. 57.
[26] Ibidem.
[27] Ibidem.
[28] Ibidem, pp. 11-12.
[29] Ibidem, p. 36.
338
THE VICIOUS CIRCLE OF SUBSIDISED EMPLOYMENT
Boryana VARBANOVA

varbanova_01@abv.bg
Abstract: The problem with subsidised employment has become more and more serious in recent
years. There is a trend in which vulnerable groups lose their jobs again after the period of support.
Our focus in this report is on employment and, in particular, on the issues related to its effective and
not so effective stimulation. When implementing this strategy in Bulgaria, institutions aim primarily at
reaching certain numeric indicators, rather than structural reforms and discontinuation of bad
practices.
Keywords: employment, subsidised, vulnerable groups, job
1. Introduction National Youth Guarantee Implementation

The ten-year growth strategy Europe 2020 Plan 2014 – 2020 (Figure 4), the National
of the European Union aims to create Strategy for Lifelong Learning, the National
conditions for “a smart, sustainable and Strategy for People with Disabilities 2016 –
inclusive growth in the EU” [1]. The 2020, the National Development
National Employment Action Plan for 2017 Programme: Bulgaria 2020, etc.
is a mechanism for adjusting the labour
market towards sustainability, balance and 2. Key issues
better performance [3]. The aim is to The strategy Europe 2020 focuses on three
support a favourable employment growth in areas – employment, education and poverty.
economy, to balance the labour market by Studies show that in Bulgaria this
training personnel for jobs and in relationship is most pronounced, and almost
professional fields with unsecured demand. half of the population with low education
Moreover, there is a desire for activation of level is at risk of poverty. Low education is
inactive individuals and proactive a major prerequisite for unemployment –
workforce training for the increasing the employment rate for people with
demand from businesses and a successful primary education is below 30%, while for
adaptation of the economy to external and university graduates it is more than 80%
internal challenges of economic [2,5].
development. The implementation of the The object of interest in this report is to
Plan supports the achievement of the study employment, and more specifically,
objectives and the commitments of the the problems associated with its inefficient
country in the implementation of the EU stimulation. The following key issues stand
Strategy 2020, as well as the measures out:
included in the National Reform Programme x the first and foremost goal is to spend
2016 – 2020, the Convergence Programme the provided money without seeking
2017 – 2020 [6], the tasks of the Updated efficiency of its use;
Employment Strategy 2013 – 2020, the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0055
339
x there is no evidence that the market is resources are used without any effects on
recovering exactly because of the the labour market.
implementation of the action plans in
previous years; Ɇɥɚɞɟɠɤɚɛɟɡɪɚɛɨɬɢɰɚɡɚɩɟɪɢɨɞɚ
Youth unemployment in the period 2003-2016
x inappropriate target groups are chosen – 2003-ɝ
the main target groups are again the least
vulnerable. The plan says that “employers
want to hire young people the most and that
is why the focus is on young people” [4]
(Figure 1). In this statement there is a
serious contradiction. Support programmes
should not be aimed at people who will be
employed anyway. Thus, many employers
hire people with the sole purpose of
draining funds.
The trend is almost all programmes and age
resources to be focused on subsidised Figure 1 Youth unemployment for the period
employment. In the previous year, about 2003-2016
85% of the funds were for direct job
creation, and the rest – for passive measures Eurostat data show that young people
and training. Data from recent years show (under 29 years) with higher education are
that subsidised employment does not have a the most successful in finding a job after
long-term influence on both the labour the employment programme. Over 65% of
market and on the people who participate in them were employed one year after the
it (i.e. when the programme is over, these programme. It is clear that the higher
people are again unemployed). In qualification and education give better
developed economies, direct job creation opportunities in the labour market. It is also
has long been displaced by passive expected that the businesses will take
measures. In 2016, in other EU countries, advantage of the programme to save costs
about 17% of the funds from policies for when they need staff. This explains why a
stimulation of the labour market were great number of those who took part in the
allotted for direct job creation on average, programme are able to actively participate
and in Bulgaria – 89% (according to in the labour market after completing it.
Eurostat data, Fig. 2), which comprises the The analyses show that most people in this
largest share in the EU. Moreover – only in particular group continued working for the
Hungary and Bulgaria the share of these same company after completion of the
funds is over 50%, and in more than half of employment programme [6].
the countries – below 10%. At the same time, the least success in
subsequent employment is shown by people
3. Opportunities to improve the who benefited from the largest programmes
effectiveness of subsidised employment. From Social Assistance to Employment and
It is a kind of progress that the most Assistants to the Disabled – respectively
expensive and most ineffective programme 13.4% and 15.6% of the people who
over the past 10 years, i.e. From Social benefited from programmes had found a job
Assistance to Employment, dropped in when a check was performed one year after
2016. The reason is that an evaluation of the programme. Those programmes include
the effect of the programmes was mainly people from vulnerable groups in
performed, and it showed that tremendous the labour market – long-term unemployed,
people with disabilities, and young people
340
from social institutions. These results are policies on the labour market.
most indicative of the failure of active
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Germany
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Belgium
Portugal
Finland
Estonia
Croatia
Austria
France
i
Latvia
Italy
B l
Figure 2 Share of expenditures for direct job creation by the total cost of the policies of the labour
market in 2016, % (Source: Eurostat data, calculations of the Institute for Market Economics)
National Programme Assistants to People with Disabilities
Regional Employment Programme
National Programme for Employment and Professional

Training of People with Permanent Disability
The Start of Career Programme
National Programme From Social Assistance to Employment
Encouraging employers to hire unemployed people under 29
Figure 3 Main programmes in the National Employment Action Plan for 2016 in levs
Given that the active measures comprise does not lead to any lasting positive effects.
less than 6% of the unemployed (Figure 3) On the other hand, the longer these people
in an environment of scarcity of resources, are outside the labour market, the more
efforts should be geared towards the most difficult their reintegration is (Figure 4).
vulnerable groups – unskilled, long-term Released data show that this year the
unemployed, people with disabilities. It policies of the labour market will continue
turns out that subsidised employment fails to be implemented under the old scheme.
at this point. The state will subsidise employment with
Hiring those unemployed for several priority and will take account of the costs
months is quite a short-term solution and without actually increasing the chances of
341
vulnerable groups to be employed long- Bulgaria relies heavily on direct job
term or to create a more favourable creation.
business environment for the opening of The majority of the jobs, however, are
new jobs in the real sector. Analyses and created in the real sector, and until the
intentions can only be found in documents. economic environment is improved, there
The practical implementation of the policy cannot be any significant results. Again we
is done in the old, flawed way. The witness the spending of millions on taking
European Commission with the Council ineffective actions in a sector without
Recommendation on the integration of the addressing the root of the problem. In the
long-term unemployed into the labour absence of interest to undertake long-term
market gave prescriptions (in September policies, the unemployment problem (as
2016) according to which the attempts to well as other pressing issues) gets only a
boost employment and competitiveness of superficial solution for a short period.
the unemployed and inactive persons are to It turns out that most programmes are
be carried out through guidance, aimed more at stimulating businesses,
counselling, training, qualification and re- rather than at the permanent opening of new
training. The recommendation is mentioned jobs. This is so, because businesses have
in the National Employment Action Plan the opportunity to take advantage of cheap
for 2016, but this year the attention seems or even free employees for a certain period
to focus again on the well-known of time.
employment programmes. In the majority of cases these programmes
are targeted at low-skilled persons (long-
term unemployed, less educated, Roma,
persons with disabilities and other
vulnerable groups). Despite the occasional
success in terms of increasing the number
and proportion of people who have
managed to return to the primary labour
market after participating in some of the
programmes, the, continuing in 2017
growth of long-term unemployed and the
deepening structural unemployment testify
Figure 4 Unemployed people by duration of for the low efficiency of such a policy.
unemployment [6]. To overcome these problems it is necessary
to abandon the universal approach in
4. Conclusions and recommendations. determining the benefits and privileges. We
The continuous implementation of an active consider it appropriate to limit the number
policy in terms of unemployment through of times to participate in employment
subsidised employment creates conditions programmes, which will enable more
for falling into a vicious circle of people people to benefit from them.
constantly expecting this type of In order to avoid abuse, persons not taking
programmes without having a real the jobs offered by the labour offices or
opportunity in the labour market in the unwilling to participate in those
absence of government support. While in programmes, shall be added to the category
most EU countries the focus is on a passive of “not working” rather than unemployed.
policy which creates knowledge and skills The gradual expansion of the measures
among the unemployed, thus leading them covered by the Operational Programme
to realisation after the end of the “Human Resources Development”
programme, which they are part of, (OPHRD) implies gradual shifting of a
342
larger percentage of funds towards training the creation of the administrative capacity
activities, counselling and initiatives to needed for the implementation of
increase the workers’ incentives to look for programmes in these areas and the
employment. The main prerequisites for the accumulation of practice and experience in
success of such restructuring appear to be managing Europe’s funds.
References
[1] Strategy Europe 2020
[2] “Council Recommendation on Bulgaria’s 2013 National Reform Programme and
Delivering a Council Opinion on Bulgaria’s Convergence Programme for 2012-2016”,
COM (2013) 352 final, p. 5, para. 13
[3] National Employment Action Plan for 2017
[4] http://ime.bg/bg/articles/i-prez-2016-dyrjavata-zalaga-na-subsidirana-zaetost-v-borbata-
s-bezraboticata/ - 04.04.20ɝ
[5] http://ime.bg/bg/articles/uspeshni-li-sa-aktivnite-merki-na-pazara-na-truda/
[6] http://www.nsi.bg/
343
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NECESSITY OF MODERNIZATION OF ENGINEER

FORCES FROM NATO MEMBERS COUNTRIES
Mircea VLADU, Ioan- Dan POPA
“Nicolae Bălcescu“ Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

vladumircea57@yahoo.com , paragon1971@gmail.com
Abstract: The engineer branch has been established at a certain stage of historical evolution of the
armed forces to provide engineer support to the combat forces, as well as to support civil societies to
achieve, develop and maintain the necessary infrastructure elements in order to conduct of economic
and social activities. Having in mind all these elements and taking into account the structural
perspective and the endowment, the evolution of engineer forces should have been made in
accordance with the evolution of the common combat joint forces, keeping the same rhythm of
development. Unfortunately, the engineer forces within the armies of the NATO member states did not
evolve under the aforementioned aspects, even if some commitments have been made at the various
summits held over time at different levels.
As a result of these realities, in this paper we present some considerations about what should be the
way ahead in the evolution of the engineer forces until the horizon of 2050.
Keywords: engineer forces; engineer support; modernization; multi-purpose engineer

vehicle
1. Introduction are unable to provide support for the

Taking into account our careers held at mobility, counter-mobility and survivability
different levels of engineer forces, we had of their own combat forces, to thwart /
the opportunity to participate in restrict / hinder the mobility of enemy
multinational exercises and missions in forces, to contribute to the maintenance of
which engineer structures from member and the operational capacity of friendly forces or
non-NATO armies evolved, every time to participate in general engineer support.
expressing our satisfaction related to high These gaps and limitations have been
level of mobility of the combat forces, recorded and continue to be recorded as
generated by supple structures, endowed allied army doctrines stipulate that engineer
with powerful means and systems of hitting forces are capable of fulfilling the missions
and, on the other hand, we were and tasks of engineer support in the
discouraged by the engineer entities with combined operations with the multi-purpose
weak limited organizational structure, engineer technique currently provided only
endowment and mobility which are not able on paper, because of the austerity budgets
to provide the engineer support to combat of some countries.
forces at the standards required by the joint Under these circumstances, we ask some
operations. rhetorical questions, as follows:
The existence of some limitations at Why doctrines of engineer support and
organizational and endowment level have combat manuals do not provide for the
influenced the action of engineer forces that fulfillment of missions, the level of
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0056
344
endowment and instruction existing at one In this perspective, we consider that in order
time, instead of level described in major to ensure the mobility of our own combat
endowment plans, which because of the forces in the joint operations, it is necessary
austerity budgets cannot be to design and build a polyvalent armored
operationalized? engineer machine/multi- purpose engineer
Why we have established a high level of vehicle, provided with different equipment,
ambition in relation with engineer forces designated to replace the old and
which cannot be reached considering the rudimentary machines which, unfortunately,
actual organizational structure, are still in use.
endowment, training, resources etc. ? This versatile armored engineer machine
Someone might answer that the future with its working equipment can also replace
needs to be built, and there is a need for the old engineer machines that were
normative acts to legislate on this designed to remove, reduce, mark and
construction. If the approach would be in bypass or cross natural obstacles, explosive
this way it could be accepted but not in and non-explosive obstacles, and so on. At
terms of the form empty of content. the same time, this armored engineer
From this perspective, we believe that machine could also be used for the
engineer forces, in order to be able to carry arrangement, maintenance, reconstruction
out missions of engineer support in a timely and construction of the roads, the
and efficient manner need to be deeply arrangement of the entrances and exits at
restructured in terms of organization, the crossing points for tactical
endowment, instruction, etc., so that in the displacements etc. For the passing of forces
integrated battle space, doctrinal provisions across the water courses, it is required to get
and regulations have real support, as is the rid of the classical pontoon bridges, very
case with the combat forces during the joint difficult to maneuver from one area to
operations, protection etc. another, to build bridges and gates, to
ensure concealment against observation of
2. Considerations regarding the evolution all kinds executed by the enemy etc. Will be
of the engineer forces up to the horizon necessary to design and construct a
of 2050 submersible pontoon machine, the bridge
We assume that the evolution of engineer being based on the width of the water
endowment by 2050 must be addressed in course in a number of submersible pontoons
terms of the possibilities of fulfilling coupled to each other by both mechanical
missions and tasks of engineer support in and hydraulic devices. The construction and
favor of mobility, counter-mobility, use of the submersible pontoon machine
maintenance of operational capability, and would reduce the maneuver time from one
general engineer support in joint operations. watercourse to another and the bridge-
Considering the proposed horizon, one dismounting. At the same time, it would
might ask: Why we set a far-off time provide 100% concealment, thus protecting
horizon? The answer can be very simple: it against all kinds of enemy
the discrepancy between the doctrinal reconnaissance. The passing of joint forces
provisions, the regulations, the fighting across dry valleys with the widest width,
manuals, on one hand, and the muddy watercourses with a shallow depth
organizational structure, the endowment could be achieved in a shorter and safer
and the training of the engineer forces, on time if will be designed and constructed
the other hand, is huge, so we consider that metal bridges with hydraulic infrastructure.
it would take 30-40 years for its substantial In this respect, metal bridges with openings
diminishing, in the conditions that would be of no more than 10 meter each could be
allocated considerable budgets. built , with hydraulic pillars whose height
345
could vary between 2.5-5 m. By endowment c) appropriate concealment of the location
of engineer forces with metal bridges with of the command post;
hydraulic infrastructure, the following d) maneuver of the command post in the
advantages could be achieved: rhythm of execution of the combined
a) reducing the time for mounting and operations.
dismantling the bridge; At the same time, we consider beneficial to
b) ensuring that large amounts of water, constitute during the force generation
sewers and ice built, floods formed from process, a Joint Fortification Mobile
alluvial materials formed during floods; Detachment, using personnel and specific
c) the impossibility of destroying the bridge equipment which belong to engineer forces,
by arson; as well as personnel with military
d) use of hydraulic beams and piles when obligations from civilian contractors and a
needed for the construction of specific equipment provided by civilian
superstructures for temporary storage of contractors.
materials for land forces. The engineer general support could be
To prevent the mobility of enemy forces, it significantly improved by designing and
would not be too costly to design and constructing following capabilities:
construct a motor-functional armored a) water well drilling installations up to a
engineer vehicle, designate to execute in a depth of more than 2,000 feet, where the
short and safe way, the following: level of nitrates and nitrites is much lower;
a) non-explosive obstacles for the b) installations for potable water with
protection of forces and removal of those higher productivity of 200,000 liters/day;
executed by the enemy; c) 150 KVA armored vehicle for supplying
b) strengthening of artificial obstacles; the electrical power necessary for the
c) reconstruction of natural barriers in order operation of the command posts, the timber
to increase their value; and concrete factories.
d) mechanical destruction of infrastructure Drilling and water-borne installations could
elements; be part of Joint Mobile Water Detachment,
e) execution of the tranches and the ditches which could be activated during force
of communication, etc. generation process, following the same
In order to maintain the operational capacity procedure as Joint Fortification Mobile
of our own forces during the deep Detachment.
operations, we consider that it would be
necessary to design and build the sheltered 3. Conclusions
armored vehicle, with technical possibilities The future Joint Operations will have a
for preparing the infrastructure for its much changed physiognomy comparing to
location at short notice and safe. Under present, as in the endowment of the combat
these circumstances, different command forces will be new categories of powerful
posts will be obtained of a number of surgical instruments and systems.
sheltered armored vehicles, each one having In order to carry out their planned missions,
a specific role in this puzzle. they need specialized and efficient support
By designing and constructing of the from engineer forces that can only be given
sheltered armored vehicle, could be if the engineer forces are subjected, in the
accomplished the following: next 30-40 years, to a profound
a) short-time installation of the command restructuring process under the doctrinal,
post in the field; structural, endowment, training, etc.
b) ensuring optimal conditions of This process requires significant
protection, work, rest and feeding of the investments, but at completion we will be
personnel serving the command point; able to see the existence of powerful
346
engineer forces capable of providing resources and new technologies in the
engineer support for the forces groups engineer field..
meeting the prescriptions and standards of Having an optimistic approach and based
doctrines, regulations and combat manuals. on allocation of minimum 2% of GDP for
There is a bulk of military strategists who army modernization, the engineer forces
claimed that to engineer forces were not will be able to keep the same rhythm of
given due attention and remained at the development as common combat joint
development level of the 70-80s in terms of forces.
endowment, mainly due to the lack of
References
[1] Doctrine of engineer forces in joint operations, Edition 2016;
[2] Col. assoc. prof. Mircea Vladu, PhD and collective, Endowment of engineer according to
the challenges of future war, National Defense University "Carol I " Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2006.
347
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEES
Oana Georgiana ANDRONIC, DăQX‫'܊‬80,75$‫&܇‬8
“Lucian Blaga” 8QLYHUVLW\6LELX5RPDQLD

JHRUJLBFULVWHD#\DKRRFRPGDQGXPLWUDVFX#XOEVLELXUR
Abstract: The leadership style and the thereof oriented behavior pattern represents the basic attitude
in which a person exercises its leadership tasks. There are a series of different leadership styles with
numerous explanation attempts aiming to present a model for a successful leadership behavior. The
worldwide trend leads in the direction of Management by Delegation with clear operating principles
which is nowadays the central point of all general interests concerning this topic but a thorough
documentation regarding the different leadership styles is the starting point for each manager when
trying to build a good relation with the employees. A well-defined and applied leadership style will
influence the working behavior of the employees and in turns lead to a better functioning of the whole
organization. The knowledge-based organization needs to be up to date with both the oldest and the
newest theories concerning leadership so it can create a working relationship with its employees. The
present paper aims to present the main aspects concerning leadership, leadership styles and concepts
in order to find the best way of creating a successful relationship between leadership and employees
by strengthening the individual responsibility of each employee and hence improving the functioning
of an organization.
.H\ZRUGVOHDGHUVKLSOHDGHUVKLSVW\OHHPSOR\HHPDQDJHU
,QWURGXFWLRQ employee from any authoritarian

The democratic social order supposes the managerial power which does not grant the
independent thinking and responsible freedom to self-development. Also, each
individual. The most important area of life individual superior from an organization is
where each of these individuals can develop linked in view of his leadership style, to the
and perform their ability is the job. If one is basic rights. If he, as a middle manager for
not permitted to act on one’s own authority, example, fulfills the function of a main
than it can also not be expected from him to manager than he can develop his own
make responsible decisions in the areas personality and thus, he can exert his own
where he acts as a citizen. The basic right to expert and leadership knowledge. Each
free development of the personality must, individual manager should consider the
according to the prevailing rights, not only development of his employee’s personality
be respected but also actively encouraged. and should not be allowed to treat them as
This is part of the human dignity which in an object of his own discretionary power.
turns ensures the general human freedom of Thereof, who wants to bring forward the
action. Within the working relationship, the basic right to free self-development within
basic right to free self-development and the working life must respect the
human dignity has immediate application employee’s freedom to develop. As already
for the employer, the working committee as mentioned, the importance of self-
also for each superior so it can protect the development is based mainly on its tight
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0057
348
connection to the constitutional principle of comes to cross-cultural leadership
human dignity. Given that an authoritarian situations. For example, during a German
and autocratic leadership style interferes and French merger, there have been several
with the human dignity, leadership projects groups. When they first met, the
problems nowadays are solved through the German employees prepared the meeting
fundamental law. The human dignity is very thorough: they prepared proposals,
disturbed when the individual is demeaned formulated list if questions and detailed
to an object, to a bare means. Terms like presentations. They wanted to make quick
„Internal dismissal” and “Mobbing” are common agreed decisions. For the French
meanwhile becoming standard concepts in employees, the first meeting was of the
the economy and administration. These same importance. They were excited to
mainly represent a growing misguided exchange and develop ideas with their
development in the relation between the future German colleagues. They didn’t have
executive managers and employees, putting concrete ideas but wanted first to meet their
therefore pressure on our society. Another new colleagues. This type of
element important for the leadership style is misunderstandings are often resulted during
the responsibility. The individual is hold the collaboration of different cultural
responsible, as mentioned in the first entry groups without having information about
of the constitutional law, “before God and the different cultural background. The
other people” and this responsibility, which results produce, on one side, a slowing in
supposes a natural freedom of decision is a the integration process and on the other side
“typical human trait”. Only if the individual frustration among the participants.
is as free as possible when it comes to the Especially during a merger between
decision-making process, than he can be organizations from different countries the
hold accountable. Inversely, the individual whole integration process can be influenced
assumes gladly the responsibility if he can negatively due to this cultural differences.
make decisions freely. Strengthening and So, in the example given above, the
developing the responsibility of the German representatives asked themselves if
individual is an overriding managerial their future partners are reliable and the
function. French representatives interpreted the
German approach as provocative, imposing
6WDII PDQDJHPHQW DQG OHDGHUVKLS authority.
VW\OHV Another example is that of a German line
It is very difficult to have a clear image manager in Spain which demands from his
regarding leadership, responsibility and Spanish colleagues to make proposals and
behavior towards staff in all situations. give him advice, or critic. This approach is
Hence, a prevailing topic is to find the best perceived as being strange because it
way to manage staff. In some cases, the contradicts the Spanish view of the
managers are advised to impress their staff “omnipotent leader” who makes decisions
through enthusiasms and in other cases it is alone. The request to involvement is
advised to use hard-line assertiveness. A perceived mainly as a weakness in his
general accepted approach concerning leadership style.
leadership has not been yet enforced. This Americans tend to ask their partners to
is also linked to the fact that leadership is address themselves on first name bases,
strongly connected to different world- which is not well perceived in countries like
views. Considering that, there is also a Germany. Here, the first name bases is used
different approach to leadership and for personal relationships and friendships.
leadership style within the same culture, the American though, see the addressing on
problem becomes more complex when it first name bases as a form of
349
acknowledging equality and appreciation The authoritarian leader delegates work but
and this form of addressing does not not responsibility. The information flow is
question any hierarchy or competencies. primary bottom up and in reverse direction
7\SHVRIOHDGHUVKLSVW\OHV there is only a minimum information flow.
Traditionally we distinguish the following In addition, there is also a wide disciplinary
leadership styles: authority of the superior and a strict control.
x Patriarchal leadership style An authoritarian manager insists on his
Considers the transfer of the traditional formal position and appeals to a strict view
father figure from a family within an regarding the service and the responsibility
organization. Characteristic is the of its employees. He considers position and
unrestricted claim to power on one side (so tasks and is guided by the idea of rank and
authoritarian) and the obligation to provide prestige. Also, this type of managers deny
welfare for the staff. This type of managers initiative and critical thinking because he
can receive, based on their personality, perceives it as an attack to his own
great appraisals from their employees and authority. Authoritarian personalities are
in general can impose directions without strongly characterized by an authority-
receiving resistance. based thinking and are reluctant to
x The charismatic leadership style delegating power and responsibility.
The charismatic manager builds his claim x Craft master style
to power on special characteristics. Along This special style highlighted by Höhn [2]
unrestricted claims of power he also of the authoritarian and patriarchal
demands from his staff the readiness to management style relies on the
make sacrifices. In turns, he offers a certain management style in the craft area: the
“state o salvation”. Research regarding management in this field is based upon the
charismatic managers also talks about the absolutistic-patriarchal principle. Here, the
difference between “ethical” and craft master acts like a sovereign Patriarch
“unethical” charisma [1]. in his domain. This approach is
x Passive leadership style strengthened through the professional
This type of leadership is due to the lack of superiority towards the subordinates: the
actual managing staff not necessary a nature of a craft master supposes that he
leadership style. The manager renounces his knows and can do more than his apprentice.
involvement and has no social relationship The most interesting part of this approach is
with his employees. This leadership style is the comparison with current superiors from
also known as “laissez-faire- style”. Most the top levels of a hierarchy. Here, there
organizations discard this passive style. still are managers with the ambition to
x The authoritarian leadership style interfere in the lower level of the hierarchy
This leadership style is mainly based on the as if they ( similar to the craft master) know
disciplinary authority of the superior. Its more and can to better than the others. The
origin lies in the military organization of increasing number of organisations, the
the Prussian administration. Nowadays it is constant development of technic through
used mainly in borderline situations, for division of work and specialization have led
example in situations where an organization to a breach in this management principle
can have serious damage. Still the and the main criteria of the superior is no
authoritarian management style exists in longer that of surpassing its employees
practice. Within many medium-sized through technical knowledge but to
enterprises it is characterized by a strong demonstrate its suitability through his
centralization of the decision-making capability to enforce the knowledge of its
authority and by extensive exclusion of the employees or working group within the
employee from the policy-forming process. organization.
350
x Cooperative management style Taylor [4], founder of the organizational
This particular style of management acts on operation management and “father of the
the assumption that teamwork and acting work science”, had a very materialistic-
together is the main thing that enables the mechanistic perspective. He acknowledged
success of an organization. Here, the main as an only motivational factor, the desire to
position is not taken by Upper Management earn money. He developed the piece-rate
but by the tasks that need to be model and the rewarding performance
accomplished. model as a factor of stimulation. He also
x Delegating leadership style performed time and motion studies and
On the decision-making level the decision rationalized human and technical motion
content of relevant cooperation, sequences. The main objective was the
respectively within the extensive self- enhancement of production and increase of
reliance is established and above all productivity. Decades later, the American
implemented. For the delegating leadership Mayo [5] “discovered” the working person
style distinctive similarity of the decision- as a social being and concluded that
making and partly also during the financial stimulation and good working
implementation within the team, is clearly conditions are not the only factors that can
less develop, hence there should exist motivate employees to increase
common decision activities executed in a performance. During analysis (the
categorical, scheduled and systematic Hawthorne Study) it was established that
manner. The same is applied, according to the performance of employees is influenced
Wunderer [3], on the personal level. Given by their surroundings and by the people that
that within the delegating management style they are working with as much as by their
the alternating interaction is lower than that own innate abilities, and these factors
of the cooperative style, there should exist a override the financial stimulation. Mayo
categorical, positive prosocial relation concentrated his study on the interpersonal
between the participants. Of importance is relationship at work and was thus
the high level of trust on the part of the considered the founder of the „ Human-
delegating power in the competencies, Relations-Movement”, which finally failed
readiness to take responsibility, loyalty and in the 50s of the last century because it
motivation towards the tasks of the degenerated into a simple „ be nice to each
employees. The limited or in many cases other”. However, it was the generator of the
absent control over the actions must be understanding that the main problem of
replaced by a high self-control of the each organization is to create an effective
delegate as also through control over the organisation and to satisfy the employees.
results from the delegating power. A low 7KHPDQDJHULDOJULG
alternating interaction reduces in general Trying to integrate both views, Taylor and
the percentage of interactive leadership. Mayo, Blake and Mouton [6] developed
based on these two concepts, the Grid
/HDGHUVKLSFRQFHSWV Modell or Managerial Grid, where
3.2QH GLPHQVLRQDO DQG WZR- horizontally is the concern for results and
GLPHQVLRQDOOHDGHUVKLSFRQFHSW vertically the concern for people. The
In view of the elements of each particular optimal style would be a mixture between a
management situation (manager, managed strong orientations towards staff as also
staff, task) we can differentiate, in general, towards achieving the goals. From
two different management situations: combining these two dimensions, 5
completion of the task and the approach different types of leadership styles occur.
towards the needs and expectations of the Blake and Moutons approach was widely
employees. popular because it was formulated clear and
351
explicit. As a hands-on application we can information regarding different proposals
name the “managing through goals”: if the and also to implement them together. Last
individual goals of an employee can be in situational leadership, the practical
connected to the goals of the organization, leadership style depends above all, on the
then the employee will do his best to employee’s “maturity”. The “maturity
achieve them, the result being the high level” or “disposition” is defined as the
performance. employee’s ability to take responsibility, to
6LWXDWLRQDOOHDGHUVKLSPRGHO manage its own behaviour. It is
The situational leadership is an approach distinguished between “task maturity”
which presents the different types of (qualifications, knowledge and experience)
influences which act on management. The and “emotional maturity” (determination
main idea is that different situations and for performance, self-confidence, readiness
factors require different leadership styles to take responsibility). There are different
and behaviour. The managing process maturity levels [7]: M1- where the
depends on three different criteria: the employee lacks both maturity components;
industry/department, the situation of the M2- “emotional maturity” exceeds lack of
organization, the “maturity level” of the “task maturity”; M3- “task maturity”
employee. If you for example activate in the exceeds lack of “emotional maturity”; M4-
construction industry, where production is possesses both maturity levels. In order to
the most important aspect, then it is more use an adequate leadership style, a manager
required to use an authoritarian, assigning is required to evaluate the maturity
leadership style. Building plans must be development level, which in turns requires
implemented, therefore it would be an analysis of the task-related and social
impossible to renegotiate and discuss each eligibility of the employees.
building phase. In Research and Value-RULHQWHGOHDGHUVKLS
Development departments and within a The value-oriented leadership, also known
creative team, management must grant the as transformational leadership, relies on the
employees a certain type of freedom. In this orientation towards meaning and seeks to
case the emphasis lies on creating an answer the “Why” of the actions. It is
environment for exchanging ideas and concentrated on the classic interpretation of
brainstorming. In creative organizations, for the task-oriented actions and contains two
example, in advertising agency, it is always main factors: Contingent Reward and
put up for discussion, how much freedom Management by Exception. The led
must be awarded to creative people, participant is concerned with executing his
therefore, one of the questions that always work according to the requirements of his
arises is whether the creative period must manager and gets in return the desirable
be connected to the core working hours and reward. When giving the reward, the
whether the so called “relaxation rooms” manager is oriented toward the necessities
with computer games and other relaxing and preference of the led participant. He
activities should only be used during the interferes only if the results are not
breaks. On the other hand, if the satisfactory or on request of the employee
organization is in a crisis, quick and (Management by Exception).
sometimes unpopular decisions must be 7KHFKDULVPDGLOHPPD
made, therefore it makes no sense to The charismatic leadership style is also part
discuss the necessary actions within of the acknowledged leadership styles. The
different committees. In contrast is a term “charismatic leadership” is mistrusted,
participation of the employees during a mainly because charisma (wrongly)
growing phase of great advantage, because suggests a native leadership skill. Thus,
it creates the necessary timeframe to get many studies [8] proved that charismatic
352
leadership has a positive effect on building towards task solution. There are different
confidence and performance motivation as leadership styles with a wide range of
also on the value convergence and explanations attempts that aim to find the
emotional connection to the organization. most successful management behaviour.
Stahl [1] considered that charismatic Though the delegated leadership style is
leadership produces not only an still today the main focus of the general
identification with the management goals interest. A special study should be awarded
but also a deferment of individual needs to the one and two dimensional leadership
and personal dedication. One of the best concept, the managerial grid as well as also
documented study in 60 countries (Global the situational and the value-oriented
Leadership also Organizational leadership concept. The leadership style
Effectiveness) shows that charismatic influences greatly if besides the superior,
leadership stands even before other ideal the employees can also play an active role
expectation such as “team oriented” or in the decision-making process and how
“participation”. this can be performed. A lot of managers
have not yet learned to cope with all the
&RQFOXVLRQV challenges that come with their leadership
The democratic social order with the position. Hence, they sometimes act
supreme constitutional principle of human unstructured and intuitive and in most cases
dignity influences the choice of each without trusting the capabilities of their
leadership style. The development of employees. Therefore it is of outmost
personal responsibility and mutual trust is importance to have a solid theoretical
the overriding task of all managers. background in order to be able to adapt to
The leadership style and thus oriented different situations and different
behavioural pattern is the bases in which personalities.
every manager perceives his responsibility
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Stahl H, Brauchen wir heute noch charismatische Führung, Frankfurter Allgemeine
Zeitung, 83/05.
[2] Reinhard Höhn, Die Geschäftsleitung der GmbH, 2nd Edition, Köln, 1995 pp..
[3] Rolf Wunderer, Führung und Zusammenarbeit, 9th Edition, Neuwied, Hermann-
Luchterhand Publishing, 2011.
[4] Frederick Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, Create Space Independent
Publishing, 2010
[5] https://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/hawthorne/01.html#one
[6] Robert Blake, Jane Mouton, The Managerial Grid, 12th Edition, Gulf Publishing, 1968
[7] Hersey P, Blanchard K.H., Management of organizational behavior: Utilizing Human
Resources, 3rd Edition, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice -Hall, 1977
[8] Stephen Robbins, Organisation der Unternehmung, Pearson Studium, 1st Edition,
München, 2001
353
TRANSLATION OF CAPABILITY REQUIREMENT INTO MANAGEMENT BY

OBJECTIVES ENVIRONMENT
Fabian BAXA
Centre for Security and Military Strategy Studies, University of Defence, Brno, the
Czech Republic
fabian.baxa@unob.cz
Abstract: Capability-based planning focused on materialisation of Alliance´s ambitions has already

been a reality for national strategic planners for several years. This relatively new planning
environment offers not only new, broader possibilities but also new challenges. Although there are
several documents describing capability-based planning available but no one is focused on
a methodology how recognised capability needs is possible to translate into a common planning
system explored within national ministries of defence.
This article has an aim to overbridge this gap using a logical link between a package of required
capabilities and existing hierarchy of goals, measures and tasks exploring a functional areas
(DOTLMPFI) tool. Considering an idea the capability is a dynamic issue having its own specific life
cycle it is necessary to think over various phases of its life. These phases influence directly a real level
of the capability. Hence various phases have their own demands on allocated resources it is not
sufficient to plan resources just for achievement of an appropriate level of the needed capability but it
is also necessary to pay attention to other parts of the life cycle, especially sustainment.
Keywords: capability planning, capability life cycle, functional areas DOTLMPFI, MBO
1. Introduction Principally agreeing with famous Paul

The term of capability is mentioned in many Davis´ work [2] is possible to state that
documents and with huge number of various “force-based” reaction on an imminent threat
adjectives and in different contexts. The aim has been changed to “capability-based”
of this article is to present not so obvious reaction.
view on the capability but via its life cycle In NATO defence planning practice a
showing selected possibilities for capability transition from Force Goals to Capability
analysis and planning using this not so often Targets (CT) appeared with a CT 2013
seen approach. defence planning cycle. With a transition of
The end of a cold war era connected with defence planning capability based approach
disappearance of known, concrete and a NATO member states have been encouraged
clear opposer, together increased uncertainty to harmonise their defence planning
because of dynamically changing global processes with the Alliance [3].
security situation [1], a new approach to Considering a fact that the output from the
defence planning has appeared. Previously defence planning process is a list of required
used reaction on supposed threat capabilities to meet strategic goals of the
materialised into corresponding force organisation (in this case the country) then
structure has been changed into less this list is possible to take as an important
materialised reaction based on capabilities. input a for capability planning process. This
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0058
354
process differs from defence planning of all needed external carriers delivering
process therefore different methodology additional capabilities.
might be explored. This paper consists of two main parts; the
Having in mind the planning is a part of first is aimed on functional areas
management in general, the idea of DOTMLPFI [8] management tool used for a
capability management could be considered, capability elaboration exploring a capability
too. And indeed, it is not so difficult to life cycle. The second part proceeding in
discover the term capability management in exploration of the same tool and approach is
available literature, even in two senses. One focused on the proper capability planning.
comes from human resources focused on
capability of personnel [4] and the other is 2. Capability life cycle
aimed on capability or organisation to fulfil Turning back to the first sense of the
its strategic goals. The second meaning is Capability Management a human resources
used in this article. field explores a term of a life cycle
The Capability Management is not also a Capability Management [9] and the
completely new approach for strategic Personnel is one of already mentioned
management; it has been used in commercial functional areas. Also the US Coastal Guard
sphere for quite a long time. The main idea publication [10] works with capability life.
of this approach is based on the idea that the Putting together the same approach is used
organisation should use all possible in this paper.
resources available to carry out its goals, Concerning a capability view on activities of
internal resources (when their carriers are an organisation it is not a new approach
parts of organisation´s structure) as well as within management. Since very beginning in
external resources which carriers belong to commercial sphere there is a necessity to
other organisations. In commercial perceive planning of necessary ability just
environment for this situation is frequently only via subordinated parts of internal
used the term of “outsourcing”. structure of the examined organisation but
The Capability Management as the part of more generally, via required capabilities
management generally consists of its internal fundamentally without distinguishing their
sub-activities as thought in [5] similarly to internal or external resources. Although
Demings´ PDCA cycle [6]. there are differences but the basic idea of the
Concerning planning environment many capability management approach is to
countries use some version of Drucker´s manage all necessary capabilities using one
Management By Objectives (MBO) [7] set of management tools in principal.
methodology improved for national The life cycle of any capabilities can be seen
conditions, this article relies on basic MBO through its functional areas as recommended
principles generally. by NATO and this tool is thought also in this
Principally one capability carrier, as a article.
“materialised platform” of each capability, Principally, the capability life-cycle consists
consists at least of one person with his of four basic parts, commencement of
personal mental and physical abilities. A capability as a starting point, a phase of
higher-level capability aggregated from capability deployment, a phase of its
several lower level capabilities can rely on sustainment. Later, when the existing level
capabilities from internal as well as external of capability is considered as a capability
capability carriers. From organisational point surplus, a phase of capability reduction may
of view the carrier of the aggregated occur and finally the concrete existing
capability contains of all related internal capability might be terminated. Graphically
capability carriers supported by capabilities this life cycle is depicted on figure 1 with
main factors influencing the level of
capability.
355
Figure 1: Capability life cycle with influencing factors
Level of capability, simply taken as a with preparation of individual person

product of capability quality and capability together with the cost of sustainment phase
quantity, may be influenced radically, by with refreshment training and education
rapid changes as well as gradually, when should be well-balanced not to spend too
changes appear in a longer-term period. many resources on the development phase
These changes might have positive or comparing to the phase of sustainment. The
negative influence on the capability level. life cycle of the personnel functional area
Various functional areas could be also contains life cycles of all necessary
studied via their proper life cycles. For personnel of the capability carrier.
illustration, the length of personnel life Similar description is possible apply on
cycle is given by its contract depending on other functional areas life cycles, too.
the rank and specialisation of concrete Therefore, to have the demanded capability
individuals. It may vary from several years prepared for use in required time means to
for enlisted personnel, up to decade for synchronise life cycles of all functional
NCOs, through decade plus for field areas in order to have them all in the
officers and WOs to several decades for sustainment phase for a desired period as
senior leaders. Cost of the life cycle illustrate on the figure 2.
consists of recruitment and initial education
Figure 2: Synchronisation of functional areas life cycles
Having available all necessary issues of all organisational level continuing with higher
functional areas in appropriate place does level of the training and finishing with
not mean to have a required capability battalion training with certification the
prepared for the use. In this moment, it is commanding officer can report his
the right time to consider Training as a battalion is combat ready. After passing
common denominator of all other successfully through certification process
functional areas. Starting from this unit is prepared for possible
harmonisation training at basic deployment to an operation or to be
356
earmarked for readiness forces. The same The challenge is to have information of
process is applicable for higher echelon each required capability elaborated into all
units of all services and task force. necessary issues throughout all functional
Reflecting NATO rules the certification is areas available, especially where the level
generally valid for three years and then the of each capability in its proper life cycles
whole process of training is necessary to is situated. This information should be
repeat. It means the sustainment phase of possible found in databases of managers
this capability is limited by validity of which are responsible for individual
certification. During the sustainment functional areas.
phase, it is to be self-evident that no The Capability manager is established to
radical changes are expected. manage all activities related to reach
In practice, it means that all changes required capability level in given time.
having radical influence on level of Within military conditions the role of the
capability should be planned beyond the capability manager might be played by an
sustainment phase. These changes should appointed commander being responsible
be followed by harmonisation training at for the unit-carrier of required capability.
all appropriate levels and finished by the Simplifying this approach to the capability
certification. Real impact of this fact is that planning the following part of this chapter
it is not realistic to keep one concrete unit works with one capability carrier owning
in high level of readiness longer than the just one required capability at a lower level
certification validity. After this period, it is than needed.
possible to manage all needed changes in Managers of all functional areas should
all functional areas. also be able to define a goal to reach the
Mutual link between training life cycle and needed level of the required capability
needed number the same kind of unit for projected into their functional area and
rotation is an subject of NATO Istanbul elaborated this goal into goals tree
initiative or Usability report mentioned in consisting of lower levels of goals,
several NATO documents, e.g. in [11]. measures and tasks in according the MBO
theory. Having an overview of all related
3. Capability planning norms and standards they should be able to
Accepting the life cycle view on capability calculate resources and time needed to
using functional areas tool the aim of have all items, which each capability
capability planning should be just to consists of, at needed level and to sustain
synchronise life cycles of all necessary them at this level for a needed time period
issues through all functional areas for each as depicted on figure 3. Expenses of
capability from the whole list of required capability have to contain costs covering
capabilities. It seems to be simple. all phases, not only development
as mentioned in many documents.
Figure 3: Possible position of required capability within its life cycle and related goals
357
In order to launch Training to reach higher of required capability repeating that for all
level of the capability supposes to have all required capabilities. However once
other functional areas issues already having goals tree for one capability, some
available. There might be some minor of tasks and measures should be at least
exceptions, for example not all materiel, partially explored in case of other
especially supplies should be necessary capabilities and capability carriers.
present at unit when starting training at Creating a database of capabilities
basic level. In all functional areas containing history of their goals trees for
is possible to find some exceptions it is up various capability carriers linked up to
to capability manager in cooperation with needed costs and time each new capability
functional areas managers to define them. will be elaborated much more easily. An
For the first time, some workload is example of a possible goals tree with
expected to define all necessary goals, identified executors for one required
measures and tasks to reach needed level capability is on figure 4.
Figure 4: Illustration of possible goals tree for one required capability
For central planning authorities, the doctrines and norms, organisational

situation is approximately the same; having changes, acquisition, maintenance of
complete list of all required capabilities materiel, facilities etc. A database of past,
with appropriated goals trees, needed costs present and planned future capabilities with
and time in the database it is relatively appropriate data enable to generate
simple to generate inputs for specific capability development plan as well as
planning documents. Especially it is planning documents for individual planning
suitable for planning of recruitment, horizons for armed forces, their units and
education, training, development of task forces as seen on figure 5.
Figure 5: List of capabilities as a basis for the capability database
358
Although the described procedure of elaborated as capability-based planning
capability planning explores quite simple therefore there are not many references
ideas, when put in practice a huge workload describing this planning approach.
might be expected to create the capability This alternative approach to capability
planning database. Once having data planning might be explored for further
concerning one cycle of capability planning development of strategic management
completed, with appropriate HW and SW theory in general and its methodology as
support the whole process will be much well as for the same level and purpose of
easier. planning carried out within an environment
based on MBO principles.
4. Conclusion
The aim of this article is to present different Acknowledgements
view on planning of capability different The work presented in this paper has been
from many times published capability- supported by the Ministry of Defence of the
based planning showing their different Czech Republic (Research Project
reasons. The capability planning is not so “STRATAL” No. 907930101023).
References
[1] 672-$55LFKDUG)8ýË.-DNXE'<ý.$/XNiã352&+È=.$-RVHI.5$86
-RVHI)5$1./LERU352&+È=.$'DOLERU NOVOTNÝ, Antonín. Vybrané trendy
YêYRMHEH]SHþQRVWQtKRSURVWĜHGtDPRåQpLPSOLNDFHSURR]EURMHQpVtO\%UQR8QLYHU]LWD
obrany, 2016, 118 p. ISBN 978-80-7231-394-5.
[2] DAVIS, K. Paul. RAND. Analytic Architecture for Capabilites-Based Planning, Mission-
System Analysis, and Transformation [online]. 2002. Santa Monica: National Defence
Research Institute, 2002, 74 s. [cit. 2015-10-15]. Retrieved from:
https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1513.pdf
[3] NATO Defence Planning Process. In: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation [online]. 2017
[cit. 2017-02-16]. Retrieved from: http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49202.htm
[4] Capability Management. In: Center for Talent Reporting [online]. Denver: SEO Company,
2017 [cit. 2017-03-07]. Retrieved from:
https://www.centerfortalentreporting.org/capability-management/
[5] LALOR, Therese. Capability management v1.0. In: Generic Activity Model for Statistical
Organisations [online]. [cit. 2017-03-07]. Retrieved from:
http://www1.unece.org/stat/platform/display/GAMSO/Capability+management+v1.0
[6] System oQ/LQH'HPLQJĤYF\NOXV3'&$6('/Èý(.0LURVODY(=8 Systemonline.cz
[online]. [cit. 2015-03-25]. Retrieved from: http://www.systemonline.cz/sprava-
it/deminguv-cyklus-pdca.htm
[7] Mulder, P. (2010). Management By Objectives (MBO). [cit. 2017-02-19]. Retrieved from:
http://www.toolshero.com/management/management-by-objectives-drucker/
[8] What is transformation: An introduction to Allied Command Transformation. In: Instituto
Español de Estudios Estratégicos . 2015
[9] URWIN, E.N., AHLEBERG PILFOLD, K.S. and HENSHAW, M.J., 2010. Through life
capability management: bene_ts and behaviours. IN: Andersen, M. (ed.) Contemporary
Ergonomics and Human Factors 2010: Proceedings of the International Conference on
Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors 2010, pp. 153-162.
[10] Capability Management: Coast Guard Publication 7-0 [online]. 2013 [cit. 2017-03-07].
Retrieved from: https://www.uscg.mil/doctrine/CGPub/CG_Pub_7_0.pdf
[11] Secretary General’s Annual Report 2011. In: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
[online]. 2012 [cit. 2017-02-15]. Retrieved from:
http://nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_82646.htm?selectedLocale=en
359
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT VIA ERASMUS PROGRAMMES
Irina Ioana BOCIANU*, Sorin Adrian CIUPITU**
* University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

** Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
irina.bocianu@lls.unibuc.ro; ciupitu.sorin@yahoo.com
Abstract: Living in a highly competitive society which is becoming more and more globalised and
students evolving into "digital natives", students deriving from the European Union countries have
benefitted from the Erasmus programmes in an attempt to become aware of the common European
culture, education and labour market. Under these circumstances, the present paper addresses the
issue of knowledge acquisition via Erasmus programmes and how knowledge management is operated
as a result of these study opportunities. For our endeavour, we have conducted an online quantitative
and qualitative study with the students from the University of Bucharest and Politehnica University of
Bucharest who have benefitted by the programme. As expected, the students' answers came to confirm
our hypotheses that the exchange programmes are useful in this sense at the same time that
information and experience that benefits students should be exploited and managed more in the
Romanian academic life for the labour market.
Keywords: Erasmus programme, knowledge acquisition, knowledge management,

student, culture
1. Introduction technology development and technology

The university programme called Erasmus, transfer was based on the essential role
created in 1987, was conceived with the played by science and technology for
clear purpose of allow student mobility in societal development representing the main
the EU. This experience exchange both for source of progress in all human activity
the Romanian and foreign students, is fields. For this reason, science and
beneficial from several points of view. Still, technology are on similar level with the
the drawback represented by the education systems within the European
programme is the fact that the Romanian Union facilitated by the Erasmus
students are tempted to leave Romania at programmes.
the end of the programme in order to work
abroad due to higher remuneration. One 2. Erasmus programmes as knowledge
possible measure to be taken would be that providers
the government takes urgent action to stop The Bologna Process (1999) together with
brain exodus because fields such as science, the Lisbon Recognition Convention (1997)
innovation, scientific research and have come to fulfil the need for a European
technology transfer are a national priority as common framework for qualifications,
stipulated in the Romanian constitution and grading system, quality management and
main laws which regulate these fields. The quality assurance. At the same time, the
importance of scientific research, objectives of a system oriented towards
scholarships, as the Erasmus programme is,
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0059
360
are to facilitate the collaboration and programme more frequently. By contrast, it
cultural interchange between European is in the poorer countries that we see less
countries in an attempt to obtain a equal people from higher socio-economic
European market with workforce adapted to backgrounds participating in the
its requirements. As a programme with a programme. This may highlight two
specific purpose of educating students different motivations for mobility: the
deriving from the higher education predominance of mobility for
environment, it is important how the 'consumption' from higher socio-economic
knowledge acquisition is managed by the groups in higher income countries versus
home institution as a result of the mobility for '‘investment' from less well off
programme. At the same time, the cultural people from lower income countries, the
and social aspects are to be taken into other countries falling somewhere in
account when analysing the outcomes of between these two extremes. [2]
the exchange programme for students to Nevertheless, the main role of the Erasmus
become knowledge producers in highly programme "is essential for employability
digitalized environments. and competitiveness, social inclusion,
The programme is a facilitator of cultural active citizenship and personal
interaction between the host and the visiting development. The challenge is to provide
country. Gestures which for some cultures learning opportunities for all adults,
mean politeness, may seem offensive for throughout their whole life, especially
other cultures which highlights the idea of disadvantaged groups who need them
diversity. But by being aware of the others' most" [3] issued by the European
culture (in terms of religion, symbolism, Commission stressing the idea that the
unwritten rules, ethnic aspects) the degree role taken by the programme is to make
of tolerance grows towards them and their education abroad affordable to extended
acts and this significantly reduces the number of students coming from different
number of conflicts within highly diverse fields of education and economic
community such as the European Union. backgrounds thus facilitating the contact
In this sense, Seza Zerman believes that with learning environments, cultures,
"exposure to different cultures and different civilizations and approaches to somewhat
styles of education is one purpose of the similar subjects as those of their curricula
Erasmus program, and it can be concluded for extending knowledge horizons.
that the change in students’ expectations is In terms of cultural adjustment to the new
inevitable at the end of the program" [1]. At learning and teaching environment, Alina
the same time, Manuel Otero believes that Brasoveanu draws attention to the
an important aspect of the outcomes of the adjustment stages that students undergo
programme in that "the number of Erasmus when arriving at the host institution
students has been increasing strongly since stating that "the social groups that Erasmus
the set up of the programme, whereas students form in the first period of the
returns to participation in the programme in semester they spend abroad are mostly
labour market terms seem to be intercultural, or even constituted only by
diminishing" [2] taking into account the students that share the same status – the
fact that the financial differences between Erasmus student or “foreigner” one. Thus,
the students deriving from different the usage of the term 'community' becomes
countries with different life standards is an relevant in order to address this interactive
important issue regarding the programme. phenomenon" [4] observing the relevance
According to him "in the richer counties of the feeling of belonging to a community
students from families in the highest while studying abroad. In the same line of
national income levels participate in the thought, Karina Oborune explains that the
361
cultural European identity is the European Romania or left Romania to study abroad
Union's design facilitated by the Erasmus via the programme with a view on how the
and other mobility programmes as a entire process is being managed and/if it
"socially constructed feeling of belonging should be improved.
to the European community based on
shared interests and experiences" [5] which 3. Data sampling and objectives
is an important aspect to take into account We have designed an online survey
when globally thinking of a European questionnaire regarding the Erasmus
identity. In the same line of thought, programme to which we have received a
Laurence Romani explains the fact that, number of 106 answers out of 200 emails
although specialised literature on culture sent both to students leaving Romania and
management has tried to create "cultural visiting Romania within the programme.
dimension frameworks that enable The research combines comparative and
comparisons between countries" [6] these statistic analysis our interest being driven
sets of rules do not actually succeed to from the programme efficiency. Thus, via
predict how people interact: "[these transmission and learning, culture is "closed
frameworks] cannot adequately predict or in a self-producing and self-reproducing
explicate what happens when people system" becoming "not only a highly
actually meet" [6]. complex product, but also a producer of
At the same time, Yulcesin-Tas highlights high complexity" [8]. As a result, culture
some of the most important issues represents the generating/regenerating
experienced by the Erasmus students: "the memory of social systems in general and
most important problem encountered before economic in particular.
going abroad is the late arrival of A training opportunity in a foreign country
documents from the universities abroad, the represents more than personal development
most important problem encountered during of the student undertaking the mobility
their education abroad is the lack of programme. In a changing European
sufficient foreign language competence, environment, after the Brexit and the UE-27
and the most prominent problem Summit and Treaties of Rome at 60 (2017),
encountered after their return is the we notice a change in the European Union
matching of courses" [7]. Thus, issues management. The five scenarios envisaged
regarding red tape, previous language by the EU Commission's White Paper on
acquisition and similar curricula are major the Future Of Europe are as follows:
aspects regarding the drawbacks of the "Carrying On; Nothing but the Single
scholarship. Nevertheless, the lack of Market; Those Who Want More, Do More;
curricula resemblance observed by Doing Less, more Efficiently; Doing Much
Yulcesin-Tas seems to be quite important More Together" [9]. Under these
as the ECTS (European Credit Transfer and circumstances, the EU economic future is
Accumulation System) has been especially quite uncertain, with no clear official
designed so that students studying abroad direction expressed, which makes EU less
do not meet discrepancies regarding developed countries, such as Romania,
subjects studied in a certain area as these struggle more to become a stronger
are designed in accordance with the economic power. Thus, the utility of the
qualifications framework established by the Erasmus programme is vital as it makes
Lisbon Recognition Convention in view of direct contact for the Romanian students
a common labour market. with the new EU realities of the sole EU
For this reason, the present paper further market.
analyses a series of answers obtained from
Erasmus students who have either come to
362
4. Results and Discussions facilitated via the internet being useful in a
The students taking part in the proportion of 52%.
questionnaire survey are enrolled in When arriving in Romania, they have been
undergraduate and postgraduate welcomed with a festive dinner and were
programmes. Some of the respondents offered information and being aided by a
considered the study period as too short guide. They have declared themselves
while others considered it as sufficient. 100% satisfied with the welcoming events.
Part of the respondents have answered that Regarding the information provided by the
they have chosen Romania because they Erasmus Office, opinions differed by 75%.
were interested in the Romanian culture, The majority of students were
student life and, the desire to feel accommodated in the student hostels
independent, make new friends develop provided by the host university.
professionally and personally.
The materials provided by the host
institution were, in their opinion, quite
enough. More information about the study
programme was provided by friends or
Information from the

Erasmus Office -…
25%
y…
no
75%
Figure 1 Erasmus Student Information Satisfaction
The students have benefitted by foreign The students' expenses have been 50%
languages classes so that their evaluation covered by the scholarship and 50% by
underdone via the present survey revealed a their families having in view the fact that
sense of growing language acquisition from they have not payed any tuition fees.
33.3% before the programme to 66.7% at One of the objectives represented by the
the end of the programme. All students mobility is personal development and it has
have signed a study contract, took part in been reached as we can see from the
exams, were given ECTS and their studies following figure:
will be acknowledged abroad.
Figure 2 Self-evaluation in terms of personal development
363
Figure 3 Working in a foreign country after the mobility
The experience lived facilitated by the The programme was well evaluated as we
Erasmus programme will help the students can see from our survey that there is room
in their future careers. for improvement.
Figure 4 Evaluation of the Erasmus programme by students
5. Conclusions improvement. Thus, course descriptions,

As we can notice, the Erasmus programme longer welcoming period, money allowance
is quite useful and benefits students for payed every month so that they do not
their personal and professional struggle for extra funding, activities to get
development. At the same time, we can accustomed to the host country culture and
notice that some of the major issues civilization, better cohesion between
remarked by Yulcesin-Tas are being universities and higher scholarship as some
preserved in Romania and other countries countries are more expensive than others
as well. Issues such as bureaucracy, are just a few of the points to be
financial differences, language acquisition reconsidered when talking about the
can be found in all European Union Erasmus programme. We can also notice
countries participating in the exchange the importance offered by the programme
programme. Nevertheless, in order to have as the students are becoming more
improved mobility programmes, a series of independent thinkers and content producers.
actions should be undertaken so that the These types of activities which stimulate
management of knowledge runs without and oblige students to take action and
administrative obstacles. manage in a different environment in all
The following suggestions made by the walks of life, prepare them to become
students participating in the survey would responsible, forward adults, who will not
make a contribution for the programme reject unpredicted situations but will be
364
glad to the challenges and provide original the college degree, the university grants or
solutions especially in a digitalized world. denies access to jobs and livelihoods. Such
It also helps them develop critical thinking, power no business or other institution ever
creativity, analyze and evaluate information had in American history" [11] stretching his
moving forward from the well-established thinking to Europe which in his opinion
objective of LLL (Long Life Learning) follows the same pattern: "in Europe things
towards what Norman Jackson calls Life are only slightly different" [11].
Wide Learning (LWL) [10] in their For this reason, Romania should take more
personal development. care of the younger generation and design a
When referring to the roles fulfilled by knowledge management system oriented
higher education institutions, Peter towards them in order to preserve the
Drucker's words "no business today [...] has valuable young people unless brain exodus
a fraction of the power the big university intensifies.
has. By granting or denying admission or
References
[1] Zerman, Seza, The Impacts of Studying Abroad. Opportunities on International
Students, online, New York, Rochester Institute of Technology Printing House, 2014,
p.4.
[2] Otero Manuel, International Review of Education, no 54, vol. 2, pp. 135-153, 2008.
[3] http://ec.europa.eu.
[4] Brasoveanu Alina, Studia Europea, vol. LV, no. 4, pp. 85-104, 2010.
[5] Osborne Karina, Quo Vadis, Europo?, no. 5, vol. 35, pp. 75-94, 2015
[6] Romani Laurence, Primecz Henriett, Sackmann Sonja, Cross-Cultural Management in
Practice: Culture and Negotiated Meaning, online, Edward Elgar publishing House, p.
2, 2011
[7] Yulcesin-Tas, Yaprak, Journal of Instructional Psychology, vol. 40, no 3, p. 81-87, 2013.
[8] Morin Edgar, Lost Paradigm: Human Nature, print, Iasi, Alexandru Ioan Cuza Printing
House, pp. 80-81, 1999.
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[10] Jackson, Norman, Learning for a Complex World: A Life Wide Concept of Learning,
Education and Personal Development, online, Washington, AuthorHouse Publishing,
2011, p. 351.
[11] Drucker, Peter, Management. Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices, online, New York,
Truman Talley Books Publishing House, p.10, 1986.
365
ASPECTS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF NEGOTIATING CLASS II MATERIAL

RESOURCES FOR THE BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES UNDER THE
CONDITIONS OF RESOURCE LIMITATIONS
Sevdalina DIMITROVA, Donika SHOPOVA

sevdalinaid_bg@mail.bg; kimba1981@abv.bg
Abstract: In an environment of rapid change, accompanied by unpredictable risks and permanent

deficit, logistic support authorities are facing many challenges. The wide scope of logistic support
necessitates a differentiated management approach to the specific areas of integrated logistics. Since
the units are often faced with the need for quick action on the deployment of forces with the necessary
equipment at the right time and at the right place, aiming at the same time to achieve mobility,
initiative, simplicity, responsibility and flexibility of management of material resources in the search
for effective approaches towards that, our scientific interests are focused on the management of
negotiating class II material resources in compliance with the dependency "cost-effects."
Keywords: defence resource management; management of negotiation; management of

material resources.
1. Introduction material resources for the Bulgarian Armed

The complex and controversial security Forces (BA) in an environment of dynamic
environment necessitates and stresses the changes in the strategic security
role of the accelerated transformation of the environment and consistent budget deficit.
Armed Forces and the adaptation of
material resources to the parameters of the 2. The relationship between logistics and
changing environment. Ensuring security resource management
today suggests the presence of armed forces Based on the systematic approach as a set
that are able to move quickly over long of defined phases with specified functions
distances for extended periods of time, and tasks, the research is aimed at the
equally successful in operations of high logistics system of the Armed Forces (BC)
intensity or logistic operations. and the Bulgarian Army and their
One of the basic principles for improving transformation to the new security
the efficiency of material resources is the environment. Accordingly, the logistics is
improvement of logistics as a process and seen as "one of the most serious challenges
structures for the management of inventory. in the adaptation of the armed forces to the
Maintaining a stable level of defence requirements of modern expeditionary
expenditure as a proportion of the gross operations and transformation of the
domestic product is the basis for building logistics system to an integrated, mobile,
the necessary defence capabilities. This unified, both for peace and for wartime,
directed our research towards the problems system for logistics support of the armed
of management of negotiating class II forces adequate to the structure, missions
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0060
366
and tasks of the troops and forces capable depends on the so-called " substitution
of effective and efficient use of material coefficient " (tradeoff), [10] which is
resources for defence” [1]. reflected in the construction of small in
In order to meet these challenges, certain size, but well-armed and combat-ready
requirements are imposed on the BAF armed forces. Their effectiveness is directly
logistics system that aim to ensure the dependent on the economic planning
following: assumptions, including the plan for
9 high mobility of troops and forces during supplying, warehousing, and distribution of
their deployment; material resources. All of the above,
9 economical, effective and efficient together with the management of economic
logistic support in response to the processes in the country and the economic
priority to achieve the required security inefficiency of the security and defence
and defence capabilities under the structures, in all cases lead to loss of state
conditions of deficit as a real substance. [2].
manifestation of the correlation The efficient and effective logistic support of
"resources - capabilities"; military forces and troops in operations is
9 autonomy of logistic units and ongoing carried out through planning, coordination
operations; and synchronization of the procedures in the
9 compatibility with coalition and allied individual areas through close interaction
troops[7,9] between the logistics bodies built on the
The success of the transformation of the three levels of the system of command and
logistics system of the Bulgarian Armed control of the armed forces - strategic,
Forces, consistent with their missions and operational and tactical - based on an
tasks under the conditions of resource integrated approach to planning and
deficit and the new security environment is spending of material resources. And if
dependent on the principles of continuous logistic support at the strategic and
support, expedition, multinationality, unity operational levels is focused on core
of logistic approaches, and collective activities associated with strategic mobility
responsibility in the implementation of and joint logistics, the efforts at the tactical
expeditionary operations. The concrete level focus on providing individual units. All
manifestation of these principles is the this is in order to maintain and develop
achievement of "responsibility, powers, capabilities for accomplishing the tasks of
priority of operational requirements, logistic support of the armed forces under
cooperation and trust, coordination, the three missions of the armed forces -
provision, sufficiency, efficiency, defence, support of international peace and
flexibility, awareness and transparency, security, and contribution to national
simplicity and multinationality" [5] of security in peacetime [6].
logistic activities. The practical implementation of logistic
Adapting the armed forces and the support activities under the three missions of
Bulgarian Army to standards compatible the armed forces is in direct proportion to
with the modern requirements brings new their financial support on the basis of the
light upon the principle of effectiveness of Unified financial plan for material and
the logistics system of the armed forces. An technical support of the Ministry of Defence.
expression of this is the reduction of costs It is the basis for carrying out the financial
and the efficient provision of troops by the commitment of supplies and services for the
formation of new structures. Accordingly, provision of operations in line with the
the main objective of the actions of the assessment and priorities thereof. For this
armed forces and the Bulgarian Army in purpose, the requirements of the financial
peacetime is the creation and rational use of management system, the doctrine of
combat potential, the achievement of which financial support of MoD, budget guidelines
367
for budget spending are to be complied with. material resources and accompanying
[3] information flows, where the tasks for the
Following the logic of processes, the operation of these elements are united by
observations and analyses suggest the the internal strategic objectives and the
critical points of the planning, delivery and impact of a number of external factors.
distribution of material resources, which are Embracing the logistics approach to the
grouped in the following areas: organization of the acquisition system in
9 accurate and prioritized definition of the the Bulgarian Army allows not only to
needs in coordination with the availability outline the key areas of the acquisition
of necessary financial resources; policy, but also to manage the acquisition
9 setting deadlines for delivery in line with activities in their entirety. This is the
the deadlines for completion and system that answers the question of how to
readiness of military units; achieve these capabilities through
9 timely order for development of the compliance to technology and resources
technical specifications for supplies and availability; it is the connecting link in the
services (TS under the Public correlation "resources - capabilities".
Procurement Act (PPA)) or initial DAS encompasses the processes of
assignment for development of tactical planning, designing, developing, testing,
and technical tasks (TTT) consistent contracting, procurement, manufacturing,
with the technical requirements for life deployment (implementation), integrated
cycle management of defence products; logistics support and removal from service
9 timely planning of supplies and services, of defence products. Its scope includes
consistent with the technological time activities providing solutions for selecting
necessary for the procedure for awarding the option for meeting the needs of defence
the procurement contract; capabilities and real resource provisions.
9 preparation and submission of the Within DAS, planning concerns materiel
request for supplies and services; supply and the necessary integration of
9 not allowing changes of the parameters newly acquired capabilities of the armed
of the procedures for procurement that forces as an expression of the life cycle
have already been started; phases of defence products and military
9 precise distribution of quantities and infrastructure. This defines the process of
designation of the places of delivery in DAS, resulting in the creation of the
the contracts for supply of excisable following products: [3]
goods; 9 strategy for defence acquisition that, as a
9 timely commencement and completion vision for the development of defence
of the procedures for public procurement capabilities of the armed forces in
and contracts for supplies; accordance with the potential of defence
9 timely acceptance of delivered material technology, defence industry, and the
resources in accordance with contract economic potential of the country, is the
requirements, internal rules and basis for successful implementation of
accounting documents; other products. This is what determines
9 exercising effective control on the how and through what approaches to
quality of the delivered material create lasting value of the armed forces
resources at the moment of delivery, and the Bulgarian Army, corresponding
subsequent to delivery and others [3]. to taxpayers’ interests;
As a response to all this comes the defence 9 proposals on the acquisition for research
acquisition system (DAS), which is a and development (R & D) and new
complex, organizationally structured products, for material resources and
economic system consisting of interrelated services, for construction and
elements in a process of management of construction services, for the removal
368
from service. They are the basis of long- efficiency of the material resources
term logistic support in line with the management. This is the direction of our
preliminary guidance on programming further reasoning.
and planned actions in the preliminary
plan for the integration of the armed 3. Peculiarities of the management of
forces. In accordance with the approved class II material resources for the
proposals, the acquisition requirements Bulgarian Army
in the program memorandum are defined Class II material resources include supplies
as follows; whose volume depends on the size of the
9 technically defined supply plans, organization and equipment, such as
administrative and legal actions related to clothing (apparel), special equipment and
the preparation of contract documents for property, armament, equipment, tools, spare
the acquisition of material resources, parts, transport equipment, camping
services and infrastructure. In particular, equipment and others. The diverse nature of
these are plans for providing medical the resources in this class, although united
sevices, medium-term plans for materiel, under a certain feature, requires the
medium-term plans for development and application of a specific approach to their
construction services. They are the basis management.
for carrying out the supply procedures Our research is focused on the activities for
under PPA. Compliance with the above the selection and supply of material
will ensure the real connection between property, in a particular - camping
the supply processes and the available equipment for the Bulgarian Army, the
resources; impact of the transition to professional
9 plans for disposal of defence products armed forces over the selection of camping
whose development is linked to the equipment under the conditions of a
drafting of lists of products to removal developing market economy and defining
from service, exploitation of surplus the guidelines for the development of these
defense products subject to discard and processes in terms of materiel supply.
destruction. An integral part of these Moreover, in the dynamic changes of the
plans are the estimates of resources security environment which are of
required for the organization and increasingly unpredictable character, it is a
implementation of disposal activities. fundamental requirement to concentrate the
The above principle model for the allied efforts for the establishment and
management of negotiating material development of expeditionary forces that
resources for the Bulgarian Army is applied can be deployed quickly and effectively
when defining the characteristics of these enough, as for some threats we practically
resources, categorized into a five-class have "zero time warning". Hence, the
system of identification of supply classes in challenge for Bulgaria, as a member of the
the Bulgarian Army, consistent with the Euro-Atlantic structures, determines the
NATO system. And if for some of the need for adequate for the purpose of
material resources in the different classes a professionalization of the armed forces
number of publications is available, the supply and storage of materiel supply, and
impression is that the management of class field camping equipment in particular.
II material resources rather lacks not only Materiel supplies - the materials and
reasonable legislation that reflects the equipment - depending on the specific
dynamic changes in the security requirements and conditions for storage, are
environment, but also profound and divided into groups as follows: wool and
practically feasible research papers fabrics mixed with chemical fiber, fur
reflecting the status and issues relating to items; cotton, flax, hemp, and fabrics mixed
the opportunities for improving the with chemical fiber; tents, tarpaulins and
369
metal products; leather materials and vehicles, significant fuel savings and,
products; paper - all types, templates and hence, financial resource savings that are to
documents; sports equipment; paint, grease, be redirected to other activities. It should be
soap and detergents; naphthalene; noted that the fuel saving is achieved only
engineering and technical equipment of the upon delivery of one item of material
quartermaster service. [4] It is in accordance equipment that was used in the described
with this division that the specific conditions estimate procedure. Very important is the
for their preservation are set in strict role in these processes efficient
compliance with the "Regulation for storage management of human resources [8].
of property, materials and equipment in Based on the conducted research, albeit
warehouses for materiel in the Bulgarian fragmented due to the limited volume of
army," the orders, instructions and other this publication, the "cost-effects" analysis
guideline documents of the quartermaster defines the possibilities for rationalizing the
service. This itself implies knowledge of the management decisions for effective
characteristics of the different nomenclatures management of materiel supply for the
of different types class II material resources armed forces.
used in the Bulgarian Army. Accordingly,
the requirement for storing in terms of 4. Conclusion
temperature regime, light, ventilation, and Best practices for the use of material
etc. are defined. resources regarding materiel supply and, in
Of no less importance for the effective particular, field camp equipment, and more
management of material resources from the specifically - military tents of up to medium
researched class is the road routing of size, support the assertion that effective
deliveries, which is directly dependent on management of class II material resources
the actual existing road network which is for the armed forces is directly dependent on
used for transporting that particular type of innovation in terms of fabrics and metal
nomenclatures. On the basis of specific structures, resulting in a reduction of the
estimates for a particular deployment of a total weight of the tents. This, in turn,
field camp of a certain strength and needs contributes to reduced resources for
of UME tents and their variety, without transport and time needed for setting up the
going into controversy for the requirements camp, which has resulted in the reduction of
of a field camp with the prescribedother personnel who could be assigned other
material resources and set level of basic activities directly related to the combat
material usage per 100 kilometers in liters readiness and combat power of the armed
for a certain type of vehicles and their forces. This is to support the economical,
modification along a normal road and the efficient and effective use of defence resources
distance of a particular route, it becomes under the dependence "costs-effects."
possible to determine the required number This publication does not aim to impose a
of vehicles and calculate the cost for particular choice, but to enable decision
transportation and deploying that kind of makers to make their own choice by
field camp equipment. providing them science-based alternatives
These estimates were also calculated for the for improving the organization of materiel
use of American tent DRASH 2XB supply according to the NATO standards
SHELTE or the French military tent Utilis and requirements, the participation of our
TM36 as material resources for the field professional armed forces in operations
camp equipment that have reduced volume, outside the country and for generating
weight and pieces of packaging, which defence capabilities.
leads to the reduction of the number of used
370
References
[1] White paper on the defence and armed forces of the Republic of Bulgaria, pp.6,12,1, 39-
407 http://www.md.government.bg/bg/doc/20101130_WP_BG.pdf.
[2] Dimitrova S., Ddefence Resources Management in the Security Sector, Veliko Tarnovo,
Vasil Levski National Military University Publishing, 2011, pp. 144-150.
[3] Dimitrova, Resource Management in the Dinamically Changing Security Environment,
Ruse, Primax Publishing, 2014, pp.238-241.
[4] Instructions for storing property, materials and equipment in the materiel supply
warehouses of the Bulgarian Army, Sofia, 1997.
[5] Logistics Doctrine of the Bulgarian Forcesɇɉ-4), Order of the Minister of Defence of
the Republic of Bulgaria No Ɉɏ-191 of 08.08.2013, Sofia, pp. 7-11.
[6] Mihaylov, Z., The challenges facing the logistics system for ensuring the implementation
of the three missions of the armed forces. Briefing delivered at the methodological
meeting of the Director of Logistics Directorate, Varna, 3-4 April, 2013.
[7] National Security Strategy of the Republic of Bulgaria, SG, issue 19, 8 March, 2011, pp.
3-5.
[8] Nenkov N. Buzko, Y Dyachenko, M Petrova, N Nenkov, D Tuleninova, K Koeva.
Artificial Intelligence Technologies in Human Resource Development (On-line:
www.cmnt.lv), ISSN 1407-5806, ISSN 1407-5814, Transport and Telecommunication
Institute, Riga, Latvia, 2016, 20(2) 26-29.
[9] Programme for the Development of the Defence Capabilities of the Bulgarian Armed
Forces 2020, Sofia, 2015, pp. 4-6, https://www.md.government.bg/bg/doc/
strategicheski/20151207_Programa_razvitie_otbranit%20sposobnosti.pdf.
[10] Stankevich, V., J. Gerber, One of the Founders of German Armed Forces Microeconomics.
S., Economy University Publishing, 1998, pp. 43,85,98, 101, 178.
371
LEADERSHIP AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Hortensia GORSKI
Romanian-German University, Sibiu, Romania

hortensia.gorski@roger-univ.ro
Abstract: Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) are some of the most widely studied
topics, generating an extensive literature. Nowadays, leaders are facing economic, social and
environmental challenges. Unfortunately, today trust in business is low. In this complex global
environment of uncertainty and ambiguity, leaders have to anticipate the changes and to be catalysts
for shifting their organizations towards a sustainable society. The purpose of the present paper is to
investigate leaders’ opinion regarding: Corporate responsibilities (Carroll’s’ four-layered pyramid
model); Reasons for CSR actions/ projects; Areas of interest for CSR projects/ activities/ initiatives.
Taking into account the growing interest towards a sustainable society is a need for a new type of
leadership that promotes the CSR’s ideals.
Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), leadership, business ethics
1. Introduction “A firm takes on a visible role in the society

Nowadays, organizations are facing which goes beyond the core business and
economic, social and environmental beyond what the law requires and which
challenges: globalization, economic recession, leads to added value for the company and
population growth (overpopulation), the society“ [2].
exploitation of natural resources, extreme Leadership and Corporate Social
poverty (rich-poor gap), unprecedented Responsibility (CSR) are some of the most
inequality, global migration, religious widely studied topics, generating an
extremism and terrorism, geopolitical and extensive literature. This paper discusses the
ecological crises, global warming and its effect important role of leadership in implementing
on climate change, environmental issues, CSR practices, taking into account the
competitive pressure, health issues, new growing interest towards business ethics.
information and communication technologies, Nowadays, leaders are facing economic,
sustainable lifestyle and so on. In this context, social and environmental challenges. Rapid
taking into account all these complex pace of change is forcing leaders to find
challenges, sustainable development and social creative and innovative solutions to cope
responsibility are very “hot” topics. In the age with multiple stakeholders, whose interests,
of sustainable development, there is a need for needs and requirements could sometimes be
“a holistic framework, in which society aims in conflict. Unfortunately, today’s trust in
for economic, social, and environmental business is low. In this complex global
goals” [1]. The challenge for the companies is environment of uncertainty and ambiguity,
to incorporate ethical, social and leaders should anticipate the changes and act
environmental values in their business as catalysts for shifting their organizations
practice. towards a sustainable society.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0061
372
Taking into account not only the economic, widely accepted CSR model [8], [9] further
but also the environmental and social employed by many researchers. In the four-
challenges of the 21st century, a new type of layered pyramid model, corporate social
leadership that promotes the CSR’s ideals is responsibility has been described as a
needed. multilayer concept with different
responsibilities: economic (to gain profits);
2. Some Corporate Social Responsibility legal (to obey law), ethical (to act rightly,
(CSR) trends justly, honestly) and philanthropic (to be a
Corporate Social Responsibility has good citizen). Chandler and Werther also
become “one of the (new) organizational emphasize the importance of addressing
challenges over the past decade, certainly different arguments for CSR – “ethical,
when viewed from the perspective of the moral, national, and economic“ [10]. “A
growing needs and obligations for business needs a successful community, not
sustainability” [3]. Although there is a rich only to create demand for its products but
literature on CSR and there are many also to provide public assets and a supportive
available definitions, the concept is still environment. A community needs successful
difficult. There is a lot of confusion business to provide jobs and wealth creation
because, both in theory and practice, there opportunities for its citizens”[11].
are a lot of different terms which overlap Businesses are the engine of society. Philip
with, are connected or synonymous with Kotler and Nancy Lee focus their CSR
CSR, such as “corporate citizenship, definition on voluntary business
sustainable business, environmental commitment and on the importance of
responsibility, the triple bottom line; social doing good. They consider that “corporate
and environmental accountability; business social responsibility is a commitment to
ethics and corporate accountability” [4]. improve community well-being, through
Different perceptions of CSR have discretionary business practices and
generated a series of misunderstandings and contributions on corporate resources” [12].
have created for organizations barriers in
the way of approaching CSR opportunities 3. Leadership and CSR
and challenges. Different authors and The 21st century world is shaped by leaders.
numerous international organizations, Keith Grint considers that “Leadership, or
including in particular the European Union, the lack of it, seems to be responsible for
have examined and classified the concept just about everything these days” [13].
and theories of corporate social Leadership is a very complex concept. Over
responsibility (CSR), and have interpreted time, many definitions have been developed
it in different ways [5], [6]. and there is no consensus on a universally
Alexander Dahlsrud underlined that agreed definition. There are “almost as
“Despite numerous efforts to bring about a many definitions of leadership as there are
clear and unbiased definition of CSR, there persons who attempted to define the
is still some confusion as to how CSR concept” [14].
should be defined” [7]. In order to study In order to build a sustainable world,
the similarities and differences between intersection of leadership and ethics is a
the available definitions, Dahlsrud analysis must. Leadership has a vital role in
the content of 37 definitions of CSR and promoting an ethical and moral behaviour.
identified five dimensions: the stakeholder Moreover, leaders should be models for the
dimension, the social dimension, the followers and should aim to shape
economic dimension, the voluntariness organizations by their own values and
dimension, the environmental dimension. characteristics. Employees rely on their
Carroll has proposed and developed, one of leaders for guidance when faced with ethical
the most elaborate, complete and most dilemmas [15]. Leaders’ behaviour should
373
be “visible and consistently ethical, both were presented using a five-point Likert
internally and externally to the organization” scale. The survey was unconcealed, the aim
[16]. Moreover, “excellent companies do being known from the beginning by the
more than talk ethics, they take positive respondents – senior and middle managers
steps to address ethical issues and apply the with significant influence on their
practical tools of ethics in their management companies’ operation. For the purpose of
practice” [17]. Ethics has “a central role in this study the disproportionate variant and an
the practice of leadership” [18]. Nowadays, availability sample (the sample subjects do
there is a higher need for ethical leaders and not correspond to their statistical reality in
transparency in business processes. terms of percentage in total employers from
The role of Corporate Social Responsibility Sibiu County) have been used. Using an
(CSR) is “to restore one of the most critical availability sample, the survey has given
resources for businesses’ sustainability: more importance to large, medium and small
trust.” Companies choose to incorporate firms, than to the group of microenterprises
CSR into their businesses for different (without eliminating these).
reasons. It is important to “distinguish Before administration, the questionnaire was
between activities for gaining popularity tested on a panel of 8 managers/ leaders
and those which gain trust” [19]. Trust, (representatives of micro, small, medium and
ethics, CSR and leadership are interlinked. large enterprises). Data were processed,
Nowadays, “too often, executives have analysed and presented using IBM SPSS
viewed corporate social responsibility Statistics 19 for Windows package program
(CSR) as just another source of pressure or and Microsoft Excel 2010.
passing fad” [20]. Corporate Social 4.2. Findings and research’s results
responsibility is an ethical framework. x Companies’ responsibilities
Leaders and organizations engaged in CSR The Carroll’s multi-layer CSR pyramid, was
act for the benefit of their stakeholders – employed in this study. Each of these four
employees, customers, suppliers, categories was ranked on a Likert scale (From
community and society at large. CSR 1 – No importance to 5 – Very important).
requires the use of non-coercive influence Ö Economic responsibilities (being
and “soft power” which again are specific profitable; maintaining high level of
to leadership [21]. Leaders have a crucially efficiency; producing good quality
significant role in adopting and practicing products/ services; creating assets);
CSR in their organizations [22]. Ö Legal responsibilities (not breaking the
laws; obeying the laws; behaving in the
4. Research methodology spirit and letter of law);
This paper is part of a more comprehensive Ö Ethical (Business ethics; Personal ethical
study regarding leadership, ethics and CSR. awareness);
4.1. Scope, sample, data collection and Ö Philanthropic responsibilities (contribution
data analysis to the internal and external community for
The purpose of the present paper is to improving the quality of life; material,
investigate leaders’ opinion regarding CSR financial and human resource contribution
practices/ activities. – charity and volunteering).
In order to validate the initial hypothesis, a As we can remark in figure 1, economic
research based on a questionnaire has been responsibilities were evaluated as being most
conducted in 2016, taking into consideration important (4.57), followed by the legal
the population of private companies responsibilities (4.21) and ethical
(microenterprise, SMEs, and large responsibilities (3.94). The philanthropic
enterprises) from various sectors in Sibiu responsibilities were perceived by managers
County. Most of the questionnaire’s items as last important to business (3.44).
374
5,00 4,56 4,21 3,94
4,00 3,44
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic
responsibility responsiblilty reponsibility responsibility
Figure 1: Type of responsibilities
x Reasons for CSR actions/ projects 2.57) for CSR investments. Although many
The most important reasons for managers’ respondents consider that companies should
engagement in CSR actions/ projects are: the have ethical responsibilities to their
legal pressure (4.16) and the interest in employees, customers and society as a whole,
attracting and maintaining talents (4.02) – they sustain that nowadays business ethics
figure 2. Investigated leaders consider that arguments have only a small to neutral
CSR practices are generating a neutral to influence on companies’ behavior (2.92). In
important influence on companies’ visibility the current research, the economic reasons for
& image improvement (3.35). In the investing in CSR are ranked on the last place.
respondents opinion, the market (customers, Respondents consider that CSR practice
suppliers) exert only a small to neutral generate only a small influence (2.45) on the
pressure (2.79) for implementing CSR company’s economics (profit, return of
practices. Another revealed aspect is that investment, assets).
ONGs and the community also exert only a
small to neutral pressure (2.46 respectively
5 4,16 4,02
4 3,35
2,79 2,57 2,92
3 2,46 2,45
2
1
0
a b c d e f g h
Figure 2: Reasons for CSR practices

a – Market pressure (clients, suppliers); x Areas of interest for CSR projects/
b – Community pressure; activities/ initiatives
c – ONG pressure; Regarding the four areas or pillars of CSR,
d – Business ethics arguments; we can observe (figure 3) that Workplace is
e – Legal pressure; considered as being the most important
f – Economic reasons; (4.16), followed by Marketplace (4.12) and
g – Image improvement (visibility); Environment (3.58). Community
h – Attract and retain the best employees engagement received the smallest interest
(talents). (3.05) and is not associated enough with
core business concerns.
375
5 4,16 4,12
4 3,58
3,05
3
2
1
0
Workplace Marketplace Environment Community
Figure 3: CSR areas/ pillars

4. Conclusions enough for their business. Unfortunately,
The presented results should be linked with leaders don’t perceive at the right value the
the other findings of the study regarding wide range of benefits generated by
leadership, ethics and CSR. working with their local community. In the
Fortunately, investigated leaders age of responsibility, leaders should
understood the importance of providing understand that companies are being part of
employees with a safe, fair and inclusive the society and social issues have an
workplace, in order to attract and maintain important relevance for their business.
talents (the best employees). Respondents Leaders should both volunteer and
are aware of the companies’ economics and encourage employees to volunteer for
legal responsibilities, but place community and make charitable donations.
philanthropic companies on the last place. Ethical issues, and community engagement
Companies may shirk philanthropic issues should be more associated with long term
because it may not seem as important. business success.
Investigated leaders take into consideration Taking into account the growing interest for
workplace, marketplace, and even a sustainable society, a new type of
environmental issues, but community leadership that promotes the CSR’s ideals is
engagement is not considered relevant needed.
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interactionist model, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 11, pp. 601-617, 1986.
[16] Knowles R. N., Self-Organising Leadership: Transparency and Trust, in Jonker J., de
Witte M. (Eds.), Management Models for Corporate Social Responsibility, Springer
Berlin · Heidelberg, pp. 134-139, 2006, p. 134.
[17] Pastin, M., The Hard Problems of Management: Gaining the Ethics Edge, San
Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass, 1986, p. 157.
[18] Ciulla J. B., Ethics: the heart of leadership, in Maak Th., Pless N. M. (Eds.),
Responsible Leadership, pp. 17-32, Routledge, 2006, p. 18.
[19] Mostovicz, E. I., and Kakabadse, N. K., Between Trust and CSR: The Role of
Leadership, in Idowu, S. O., Louche, C. (Eds.) Theory and Practice of Corporate Social
Responsibility, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 159-178, 2011, p. 160.
[20] Keys T., Malnight Th. W., and van der Graaf K., Making the most of corporate social
responsibility, McKinsey Quarterly, December, 2009, available at
http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/leadership/making-the-most-of-corporate-
social-responsibility.
[21] Strand, R., CSR and leadership, in Esben Rahbek Gjerdrum Pedersen (Ed.), Corporate
Social Responsibility, pp. 39-71, London, UK:SAGE, 2013.
[22] Waldman, D. A., and Siegel, D. S., Theoretical and practitioner letters: Defining the
socially responsible leader, Leadership Quarterly, 19, pp. 117-131, 2008.
377
THE ORGANIZATION'S INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN

THE ORGANIZATION'S DEVELOPMENT
Elisabeta-Emilia HALMAGHI*, Dumitru IANCU*, Marinela-/LGLD%Ă&,/Ă**
* ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQGForces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

** ³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\, Sibiu, Romania
emmahalmaghi@gmail.com, dorin_dan@yahoo.com
Abstract: Analysis of an organization's internal environment, including the factors that influence the
organization's activity: its owners, managers and leadership, employees, material resources,
organizational culture, should determine the capabilities/capabilities/potential of the organization to
adapt to/integrate to the external environmental components. In general, the characteristics and
quality of an organization's internal environment allow the "exploitation" of the opportunities offered
by the organization's external environment.
Keywords: internaOHQYLURQPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQRUJDQL]DWLRQDOFXOWXUH
1. Introduction contributions brought over time, has

The organization, as a complex and devoted new ways of defining" [1] To
dynamic socio-economic system, has an highlight the different perspectives of the
open character, being a component of the organization's approach, we will present
economy and society. Integration of the some definitions to the organization:
organization into the environment in which G. Johns (1998): "Social invention designed
it operates shows that the organization is in to achieve common goals through group
an adequate relationship with the effort" [2]
environment, but also that this relationship 0 9OăVFHDQX 05): "Are
allows the manifestation of the internal instruments for achieving a goal,
dynamism of the organization. respectively they have a set of specific and
The activity of an organization is the result clear objectives, and their internal
of the ongoing interaction between the structure is designed to contribute to the
organization and its environment. achievement of the objectives" [3], [4];
E. Friedberg (1997, apud Stanciu, M.A.
2. 7KH RUJDQL]DWLRQ DQG LWV LQWHUQDO Ionescu, 2005): "Formalized and hierarchical
HQYLURQPHQW human assemblies to ensure the cooperation
Being a complex and dynamic socio- and coordination of their members in order
economic system, the organization is hard to achieve given goals" [5];
to define. This difficulty of definition "is R.W. Scott (apud C. Neagu, M. Udrescu,
determined both by the multitude of 2008): "Collectivities oriented on the pursuit
perspectives from which the organization is of relatively specific purposes and with highly
analyzed and by the evolution of formalized social structures" [6];
organizational analysis which, depending R.W. Scott (apud C. Neagu, M. Udrescu,
on the theoretical and practical 2008): "Systems of interdependent activities
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0062
378
linking the changing coalitions of the objectives, as well as the coordination of
participants" [7]; the efforts of the members of the
R.W. Scott (apud C. Neagu, M. Udrescu, organization and their training and
2008): "Communities whose participants motivation;
pursue multiple interests, both different and f) the organization has a formal
common, but who recognize the importance organizational structure, based on well-
of perpetuating the organization as an defined principles, rules and relations and
important resource" [8]; unanimously accepted and respected by the
O. Nicolescu, I. Verboncu (2008): "A members of the organization;
system usually composed of several people g) the organization is where its members
working on the basis of certain spend most of their lives and can form a
predetermined rules, in order to achieve a career;
goal" [9]; h) The organization exercises on its
D. Iacob, D.M. Cismaru, (2010): "Is a members such an influence that they
social system in which and through which become "organizational".
people interact (cooperate) to achieve For an organization, the environment is "an
common goals" [10]; important variable that cannot be ignored
D. Iacob, D.M. Cismaru, (2010): "Social in any way" [15] and includes "things,
inventions aimed at achieving common persons, conditions. For example,
goals through the convergent action of the resources, constraints) or influences
group of people" [11]; (cultural, political, legislative etc.) that
(%XUGXúThe organization may be interfere with its functioning" [16]
composed of two or more persons carrying The environment of an organization is made
out activities in order to achieve common up of two components: the external
objectives" [12]. environment (environment) and the internal
The above definitions highlight some environment, characterized by specific
features of the organization [13], [14]: elements and ways of acting within the
a) the organization includes groups of organization.
people (members of the organization),
structures and mission; 3. The importance of the internal
b) the organization involves a distinct form HQYLURQPHQW LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH
of correlation between both the members of RUJDQL]DWLRQ
the organization and the organization's Regarding the composition of an
goals, as well as between members of the organization's internal environment, there
organization and structures; are several points of view in the literature.
c) the organization is always specialized, Each of these points of view emphasizes
has a mission that is represented by goals some elements, without excluding the
explicitly assumed by the members of the others. Most of the works consider
organization and socially recognized; organizational culture to be synonymous
d) the organization ensures the coordination with the internal environment of an
of the efforts of the members of the organization. In our opinion, alongside
organization to achieve goals that organizational culture, an organization's
individually would be very difficult to internal environment also includes other
achieve or even impossible; elements within the organization: its
e) the organization cannot exist without an owners, managers and leadership,
appropriate management that sets the employees, material resources.
objectives, ensure the procedural and Owners have a significant influence on the
organizational structural and organizational other components of the internal
conditions necessary to achieve the environment. This is because they are the
379
ones who decide, directly or through - organization's strategy;
representatives, on: the organization's main - attitude towards groups outside the
direction, profit distribution, development organization;
or abolition of the organization. - the main criteria for the selection,
Managers, through their decisions and evaluation and promotion of members of
actions, influence both the organization's the organization;
adaptation to the evolution and influences - leadership style of managers, etc.
of the external environment as well as the In order for the organization to achieve, in
actions and behavior of the employees in the long run, a high level of performance,
the organization. the organizational culture must be at the
Employees, through relationships that are same time [21]:
established between them and the way they - strong - is accomplished through powerful
are determined to work to achieve the managers who deliver all the core values. A
organization's goals, are the ones that consistent and well-defined system of
determine the success or failure of the values, alongside a performance manager,
organization. accepted by all members of the
Organizational culture is commonly used to organization, leads in the long run to the
describe the internal environment of an organization's development.
organization because it is of particular - appropriate - in line with the strategy used
importance in making the organization by the organization;
more efficient and has a long-term - adaptable - flexible to changes in the
influence on it. The distinctive sign of solid external and internal environment.
organizational identity is the existence of a Organizations with adaptable culture, based
strong organizational culture. on innovation, are successful organizations
In general, the organizational culture of an that can influence the competitive
organization presupposes the existence of a environment in their favor.
"system of values, ideals, beliefs and Strong organizational culture shows
common conduct rules that unite members employees that the organization is unique, it
of an organization" [17], [18]. has its own identity and contains a lot of
Culture refers to it is found in every aspect symbolic elements that "come to be
of an organization. Each organization has expressed through language, accounts,
its own „set of beliefs, ideals, values and artifacts, behavior and other manifestations
norms of conduct that are reflected in its that relate to everyday life." [22]. Building
structures, systems, and strategy a strong organizational culture does not
approach." [19] These values, ideals, mean abandoning individual cultural
beliefs, Rules of conduct are not directly elements, but harmonizing values, beliefs,
observable. The concrete manifestation of individual symbols with those promoted by
organizational culture is achieved through the organization.
symbols, stories, rituals and ceremonies. An organizational culture deeply rooted in
Organizational culture includes the the organization's identity can not be easily
organization's past and present, the current changed. That is why the impact that
human resource in the organization, powerful organizational culture has on the
technology and physical resources, but also efficiency of the organization may be
the goals, objectives and values of positive or negative. The impact is positive
employees. Because each organization has a when organizational culture is widespread
unique combination of the above elements, among members of the organization; they
there will not be two organizations with the accept it and help achieve the organization's
same organizational culture. goals. The negative impact occurs when
The culture of an organization determines [20]:
380
organizational culture has a negative internal environment, becoming more and
influence on the organization's goals. more important than in the past.
In order to describe the internal
4. Conclusions environment of an organization,
The organization, as an open system, is organizational culture is frequently used as
organically adaptive: changes in its it has a high importance in streamlining the
structure and functioning are the result of organization's work.
transformations produced in its For the organization to achieve a high
environment. performance in the long run, organizational
Although the organization's external culture must be strong, appropriate and
environment plays a key role in organizing adaptable at the same time.
the organization, organizational managers
should pay appropriate attention to the
References
[1] Emanoil Muscalu, Dumitru Iancu, Elisabeta-Emilia Halmaghi, The Influence of the
External Environment on Organizations, Journal of Defences Resources Management,
Vol. 7, Issue 2 (13), 2016, p. 134.
[2] Gary Johns, &RPSRUWDPHQW RUJDQL]DĠLRQDO ÌQĠHOHJHUHD úL FRQGXFHUHD RDPHQLORU vQ
procesul muncii(GLWXUD(FRQRPLFă%XFXUHúWLS
>@ 0LKDHOD 9OăVFHDQX 2UJDQL]DĠLL úL FRPSRUWDPHQW RUJDQL]DĠLRQDO (GLWXUD 3ROLURP ,DúL
2003, p. 51.
>@0LKDHOD9OăVFHDQX2UJDQL]DĠLDSURLHFWDUHúLVFKLPEDUHLQWURGXFHUHvQFRPSRUWDPHQWXO
RUJDQL]DĠLRQDO(GLWXUD&RPXQLFDUHUR%XFXUHúWLS
>@ ùWHIDQ 6WDQFLX 0LKDHOD $OH[DQdra Ionescu, &XOWXUă úL FRPSRUWDPHQW RUJDQL]DĠLRQDO,
(GLWXUD&RPXQLFDUHUR%XFXUHúWLS
[6] Cibela Neagu, Mircea Udrescu, 0DQDJHPHQWXORUJDQL]DĠLLORU(GLWXUD7ULWRQLF%XFXUHúWL
2008, p. 12.
[7] Idem.
[8] Idem.
[9] Ovidiu Nicolescu, Ion Verboncu, )XQGDPHQWHOH PDQDJHPHQWXOXL RUJDQL]DĠLHL, Editura
8QLYHUVLWDUă, %XFXUHúWLS
[10] Dumitru Iacob, Diana-Maria Cismaru, 2UJDQL]DĠLD LQWHOLJHQWă =HFH WHPH GH
PDQDJHPHQWXORUJDQL]DĠLLORU(GLWXUD&RPXQLFDUHUR%XFXUHúWLS
[11] Dumitru Iacob, Diana-Maria Cismaru, op.cit., p. 41.
>@(XJHQ%XUGXúTratat de managementHGLĠLDD,,-D(GLWXUD3UR8QLYHUVLWDULD%XFXUHúWL
2012, p. 178.
[13] Dumitru Iacob, Diana-Maria Cismaru, op.cit., p. 41.
[14] Cibela Neagu, Mircea Udrescu, op.cit., pp. 12-14.
>@0LKDHOD9OăVFHDQX2UJDQL]DĠLLúL FRPSRUWDPHQW RUJDQL]DĠLRQDO (GLWXUD 3ROLURP ,DúL
2003, p. 139.
>@ 0LKDHOD 9OăVFHDQX 2UJDQL]DĠLD SURLHFWDUH úL VFKLPEDUH LQWURGXFHUH vQ
FRPSRUWDPHQWXORUJDQL]DĠLRQDO(GLWXUD&RPXQLFDUHUR%XFXUHúti, 2005, p. 90.
[17] Cibela Neagu, Mircea Udrescu, op.cit. S >@ ùWHIDQ 1HGHOHD FRRUGLQDWRU
0DQDJHPHQWXORUJDQL]DĠLHL(GLWXUD$6(%XFXUHúWLS
[19] Cibela Neagu, Mircea Udrescu, op.cit., p. 36.
[20] Idem.
[21] Cibela Neagu, Mircea Udrescu, op.cit., p. 37.
[22] Idem.
381
THE ROLE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HOTELS IN

VELIKO TARNOVO REGION, BULGARIA
Olga MANCHEVA-ALI, Vanya DIMITROVA

olga_mancheva@abv.bg
Abstract: This study presents the essence, importance and role of hotel computer systems used in
Veliko Tarnovo region. The attached questionnaire presents a method of analyzing systems and their
role in the management process. The study shows the most used local systems, their advantages and
disadvantages and possible steps and recommendations for the improvement of their effectiveness.
Keywords: management, software, automation of the activities
Introduction quality, efficient service to the tourist. It is

In today’s fast-paced life, searching for also a successful management tool in the
opportunities to relax, people more and modern, high-tech hotel. The systems are
more look for the services of hotels, which directed towards both sides in the process
are in the right place and time for them. of communication: hotel - tourist and hotel
Hotel software plays a huge role in hotel – tourist – middleman – tourist. These
business in order to meet the increasing systems assist their interaction with speed,
requirements of the customers. precision and are very effective in terms of
Hotel management software is defined as time, resources, and management of the
systems meant to automate the business hotel processes. [1]
processes in the organization. Although Currently, there are many Bulgarian and
there are various definitions in that aspect, foreign manufacturers, specializing strictly
for the purposes of our research, we refer to in creating local hotel systems with
$ * 7LWRUHQɤR¶V GHILQLWLRQ $FFRUGLQJ WR different technical and technological
him, the automated information characteristics. This allows the hoteliers to
technologies are an aggregation of methods choose a product which corresponds to the
and resources which accomplish operations, specifics of their facility and which is
connected to the information flows and suitable for the volume of work they do.
their application in the enterprise. [4] Without neglecting any of the systems, our
Generally speaking, hotel management goal is to examine and analyze the specifics
software is an applied, module-based of hotel management software and its
computer program, whose purpose is to impact on hotel business management.
collect, store, transmit, process and analyze
data in order to receive the information,
necessary for the provision of ɚ high-
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0063
382
1. Hotel management software – specifics
and influence on management processes The hotel management software is a
V. Todoriev defines hotel computer corporate product, offering functions,
systems as a possibility for the manager to specific to the technological cycle and
exercise control over all the activities by activities in the hotel enterprise. It is built
modulating the processes, cycles and the of modules for planning, organizing,
separate phases of the hotel’s operations, managing, conducting and control over the
connected with the actual marketing and activities in the hotel. These modules
management; as well as controlling the provide the hotel management with a wide
activities connected with the storage space, variety of professional options, offer
pricing, accounting, trading, dining and optimal solutions for every process,
recreation facilities, hotel household, contribute to the development of the
additional services etc. The most common technology and maintain high standards of
modules are: [3] service. There are many Bulgarian and
foreign companies, specialized in the
¾ configuration of the hotel base; production of hotel systems with different
¾ reservations; technical and technological characteristics,
¾ room allocation; which allows hoteliers to choose a
¾ contracts; particular product, corresponding to the
¾ hotel household; needs of the specific hotel and to the
¾ statistics; amount of work done there.
¾ dining and recreation; Figure 1 shows the users of the local hotel
¾ nationality of the guests etc. system and the collaboration between them.
Tourist Specialized hotel Tourist mediator

management
software
Tourist
Internet Tourist
reservation
system
Figure 1. Hotel management software and its users (original figure)
It is evident that the system works with the 2. Types of hotel management software
tourists directly, indirectly and trough the
In order to define the influence of the
mediation of a tour operator or a tour agent
specialized computer programs in the hotel
as well as through an internet reservation
business and their impact on management
system. The connection is easy, accessible
processes and because of the lack of precise
and reduces the possibility for information
and clear differentiation between the
mistakes and inaccuracies in the
different types of hotel management
communication to the minimum.
software, we suggest the following
classification, where the technological
383
capacities of the systems are of great importance (Fig.1)
Specialized hotel
management
software
Basic software High-tech software Connecting software
Figure 2. Types of specialized hotel management software (original figure)
Here is a short description of the listed ¾ High-tech software – These are

software: software applications, which have all the
¾ Basic software – Including hotel technical and technological features needed
software which only has basic functions for for work in the tourist facility. Their
the management of the hotel – reservations, features allow connection with other
accommodation, and payment. This departments of the hotel as well as with
software cannot communicate with other internal and external reservation systems.
departments of the hotel (restaurant, SPA This type of software is preferred by hotels
and wellness center, telephone system) and with bigger capacity and higher rating.
is completely independent. It is not flexible They are updated, taking into account the
and is often not functionally consistent. legislation concerning the work of hotels.
This software is preferred by hotels with The price of the computer products of this
small capacity and low rating (chiefly, with class is substantially higher, as is the price
up to 30 beds, 1 or 2 stars). The products of their maintenance.
are cheap and often not capable of working Concerning the management of the facility,
with newer computer versions. Their the software is connected with all
manufacturers do not create updates to the management functions, including planning
existing software, which means that the (with the newest systems of this type). Its
software or the connected module do not usage leads to automation of the activities
function or are inapplicable when there is a in the hotel, so the human factor is partly
newer version of the office package. responsible for the quality of the service,
The basic software has favorable influence but human activity is mainly restricted to
on the management processes, assisting in introducing data into the system. The
the organization of some of the activities system, in its turn, generates a variety of
and processes in the hotel. The price of the reference, needed for the management. The
products is low and the managers do not whole work and management process is
need to invest a lot in their purchase and facilitated.
¾ Connecting software – This
implementation. Through their usage, the
software is developed specifically for big
activity in the hotel can be defined as semi-
hotel complexes and hotel chains and takes
automatic i.e. an activity depending on into consideration all features of the
human resources on all levels. facilities. The specific thing about this
software is that, in addition to its local
384
function of work, online connection with survey consisting of 10 key questions.
mediators and reservation systems, it also Because the studied facilities were only 5
has a connecting function between the four-star hotels, it turned out that the
separate facilities within the hotel chain, research needed to be repeated and more
and i.e. it has a networking function. The hotels of different rating needed to be
price of this kind of software is higher, but included for the information to be more
the specifics of the work in chains require conclusive.
it. In the period 2013-2016, 47 hotel
From a management perspective it can be establishments from 114 that are located in
concluded that the connecting systems are the Veliko Tarnovo region, which were
similar to the high-tech ones, apart from the using specialized hotel management
fact that they can receive information about software were examined. The analyze of
the other hotels from the chain in real time data was accomplished in the period
and that they process much bigger January – March 2017. That number of
information flows. hotel establishments forms 41.2 % of all
All three types of computer programs are hotel establishments in the region.
successfully applied in the hotel facilities The survey is expanded and includes 18
Figure 3. The most important functions questions, divided in 3 categories.

according to the managers (in %) The first category of questions are
introducing for the survey (from 1 to 8
and help the managers and staff with the question). The second category questions
performance of their tasks and assist the are about technological qualities of the
achieving of management goals. program – advantages disadvantages and
functions (from 9 to 15 question). The third
3. Research of the role of hotel category questions are about the grade and
management software in Veliko Tarnovo recommendation of the hoteliers about
region improving the activity of the programs
The following survey used a questionnaire (from 16 to 18 question). The collected data
method to establish the most widely used from the survey showed that the advantages
and preferred hotel programs in Veliko of the system are much more than the
Tarnovo region. In 2011 an attempt was disadvantages and are contributing for the
made to establish the role of hotel software effective functioning of the hotel.
in high-class facilities in the destination The accent of the survey, that will be
Veliko Tarnovo – Arbanasi, by means of a presented in the present paper is from the
385
second category of questions and is devices with wide application and at
connected with the role of software it the competitive prices.[3]
hotel management. According to the
managers opinion that took place in the Conclusion
survey the most important are the functions Local hotel systems are functional and
displayed on figure 3. The collected data efficient, with a high management and
shows that the advantages of the systems technological capacity, which makes them
outnumber by far the disadvantages, thus some of the most widely used and preferred
contributing to the effectiveness of the tools in the hotel business. They improve
hotels. the working environment at the facility,
The research answers other questions too, optimize the working process and reduce
the most important conclusion being that the chances for technical and technological
the hotel systems are modernized and mistakes.
updated relatively frequently (almost every
year), which means that they are flexible,
fully integrated, time and finance saving
References
[1] Lukanova, G., Problems and Perspectives in the application of software in Bulgarian
hospitality, Proceedings on "Technological innovations and tourism of Bulgaria",
Publishing House Slavena, Varna, 92-102, 2004.
[2] Mancheva-Ali, O., Maya Nikolova, The Role of the Local Hotel Systems in the
Management of High-Class Hotels in the Veliko Tarnovo – Arbanassi Destination,
Proceedings “Days of Science”, Volume 2, Union of Scientists, Veliko Tarnovo Branch
Office, pp. 97-102, 2011.
[3] Todoriev, V., Hotel operations, Sofia, Matkom Publishing House, 2008, 35 p.
[4] Kraeva, V., Introduction to Information Technology, Svishtov, 2012, 14 p.
386
VALIDATING A DEFENSE-SPECIFIC CLUSTER CONCEPTUAL MODEL USING

STATISTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Gabriel 0Ă1(6&8
“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX” /DQG)RUFHV$FDGHP\ 6LELX5RPDQLD

PDQHVFXJ#\DKRRFRP
Abstract: The paper shows how statistical tools can be used for modeling testing and validating. In
this sense, the paper presents an example of how to use SPSS for validating a cluster conceptual
model for scientific research in the field of defense. The steps taken and the results obtained are
presented in detail by correlating the most important characteristics of foreign and domestic clusters
in the field of defense and in related domains, with a high potential of applicability in this area. The
illustrated correlations fully support the lessons learned from the application of this method.
.H\ZRUGV&OXVWHUFRQFHSWXDOPRGHO6366YDOLGDWLRQ.
,QWURGXFWLRQ to building up cooperation between higher

The simplest description of clusters is based military / civilian education institutions and
on the description of the relationships local authorities and not least, would have a
established between the supplier and the significant impact on the local / regional
customer and the value chain created by economic environment [3].
them.
The functioning of companies in the 7KHREMHFWRIWKHVWXG\
framework of such entities leads them to The initiative to form a cluster may be
obtain a competitive advantage, as they defined as an organized effort towards
have a dense network of suppliers and increasing the growth and competitiveness
customers nearby. of a particular clusters in a region, an action
With regard to the term “value chain”, it involving a group of companies, central /
derives from Alfred Marshall’s concept local authorities and the academic / research
(1842-1924) who noted that “the environment [4].
geographical concentration of a particular A larger study conducted between 2013-
sector determines the specialization of the 2015 identified the main characteristics of a
suppliers” [1]. defense cluster conceptual model. This
Currently, the most widely used definition of model has also been tested as part of the
the term cluster is given by the person who is study [5].
responsible for popularizing this concept, 9DOLGDWLQJWKHFROODERUDWLYHPRGHO
Professor Michael Porter (1998): “Clusters are In order to validate the model, we will
geographic concentrations of interconnected further show the manner of correlating the
companies and institutions, which are most important features (available data) of
manifested in a particular field” [2]. three identified clusters (EDEN France Cluj
At the level of our country, designing a IT Romania, PRELMET Transylvania) with
defense cluster could contribute to the
economic recovery of the defense industry,
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0064
387
the collaborative cluster model Romanian composed of active organizations in the
Defense Cluster (RDC). field of information technology” [7].
EDEN “is a French cluster that brings PrelMET Transilvania cluster “is an
together the most important French defense emerging cluster built in an area with strong
companies and not only. The particularity traditions in metalworking. We chose this
of this cluster consists of its inter-regional cluster due to the fact that some of the
dimension, and each region is represented entities composing it belong to several
by entities of the same type” [6]. companies in the defense sector” [8].
Cluj IT cluster “is perhaps the most famous The main features taken into account are
cluster in our country and probably the shown in the following table:
most active one. It is a regional cluster
Table 1. Main charactieristics of the clusters
EDEN &OXM,7 PrelMET
RDC
France 5RPDQLD 7UDQVLOYDQLD
Size 81 41 27 12
&LYLOLDQFRPSDQLHV 62 29 15 3
$XWKRULWLHV0DQDJHPHQW
8 8 8 2
DJHQFLHV
(PSOR\HHV 6500 3629 481 6450
WXUQRYHU 650.000.000 € 175.092.740 € 102.253 € 7.000.000 €

2YHUDOOLQGLFDWRURIWKH
122 62 41 18
FOXVWHU
(source: own interpretation)
Thus, the collaborative model of scientific The data collected through bibliographic
research in institutions in the field of research was typed in a file automatically
defense (RDC) is validated by analyzing receiving the SPSS .sav. The program
and interpreting the statistical correlation, processed the variables and the values
respectively by “linking” it to real assigned to them in the Data Editor
“tangible” elements, measurable by window. This includes the secondary
recognized, verifiable methods. windows: Variable View and Data View.
Figure 1. Variable View secondary window
388
Figure 2. Data View secondary window
“The correlation is a statistical method used of a variables in co-relation another,

to determine the relationship between two according to a linear model. If the values of
or more variables, while the correlation a variable are in direct, upward direction, or
coefficient is a quantitative value that vice versa, are decreasing, as compared to
describes the relationship between two or the values of the other variable, then the
more variables. It varies between -1 and +1, two variables correlate with each other. The
where extreme values describe a perfect range of the Pearson correlation coefficient
relationship between variables, and 0 means (r) is between r = -1 (perfect negative
a complete lack of linear relationship. The correlation: which means that, while the
most widely used is the Pearson correlation scores of a variable increase, the scores the
coefficient (r) for normal (uniformly) other variables decrease) and r = +1 (perfect
distributed values and the Spearman positive correlation: which means that the
correlation coefficient (rs) for non- scores of a variable increases at the same
uniformly distributed values”[9]. time as the scores of the other variable).
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) is The absence of any relationship
independent of the measurement unit. It (correlation) between the variables
measures the association between two translates as r = 0 [10].
variables. This refers to the intensity and In the following table we present how can
direction of paralel variation of the values be used the Pearson correlation coefficient:
Table 2. Interpretation of Pearson coefficient
,QWHUYDO RI WKH 3HDUVRQ FRUUHODWLRQ
,QWHUSUHWDWLRQRI3HDUVRQFRHIILFLHQW
FRHIILFLHQWU
>@ very low intensity correlation
>@ low intensity correlation
>@ reasonable correlation, of average/moderate intensity
>@ high intensity correlation
>@ very high intensity correlation
For the analysis of the bivariate correlation Pearson coefficient information shown in
we performed the following sequence of Table 3, for the variables “Cluster size” and
commands: $QDO\]H ĺ &RUUHODWH ĺ “Turnover” and Table 4 respectively, for
%LYDULDWH ĺ Bivariate Correlations the variables”Civilian companies” and
window, from which we obtained the “Turnover”:
389
Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficient for”Cluster size” and “Turnover”variables
Cluster size Turnover
Pearson Correlation 1 ,973*
Cluster size Sig. (2-tailed) ,027
N 4 4
*
Pearson Correlation ,973 1
Turnover Sig. (2-tailed) ,027
N 4 4
Table 4. Pearson correlation coefficient for”Civilian companies” and “Turnover”variables

Civilian
Turnover
companies
Pearson Correlation 1 1,000*
Civilian companies Sig. (2-tailed) ,019
N 4 4
Pearson Correlation 1,000* 1
N 4 4
In Tables 3 and 4 “we obtained the matrix while the other diagonal of the tables shows
of the correlation coefficients. The values the values of the correlation coefficient
are distributed on both sides of the between the variables” [11].
diagonals of the table. The correlation Figure 3 highlights the analyzed clusters
coefficients equal to 1 represent the and their overall indicator.
correlation of each variable with itself,
Figure 3. Clusters and global indicators
Furthermore, by performing the sequence of Pearson coefficient shown in Tables 9.8.-

commands: $QDO\]H ĺ&RUUHODWH ĺ 9.12., for the variable “Cluster global
%LYDULDWH ĺ%LYDULDWH &RUUHODWLRQV indicator” and the other variables:
window, we obtained information about the
390
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficient for “Cluster global indicator” and
“Cluster size”variables
Cluster global indicator Cluster size
Pearson Correlation 1 1,000**
Cluster global
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000
indicator
N 4 4
Pearson Correlation 1,000** 1
Cluster size Sig. (2-tailed) ,000
N 4 4

“Turnover” variables
Cluster global indicator Turnover
Pearson Correlation 1 ,972*
Cluster global
indicator
N 4 4
Pearson Correlation ,972* 1
N 4 4

“Civilian companies” variables
Cluster global indicator Civilian companies
Pearson Correlation 1 ,999**
Cluster global
indicator
N 4 4
**
Civilian
companies
N 4 4
Table 8. Pearson correlation coefficient for”Cluster global indicator” and

“Authorities/ Management Agencies” variables
Cluster global Authorities/
indicator Management Agencies
Pearson Correlation 1 ,639
Cluster global
indicator
N 4 4
Authorities/ Pearson Correlation ,639 1
Management Sig. (2-tailed) ,361
Agencies N 4 4
Table 9. Pearson correlation coefficient for”Cluster global indicator” and “Employees” variables
Cluster global
Employees
indicator
Pearson Correlation 1 ,307
Cluster global
indicator
N 4 4
Employees Sig. (2-tailed) ,693
N 4 4
391
&RQFOXVLRQV size”, “Civilian companies” and
The correlation shown in Tables 3 and 4 “Turnover”.
is bivariate, one of the variables is 3. The Pearson correlation coefficient
dependent and the other one independent displayed by the SPSS software in Table 8.
(factorial). The Pearson correlation (0.639), indicates a strong link, a high
coefficient is equal to 0.973 and 1.000 intensity correlation between “Cluster
respectively, which means that there is a global indicator”and Authorities/
linear, positive (direct), very high intensity Management Agencies”.
correlation between the analyzed variables. The Pearson correlation coefficient
The development of the clusters during displayed by SPSS in Table 9. (0.307)
their life cycle is very strongly linked to the shows a low intensity correlation between
development of their turnover and “Cluster global indicator”and the volume
collaboration with civilian companies. of thevariable “Employees”.
2. The Pearson correlation coefficients 5. The model called “Cluster global
displayed by the SPSS in Tables 5., 6. and indicator” is validated by the fact that it has
7. (1; 0.972; 0.999;), show a very strong been built to correlate with real, verifiable
very high intensity correlation between elements, measurable by established
“Cluster global indicator” and “Cluster methods.
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Marshall, A., Principles of Economics, 1890, available at:
http://www.econlib.org/library/Marshall/marP.html
[2] Porter, M. „Clusters and the new economics of competition”. Boston, Harvard Business
Review, 1998.
[3] 0ăQHVFX * & Kifor, C „The Clusters - Collaborative Model of Sustainable Regional
Development”. ACTA Universitatis Cibiniensis, Technical Series, Vol. LXV/2014, ISSN
(Online) 1583-7149, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/aucts-2015-0010.
[4] 0ăQHVFX*., &HUFHWăULSULYLQGUHDOL]DUHDXQXLPRGHOFRODERUDWLYDOFHUFHWăULLúWLLQĠLILFH
vQLQVWLWXĠLLOHGLQGRPHQLXODSăUăULL7H]ăGHGRFWRUDW8QLYHUVLWDWHD“Lucian Blaga” din
Sibiu, 2015a.
[5] Ibidem;
[6] 0ăQHVFX G., PhD Thesis Abstract, 2015, Research on Achieving a Collaborative Model of
Scientific Research in Defense Institutions, available at:
http://doctorate.ulbsibiu.roREMGRFXPHQWV5(=80$77(=$B0$1(6&8B(1*SGI
[7] Ibidem;
[8] Ibidem;
[9] Ibidem;
[10] Jaba, E., & Grama, A. $QDOL]DVWDWLVWLFăFX6366VXE:LQGRZV. ,D‫܈‬LEditura Polirom, 2005.
[11] 0ăQHVFX G., PhD Thesis Abstract, 2015, Research on Achieving a Collaborative Model of
Scientific Research in Defense Institutions, available at:
http://doctorate.ulbsibiu.roREMGRFXPHQWV5(=80$77(=$B0$1(6&8B(1*SGI
392
THE MANAGER COMPETENCES FOR RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC

SECTOR
Ivana NEKVAPILOVA, Jaromir PITAS

ivana.nekvapilova@unob.cz, jaromir.pitas@unob.cz
Abstract: Implementation of risk management to the public sector in the Czech Republic presents
itself to the new situation managers associated with many difficulties. These are primarily the ability
to identify risks in public administration and ensure the proper functioning of their management
process. The article aims to show the specifics of public administration in relation to the identification
and risk management process and depending on the help of analogies derived from the model of key
competences of managers necessary to successfully manage the entire process. In accordance with the
stated aim of the text is divided into two main parts. In the competency model, emphasis is placed on
the so-called Soft skills with focus on explaining the growing importance of moral competence in the
risk management process, which is often neglected. This article was written as a part of the
research project Development of Social Skills of a Soldier (LEADER_DZRO_K104), funded
by institutional support which is intended for the development of research organizations in
the Ministry of Defence (DZRO K- 104) funded from.
Keywords: risk management, competences for risk management, moral competence
1. Introduction in 2013. In 2015 its gradual implementation

Risk management represents a systematic has begun by setting the risk management
and methodical process, through which the system. First results were analysed in detail
risks occurring in connection with by the end of 2016. In total, 465 risks were
achieving the authorised aims of the identified and subsequently analysed in
organisation are analysed, assessed and individual areas (for high and critical risks
treated (action taking). Outputs of risk see fig. 1), plus 43 accepted risks evaluated
management process are successfully met as medium ones (monitored risks). Risks
aims of the organisation, achieved through identified mainly in the area of internal
the effective risk management. The risk processes (99 treated risks) and some other
management system contributes to efficient risks in the area of organisational structures
functioning of organisational management capabilities (37 treated risks) were, on the
by creating adequate added value for the basis of this analysis, assessed as irrelevant.
clients of the organisation. In public The treatment of these risks was identified
administration, this value is expressed by a in already existing and defined
mission (e.g. legislatively defined) and by responsibilities of the executive employees.
measurable objectives. [1] The aim of this article is to identify the
The Ministry of Defence has commenced a behavioural competence of the manager
project called Implementation of Risk (executive employee) of the Ministry of
Management into the Ministry of Defence Defence, required for efficient risk
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0065
393
management within their authority, on the management subjects and outputs of the
ground of process analysis, risk process.
Figure 1: Groups of risks and summary in Ministry of Defence of The Czech republic 2016
2. Risk management process and subjects manager is the risk management

Risk management system in the Ministry of coordinator who creates the department risk
Defence includes risk management catalogue and map, on the basis of which
subjects, risk management process, they prepare analytical and summary
software equipment for the support of the information for the organisation risk
process and for education of the staff. After manager. They also maintain the software
achieving the aim we continue to pay equipment (risk management module) and
attention to the process and risk assign access rights to it.
management subjects. The risk owner is the manager responsible
2.1. Risk management subjects for execution of risk management process
In the department, risk management within their authority, which necessary for
subjects are represented by staff roles and successful achievement of the approved
by description of responsibilities and department goals.
activities within the description of His direct subordinate is the risk
functional remit of the systemised position administrator who maintains the risk
in risk management. catalogue and map of the risk owner. The
The owner of the process is the organisation risk administrator communicates,
risk manager. It is an executive employee of supervises the work of risk assessors and
the department who is responsible for they hand over the outputs to the risk owner
execution of risk management process and for evaluation (approval of measures
its improvement by means of technological necessary for treatment etc.).
support and software equipment. They are Risk assessor identifies, analyses and
also responsible for training of employees assesses the risks, and they suggest the
who carry out / will carry out the risk approach to treating the risks, including
management process and also for the extent execution of the measures.
of the training. Last but not least, the The asset owner is a department employee
organisation risk manager is responsible for assigned on the basis of set competences
presenting the information about and responsibilities to protect the asset in
department risks to the Planning Board of their authority. [2;3].
the Minister of Defence. 2.2. Risk management process
Subordinate to the organisation risk Risk management process of the Ministry
394
of Defence is articulated in compliance with elimination or reduction with possible
ISO 31000, ISO 27005, AJP-3.14 and Act subsequent aggregation of dependent
No.320/2001 Coll. (Act on Financial risks,
control in Public Administration). The x monitoring, reporting and
process is divided into three logical and communication phase.
subsequent phases (Fig. 2): This process is adjusted to the requirements
x identification, analysis (quantitative of the Ministry of Defence in compliance
analysis) and assessment phase – assets, with previously named documents.
threats against assets and risks,
x risk treatment phase based on defined
level of acceptance – shift, transfer,
Figure 2: Process of risk management in Ministry of Defence according to Pitaš J., Crhák M. 2016[2]
3. Flaws in the risk management system managerial work of executive employees,

of MoD and possibilities of their who are key figures in the whole process
rectification because their decisions affect the realization
Based on the analysis of risk management of all phases of the risk management
in the defence department, several flaws process. The findings in question are:
were identified in the area of Module a) faulty distinction between assets and
utilization (software support of risk threats; b) inability to bear personal
management), e.g. complicated and responsibility for subordinate staff;
unnecessarily extensive asset and thread c) inability to assign tasks according to
registers, as well as inaccurate descriptions abilities and availability of the staff;
of asset vulnerabilities, incomplete or d) inadequate inspection of task fulfilling
wrongly described risk scenarios, which and interpretation; e) insufficient degree of
can be blamed on the users’ lack of self-discipline (self-reflection) of executive
experience with using the Module. More staff; f) breach of an important principle:
serious flaws were identified in the choosing staff for particular positions
395
according to required capabilities and risk management, with emphasis on
fulfilled requirements; g) insufficient knowledge. The authors agree on the fact
communication and openness to incoming that the rectification of identified flaws
information. could be significantly supported by
Causes of these flaws can originate in low implementation of competence approach to
attention of the organisation risk manager the education and to the choice of people
to risk management competences of working in risk management process.
individual risk management subjects, 3.1 Competence approach to the position
especially among managers and also among of the manager of risk management
risk assessors and asset owners, in process
particular to behavioural competences Competence approach to the performed
according to ICB v.4 classification. As work position enables us to understand the
internal documents reveal, these employee’s performance in the complex of
competences are not subject to evaluation mutually interconnected dispositions,
of risk management process in the current knowledge and abilities and also of
department. Education of the subjects the potential which might have been hidden
focuses on introduction to the process itself so far, as we can see in fig. 3.
and on utilization of Module created for
Figure 3: Structure of competence, adjusted according to Kubeš M. et al. 2004, p. 28[4]
Recent professional literature offers many performance in the given position under
definitions of competence. For clarification specific conditions of the organisation. It is
of professional competence, authors have recommended to attach to this model a set
considered relevant the so called of methods for verification of achieved
complementary approach to competence, level of competence which may be used
which can be found in works of e. g. especially for selecting employees for given
Tureckiová or Veteška. In the sense of this positions or for decision about the need of
approach, by competence they understand their further education. Only on the basis
“the unique human ability to act of this model and set of methods it is
successfully and to improve their potential possible to create an efficient system of
on the basis of their own set of embodied education and development of required
resources, and to do so in a particular competences for each position. Such model
context of various tasks and life situations, for risk management system in the
connected with possibility and willingness department of defence has not yet been
(motivation) to make decisions and to bear created.
responsibility for them”. [5] Each competence model for a given
Human resources and management position consists of two types of
specialists recommend creating a competences. Those related directly to
competence model for each position performing a specific task, so called
(utilizing relevant research methods) which “specific competences”, and so called “key
will define all important competences competences” which, according to Richter,
necessary for high-quality and efficient reach beyond particular expertise. [6] From
396
all available key competence definitions according to their moral value orientation in
given in literature the authors incline to the various work-related and life situations
classification of Belz and Siegrist who characterized by different risk rates. When
divide key competences into social examining the individual’s moral
competences, competences with respect to competence, it is essential to determine
self and competences in the field of their moral value orientation (deontological,
methods. [7] The authors feel the urge to hedonistic…), their capability of moral
emphasize that moral competence implicitly judgement and evaluation of the decision-
belongs to the group of key competences making situation, their moral mindset and
because it is indispensable for the specific their strength, and their prevailing type of
human activity such as behaviour. In the prosocial behaviour (reciprocity, social
accepted classification of Belz and Siegrist responsibility, empathy, social exchange,
it is implicitly included in the first two conformity).
groups. The nature of flaws identified the
Authors of classification include among performance of in MoD risk management
social competences the following: team executive employees suggests that some of
work abilities, cooperation, ability to handle the key competences of these employees are
conflicts and communicativeness. not developed to the desired level. From the
Among competences with respect to self social competence group it is mainly the
they include competent treating of self, i.e. communicative skill and providing
dealing with one’s value, being one’s own feedback. From the group of competences
manager, ability of self-reflection, with respect to self it is the ability of self-
conscious development of own values and reflection, and from the group of
human image, ability to judge oneself and competences in the field of methods it is
to further improve. mainly the ability to analyse and develop
Among competences in the field of creative, unconventional solutions, to
methods they include abilities to apply structure and classify new information, to
systematically and in target-oriented put things into context and understand the
manner their professional knowledge, i.e. to context, to critically examine issues to
analyse, to develop creative and reach innovation and to consider chances
unconventional solutions, to structure and and risks. We also include moral
classify new information, to put things into competences, mainly the responsibility for
context and understand the context, to one’s own performance and for one’s own
critically examine issuess to reach decisions.
innovation, to consider chances and risks. 3.2. Behavioural competence of the
The moral competence can be described manager of risk management process
more precisely as a capability of an From the available theoretical resources and
individual to act morally in the particular on the basis of analogy it is possible to
context of the given task and on the basis of conclude the desired structure of
interiorised professional moral standards behavioural competence for the position of
and values, combined with possibility and the manager of risk management process in
willingness to make decisions and to bear public administration, applicable in general
responsibility for them in compliance with features for the department of defence. It is
their position within the organisational possible to consider this competence to be a
structure or within a specific process (such key competence which should be
as risk management). Moral integrity is a complemented by specific competences
significant indicator of the level of according to the considered subject of risk
competence development. It can show management system (organisation risk
certain stability of the individual to behave manager, risk owner). The required level of
397
individual partial competences for 4. Conclusions
particular subjects should also be defined. Analysis of the existing risk management
For example, the organisation risk manager system in 2016 lead to a conclusion that it
can be expected to have a higher level of is necessary to deal with two important
development of competences in the field of problems: firstly, to learn to identify risks
methods than a risk owner because his task correctly, and secondly, to determine the
should be to improve the whole risk real competences of individual managers on
management system and to arrange various positions in the risk management
education of all subjects in the risk system in order to ensure its efficient
management system. supervision. The so called key competences
The structure of this competence consists of are extremely important because they have
partial competences which are essential for a direct influence on the ability to manage
successful negotiations with all subjects of and lead people in the whole system. Both
risk management process: it is mainly the problems are inherently related to each
competence of self-reflection and self- other and they both point to risk managers
management (internal leadership, as key subjects (junctions) in the whole risk
decisiveness) which is related to personal management system. The key to
integrity and stability of attitude (including rectification of the stated flaws is the
moral competence), furthermore the group utilization of competence approach in
of social competences with the competence choosing and preparing people for the role
of interpersonal communication in all its of managers of risk management process.
forms (written and oral, providing This approach enables and simultaneously
feedback), building relationships and requires a consistent analysis of risk
carrying out of duties, leading, team work, management competences, creating
negotiations; and the group competences in a system to verify the level of competences,
the field of methods with resourcefulness, and providing a functional system of
ability to find appropriate procedures to preparation and education of risk managers
identify risks in the changeable conditions for the department of defence. This article
of the work tasks. [8] can serve as a general insight into the
problem.
References
[1] PITAŠ, J. 3ĜtVWXS\NĜt]HQtBrno: Univerzita obrany, 2016.
[2] PITAŠ, J., CRHÁK, M. ět]HQt UL]LN MDNR SRGSRUD UR]KRGRYDFtKR SURFHVX Y UHVRUWX
Ministerstva obrany. Vojenské rozhledy. VY þ %UQR Univerzita Obrany,
2016, p. 114-124.
[3] 502þ9ČVWQtNX. ět]HQtUL]LNYUH]RUWX0LQLVWHUVWYDREUDQ\. 502þ
9ČVWQtNX. Praha: Ministerstvo obrany, 2015.
[4] Kubeš, M., Spillerová, D. a kol. 0DQDåHUVNp NRPSHWHQFH =SĤVRELORVWL YêMLPHþQêFK
PDQDåHUĤPraha: Grada Publishing, 2004.
[5] Veteška, J., Tureckiová, M.RPSHWHQFHYHY]GČOiYiQtPraha: Grada Publishing, 2008.
[6] Richter, Ch. Schlüsselqualifikationen. München: Alling, 1995.
[7] Belz, H., & Siegrist, M. .OtþRYpNRPSHWHQFHDMHMLFKUR]YtMHQtPraha: Portál, 2001.
[8] International Project Management Association (IPMA). Individual Competence
Baseline for Project, Programme and Portfolio Management. 4th Version. Zurich:
IPMA, 2015.
398
RESEARCH ON THE PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL REALISATION

OF NEWLY APPOINTED LOGISTICS OFFICERS
Nikolay NICHEV

nbnichev@nvu.bg
Abstract: The training and education of cadets at the Vasil Levski National Military University is
aimed at professional, intellectual, physical and moral development, and creation of leadership and
management skills. The education aims at realizing the concept of optimal receiving a wide range of
competencies in the field of military affairs, as well as knowledge about the activities of civil,
political, socio-economic structures and systems. It aims at forming knowledge, skills and moral and
volitional qualities, which serve as a basis for professional development, allowing implementation of
the system for national and collective security and defense. The officer is a leader with undivided
personal authority who takes full responsibility for training and combat readiness of the personnel
from the military unit entrusted to him, its education in patriotism and national pride, maintenance
military discipline and moral-psychological condition, formation of a sense of duty and responsibility
to Bulgarian homeland and nation, and responsibility to the state of armaments, military equipment,
ammunition and other material resources.
Keywords: professional realisation, logistics officers, leadership, management skills
1. Introduction in the higher education area of “Social,

The qualification characteristics of the Economic and Legal Sciences” [5].
syllabi for the training of future logistics According to the qualification
officers have been discussed and approved characteristics, as a result of the overall
by the Academic Council of the Vasil military training at the university, the
Levski National Military University. They graduate:
provide the opportunity to practise the A) is formed as a person with:
regulated profession Officer at Tactical - developed leadership qualities and
Level of Management, and to acquire a positive moral and volitional qualities;
bachelor’s degree in the military and - sufficient knowledge about military
civilian specialty. For this purpose, the affairs, technical and social sciences, which
specialties “Organisation and Management allows a proper understanding of processes
of Military Units at Tactical Level” and and phenomena in modern society;
“Logistics of Security” provide training - knowledge about economical,
according to a unified syllabus with a basic effective and efficient management of
interdisciplinary, broad-profiled training for material, financial, human and information
acquiring higher education in the military resources and logistical support;
professional field of “Military studies”, in - developed skills for management of
the higher education area of “Security and platoons and companies in various
Defence”, as well as in the professional conditions, allowing him/her to improve in
field of “Administration and Management”, management of larger military units;
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0066
399
- developed intellectual and volitional multinational combat operations and
qualities and ability to do research related to operations other than war.
the security of the state and the local - to be proactive and creative in
authorities; dynamically changing conditions;
- high general knowledge and - to have psychological knowledge
communication skills. and skills for understanding the elements
B) must be prepared to complete the and applying the basic principles of
following tasks: effective leadership.
- to plan, organise and lead the
combat training of the personnel, to 2. Preparation of the cadets for
maintain the necessary combat readiness of management activity
the entrusted unit; The acquisition of knowledge in different
- to participate, together with the years of study occupies an important role in
military unit subordinated to him, in rescue preparing cadets for management activity
operations and emergency rescue activities [1, 3]. Figure 1 shows the process of
during natural disasters, industrial preparedness for the military professional
accidents, catastrophes and dangerous activity of future logistics officers.
pollutions in the country;
- to participate in national and
Types of training Acquired knowledge
First year of study
Beginning of training in military and civilian specialty
Basic military training On fundamental military skills;
General education On fundamental comprehensive support of operations;
Fundamental training in General knowledge;
economics Fundamental knowledge in economics.
Second year of study

Combined training in civilian and military specialty
General military training On logistical support of operations;
Special military training On exploitation of logistics and special equipment;
Fundamental management On the order for making statements of material resources;
training On the basics of business logistics;
Fundamental logistical On the theory of economic management;
preparation On standardisation and codification of the products;
On the marketing policy of business organisations.
Third year of study

Special military training On activities of airports, ports and railway stations;
Specialised military training in On development of logistics and transport system;
logistical support On means of tracking supplies;
Specialised logistics training On procedures for handling documents for logistic
support;
On organisation of the accounting process;
400
Types of training Acquired knowledge
On management of supply;
On management of stocks.
Fourth year of study

Graduation in civilian specialty
Specialised military training in On management of logistics support;
logistical support On fundamental standardisation documents of NATO;
Specialised military tactical On the implementation of border and customs procedures;
training On the management of product life cycle;
Specialised logistics training On the management of investment projects;
On the rules of business communication in logistics.
Fifth year of study

Training in military specialty
Graduation in military specialty
Specialised military tactical On management of logistics units;
training On procedure for planning, organising, conducting and
National Security reporting of logistics preparation;
Resource management On systems for logistics management;
Law training On military aspects of national security;
On risks and threats to national security;
On international security systems.
Figure 1: Formation of preparedness for the military professional activities of future logistics
officers by years of training
During the fifth year of study, the dynamics [2]. The main purpose of training at the
in the preparation for the military Vasil Levski National Military University is
occupation of the future logistics officers is the appropriate vocational training for
the highest. A high degree of preparation future quality realisation. In this respect,
for management activities and a high sense graduates have the opportunity to assess
of responsibility are characteristic of the their personal preparation for future
graduating cadets. At the end of the military professional activity using the following
training, cadets feel they are indicators: theoretical knowledge, practical
knowledgeable, capable and prepared to training, mental preparation, physical
offer professional and appropriate solutions training both as leaders and commanders.
for particular tasks by themselves [4]. The graduates evaluate relatively high
The annual reporting of the views of cadets (range from 2 to 6) the importance of
by the Military Psychology section at the mental preparation, physical training, and
Vasil Levski National Military University is the cadets’ preparedness to be future
in support of this. The indicators and commanders and leaders.
criteria for learning cadets’ outcomes, The graduates assess their practical training
namely the acquired knowledge and skills, at the lowest level. Most likely, the fact that
are set in the annual report of the Military hours of practical training and internship in
Psychology section at the National Military military formations are insufficient
University for the 2015/2016 academic year contributes greatly to these results. It is very
401
likely that those lower estimates are caused their knowledge and skills in practice. The
by the fact that the trainees do not realize valuations that the fifth-year trainees give
the full potential of their abilities before for their preparedness for future career
they have actually started to implement development is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Fifth-year trainees’ self-assessment in relation to their future professional realisation
In terms of the preparedness of the future the curriculum affects the formation of
logistics officers for management activities, future officers as military leaders can be
the most significant is the indicator which found in Elitsa Petrova’s research. [6]
takes into account their preparedness for The main goal of the current study is
future commanders and leaders. In this orientated to the realisation of graduates
indicator, the average self-estimation of the logistics officers, complying with the
graduates from the Military Logistics and fundamental objective of the Vasil Levski
Fuel and Lubricants speciality is by 12% National Military University, namely to
higher than the average rating given by the prepare highly qualified officers and
graduates in all specialisations at the Vasil graduates capable to perform active
Levski National Military University. In the cognitive and research activity and who
other indicators, the variations are from 2% have the knowledge and skills to manage
to 4%, which may be considered as human and material resources. Figure 3
insignificant. It is most likely that the cadets shows the realisation of logistics officers
in the Military Logistics profile have greater after completion of their studies at the
confidence in their preparedness for the National Military University divided by
future professional development because of branches.
studying mainly management subjects in the
civilian specialty. Information about how
402
Figure 3: Realisation of the Logistics Officers by Branches
Figure 4 displays the summarised data Levski National Military University by

about the realisation of officers after groups by branches.
completion of their training at the Vasil
Figure 4: Summary of the implementation of logistics officers by Branches
Figure 5 shows the realisation of logistics 2011-2016.

specialists in logistics units for the period of
Figure 5:Realisation of logistics specialists in logistics units
403
The data show that more than half of the in both the civilian and military specialties.
graduate logistics specialists were assigned The analysis of the realisation of the newly
to logistics units over the past five years. appointed logistics officers points a need
for generalisation, systematisation and
4. Conclusion determination of approaches to structuring
The professional military activity of the content of the core curriculum which
logistics officers involves the acquisition of would allow improving the readiness for
knowledge in different areas: management, professional military activity. In this
law, logistics, transportation, technology, respect, the main focus of work should be
psychology, pedagogy, etc. The study and reducing the share of general military
analysis of the training and the syllabus training and increasing the share of
show that enhancing preparedness of the specialised military training in logistical
future logistics officers for management support.
activities can be accomplished by applying .
a synergistic effect in arranging the courses
References
[1] Angelov, Z., Psychological Problems in Warrior Activities, Ministry of Defence, Sofia,
1994.
[2] Annual Report of Military Psychology Section for Taking into Account the Opinion of
Cadets at the Vasil Levski National Military University for 2015/2016 academic year.
[3] Nichev, N., Petrova, E., Professional Training of Future Logistic Officers at the National
Military University of Bulgaria, Sibiu, Romania, The 21st International Conference The
Knowledge-Based Organisation, Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, 11-13 June
2015, pp. 253-257.
[4] Todorkov, K., Psychological Aspects of Management of the Commander, Ministry of
Defence, Sofia, 1998.
[5] Academic Plan for Training for the specialty of regulated profession Organisation and
Management of Military Units at the Tactical Level with military qualification Officer for
Tactical Level of Command at the Vasil Levski National Military University: 1-5-16.
[6] Petrova, E., Specific Subjects of License Academic Program - an Important Stage of
Professional Development of Future Military Leaders at the National Military University,
Bulgaria, The Annals of Spiru Haret University, Romania, Volume 6, issue 3, 2016, ISSN
2393-1795, ISSN-L 2068-6900, pp.113 ÷ 119.
404
RISK MANAGEMENT IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS CONCERNING

THE USE OF OUTSOURCING SERVICES IN THE BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES
Nikolay NICHEV
“Vasil Levski“ National Military University, Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria

nbnichev@nvu.bg
Abstract: Outsourcing services in the armed forces are a promising tool for reducing defence
spending which use shall be determined by previously made accurate analysis of peacetime and
wartime tasks of army structures. The decision to implement such services allows formations of
Bulgarian Army to focus on the implementation of specific tasks related to their combat training.
Outsourcing is a successful practice which is applied both in the armies of the member states of
NATO and in the Bulgarian Army. Using specialized companies to provide certain services in
formations provides a reduction in defence spending, access to technology and skills in terms of
financial shortage.
The aim of this paper is to analyse main outsourcing risks that affect the relationship between the
military formation of the Bulgarian army, the structures of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of
Bulgaria and service providers, and to assess those risks. The basic steps for risk management in
outsourcing activities are determined on this base.
Keywords: outsourcing, risk management, outsourcing risk
1. Introduction It is measured by its impact and the

Outsourcing is an effective tool to generate probability of occurrence, and its
new revenue, and the risks that may arise, management is the process of identifying,
draw our attention to identifying the main analysing, evaluating, monitoring,
types of outsourcing risks. This requires the countering and reporting the risks that may
focus of current research on studying and affect the achievement of the objectives of
evaluating the possibility of the occurrence an organisation and the implementation of
of such risks, and the development of a the necessary control activities in order to
system for risks management on this basis. limit the risks to an acceptable level.
In accordance with this, it becomes Risk management in the Ministry of
necessary for the Bulgarian Armed Forces Defence of the Republic of Bulgaria is a
and the structures of the Ministry of dynamic process which should provide a
Defence of the Republic of Bulgaria to better understanding of potential threats,
retain control of their own key functions in actions or events that may positively or
the public sector of defence. negatively affect the ability of the military
According to the guidance documents of the structure to achieve its objectives and
Ministry of Defence, risk is the possibility planned activities. It is a mandatory part of
of the occurrence of an event which will management of defence and its resources,
affect the achievement of the adopted and a key activity which contributes to the
(planned) objectives of the structure [2, 8]. achievement of set goals.
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0067
405
2. Types of Outsourcing Risks contract, scarce supply markets, and
Studies show that the most frequently specificity and variability of the assets.
observed risks are those when the Outsourcing risks which should not be
outsourcing provider does not offer the underestimated are belittling the main
expected and pledged quality of the service activities and reducing competence. These
to military units. Experience shows that are risks which occur when the governing
immediately after outsourcing, the service bodies of military units do not pinpoint its
reduces its quality in comparison with core activities, i.e. fail in properly
previously offered services in the distinguishing major from minor activities
organisation [3, 4]. To overcome this risk, in the military unit. The refining of
an adjustment period of about a year and a peacetime and wartime tasks has particular
half should be planned, during which the importance. The transfer of certain activities
supplier is able to get to know the process or services to external contractors puts the
and the customer requirements. It can be units of the Bulgarian Armed Forces at the
expected that the quality of the outsourced risk of having limited control over the
service will increase after the specified planning of these services. Therefore, the need
period. This requires finding the appropriate of conducting more frequent meetings with
external contractor. the contractor occurs so that the military units
It is noteworthy that before the transfer of are not in isolation from the outsourced
the service to an external supplier, the services [5, 6, 10].
achievement of the required quality of the Another problem for the structures of the
activity is a responsibility of the personnel armed forces in the use of outsourcing
of the designated military unit – the client. services may occur in the misuse of
After making the decision to use classified information under the Law on
outsourcing, the management of the military protection of classified information. To
unit should rely on the conditions laid down prevent such a threat, it is appropriate to
in the contract and ensure that the external take measures at the conclusion of the
provider adheres to them. To ensure this, contract for transfer of services. Concluding
guarantee measures should be co-ordinated an agreement for non-disclosure of
and bound to the current national quality information (a non-disclosure agreement,
certificates [9]. Giving orders for NDA) may be pointed as a preventive
inspections at regular intervals is another measure.
measure to prevent such kinds of risks. The decision to use outsourcing services in
Along with the quality problem, hidden the Bulgarian Armed Forces can create risks
costs may sometimes occur. To avoid this, for specific activities of the various units
the financial parameters in the outsourcing arising from making wrong decisions to
contract related to the appropriate level of reducing the level of service because of the
service should be clearly established, and worse quality of provided services. This is
the text must specify that there will be no the reason why the foreign experience and
additional costs for the customer except the mistakes should be examined before
indicated ones [4]. making a decision to use outsourcing in the
The personal interviews with servicemen Bulgarian Armed Forces and the specific
from different units show that there is an activity of the military unit, which does
opportunity for risk caused by inadequate services transfer, should be taken into
performance of the contractor when account. Outsourcing in military structures
activities or services are outsourced from contains specific risk of corruption.
the armed forces. The basic marks for the According to Terziev, Nichev and Bankov,
appearance of this disadvantage most often the corruption encourages state officials to
are factors such as poorly composed create new rules and delays in procedures.
406
Corruption leads to decreased compliance the pressure of reduced deadlines;
with environmental, nutritional and other inadequate technology and financial
standards, reduces the quality of provided resources for fulfilling the obligations;
services and increases budget costs [11]. All increase in the price because of the fact that
the above mentioned requires military units upon signing the contract the service price
to develop and implement a system of does not include its continuous
ongoing monitoring of the entire improvements; bankruptcy of the
outsourcing process. contractor; breach of confidentiality and
A great deal of the outsourcing agreements security of the military unit; occurrence of
depend on the access to internet, the unexpected costs; non-compliance and
connectivity and the need for adequate failure to comply with contractual rights
infrastructure, which suggests that there and obligations; violation of other activities
may be an IT risk as well. at the military unit; lack of opportunity for
The best practices and the analysis of the professional development [5, 6, 7, 10].
studied literature suggest that the risks The analysis of the studied literature leads
arising from incorrect or formal to the identification of the factors
implementation of outsourcing in the generating risks in the course of co-
structures of the Bulgarian Armed Forces operation between a military structure and
are the following: loss of direct control and external contractors (Table 1) [7].
supervision of the transferred services;
information leak; negative quality caused by
Table 1. Factors associated with the formation of risks arising in the course of cooperation between
military units and external contractors
Groups of factors Features
Legal factors Risks due to changes in the regulatory framework and
levels of quality of outsourcing services.
Military and economic Risks that depend on outsourcing market development,
factors quality selection of external contractor, validity of the
contract, outsourcing operations quality control.
Corruption risks leading to increased outsourcing costs
and creation of unfavourable terms for military units.
Military-psychological Risks associated with changes in the organisational
and social factors structure of the military unit as a result of the transfer of
services to external contractors.
Risks related to social tension which arises or increases
among the personnel of the given unit as a result of altered
job functions or redundancies in the official staff list.
IT factors Risk of improper use of information by both the
military unit and the contractor of outsourcing services.
Risks due to a lower level of command staff awareness
at military units about possible negative consequences of
outsourcing services.
All the risks that the transfer of services and assessment of criteria supporting the choice
activities to external entities may cause in in using outsourcing services as well as by
the sphere of the armed forces can easily concluding precise contractual agreements.
become more than the benefits. This can be Another important activity to prevent the
avoided by a consistent approach to the majority of these risks is the creation of an
407
emergency plan which provides for only the resources that are not used by it to
termination of the outsourcing project and carry out its main specific activities.
consequently returning the services The expected risk level of the joint work of
provided by the external supplier back into the unit as a client and the external provider
the units. is an indicator which depends on the
Risk management of outsourcing services is intensity of the impact of related
a gradual process of identifying, evaluating, professional risks and probabilities for risk
monitoring, and control, as well as situations. It is characterised by the amount
developing and implementing measures of damage and losses caused by the failure
aimed at reducing the negative impact of of the outsourcing process. Therefore, it is
these risks on the activities in the military essential to provide for a certain amount of
unit. Risk analysis has a significant impact compensation actuated by a particular risk
on the successful development of the situation to offset possible losses. This
outsourcing process. Considering the element must be defined and included in the
complexity and importance of identification outsourcing contract.
and management of outsourcing risks, the In view of the above, the decision to
personnel of the military unit involved in outsource may be accepted if the expected
the outsourcing process must have the risk level is less than the maximum level of
necessary skills and knowledge to evaluate risk.
the impact of this process on the overall The management of the outsourcing risk in
activity of the unit by using appropriate the structures of the Bulgarian Armed
methods, such as analogy, expert methods, Forces is an activity that requires a number
analytical methods, etc. of decisions related to identification,
evaluation and control of the risk. A sample
3. Strategy for Managing the Risk of process for outsourcing risk management
Outsourcing Activities can be described by the following step
The decision to conclude an outsourcing model:
deal should define the risks which the First step - identifying the risk factors for
respective structure of the Bulgarian Armed outsourcing by analysing the economic,
Forces can take, as well as the activities social, legal and information-technological
which it should perform, in order to limit factors.
and avoid diversification. To do this, it is Second step - determining the expected
appropriate to form a strategy for managing level of risk based on potential losses from
the risk of outsourcing activities. a risk situation, and assessing the
The main problem in forming the strategy is probability for occurrence of risk situations.
to determine the maximum level of risk that Third step – comparing the expected to the
the military unit can assume, taking into maximum outsourcing risk and making
account its specific activity, availability of decisions about outsourcing of services and
resources and ability to neutralise the activities. If the expected level of risk is less
negative effects of risk situations in than the maximum level of risk, the
outsourcing [7]. Maximum risk level can be outsourcing proposal is accepted. If the
defined as the situation when the military expected level of risk is greater than the
unit exceeds its ability to offset expected maximum level of risk, the outsourcing
losses caused by risky situations without proposal must be rejected [2, 7].
deterioration of its combat readiness and The planning and implementation of
financial potential. Therefore, in decisions on the use of outsourcing in the
determining the amount of funds which the structures of the Bulgarian Armed Forces
military unit as a client can use to cover any should be based on the determination of the
losses, it is necessary to take into account maximum amount of risk that can be taken,
408
and compared with the expected level of culture and develops the skills of the armed
risk in the cooperation with the external forces.
provider. The military unit - client will be The main objectives in making the decision
able to act and make managerial decisions to outsource are not only improving the
depending on the estimated amount of efficiency and effectiveness of the
losses upon the occurrence of risk capabilities of military logistics, but also
situations. completing defence tasks by reducing the
However, when one of the structures of the volume of activities and minimising costs.
Bulgarian Armed Forces cannot afford to The new economic realities of the
additionally recruit highly skilled and beginning of the 21st century tend to
highly paid personnel for the performance strengthen the trend of shifting the world
of some services, then outsourcing is the economy based on domestic markets,
only decision. The armed forces structures interconnected by trade and investments, to
should aim at results with the highest an economy which encourages public-
quality of service, without risks and with private partnerships. Globalisation as a
lower costs. progressive form of integration of nations is
The list of outsourcing risks remains open not only manifested in economic terms, but
and may be supplemented depending on the also in all spheres of cultural, political and
individual characteristics and specificity of social life. It is driven by new relationships
the various military units and structures between regions and countries in the new
which use outsourcing. international policies, including
Military units can decide to use outsourcing governments, business and society [1].
for the purpose of increasing the Partnership at different levels leads to the
effectiveness of outsourced services. creation of a new type of interaction,
However, the outsourcing process can have including in terms of defence and security.
a negative effect on performance. This
requires the evaluation of the 4. Conclusion
appropriateness of using outsourcing Outsourcing in the armed forces, regardless
services in the relation with the capabilities of the risks involved in its use, is a
of the military unit and its specific perspective tool for reducing the cost of
activities. Outsourcing decisions should be defence.
flexible and in accordance with the security The analysis of outsourcing risks and the
of information. The success of such a following decision to use outsourcing in the
decision is indirectly linked to the logistic support of the Armed Forces of the
performance of activities as: precise Republic of Bulgaria is in direct relation
analysis; assessment of possible services with the peacetime and wartime tasks of
which the military unit can provide for military units. Military units with a high
outsourcing; market research and research degree of readiness should use their own
of companies providing outsourcing logistic structures to provide the necessary
services; consistency in the selection of resources just in time and place, with the
external providers, and last but not least the necessary quality and at an acceptable price.
conclusion of precise outsourcing contract. The applicability of outsourcing in the
The effective implementation of Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria
outsourcing is associated with many risks allows commanders to focus on the
that should be distributed between the implementation of specific tasks related to
armed forces and the private sector. Using the combat training of military units.
the skills of the private sector changes the
409
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[1] Petrova, E., European Idunit and Social Partnership, Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre,
Romania, Sibiu, Vol. XVI, Nr. 3 (63) Trimestrul III, 2011, pp. 309 ÷ 315.
[2] Bechev, Ivan at al., Strategy for Risk Management in Defence Programs of MoD
Structures Directly Subordinate to the Minister of Defence and Armed Forces, Ministry
of Defence of the Republic of Bulgaria, Sofia, 2015.
[3] Harizanova, M., Outsourcing: Role, Characteristics and Areas of Application, Research
papers Vol. 2, University of National and World Economy, Publishing complex –
UNWE, Sofia, pp. 7-39, 2012.
[4] Slavova, M., Public-private Partnership in Bulgaria. Outsourcing Services. Handbook.
Materials on Public-private Partnerships and Outsourcing, Chamber of Commerce
7DUJRYLVKWHɋ
[5] Power, M., Kevin Desouza, Carlo Bonifazi, The Outsourcing Handbook. How to
Implement a Successful Outsourcing Process, London, United Kingdom, p. 229 , 2006.
[6] Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Bulgaria, Methodological guidelines for public-
private partnership, Sofia, 2009.
[7] Kostenko, P., Julia Minenkova, Natalia Karpova, Methods for Estimating the Risks of
Outsourcing, Scientific methodically e-PDJD]LQH
&RQFHSW
ʋ UHWULHYHG IURP
http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sposoby-otsenivaniya-riskov-autsorsinga
[8] National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria, Program for Developing of Defence
capabilities of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria 2020 and the Headcount of
the Armed Forces, Decision adopted by the National Assembly on 25.11.2015, published
LQWKH6WDWH*D]HWWHʋGDWHG
[9] Dimitrova, S., N. Nichev, N. Stefanov, 'HYHORSPHQW ɨI 2XWVRXUFLQJ 6HUYLFHV,
International Conference Knowledge-Based Organization, Volume 21, Issue 1, pp. 192–
197, 2015.
[10] Kostova, V., Outsourcing - Features and Perspectives, Scientific Almanac of The Free
University of Varna, Issue 6, pp. 104-115, Varna, 2009.
[11] Terziev, V., N. Nichev, Stefcho Bankov, &RUUXSWLRQ ɚQG 1DWLRQDO 6HFXULW\,
,QWHUQDWLRQDO6FLHQWLILF-RXUQDO,QQRYDWLRQ5HVHDUFKʋSDUWSS-196, 2016.
410
NEW APPROACH – QUADRANGLE OF KNOWLEDGE BASED SUSTAINABILITY
Ovidiu NICOLESCU*, Ciprian NICOLESCU**
* Romanian Scientific Management Society, Bucharest, Romania

** The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania
ciprian.nicolescu@gmail.com
Abstract: In our paper we start the analysis of the performance in the knowledge based economy
from two premises: a. The productivity of the new economy is much higher comparative with the
previous economic systems; b. There are at least six factors which determine the deep change of
knowledge business organisation performances. Based on this approach we mention several specific
ways for the evaluation of the knowledge based performances formulated by certain renowned
international specialists. Finally, we elaborate a new concept regarding the approach and evaluation
of the performance in the knowledge based economy - quadrangle of sustainability based on
knowledge.
Keywords: knowledge, sustainability, quadrangle, efficiency, effectiveness
1. Introduction selling airplane tickets, or a software for

The central question of any economic entity accounting of firm can be used
is getting a sustainable performance. simultaneously by tens, hundreds,
Therefore in addressing knowledge-based thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds of
economy and its main component - thousands or even millions of persons and/
knowledge-based organization, pointing out or organizations. As a result, the cost per
elements on the performance it is essential. user decreases greatly, almost in the same
The analysis that we have undertaken and proportion with the number of users, and
the studies carried out by some specialists outputs/ revenues generated and/ or
as [1], [2], [3], [4], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], facilitated are multiply in similar
[11], have revealed that the economy based proportions.
on knowledge generates superior b) The degree of potentiating, using and
performance compared to previous capitalizing of other forms of classical
economic systems. capital - technical material, financial and
There are multiple explanations, among human - are amplified very much because:
them we briefly present the following two: x the capacity and quality of the tools,
a) The productivity of knowledge, the main equipments, buildings, etc., due to the
component of intellectual capital increases incorporation of new knowledge more
to incredible levels, especially due to its sophisticated and more productive,
dematerialisation and demultiplication, that increase very much, which determine
make possible to use the same knowledge, realizing of better and more products
concomitant by a large number of people and services and thus achieving higher
and/ or organizations that are in different added value and incomes;
areas, which may be located at thousands of x the same money can create, use and
miles distant. For example, a system for disseminate greater quantities of
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0068
411
knowledge and thus generate additional identified six specific factors that determine
revenues; significant changes in performances of
x people that constitute the human knowledge based entities. See figure 1.
resources, in terms of the knowledge Without a doubt, the vast amount of
society, possess a greater volume of knowledge used in organizations represents
knowledge and consequently a higher the first factor of influence. In the
capacity of their processing, have a knowledge-based entity they are:
faster access to a immense amount of x an essential resource of organizations;
knowledge of high quality, can x a basic raw material;
interconnect and collaborate more easily x a major factor of production;
with many other people and x an essential component of intellectual
organizations, regardless of the capital;
distance, become more creative x a product itself and/ or major attributes
generating valuable knowledge, use and of other products;
exploit at higher level own knowledge x the most important generator of
and knowledge of organizations were competitive advantage in micro, mezzo,
they are integrated. All these determine macro and international organizations.
substantially higher individual and So far no other participant element at
organizational productivities, reflected economic processes from an organization
at the macro social level in hadn’t a palette so comprehensive of
amplification of GDP, national budgets functions and an impact so intense and
and the living standards of the extended on other resources and activities,
population. on performance, as have the knowledge.
Increasing labour productivity to levels A second specification required, is the fact
unprecedented is the main source of high that part of knowledge, often the most
performance of knowledge based important, represented by tacit knowledge,
organization. can’t be quantified, or can be gauged only
partially and indirectly. So, both part of
2. Factors that substantially modify knowledge inputs and part of knowledge
performances of knowledge based outputs, are not measurable in economic
organizations terms. Hence, the great difficulty of
To deepen aspects on performances of determining efficiency and the need to
modern social and economic entities is very resort to new approaches likely to provide a
useful to identify new factors that influence reasonable estimate of its, essential for
their effectiveness and efficiency. These sustainable development of economic and
have a significantly different content, social entity. Obviously, all the elements
determined by partial, but essential mentioned influence in a great extent and
changing of inputs - with the location in the approach way of effectiveness.
forefront of knowledge - by changes within However, because the organization's
economic, human, technical and managerial efficacy is determined by comparing
mechanisms and major changes, regarding achievements, to the initial provisions of
to the structure and functionality, of objectives and work processes, a relatively
economy and society based on knowledge. low part is quantified and the impact is
As a result, the outputs of economic and lower, compared to the one referring to
social entities are partly different. efficiency.
After analysis we have carried out, we
412
Great weight of knowledge within entities, with impact in many forms on their functionality
and performances
Increasing weight and importance of unquantifiable inputs, represented mainly by tacit

knowledge
Transforming a part of the organization’s external stakeholders in components and/ or

participants of intellectual capital and value chain
The new structure of macroeconomics characterized by delineation of new economic branches,

by profound changes of their content and the relationships between them, by the functionality
and development potential significantly different comparative to previous economic systems
Educational and scientific environment at macro social level plays a decisive role in the
creation, dissemination, sharing, transfer, use, storage, learning and capitalizing of knowledge,
in multidimensional performances of the economy and society based on knowledge
The ecological environment of economic and social entity is an essential element of the inputs
and outputs of knowledge-based organization
Figure 1: The main factors that determine the essential change of the effectiveness and efficiency
within knowledge based organizations
A third element of specificity resides in social, referring to essential changes in the

coverage sphere of efficiency and overall structure of the economy and its
effectiveness. In socio-economic entities main components. Undoubtedly, the most
based on knowledge, intellectual capital and important change of component refers to
value chain far outweigh the classic borders education and scientific research that
of organization, incorporating not a few become productive branches with the
elements from external environment. Much greatest impact on the functionality and
of the organization's external stakeholders, performance at all levels - micro, mezzo,
become component or are directly and macro and international.
significant involved in its economic, Transformation of ecological environment
managerial, human and/ or technical in an essential factor of effectiveness and
mechanisms. As such, when forecasting, efficiency of economic and social entities -
determining and evaluating the sixth factor considered - is based on the
effectiveness and efficiency of the entity following aspects:
based on knowledge, the elements referring - some of environmental elements (water,
to stakeholders must not and can’t miss. air, soil, gases, etc.) are inputs within
Omission of them from gnosiological point organizations, their characteristics
of view is an error, and from the pragmatic reflecting in costs;
point of view represents a major - prevention of pollution and
shortcoming that, if it persists for a longer environmental protection by
period, threatening the very existence of the organizations, require expenses incurred
organization. by them, some of this organizations
The following three factors are likely macro spending a lot of money;
413
- part of organizations outputs influence result and the need for a systemic approach,
in a way or another the ecological from a long term sustainable perspective of
environment, and this influence is an knowledge based organization
intrinsic component, though not always performances.
measurable, of effectiveness and Based on the triangle of sustainability
efficiency of the organization. elaborated by Zollinger [6], respectively
Nicolescu [5], we have conceived a new
3. Quadrangle of knowledge based approach synthesized in the form of
sustainability quadrangle of knowledge based
Examining the content of the six factors, sustainability, viewed in figure 2.
ECONOMIC
INDIVIDUAL AND PROFIT AND
ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETITIVITY ECO-EFFICIENCY
PERFORMANCES
COMMUNITY ECO-KNOWLEDGE AND

DEVELOPMENT ECO-STANDARDS
ECOLOGICAL
ECONOMIC-SOCIAL
ENTITY BASED ON ENVIRONMENT
INDIVIDUAL FULFILLMENT PROTECTION AND
SOCIAL
AND SOCIAL BALANCE KNOWLWDGE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE
STAKEHOLDERS RETHINKING OF BASIC

CAPITALIZATION ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
POSSESSION AND
SUPERIOR
EXPLOITATION OF
EDUCATION TRANSFORMING
RELEVANT
AND TRAINING - SOCIAL-ECONOMIC
KNOWLEDGE BY
MAIN FACTOR OF ENTITIES
PERSONS AND
ECONOMIC- SOCIAL IN LEARNING
ORGANIZATIONS
DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS
EDUCATIONAL
Figure 2: Quadrangle of knowledge based sustainability
Quadrangle of sustainability based on based entities individual performances

knowledge - as the name suggests - it is of each component of the organization
quadrodimensional and takes into account are more important due to extremely
modern economic entities: high productivity of knowledge.
a) Economic dimension that places in Consequently the contribution of each
foreground three major aspects: component of the organization, of each
x Competitiveness that has as main specialist based on knowledge - positive
support obtaining of profit. An or negative - has a significantly higher
organization if does not get profit, impact on the overall performances of
hasn’t enough resources for the organization. The second facet
development and therefore can’t survive considered envisages organizational
long-term. Therefore getting performances, of the entity as a whole,
continuously profit is essential for any in fact the most important in terms of
economic entity; sustainability. Of course, organizational
x Realization of individual and performances are based on individual
organizational performances, that are performances, but which by interacting
interrelated. In conditions of knowledge in an intelligent approach based on
414
competitive strategic vision generate financial – coming from involved
economic synergy; community, is the interest of the entity
x Eco - efficiency, reflect both economic to its development, in order to provide
and ecological effects, marking and on inputs of superior quality and to be
this plan change the content of more responsive and friendly with
efficiency in the knowledge based entity's outputs - goods, services,
organization. Eco-efficiency is a new knowledge.
concept, that points that approach of c) Environmental dimension of
elements regarding to costs and performances, recently shaped for the
revenues, inputs and outputs, must not organizations, is structured on three levels:
be limited only to economic ones, but to x Ensuring environmental protection so as
consider and the environmental ones, to prevent polluting phenomena which
not less important than the first. were very numerous in the last century
b) Social dimension focuses on the and a half. Simultaneously it aims to
following aspects: ensuring ecological balance which often
x Individual fulfilment of the components requires not only decisions and
of the entity, with a major impact on the preventive actions, but also corrections.
degree of motivation and capacity to Ecological balance across all systems -
treat well knowledge, on the loyalty to local, regional, national, continental and
the organization and other colleagues. planetary - it is the condition of survival
Individual fulfilment has so not only a and increase living standards for the
personal dimension, but falls upon the population involved;
integration in organization and effective x Reconsidering the primary ecological
contribution to the achievement of its factors is the starting point of an
objectives. Individual fulfilling is effective ecological approach. Air,
approached in an integrative vision, in water, soil, flora, fauna, climate etc.
terms of ensuring the balance at all must to be treated starting from their
levels - organizational, community, specificity and multiple
regional and national; interdependences between them. This is
x Capitalization of stakeholders envisages the only way to ensure the preservation
the essentially mutation produced in and simultaneously, their valorisation
knowledge based organization, namely in the interest of social and economic
that the functionality and performances development;
depend not only by managers and x Eco-knowledge is a relatively new
executives but also, in increasingly category of strategic knowledge, which
extent, by customers, suppliers, refers to the environment and should be
intermediaries, financiers, consultants, the focus of all entities. Eco-knowledge
trainers, etc. Valorisation of all major with eco-standards are essential
stakeholders tends to be conditioned not landmarks in designing and
only to obtain high performance, but implementing solutions that to generate
also for the survival of the organization. both economic - social performances
x Community development highlights and environmental performances.
multiple and intense relations of d) The educational dimension is the latest
interdependencies within each outlined, it reflecting the importance and
knowledge based entity and social - the growing impact of ensuring human
economic community in which it resources that possess relevant knowledge
manifest. Because many of entity’s on social economic entities, taking into
inputs - human, knowledge, technical - consideration three main plans:
material, information, and even x To be performing, the knowledge based
415
entities is necessary to have some dimensions is the determinant element of
knowledge in terms of specific obtaining sustainability and sustainable
objectives, both at the level of performances in any country, at the level of
knowledge specialists and the level of any social and economic system.
the organization as a whole. Essential is
to ensure relevant knowledge to satisfy 4. Conclusions
specific needs of the entity and Quadrangle highlights the four dimensions
communities based on knowledge of efficiency and effectiveness of economic
within it. social entities based on knowledge -
x Education and training, through which economic, social, environmental and
ensure knowledge assimilation by the educational. In our opinion this
population at the level of the current quadrilateral synthesizes in systemic way
requirements, should be treated as the essential elements of economic and
essential factors of development, as social utility of knowledge based
productive branches with a high social organizations and management. The four
and economic impact. Continuing dimensions on which is structured the
education and training must ensure an model represents axes that must be
increasingly more volume and considered by managers and stakeholders
constantly changing of knowledge and from level of all economic and social
their assimilation by population at the entities - micro, meso, macro and
level of the entire society. international - to decide and act in order to
x Transformation of economic social capitalize the huge potential that
entities into learning organizations is a knowledge have and to generate an
systemic way through ensures to the accelerated and performant development of
staff of each entity the knowledge it all economic and social systems.
needs in a pragmatic vision. Unlike In conclusion, the performances of
previous approached plan, learning organizations based on knowledge, must be
organization limited only to entity and approached systemically, treating equally
is focused on certain categories of the economic, social, environmental,
knowledge that meet the needs and educational aspects, internal and of main
requirements of the organization; stakeholders, qualitative and quantitative,
Between the four dimensions is closely quantifiable and unquantifiable, on long,
interdependent relationships based on medium and short term, considering the
complementarity and subordination to special nature, the essential role and
achieve the fundamental objectives of each multiple functions and impacts of
entity. Plenary manifestation of the four knowledge.
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417
SECURITY MANAGEMENT OF UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES
Constantin OPREAN, 0LKDLO‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8, CrLVWLQD7Ă1Ă6(6&8
“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania

constantin.oprean@ulbsibiu.ro, mihail.titu@ulbsibiu.ro,
cristina.tanasescu@ulbsibiu.ro
Abstract: The paper is approaching a sensitive topic which the whole society is facing, namely the
security at a macro and micro-economic level. In this context, increasing the level of terrorism at all
levels requires important measures to prevent the acts of terrorism and of providing a security that
allows the development of all entities in the society. University offsets represent areas of
agglomeration of young students living together, susceptible to challenging actions and to acts of
terrorism that may occur at any time. The paper approaches a systemic and systematic thinking of
untried actions to be taken for these structures, components of the university.
Keywords: security, management, risks, university campus, attack
1. Introduction “university premises are intangible. Access

The University is one of the most complex to the university premises is only allowed
organizations in our society, with very under the conditions provided by law and
diverse human resources corresponding to by the university charter.”
the professional fields they are active in, its The authors believe that university premises
diverse culture and its involvement in the are synonymous with the concept of
community life and its mission to train campus, which, according to the
specialized human resources, necessary for Explanatory Dictionary of Romanian (2nd
the development of the society and for edition, revised and amended – DEX 2009),
social renewal. This organization is a is defined as “Complex universitar
balancing factor in society, an example of FXSULQ]kQG FRQVWUXF‫܊‬LL ‫܈‬L GRWăUL SHQWUX
morality and impartiality in all the fields of vQYă‫܊‬ăPkQW FHUFHWDUH ORFXLW DJUement
contemporary life, which is continuously etc.”, and, according to the New Dictionary
transforming and faces the attack of of Romanian (Nodex 2002)[1], a campus is
environmental positive and negative a “7HUHQSHFDUHHVWHDPSODVDWăRLQVWLWX‫܊‬LH
factors. GH vQYă‫܊‬ăPkQW VXSHULRU FX WRDWH GRWăULOH
For this reason, in order to maintain its pentru cercetare, locuit, agrement etc.”, of
status of unaltered organization of our course comprising all the features necessary
society, all decision-making factors and for the educational process.
civic bodies must get involved in protecting Risks that may endanger ordinary
it, alongside the church, the army, which university life [4], as well as the life of the
represent the building and stability pillars community we live in and of the entire
of all our nations and societies. society can be grouped as follows:
In accordance to article 126, paragraph 3 of x natural risks:
Law no. 1/2011 [7], on national education, o dangerous weather phenomena
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0069
418
(storms, floods, tornadoes, Under the present conditions of
draught, frost, etc.); university campus organization, security
o fires; management acquires different
o geological phenomena (landslides, particularities. Thus, at a global level,
earthquakes, floods, etc.); university campuses are classified as
x technological risks: follows:
o accidents, damages, explosions and x university campuses outside of the
fires; community;
o collapsing constructions, x university campuses integrated in the
technological equipment, dams, community.
works, etc.; The concept of university campuses outside
o damaged public utilities systems; of the community provides the advantage
o objects falling from the sky; that all its structural components work
o unexploded ammunition, etc.; optimally, as they are projected and built
x biological risks: based on the criterion of optimum operation
o epidemics; and on the integration of all activities in a
o epizooties/zoonosis; unitary structure of university and non-
x chemical risks: university life. Examples of such campuses:
o contamination with various Cambridge University Campus, Sibiu Land
chemicals; Forces Academy. The great disadvantage is
o nuclear contaminations; that university life is isolated from
x risks from terrorist and organized crime community life.
attacks. The concept of university campus
Risk is defined as the mathematical integrated in the community has the
estimation of the probability that human advantage that university life is part of
lives are lost and human health is affected, community life and that the two interact,
that material, environmental, social and benefitting the community.
psychological damage is produced over a The great disadvantage is that the building
reference period, i.e. future period, and in a infrastructure is mostly inoperative, and, in
given area [5]. order to ensure minimum operability
In the context of ensuring a quality life in conditions, adaptation works – usually
university campuses, risk management as a inefficient – are necessary.
component of security management The big advantage of this type of university
represents the systematic implementation of campuses is that it integrates university and
policies, procedures and practices related to community life. An example is the campus
the management of communication, of “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu.
consultation, context establishing, as well From the point of view of the security of
as of evaluation, handling, monitoring and the university campus, the most
reevaluation of risk (Government Decision recommended solution is that of a
no. 557/03.08.2016 on risk type university campus in an isolated location,
management; SR EN 13010/2010). outside of the local community, comprising
all university assets and activities, allowing
2. Systems of campuses organization for better supervision.
To ensure normal working
conditions in university campuses, optimum 3. Securities of university capuses
security conditions must be put in place, i.e. From the point of view of security
protected it from any danger, in order to management, aiming to prevent and to
ensure the feeling of trust and peace granted manage environment, technological,
by the absence of any danger. biological and chemical risks, bodies such
419
as Inspectorates for Emergency Situations x United Nations High Commissioner for
were set up in Romania through Refugees (UNHCR);
Government Decision no. 1492/2004, x United Nations International Children's
coordinated by the General Inspectorate for Emergency Fund (UNICEF);
Emergency Situations, which is part of the x Council for At-Risk Academics
National System for the Management of (CARA);
Emergency Situations, whose purpose is to x Protect Education in Insecurity and
monitor, evaluate, inform, warn, early- Conflict (PEIC);
warn, alert and implement the operational x Institute for International Education
technical coordination emergency situations (IIE);
at national level. x Human Rights Watch (HRW);
In Romania, most recent cases were related
x Scholars at Risk;
to fires; for this reason, inspections
x Save the Children, etc., whose mission
regarding the way in which security permits
is to advocate for the protection of
are checked were generalized and
students, teachers, schools and
intensified.
universities from attack.
Terrorist and organized crime acts make up
Their goals are:
the most sensitive field nowadays.
x to highlight the incidence and impact of
Attack of education include:
attacks on education in conflict and
x Attacks on students, academic staff, and
insecurity among key actors and to
education institutions, with a devastating
cultivate public support for safe
impact.
education;
Immediate effects can include death,
x to promote better systems to monitor
injuries and the destruction of education
and report attacks on education;
facilities, as well as disrupted access to
education. In the long term, attacks can lead x to promote effective programmes and
to diminished education quality, loss of policy to protect education from attacks,
teachers and academics, and weakened including prevention and response;
education systems. The quality and x to encourage adherence to existing
relevance of higher education can be international laws protecting education
degraded, and research and innovation and the strengthening of international
curtailed. Weakened education adversely norms and standards, as needed;
affects a country’s economic, political and x to fight impunity for attacks on
social development, and undermines efforts education by promoting and supporting a
to reduce poverty and improve maternal and range of accountability measures.
child health. Attacks on education may violate
Presently, as attacks on university international humanitarian and criminal law
campuses have intensified, international and may constitute war crimes or crimes
structures were set up to protect higher against humanity. The use of education by
education; through their actions, these state security forces and other armed groups
structures aim at promoting the members of may place students and academic staff at
the academic community and promoting risk of attack. This is why we put forward
academic freedom. some recommendations to protect education
An example is the Global Coalition to from attack:
Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA), x monitor attacks on education and the
established in 2010, including bodies such state: local organizations and
as: international agencies should rigorously
x United National Educational, Scientific monitor attacks on education and use the
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); data to provide informed responses;
420
x put in place preventive measures and x workshops and awareness-raising
response systems: the ministries and efforts on the role of academic staff
education institutions should put in place dealing with psychological war and
preventive measures and response terrorism;
systems, and adopt and implement the x strengthening higher education
best practices to protect education from infrastructure, including building,
attack; renovating or improving it, and facility
x the state should ensure that its domestic equipment;
law criminalized all elements of attack x informing security authorities about the
on education in line with international measures taken to protect institutions;
humanitarian and human rights laws; x establishing emergency response
x domestic, regional and international mechanisms in case of attack;
tribunals should consider violations that x alternative means of transport;
constitute attacks against education in x information sharing mechanisms
relevant investigations, and pursue and between higher education institutions
prosecute serious cases. and national security bodies for rapid
response in case of attack;
x safety assessment and risk analysis
4. Security management of university mechanisms;
campuses
x plans to continue education in
In order to improve the security
university campuses in case part of it is
management of education, the general
unsafe or otherwise out of use;
safety measures must be taken into
x counselling and referral mechanisms in
consideration [5]:
case of attack;
x coordination between educational
x negotiation with armed groups;
institutions and the national security
body, etc.; x collaboration with the Red Cross or
other relevant bodies in case of
x security cameras and other
emergency aid, evacuation, etc.;
technological surveillance;
x policies or other efforts to make higher
x armed or unarmed security guards;
education inclusive and accessible;
x criminal code, national security law or
x providing assistance to victims of
other relevant regulatory framework for
attacks;
the protection of higher education;
x higher education grants to support
x security drills or other types of trainings
students and academic staff during times
for staff and students, teaching them how
of crisis.
to react in case of attack;
x police visits to university campuses; 5. Conclusions
x establishing security committees in To conclude, our society can only develop
higher education institutions; in a sustainable manner only if we create
x emergency response measures, such as favorable conditions for the sustainable
first aid kits, fire escapes, etc; development of universities as integrated
x including security in laws protecting part of global development. The
and upholding education and university development and consolidation of
campuses or freedom; university-like organizations greatly
x legislation to protect the institutional depends on ensuring a good management of
autonomy of higher education. university campus security.
At the same time, it is necessary to take
measures to protect university campuses:
421
References
[1] '(; ¶ 'LF‫܊‬LRQDUXO H[SOLFDWLYH DO OLPEL URPkQH HGL‫܊‬LD D ,,-D UHYL]XLWă ‫܈‬L DGăXJLWă,
2009.
[2] NODEX, 1RXOGLF‫܊‬LRQDUDOOLPELLURPkQH
[3] ,62,(&6LVWHPHGH0DQDJHPHQWXO&DOLWă‫܊‬LL, 2013.
[4] SR EN 31010/2010 Managementul riscului. Tehnici de evaluare a riscului, 2010.
[5] HG 557/2016, Managementul tipurilor de risc, 2016.
[6] +* 5HJXODPHQWXO GH RUJDQL]DUH ‫܈‬L IXQF‫܊‬LRQDUH ‫܈‬L D RUJDQLJUDPHL ,*68,
2004.
[7] /HJHDQU/HJHD(GXFD‫܊‬LHL1D‫܊‬LRQDOH
[8] Protecting Higher Education from Attack, GCPEA Conference, Paris, April 21st 2016.
422
APPLIED RESEARCH ON STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF SMES IN ROMANIA

IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Dan POPESCU*, Cristina STATE*, Livia TOANCA**, Ioana PAVEL*
* The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania

** Liv Consulting, Los Angeles, USA
dan.popescu@man.ase.ro, cristina.state@man.ase.ro, livia.toanca@gmail.com
iioanapavel@yahoo.com
Abstract: Technological social and cultural changes generated by the digital age have a significant
impact on both individual and society as a whole [1]. Is the context in which our research aimed at
revealing the extent to which SMEs in our country are prepared to cope with these changes and can
adapt to an environment increasingly turbulent and unpredictable [2]. Based on the three hypotheses of
our scientific approach, the method used was the quota for proportional distribution by counties,
respectively the optimal-layered model for the distribution by fields of activity. As a means of
investigation we used a questionnaire with 26 questions answered by 598 SMEs, the purpose being
represented by identifying, on the one hand, the used methods of strategic management and, on the
other hand, the uptake of digital means by them. The responses from the distribution of the
questionnaire were analyzed by various statistical and econometric methods. In a first stage we used
descriptive statistics to identify peculiarities of respondents to compare different homogeneous groups.
In the second stage of analysis to determine statistical deductive conclusions, we used the analysis of
variance, correlation and linear regression and ANOVA using SPSS software for Windows 16.0.
Following validation of the research hypotheses, in the end of the work we formulated a series of
proposals to improve the strategic management of SMEs in Romania in the digital age.
Keywords: digital age, digital services, SME, strategic management
1. Introduction exploiting through multiple internal and

Although we are in the boom and supremacy external market channels for the purpose of
of the digital era [3], IT is ranked 5 among technological advancement. Because barriers
the priorities of SME’s managers in Romania, between the firm and the environment have
after marketing activities, diversification of become more permeable, innovations can be
production, acquisition of new technology and easily transferred, both internally and
training of the labor force [4]. externally [6].
Given that innovative practices offer a wealth
of opportunities and a growing scope for SMEs, 2. Methodology and research hypothesis
they are faced with new challenges [5]. Our paper tends to address the strategic
The theory of free innovations proposed in management of SMEs in the context of the
2003 by Chesbrough argues that, during the digital era and is aimed at highlighting the
innovation process, businesses need to take need to use new methods of strategic thinking
into account innovative ideas and resources, to help SMEs maintain their viability on the
both internally and externally, integrating global market. This market is characterized,
their capabilities and resources, and then mainly, by swift and considerable changes[7],
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0070
423
that are due to the galloping innovation of management of SMEs in the context of the
the digital era [8]. digital era, we formulated the following
We used the questionnaire as a data collection working hypotheses:
technique focusing on: Hypothesis 1 (H1): SMEs from Romania have
x the degree of adaptation of SMEs from not adopted yet the new digital technologies
Romania to the new concepts, strategy required to obtain competitiveness on the world
and strategic management; market;
x the extent to which SMEs from Romania Hypothesis 2 (H2): Strategic management
have adopted new advancements in the of SMEs from Romania requires a series of
digital field; major transformations, which should help
x the differences between the fields of increase both the prosperity and the probability
activity of the SMEs as regards the of their survival in the digital era;
degree of digital adoption; Hypothesis 3 (H3): Digital perception
x the perception of the digital field, by viewed as a transforming force of the
SMEs from Romania, as a transforming business environment by the SMEs from
force of the external organizational Romania is reduced, the latter not realising
environment; the real need for change.
For the questionnaire, distributed by over
160 thousand SMEs from Romania, we 3. Results
collected 598 answers. We have turned to the regression analysis to
The questionnaire (accessible on the link investigate whether and how there is a link
<https://goo.gl/BK9qKu>), was distributed between the frequency of external
by e-mail to more than 160 thousand SMEs evaluation and the frequency of re-
from Romania. The method used was that evaluation and adaptation of the strategy. In
of proportional quotas for the distribution this context, we proceeded to establish the
of the sample by geographical area and the following 8 independent variables:
optimum stratified sampling method for 9 frequency of the competitors' evaluation;
distribution of the sample by industry [9]. 9 frequency of customer evaluation;
The questionnaire, included 26 questions, 9 frequency of suppliers' evaluation;
whose purpose was to identify both strategic 9 frequency of labor assessment;
management methods used by the SMEs 9 frequency of the evaluation of the
from Romania and the degree of adoption of political-legislative environment;
digital assets thereof. 9 frequency of economic environment
The questions in the survey were answered assessment;
by 643 organizations, 598 of which fall into 9 frequency of socio-cultural environment
the category of SMEs. They were distributed, assessment;
representatively, according to optimum stratified 9 frequency of the evaluation of the
model over the following business areas: technological environment.
information and communications, tourism, As an independent variable, we set the
industry, construction, marketing, transport; frequency of organizational adaptation and
services. re-evaluation of the strategy.
As a result of the expertise gained in the The results of the regression analysis are
process of identifying the main tendencies shown in table no. 1 and in table no. 2.
of the development of digital and strategic
424
Table .no 1: Model summary
Change Statistics
R Adjusted R Std. Error of the
Model R R Square F Sig. F Durbin-
Square Square Estimate df1 df2
Change Change Change Watson
1 .218a .047 .028 1.032 .047 2.465 9 445 .009 1.993

a. Independent (constant) variables are considered the frequencies with which they are evaluated: the
technological environment; workforce; customers; The socio-cultural environment; providers;
competitors; The economic environment; The international environment; The political-legislative environment
b. Dependent variable: frequency of re-evaluation and adaptation of the organizational strategy
Table no.2: ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 23.619 9 2.624 2.465 .009b
1 Residual 473.687 445 1.064
Total 497.305 454
a. Dependent variable: frequency of re-evaluation and adaptation of the organizational strategy;
b. Independent (constant) variables are considered the frequencies with which they are evaluated: the
technological environment; workforce; customers; The socio-cultural environment; providers;
competitors; The economic environment; The international environment; The political-legislative
environment
The results of the regression analysis In the next step, we investigated the relationship
(shown in tab.no.1 and tab.no. 2) indicate between environmental prediction and the
the existence of a statistically significant duration of the strategy.
relationship between the set of predictive The t (t-test) independent test was used to
indicators and the criterion variable (F = investigate whether there were significant
2.565; p & lt; 0.05). statistical differences between the average
Taking into account the value of the values of the duration of the strategy
multiple correlation coefficient (R = between the subjects who gave the "yes"
0,218), it can be concluded that there is a and "no" answers to the question of
small correlation between the frequency predicting each element of the external
of the external evaluation by the Romanian organizational environment. We performed
SMEs and the frequency of adaptation and 9 such independent tests as the one that
the re-evaluation of the organizational follows bellow.
strategy by them.
TEST 1: Predicting competitors
Table no. 3: Group statistics
PV20.1 N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Yes 357 2.41 1.587 .084
Strategy duration
No 159 1.60 1.463 .116
Where: PV20.1 is the prediction of competitors (the competitive environment)
425
Table no. 4: Independent test samples
Levene's Test
for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
95% Confidence
Sig. Mean Std. Error Interval of the
F Sig. t df (2-tailed) Difference Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Equal
variances 1.460 .227 5.431 514 .000 .802 .148 .512 1.093
Durata assumed
strategiei Equal
variances 5.603 327.105 .000 .802 .143 .521 1.084
not assumed
and the probability of their survival to the
Through the econometric and the descriptive demands of the digital era) is confirmed,
analysis of the results obtained after the because:
collection of the responses, we checked the - Although there is a significant statistical
validity of the three hypotheses and we correlation between the use of methods of
reached the following conclusions: swift analysis, of testing and of
H1 (SMEs from Romania have not experimentation and the frequency of
adopted yet, the new digital technologies reassessment and adaptation of strategies to
necessary for obtaining global market environmental requirements, SMEs do not
competitiveness) is confirmed. Supporting resort to such methods;
arguments for this conclusion are as - SMEs in our country study and/or adapt
follows: their strategy (in case they have it) only
- the majority of SMEs from Romania have when they are required to do so, for
not yet adapted their own website to the example, to comply with the laws in force;
exigency of mobile technology (only 13% - only 16% of SMEs declared that they had
of them have a website adapted to these drawn up strategies for 3-5 years;
requirements); - the percentage of SMEs that do not have
- there is a big carelessness regarding the a strategy varies, depending on the answers
collection of useful information about their to each question (I used reformulation in an
own customers, in circumstances where the attempt to get an image as close to reality as
overall market is headed with quick steps possible), but it is higher than the quota of
towards the phenomenon of customization 10%;
of tenders; H3 (the perception of the digital as the
- only a third of the SMEs provides, transforming force of the business environment
regularly, to its own employees the opportunity is still low, the latter not realising the need to
to develop professionally through trainings in change) was ruled out, at least partly by the
various fields of activity, while another third answers of participants in the study who, in
says that it does not consider it necessary to a percentage of over 70%, consider that the
instruct their own human resources in the digital era is causing major changes to the
field of ICT. competitive environment, to the behavior of
We concluded that SMEs in our country are the customers and of suppliers and to the
in need of quick acceleration of the adoption environment, while in a percentage of over 50%
of the digital means, so that they could quickly it changes the economic environment, labour
become competitive on the global market. employment and international environment.
H2 (strategic management of SMEs from
Romania requires a major transformation, 4. Conclusions
which should result in increasing prosperity As result of our findings, we formulated the
426
following conclusions of the study: continuing rapid growth of the digital
1. The hypothesis relating to the adoption of economy, globally;
digital technologies by SMEs was validated 2. Facilitating access to sources of financing
(H1), SMEs adopting digital means in a low for SMEs. Encouraging new sources of financing
degree compared to large enterprises. The such as, micro-loans, "business angels"
degree of adoption of digital means of the investments, business accelerators, crowdfunding
SMEs in Romania is still low, as they did not and crowd-investing, all these types of
manage to implement the new digital investments can become solutions that
technologies required to obtain digital might contribute decisively to a more dynamic
competitiveness on the global market; and timely financing of SMEs;
2. Getting competitive advantages is 3. Encouraging the increase in the number of
usually the result of strategic management incubators and virtual business accelerators. In
of entrepreneurial success and the digital this context, Law No. 102/2016 is a first
field, as a transforming force of businesses, legislative step to encouraging SMEs from
has the potential to facilitate this process Romania;
[11]. 4. Introducing up-to-date digital technologies and
3. The gap in terms of the adoption of the encouraging technological creativity in
digital means by the SMEs from Romania schools;
places them in the disadvantageous situation of 5. Developing governmental programmes to
not succeeding in being competitive on a global encourage partnerships between universities
level. As the changes brought about by the and SMEs with the goal to ensure the
digital era are imminent, this fact jeopardizes transfer of knowledge. Programs and projects
the very future of our national economy [12]; co-financed by the Government and SMEs
4. However, although they perceive it as a digital could be created for specified periods of time,
force transforming the business environment, where new graduates, having access to
SMEs from Romania do not have a long-term academic resources, can be part of the
strategy. In this context, the only element of the improvement performance projects of SMEs.
environment that triggers a strong causation in B. Proposals for the micro level, regarding
favour of the reassessment and adaptation of the the strategic adaptation of SMEs to the digital
strategy is established (even imposed) by the era
political and legislative environment; 1. Developing and implementing a system
5. SMEs from Romania do not use rapid methods of periodic evaluation and forecasting of the
of analysis, testing and experimentation, in order organizational environment. The ability to
to minimize the uncertainty of the external "see" or to "predict" the environment can be
environmental factors of the organization, gained only by practice and by sustained effort.
factors they cannot preview. The SMEs that will be able to enforce their
own discipline of assessing periodically the
5. Proposals environment and of developing forecasts,
From the analysis and interpretation of will be able to increase substantially their
results, as well as from the discovery of the chances of success;
research results, we formulated the following 2. Using more testing and rapid divergent
proposals that could be adopted on the experimentation. The digital era has reduced
micro and the macroeconomic level, both costs associated with testing and rapid
nationally and internationally: experimentation, and SMEs can create, with
A. Proposals for the macro level minimal resources, concepts, products or
1. Encouraging investments in infrastructure minimum viable services, unfinished, which can
networks and digital services. In this context, be made available to a relevant group of customers
an extremely important role can be played from whom they can obtain real feedback;
by collaboration (partnerships), the private- 3. Training employees on a regular basis in
public type, which may ensure the different areas and maintaining a flexible
427
organisational structure; with the competition), especially given the
4. Exploring, continuously, new innovative conditions when aggressive, confrontational
business models; actions are proven to be losers by results;
5. Using crowdsourcing anywhere possible; 7. Adopting a new model of strategic
6. Collaborating and co-opetition (collaboration management for SMEs.
NEW MODEL OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF SMEs IN THE DIGITAL ERA
CHANGING THE
ENVIRONMENT
STRATEGY
VISION
ASSESSMENT
OF THE PREDICTABL
EXTERNAL E
ENVIRONMENT
FORCAST OF THE
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT LONG-TERM
STRATEGY
DEVELOPMENT
UNPREDICTABLE
LONG-TERM
THE OBJECTIVES
DRAFTING OF
STRATEGIC
OPTIONS
EVALUATION OF
THE INTERNAL
THE GROWTH OF
ENVIRONMENT
SUCCESSFUL
STRATEGIC
OPTIONS
DIVERGENT
EXPERIMENTATION
THE SELECTION OF
STRATEGIC
OPTIONS
DETERMINING THE FIRST SET DETERMINING THE SECOND SET PLANS AND
OF SHORT-TERM GOALS OFSHORT-TERM GOALS POLICIES
ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONA
CULTURE L STRUCTURE
REASSESSMENT OF THE STRATEGY
Source: made by authors
428
References
[1] Drucker, P. The Practice of Management - 5th Edition. New York: Harper&Row, 2006
[2] Christensen, C. The Innovator's Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms
to Fail (Management of Innovation and Change). Boston: Harvard Business Review
Press, 2015
[3] Kurzweil, R. The Age of Spiritual Maschines: When Computers Exceed Human
Intelligence. London: Penguine Books, 2000
[4] x x x CNIPMMR - &DUWD$OEăD,00-urilor din România, (GLĠLD 2016
[5] Zhang, J. & Chen, L. “Review of SMEs Open Innovation Performance”, American
Journal of Industrial and Business Management 4(12): 716-720, 2014
[6] Chesbrough, H.W. New Frontiers in Open Innovation. Oxford University Press, 2015
[7] Reves, M., Haanes, K. & Sinha, J. “Your Strategy Needs a Strategy”, Harvard Business
Review 90/(9):76-83, 2012
[8] Schimdt, E. & Cohen, J. The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of People, Nations
and Business. MP3CD. Brilliance Audio - Una edition (April 8, 2014), 2014
[9] Magretta, J. “Why Business Model Matter”, Harvard Business Review 5/May, 2002
[10] http://www.andreimarga.eu/viata-in-era-digitala/
[11] http://www.sloanreview.mit.edu/projects/ strategy-drives-digital-transformation/
[12] Osterwalder, A. (2010). Business Model Generation: A Handbook For Visionaries,
Game Changers, And Challengers. New York: Wiley
429
EMPIRICAL STUDY REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF COMMUNICATION

UPON THE PURCHASING DECISION
Dan POPESCU, Alina DINU, Cristina STATE&ăWăOLQD PICU
The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania

dan.popescu@man.ase.ro, alina.dinu92@gmail.com
cristina.state@man.ase.ro, catalina_picu@yahoo.com
Abstract: The aim of the present study is to emphasize the influence of communication upon the
customer’s purchasing decision. This objective is translated through determining the change of products
in the sales’ structure using communication by omission. The study is focused upon the purchasing
selection between two similar products by the subjects included in the study. The difference between the
two products lies in the customers’ care for the environment. Thus, one of the two products does not
pollute, in the conditions in which the application with care and attention is applied (this being expressed
through a price difference compared to the other, polluting, product). The study has two phases in order to
compare the sales structure in the situations in which it is used the communication through omission (in the
second phase of the study) with the sales structure when the communication through omission is not used.
The hypothesis according to which the purchasing process takes place according to the care for the
environment and not necessarily according to the direct utility allocated to some apparently similar
products has been tested through econometric instruments.
Keywords: communication, decision, omission, sales
1. Introduction process which a buyer adopts is influenced

The decisions play an important role in the by three factors, namely: personal,
life of each person. Among the multitude of psychological and social. The personal
the decisions which a person adopts them in factors include, in their turn, the demographic
the daily life it is also the purchasing one. factors (gender, age, income), the
We decide what we purchase, why we purchasing reasons (young individuals
purchase it, from where we purchase it, and, purchase products due to reasons different
not lastly, the moment in which we purchase than the elderly ones) and the decision-
it. The purchasing behaviour consists in those making power within the family (the child
„consumer’s activities which imply the from a family has a lower decision-making
search for a better or of a service in order to power in comparison to its other members).
satisfy the need or of a better item which The psychological factors refer to the
he/she desires to purchase, the evaluation, reasons, perceptions, attitudes, abilities and
gaining and its usage” [1]. Thus, our whole knowledge, personality and life-style of the
purchasing behaviour implies not only the buyers. The buyers’ wishes and reasons are
decision-making process, but also the actions influenced by the opinion of the leaders, the
of the persons involved in the products’ persons within the family, the reference
purchasing and usage. The decision-making group, the social and culture class, while the
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0071
430
purchasing decision can be adopted under Shuyan, „the deceiving practices are often
the influence of an impulse or a detailed used in order to mislead the receiver of the
analysis of the product’s features, as well as message and can take the form of some facts,
the context in which it is placed the negations, omissions or exaggerations” [5].
purchasing decision [2]. The same authors Robert explains the difference between the lie
sustain that there is an association of and deception. In his opinion, „… the lie is a
emotions such as, for example, the fantasy, message expressed by the user who intends
sexuality, hope, fear, love, general joy for to deceive the listener. The deceit is judged
certain purchasing. Therefore, the to be successful only when the listener
purchasing impulse has a tight link with the perceives and interprets the message in
emotions lived by the consumer at the time contradiction with what the speaker
of purchasing. The purchasing decision can believes.” [6]. According to the same author,
be influenced by the communication level the essential condition for the deceitful or by
through the adoption of a speech aimed at omission communication’s is that the listener
creating perceptions, attitudes believes that the speaker has no intention to
(psychological factors) and emotions deceit. The study of this theme in the
suitable for the purchasing of a product. speciality literature has passed from its
Within the context of solving a particular research within a work negotiation session
issue with regard to the decision making, the [6] to the investigation of the behaviour of the
features of the issue, of the person and of the information providers and their users [7].
social context are factors which influence the Paul, Wallance and Klaus [8] have revealed
selection of the strategy appealed to in order that „the measurements for the hand and
to solve a particular issue for the decision- voice movements were changed significantly
making relating to purchasing [3]. These from the honest to the deceitful interaction”.
strategies differ according to the number of Knapp, Hart and Hary (1 determined which
alternatives taken into consideration. In the are the verbal and non-verbal characteristic
case of two or three alternatives, people components of this form of communication
sometimes select decision-making strategies (the deceitful one), one of the studied
which process the fully information relevant behaviours being the smile. A recent study
which exclusively requires a solution. which was carried on by Shuyan has as
The purchasing process can be achieved in research theme the detection of deceit with
six stages, namely: the need to be regard to the person’s gender in the online
acknowledge; the information search communication. The study has shown that, in
regarding the project; the evaluation of the comparison to men, the women have the
project; the selection of the project; the tendency to be (positively) motivated to
purchasing, the usage and evaluation of the deceit with regard to their gender. They also
project; the disposal of the product [4]. The have more chances to recognise this type of
purchasing decision can be influenced deceit [9]. Another study analysis the way in
through the obtaining of information during which the behaviour of the deceit detecting
the second and third stage of this process. systems’ users is changed as an answer to
Our study is concentrated upon the the presence of the guilty knowledge.
intersection of two research fields: the According to this study, there is a low
decision-making process at the time of percentage of innocent persons who have
purchasing and the communication by registered countermeasures [10]. Lina Z.
omission. Thus, we will research the [11] discovered that those who speak the
influence of communication by omission truth, compared to those who deceive, are
upon the purchasing decision. According to less present, dominant and cooperative.
431
Dean [12] examined the relation between the details. If the customers in the first phase of
duration of the answer, the time of the verbal the study requested additional details and
answer and the deceit during an interview have purchased the product, they were
with an agent generated by the computer. included in the study. This speech was
The group analysis has shown that the constructed in order not to influence the
duration of the answer is shortened in case purchasing of a product in the detriment of
of deceit. The aim of the present study is that the other. The second speech is a
of determining the influence of recommendation and the its aim is that of
communication by omission on the determining the customer to purchase the
purchasing decision. The study will answer Carbon-pro.
the question: how does communication by Through this speech, the customers are
omission change the sales structure? presented the benefits of using a shoe care
product and the two products. It is
2. Methodology mentioned the similarity between the
Our study was carried on 146 with age products and the cost of the products, and
comprised between 19 and 72 years in the Carbon-pro is presented as an innovation in
interval February – April 2017 in a shoe the field. The customers were placed in the
shop. After they have purchased the desire situation of choosing between the two
pair of shoes, the customers were suggested similar products. Carbon-pro is the product
the purchasing of a maintenance product. In valued with 10 lei more than Nano-pro.
order to achieve the aim of this study, two Speech has omitted to present the customers
similar products were selected. The two the essential difference: Carbon-pro is more
products, Nano-pro and Carbon-pro offer gentle with nature. In the situation in which
protection based upon the nano technology. the customer requested additional
The country of manufacturing, the information regarding the differences
composition, the types of material for which (besides those presented in the speech)
they can be used, the usage method, the between the produces, 6this information has
manufacturing country and the quantity are been offered, but that customer was not
identical characteristic for the two products. included in the study.
The difference between the two products lies The data gathered contains information with
in the care towards the environment which regard to the education and age of the
Carbon-pro has in the application of the customers. In order to determine the change
product and an additional difference of 10 in the sales structure with the help of the
lei. The price difference between the communication by omission, the data in the
products is explained by the innovative first phase of the study were compared with
feature which Carbon-pro has (for the those in the second phase of the study. In
application of the product with the help of a order to determine to what degree the age
system which is less polluting for the and not the communication influences the
environment). The study was carried on in purchasing decision, we tested if there are
two phases. In the first phase, the customer significant differences between the average
was asked if he/she desires a shoe care age and a certain education level for the
product. The speech during the first stage customers who purchased Nano-pro and that
contains a single, closed, question. To this of the customers who purchased Carbon-pro.
question, it can be answered by yes or no. The calculation of the indicators used in the
The customers who answered yes to this testing were achieved with the help of the
question were presented the two products program Eviews 8. Ink.
and their different price, without other
432
3. Results In the first phase of the study, 31 % of the
During the first phase of the study, 82 % of customers with higher education and up to
the customers purchased Nano-pro, while 18 40 years of age have purchased Nano-pro
% purchased Carbon-pro. In the second and 69 % have purchased Carbon-pro. The
phase of the study, 55 % purchased Carbon- customers with higher education and up to
pro and 45 % purchased Nano-pro. The 40 years of age have purchased in proportion
stage in which the communication by de 60 % Carbon-pro and Nano-pro in
omission was used was that in which it proportion de 40 %. In the first phase of the
increased percentage of the customers who study, the Nano-pro product was purchased
chose to purchase Carbon-pro (from 18% to in proportion of 68 % by the customers with
55 %) and has decreased the percentage of higher education and in proportion of 32 %
the customers who chose to purchase Nano- by the customers with average studies. In the
pro (de la 82%, la 45%). The results second phase of the study, the Nano-pro
associated with the speech used in the last product was purchased in proportion of 58 %
phase were in favour of a product with a by the customers with higher education and
higher value. the customers with average in proportion of 24% by the customers with
education, from the initial study, past the 40 average studies.
years of age, purchased 100 % Nano-pro. For the sample of 30 buyers of the Nano-pro
The customers with the average studies in product (from the second phase of the
the second phase of the study, past the age of study), the average age is 39, 57 years. Half
40, purchased in proportion of 53 % of the purchasers of Nano-pro have the age
Carbon-pro and in proportion of 47 % under 38 years, and the others have an age
Nano-pro. The percentage of the customers past 38 years. The minimum value of the age
with the average studies which have chosen for the 30 Nano-pro buyers is 19, and the
to purchase Carbon-pro has increased from 0 maximum value is 72. The average age
%, in the first part of the study, to 53 % in the dispersion for the Carbon-pro buyers with
second part of the study. The results from the average studies, measured using the average
first phase of the study has shown that 96 % square deviation is 14, 43 years. This shows
of the customers with average studies, who that the age values of the Carbon-pro buyers
are up to 40 years of age, have purchased with average education deviate with an
Nano-pro and 4 % have purchased Carbon- average of (plus or minus) approximately 14
pro. The customers with average studies years from the average value. Asymmetry is
who are up to 40 years of age have positive to the right. The distribution is
purchased Carbon-pro in proportion to 71 % leptokurtic or sharp.
and Nano-pro in proportion to 29 %.
Figure 2: Indicators used in testing regarding the Nano-pro D2’s customers age
433
In Figure 2 it is observed that for the sample measured through the average square
of 30 buyers of the product Carbon-pro, the deviation is 10, 63 years. This shows that the
average age is of 41,03 years. Half of the values of the Carbon-pro’s buyers with
Carbon-pro buyers are younger than, and the average studies deviate, on average, with
others older than. The minimum age value approximately (plus or minus) 10 from the
for the 30 Nano-pro buyers is 26, and the average value. Asymmetry is positive to the
maximum value is 63. The average age right. The distribution is leptokurtic or
dispersion for the Carbon-pro’s buyers, sharp.
Figure 3: Indicators used in testing regarding the Carbon-pro D2’s customers age
It is observed that for the sample of 13 buyers years. The minimum age value of the 13
of the Carbon-pro product, the average age is Carbon-pro’s buyers with average studies is
42,07. Half of the customers of Nano-pro are 26 and the maximum value is 62. The
less than 42 years old and the others are older average age dispersion of the Carbon-pro’s
than 42. The minimum age value of the buyers with average studies, measured
Nano-pro’s buyers is 22 years and the average square deviation is 10,17. This shows
maximum value is 61. The average age that the age value of the Carbon-pro’s buyers
dispersion of the Carbon-pro’s buyers with deviates with an average of (plus or minus)
average studies, measured average square approximately 10 years from the average
deviation is 11,16 years. This shows that the value. Asymmetry is positive to the right.
age value of the Carbon-pro’s buyers deviates The distribution is leptokurtic or sharp.
with an average of (plus or minus) In Figure 4 it is observed that for the sample
approximately 11 years from the average of 13 buyers (with average study) of the
value. Asymmetry is positive to the right. Nano-pro product, the average age is 36,46.
The distribution is leptokurtic or sharp. For Half of the Nano-pro’s buyers with average
the sample of 13 buyers (with average studies have an age under 26, and the rest are
studies) of the Carbon-pro product, the past 26 years. The minimum age value of the
average age is 40,61. Half of the Carbon- 13 Nano-pro’s buyers with average studies is
pro’s buyers with average studies are under 19 and the maximum value is 72.
42 years of age, and the others are past 42 of
434
Figure 4: Indicators used in testing regarding the age of the Carbon-pro D2’s customers with average
studies
Figure 5: Indicators used in testing regarding the age of the Nano-pro D2’s customers with average
studies
The average age dispersion of the Nano-pro’s contains information with regard to the
buyers with average studies, measured customers’ studies and age. This information
average square deviation is 17.94 years. This can create an image of their income. For
shows that the age value of the Nano-pro’s example, a 20-year old customer with
buyers deviates with an average of (plus or average studies has a lower income level than
minus) approximately 18 years from the a 45-years old customer with higher
average value. Asymmetry is positive to the education. The validation of the results
right. The distribution is leptokurtic or sharp. obtained on a sample comparative with the
general characteristics of the population
4. Discussion In order to isolate the influence depends on the correctness of the application
of the communication upon the purchasing of the sampling techniques.
decision, this study can be carried on in
laboratory conditions. These conditions 5. Conclusions
presuppose the minimization of the influence 1. Structure differences are recorded in the
of the income level upon the purchasing sales during the second phase of the study.
decision. A way through which this can be The stage in which the communication by
achieved is offering a 69 lei value coupon to omission was used was in which it increased
the subjects who participate in the study. (from 18 % to 55 %) the percentage of the
Thus, the income level will not influence the customers who chose to purchase Carbon-
selections to the same degree. Achieving pro and it decreased the percentage of the
similar studies for other almost identical customers who chose to purchase Nano-pro
products is another way. Creating a website (from 82 % to 45 %). The results associated
in which to simulate the study carried on the with the speech associated in the last phase
marked will minimise the influence which the were in favour of the product with the greater
price and the seller have upon the customer’s value. If in the first part of the study the
purchasing decision. The data collected customers with average studies, past the age
435
of 40, purchased only Nano-pro, in the last in which a certain product was purchased in
part of the study, the share of customers the disadvantage of the other. If in the first
purchased Carbon-pro was of 53 %. The stage of the study, Carbon-pro was in among
percentage of the customers with average the preferences of the purchasers’ selection in
studies, with age up to 40 years, who proportion of 18 %, in the second phase of
purchased Carbon-pro increased from 4 % in the study it increased to 45 %. Thus, it was
the first stage to 71 % in the stage in which it achieved the objective of the second speech,
was used the communication by omission. that of determining the customers to purchase
Following the first speech, 31 % of the in a larger proportion Carbon-pro.
customers with higher education, up to 40 3. Within the sample of the second phase,
years of age, purchased Nano-pro and 69 % there are no significant differences between
purchased Carbon-pro. In the stage in which the age averages of the customers with a
the communication by omission was used, certain level of studies who decided to
the customers with upper education, of up to purchase Carbon-pro and between the average
40 years of age, who purchased in proportion of the customers who have the same level of
of 40 % Carbon-pro compared to the first studies and who decided to purchase Nano-
phase of the study, when they had purchased pro (the result is identical also upon testing the
in proportion of 69 %. The percentage of the average of the customers who have a different
customers with higher education who education level). No significant differences
purchased Nano-pro has decreased from 68 were found between the age averages of the
% in the first stage of the study to 58 % in the customers who purchased the same product,
second phase of the study. but have a different level of education.
2. Communication by omission used in the
last phase of the study balanced in proportion
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CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE REDESIGN OF MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM OF AN ORGANIZATION
$OH[DQGUX0DULXV5,=(6&8 *HRUJH%8&Ăğ$
*“1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania

** “/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\6LELX5RPDQLD
mariusrizescu@yahoo.comJHRUJHEXFDWD#\DKRRUR
Abstract: In addition to the current exercise of management functions, managers in any organization,
must pursue a permanent adjustment of the management system at the new changes that have
occurred, and that may be anticipated in the internal and external environment of the organization.
This involves a number of activities of organization change management, components that can be
included in what we call redesigning the organization management.
Keywords: RUJDQL]DWLRQDOPDQDJHPHQWRUJDQL]DWLRQDOUHGHVLJQPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHP.
,QWURGXFWLRQ system by outlining objectives

A great way to streamline content (fundamental, specific and individual);
management through revolutionary - reengineering of business processes, as
management techniques, managerial well as process redesign support or
redesign is determined by the expression of structural remodelling;
multiple causes: - support, compatibility of managers to
- manifestation of some major organizational management positions they
disfunctionalities in management, as well as fill;
predominantly empirical character; - redesign, mainly by promoting the use of
- coordination, motivation and modern management tools, complex and
communication prevailing deficit and low sophisticated, as well as management on the
capacity of response to environmental basis of profit centers or through
challenges; management improvement;
- nationally and internationally- - objectives of the organizational culture
questionable competence for large numbers and managerial staff;
of managers of organizations; - professionalization of managers and
- changing passive attitude towards in management. [3]
comparison with the new found out in
multiple positions.
For the redesign of the whole management
of a company, we recommend the following
methods:
- achievement of genuine and complex
studies of diagnosis and SWOT analysis
which would identify potential managerial
and economic viability of the categorical
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0072
438
specific, measurable, affordable, relevant
and framed in time. SMART translates
requirements through the following:
objective must be specific, what managers
want to get?, must be measurable, able to be
quantified; questions managers must
answer in order to check what they did, the
objective must be in time. [4]
Figure 1: The organizational management

redesign
All companies which are being under the

pressure from the inside or from outside
forces (environment, nationally and
internationally), but want consolidating
their place on a specific market or to "enter"
on other markets use the use a scenario
methodology structured into different Figure 2: The five step MBO process
objectives: structures, people, processes and
performance. Managers need to start by For reaching the objectives, work processes
analyzing the process of diagnosis, are demanded, with different degrees of
consequence of a strict methodological aggregation. The size of their business,
approach. The most significant information support processes and management
provided by diagnostic study, are: strengths processes are determined by the complexity
and causes that it generates, the weaknesses of the objectives whose achievement is
and the causes of their occurrence, potential participating directly. Whereas the
managerial and economic viability and construction of the system of goals takes
tactical recommendations. [1] place from "top to bottom" it is necessary to
The first starting point, objectives, aim to achieve their procedural building looms
the objectives of the management and forms from complex to simple. As such,
a system of objectives resulting from the collaborative process in reshaping the
development of strategies and global emergence of totally new work processes,
policies. The foundation and development development of current work processes,
of fundamental objectives, specific and reducing or eliminating others, seeks to
individual derivative, the promotion of ensure full concordance between the goals
strategies and realistic policy means a huge and processes to develop a “maps of
change in the view of the companies and processes”, which are pasted into the main
the strategy, present and future, approached activities, generating added value that will
from a performance point of view. be addressed on a priority basis. [2]
Objectives of commitment means that Work processes must have an appropriate
employees and all the groups from the structural support, organizational structure
company should be advised for a and positive organizational objectives. That
pronounced strategic dimension and tactic is why, the third step in redesigning the
which is absolutely crucial for normal structural management represents and
positioning and market, finally very good embodies the resizing of the need for the
benchmarks for assessing the functionality posts and functions, top management and
and performance. The objectives must be execution, operational and functional
439
compartments. The next step is decisive in qualitative parameters, but especially for a
making sure that there is viability of the proper scientific substantiation of the
company whereas targeting the endowment decisions it is necessary the fulfillment of
of management and employees. two conditions: on the one hand, ensuring
Accordingly, the following component is the information needed is in proposer
subject to redesign managerial human quantity and, especially, in structure and
resources management taking into account with appropriate quality and, on the other
that managerial "zone" is extremely hand, calling the decision-making methods
dynamic, but also vulnerable, in that the and techniques consistent with the nature of
recruitment, selection, employment, the issues to be resolved (certain decision-
evaluation, motivation, improving, making uncertain times, risk);
promoting and protecting employees and - improving the decisions adopted,
organizational culture. Through human typological upside the share strategic and
resources quality management ensures the tactical decisions, decisions of risk and
professionalization of the companies: uncertainty at higher levels in the hierarchy.
- managers are involved in the adoption of [8]
decisions and justification; information
channels transmitted upwards. They
respond exclusively to the quality of
decisions and, partially, of the effectiveness
in their application;
- managers initiate actions needed,
exploiting the information transmitted
mainly downwards. Also responsible for
the effectiveness of the application of the
decisions. [6]
Figure 4: Understanding the decision-making

management process
In turn, the redesign of the information
involves:
- improving the quality and quantity of the
information circulated on the information
flows downward and upward;
- streamlining information and statements
Figure 3: The workforce planning model in of the routes on which they are moving;
management redesign - increasing computerization of business
In regards to the decision-making processes, support and management
management, there may be component through the promotion of information
mutations, resulting in: systems performance;
- delimitation and dimensioning of the - sophistication of information procedures.
authority or competence of hierarchical [12]
levels; In others terms, you can't rewind an solid
- improving decisions through a more management process The content served
scientific justification by ensuring the may constitutes the organization, referring
operability of the adoption and to a global diagnostics (recommended in
implementation of appropriate formulation the wider context of the scenario
in order to ensure an adequate level of
440
methodology) or one or more components use a diversified analysis instrumentation.
of the organizational structure of process [7]
times, the situation in which the diagnosis
is the first one. [5]
The result of the diagnosis is the diagnostic
study. Without it, without capitalizing on
content or in relevant decisions and actions,
we may not witness major changes in
functionality. In this way, it may ensure the
multidimensionality of diagnosis in the
sense of emphasizing certain aspects of the
nature of the economic, managerial,
technical, etc. in proportions that would
justify their share in the fields subject to
investigations. At the same time, a
participatory dimension in the elaboration
of the pronounced clinical diagnosis and Figure 5: The organizational diagnosis general
effective through active involvement of model
managers must be ensured in providing Alltogether, managerial restructuring means
relevant information and in formulating the reconsidering the following items:
elements of the essence of the diagnosis. - applying the principle of "the right man
Stage I: preparing the diagnosis analysis, at the right time and place" for safe and
tracking and securing human conditions, immediate results;
organizational, informational and material - concern for the development of
required for the effective determination of knowledge and managerial skills;
the diagnostic study. - presence of exercising more functions of
- the diagnostic team, in compliance with planning, organizing and control of
the terms of multidisciplinarity and the continuous activities, performance and
origin of it; resources;
- establishing the role of each component - implementation of methods and tools of
of the diagnostic team; management: management by objectives,
- the type of diagnosis: global and partial; management through budgets, management
- scoping subject to investigations in terms through projects, management dashboards,
of organization or procedural components so that all the objectives and results to be
of its structural fold; measurable and controllable, so that they
- an indication of the period to be covered; can interviene anytime with corrective
- establishment of typesetting: measures;
instruments, recording and processing of - information system reorganization of the
data and information; given the complexity firm, so that managerial team to have access
of the diagnosis-especially the global-we to information and accurate reports,
recommend the use of simultaneous comprehensive and well-structured;
multiple methods of collection, recording - communication and improve managerial
and analysis of data and information. throughout departments;
Stage II: preliminary (investigation) - revision of the decision-making system,
documentation involves the following so that the decisions to be well
aspects. substantiated and that there is a future
Stage III: analysis of the economic viability assessment thereof. [10]
of the companies and management, Organizational restructuring means the
extremely dense, complex, it is necessary to company analysis and redesign activities in
441
line with the new objectives and strategies - elaboration and monitoring of monthly
of the company: and weekly budgets of receipts and
- the company's organizational structure, payments for the foresight and ensure
review in terms of hierarchical levels, funding needs for continuation of the
responsibility centres, productive centres activity of the company;
and support centres; - investment policy review and bank
- redesigning the number and personal financing;
policy, wage policy; - funding policy review: credit
- development of controlling departments commercial client and supplier credit;
for monitoring, analyzing, assessing - designing and monitoring key indicators
financial and commercial performance of of financial and economic analysis of
the business and the granting of any profitability, liquidity a system of
information management team in order to implementation of financial management
elaborate strategies and policies of the dashboards for piloting the efficiency of the
company; [11] business. [9]
The financial restructuring is aimed at
maintaining profitability and business Conclusions
financial equilibrium, through continuous The restructuring and redesign of
monitoring of revenues and costs and management are two important ways
receipts and payments with third parties. To organizations change, recommended along
achieve this objective, the following should with privatization, reorganization,
be considered: improvement, modernization,
- measures and identification/elimination rationalization. The first of these,
of areas that generate cash losses: restructuring, became a "fashion" of the
production, sales support; range of products past few years, even though the results
or services; achieved as a result of such an approach
- reducing costs and optimizing their cannot be catalogued as being favorable. In
structure according to the volume and value terms of management, redesign its retrieval
of sales; in the category of managerial change is
- development and follow-up monthly only theoretical, so due to its content
income and expense budget-level company without knowing the exact methodology, as
and centre of responsibility for compliance well as due to shortage of facts indicating
with the limits established by the budget the implications for managerial and
and premises for anticipating and reducing economic performance of the organization
losses; in general, and in particular economic
operators.
References
[1] Arijit Sikdar Jayashree Payyazhi, (2014), “A process model of managing organizational
change during business process redesign”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol.
20 Iss 6 pp. 971 – 998;
[2] Doebeli, G., Fisher, R., Gapp, R. and Sanzogni, L. (2011), “Using BPM governance to
align systems and practice”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp.
184-202;
[3] Kates A, Galbraith JR. 2010. Designing Your Organization: Using the Star Model to
Solve 5 Critical Design Challenges. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.;
[4] Kohlbacher, M. (2010), “The effects of process orientation: a literature review”,
Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 135-152;
442
[5] Manyika J, Chui M, Brown B, Bughin J, Dobbs B, Roxburgh C, Byers AH. 2011. Big
data: The next frontier for innovation, competition, and productivity. McKinsey Global
Institute;
[6] Nissen ME, Burton RM. 2011. Designing organizations for dynamic fit: System
stability, maneuverability and opportunity loss. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man
and Cybernetics, Part A 41(4): 418-433;
[7] Nicolescu, Ovidiu, and Lester Lloyd-Reason. “Contributions to Redesigning the
Management System in Medium-Sized Enterprises”, Challenges Performances and
Tendencies in Organisation Management, 2016;
[8] Schynsa, B. y Schilling, J. (2014). How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-
analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1),
138–158;
[9] Segatto, M., de Padua, S.I.D. and Martinelli, D.P. (2013), “Business process
management: a systemic approach?”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 19
No. 4, pp. 698-714;
[10] Siriram, R. (2012), “A soft and hard systems approach to business process
management”, Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 87-100;
[11] Reid,Wilbur A., I.,II, West, G. R. B., Winston, B. E. y Wood, J. (2014). An instrument
to measure level 5 leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(1), 17-32;
[12] Zhao X, Liu C. 2010. Steering dynamic collaborations between business processes.
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Part A, 40(4): 743-757.
443
THE ROLE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

VISION
Vasile ROMAN
”Apollonia”, University, Ia‫܈‬i, Romania

v_roman2005@yahoo.com
Abstract: Through the development of the level of efficiency, the military organizations aim
at increasing social value, which, in turn, situate it in the top position among security
institutions and therefore facilitates easier access to resources.
By providing an image of the map, the leader's vision not only describes an organization's
direction or objective, but also the means of achieving its way towards becoming a guide in
planning and strategy implementation efficiency.
Specialists say that people, in general, and leaders, in particular, use two kinds of
intelligence, one inherited/ fluid and the other crystallized and developed by education, but,
in order to achieve success an addition is needed, namely, emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence, encompasses not only the degree of empathy between the leader and
the recipient institutions (organization), but also how the leader will know to manage his/her
conditions determined by the environment (friendly or hostile), context (favorable or
unfavorable), and the questions raised.
Keywords: leadership, vision, emotional intelligence, efficiency, strategy.
Introduction The main objective of the military

The transformations which society goes encompasses peacetime and wartime
through is being debated more and more, integration into a unitary performance of
moving from the industrial revolution, all forces participating in actions to defend
where the role of work and physical effort the country representing Romania's
of man has been replaced by machines and fundamental interests.
tools and reaching the technological The military forces are subordinated solely
revolution, where the role of man (physical to the will of the people and has the
and intellectual) is replaced by computers. fundamental mission of "... guaranteeing
In this regard, it is noted that increasingly the independence and sovereignty of the
more people are looking to identify how state unity, territorial integrity and the
cooperation can develop awareness and constitutional democracy [1]"
empathy, which, in turn, will help a In this regard, the military institution, must
rational society to move towards its goals subordinate its functional framework to the
by using cooperation. political decision-makers and the way in
The military organization is not exempted which they project a country objective and
from changes, given that although its how it is financially supported.
missions stay the same, social dynamics The mission of the military organization
and technology challenge its posture. will be to rapidly connect to the
transformations brought by the context
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0073
444
(political, economic, social, environmental image, of a road map for future orientation
and military) and to achieve an effective or terms that refer to aspects of direction or
(given as much effort) and effective (given goal.
the price of victory) to guarantee state The vision serves as "an indicator that
security by acting lethal or non-lethal, points the way for all those who need to
outside or within alliances or state borders. understand what is the organization and the
The vision of adaptation and permanent direction he intends to go [2]".
transformation of defense structures will By providing image, vision or goal not
be based on its permanence existence and, only describes the direction of an
on the idea that society is an enthusiast organization, but also the means of
supporter, conditional upon seeing achieving it became a practical guide in its
measurable results in short time intervals. work.
The society no longer supports long- Seeley describes vision as a "mental
running conflicts and it does not afford any construct oriented objectives and guiding
singular power structure with a unique people's behavior" [3].
mission. For the military organization - this mental
On the other hand, society calls for the construct is rooted in the strategy or
effectiveness of actions, a concept that security project of the country, but also in
introduces a new variable in the effects- how the o the way in which military
purpose formula, namely effort (expenses) partners and adversaries perceive future
made for achieving the planned effects challenges to national security.
(goals). Map vision, even if related to resources,
This concept allows the military institution process steps and time is not real, but
to carry out a more nuanced appreciation imaginary, in which the processes will take
of the results of an action. It is not the place in time, but some effects are only
same if we get the expected effect with imagined and the effort will be evaluated
little effort or great efforts. A expensive (not real).
victory is no longer supported as society The process of institutional efficiency will
developed efficiency expectations, both, in not occur in a fixed frame, by stopping
material resources (logistics) and in the time and challenges, but rather in a context
value of life. marked by volatility, uncertainty,
As some experts argue, the efficiency can complexity and ambiguity.
be understood as a causal set to be Social complexity (domestic and
interpreted as minimizing costs, sacrifices, international), unpredictable behavior of
losses, investments needed without state actors or non-state, the processes
neglecting the goal. But it may be ambiguity (from peace to conflict and war)
expressed by also, using a more and the consistency of peace are elements
quantitative performance analysis, that will require constant reframing of
representing by the ratio between the transformational vision.
useful costs and benefits. Yet, the vision will remain a picture of the
To achieve this level of efficiency, given future that people should be willing to
the alleged supplies of resources, military work, because it has convincingly (by
organization is oriented by its leaders, to necessity), has inspirational role (through
adapt their permanent management qualitative change possible), motivates and
structure and process (war and peace) to be engages (by emotion good).
in line with expectations. People like stories with happy endings and
more will be actors in the stories with the
I. Organizational vision. requirement that the end is predictable and
Vision in literature, has a variety of the main character and narrator to be
definitions, including the idea of mental known.
445
Vision is at the same time, a force that (people feel the need to be responsible
gives meaning and purpose to the activities party the system). In a volatile world
of any organization, because it is a (quantified by national expectations and
compelling picture of the future that emotions) the military organization comes
inspires conscious engagement process. with an antidote, proving that it is always
Military organization cannot be sighted concerned to protect the values and
outside the state and therefore very often, principles and is ready to make the
through its leaders, the country is ultimate sacrifice for these values to be
challenging strategic project, pledging to protected.
raise awareness and resources for both, Vision does not only project the ideals as
society and political decision-makers of the leader will not only assume the role of
the need to change. motivational element, but will design and
Vision requested by the military define succinctly and successively the
organization brings to the attention of all, volume of material and human resources
its image both in peacetime and in time of and time to be engaged on the way to goal.
crisis or war. Such a final image should Vision is not a strategy, it is not a business
describe the potential necessary to achieve plan, but it cannot circumvent in its
in peace time (fighting ability), but also the statements, the actors and the role they
potential effects that may occur in case of play, the scene where the action takes
crisis or conflict (violence management or place, including scenery, which very often
defeat the opponent). will be changed, and especially the public,
The vision will be the military leader that is ticket payer, which will be very
descriptive picture of a transformation careful to the final act.
mechanism that must be maintained not Seeley says that "the leader needs to see
only functional but also effective. This not just how it would operate a new
dual requirement is determined that the program or a new practice, but rather, how
military institution cannot think of a new sets of expectations, relationships,
qualitative transformation in the crossing structures and responsibilities would fit in
of broken steps from reality, because there a whole coherent "[4].
is no predictability of when the military II. Emotional intelligence as the source
organization will move from peace to the of vision.
war. It is well known that people use reason to
Military vision is marked by idealism work with concepts and find solutions to
because it sets standards of excellence problems. A primitive mode of logic-
higher (relative to expectations of operation is due to fluid intelligence
qualitative transformation) needed to whereas inherited and developed logic is
achieve in an era marked both technical promoted by crystallized intelligence,
developments and access more easily to which is being acquired through education.
non-state actors on this resource. We may think that the military institution
Military vision talks about high-value as a social entity specific, set deliberately
idealistic targets that set out their military in a sufficient number of individuals who
moral values of the military organization in own statutes and meet defined roles, which
which altruism, courage, self-sacrifice and seeks orderly realization of the purpose for
moral baggage belonging to them. which it was created, that of defending the
In a world that often seems to have lost its interests State's national existence and
way, vision’s idealism develops not only operate only reason that individuals who
quality standards but also feelings of compose it are deprived of deep feelings.
belonging to the community organizational To prove the contrary requires a minimum
sentiments in conjunction with the reflection on the concept, showing that
assumption of collective responsibility emotional intelligence is defined in
446
different terms, but the closest to reality is Daniel Goleman, psychologist, concerned
given by Thorndike who defined social with the study of the brain, creativity and
intelligence (thinking of the emotional behavior, has developed one of the
note) as " ability to understand and act scientific views on emotional intelligence,
intelligently in human relations "[5]. saying it has the following constructs: self-
The military is mainly made up of people awareness (self-confidence), self-control
with different levels of education, with (desire for truth, conscientiousness,
various positions of responsibility and adaptability, innovation), motivation
decision, but the whole is responsible for (desire to conquer, dedication, initiative,
the management of state violence. In this optimism), empathy (understand each
way those who are challenged to compose other, diversity, political capacity) and
military institution before taking decisions social skills (influence, communication,
affecting the safety or lives of their conflict management, leadership,
neighbors, to pass the thread of emotion to establishing relationships, collaboration,
the reason (in the sense of understanding teamwork ability) [6].
communities) and identify forms of An empirical analysis of these constructs
preventive dialogue. needs to be done, and starting from the
Emotional intelligence, intended to be idea that if the statement of vision does not
developed in the military system, will not require a big effort so emotional,
just track the degree of empathy between implementing the vision certainly does.
the leader and the recipient institution Self-confidence of each individual is
(organization) but also how the leader will important, because by double
know how to manage their conditions dimensionality, it reflects two important
determined by the environment (which elements, confidence and need for control.
may be friendly or hostile) context Growing confidence, both, in the leader
(favorable or unfavorable) and the issues and the subordinate will make the process
addressed (often undesirable to be of implementing an idea to rely on trust in
addressed). professional knowledge, on a permanent
The military leader, committed visionary responsibility of the person, and on the
efficient organization will have to develop controlling feedback role and not on
those mechanisms to ensure, the emotional tutoring.
framework in which individuals are A high degree of self-esteem from the
motivated to make the effort to achieve the leader will bring more security to its
objective, are included in the team and are behavior both, in the organization
willing to pay or receive support tasks. leadership and in the outside negotiations.
On the other hand, leaders must be Self-control, reflected by adaptability, is
prepared to create a favorable framework, one of the most important personal traits,
within the entire institution, for the competing to success sharing,
resources to pursue their calendar user, but implementation and vision reframing. The
also outside the institution for the company importance of each frame in the process of
by policy makers to support this change. reframing the vision, comes from the fact
Vision leader will be explained not only to that framework, by definition, changes the
the organization but also those with whom signifier (i.e., exchange ideas, perceptions,
it cooperates and in this respect, as we intentions and even resizes shares) without
underlined above, social volatility, cause and significant change (maintaining
ambiguity and uncertainty actors' behavior the main idea that change is not only
will influence the process of social necessary but possible).
evolution and transformation will require In this respect it is necessary to note that a
effort and emotional intelligence. the need for vision reframing and the
desirable effort to be done as to create a
447
new framework established (value, III. Implementing the vision-the
meaning and even paradigm) can have a manifestation of emotional intelligence.
major influence on how the organization Implementation of vision is a
perceive, interpret and react to new comprehensive development strategy,
experiences, influences the degree to followed by a comprehensive plan for its
which. functioning.
The motivation must be understood If the strategy is a set of statements that
through the process, which is represented define the expected outcomes of ways and
by needs, ways, goals and the results of the methods used to meet expectations, and the
first level include productivity and profit means available to achieve them, the
(positive) and / or poor quality of work and implementation plan will bring extra
absenteeism (negative) and the second details for the use of human resources,
level, rewards or punishments. time and space.
Visionary leaders, convinced of the need Implementing a vision involves a process
for transformation, will seek to identify of analysis, planning, organization,
those forms of motivation that lead to the coordination and control, with the clear
achievement of level one (positive) by aim to streamline an entire transformation
ensuring that the organization's members process.
to express their interest without the need to The whole process is directly subordinate
reward success. objectives prospective, quantitative and
Motivation developed by leaders, generally qualitative, (which covers all activities of
goes in the area's needs for personal the military organization), constituting an
development and career, and less in the essential means to achieve them.
immediate material benefits. The leader is caused as a surveyor, tracing
Empathy, as construct, aimed at the a route map mental organization and at the
organization's ability to achieve the same time the user is called to be and the
expectations of the transfer from the community he leads.
individual to the group and the leader for In relation to the size and diversity of the
the organization. organization's, the leader will be
Empathy with members of the organization challenged to achieve different degrees of
will go not only to the emotional but also accuracy for every detail of this map, and
in the rational in knowledge and the path he chooses, will be simple at first
transferable knowledge, following the but complicated as time passes.
design of intellectual vision, to achieve a When the leader develops the
strong intellectual predisposition implementation of the vision he must fit
development, to arrive at a common the entire process military organization
denominator of understanding of the typology, because this is no profit and no
transformation process. one institution can determine its singular
Conflict management skills will be mostly destiny.
caused during the process of development The military institution is context-type
of the organization, as the transformation organization and its own existence, which
process per se attracts permanent state of tries to balance the need to minimize the
discomfort, anxiety and sometimes fears of social risk and maximizes the results.
the individual. The solution for the development of the
Uncertainties caused by adjacent context military organization is adopting a
of high expectations of time will cause combination of effects of the present
intra-personal and intra-organizational (training, participation in missions ongoing
conflicts and the main participation in support of local authorities) while also
solving belongs to the leader. developing and implementing new
structural concepts or action.
448
Within these military organization, the others, to determine the organization's
center of gravity will be given by the aim members to participate subjectively, to put
of balancing between doing a good job (i.e. passion and dedication in everything we
to keep the values of the institution, to undertake, not only because it manifests a
respond to social expectations) and do high level emotional level and a high
what is right (a permanent connection to degree of attention (good distribution
the transformations taking place in society thereof), but a low degree of predisposition
but also in philosophy conflict). to aggression and criticism.
It is understood that part of the Addressing a style base on being
organization tends to manifest conservative constructive, collaborative, supportive and
(cases related traditions, education, age), engaging, transformational leadership will
thus becoming an obstacle in the manage to gather energies cognitive and
transformation, and another part will be in emotional in a real team, committed
constant search of renewal (given by consciously in a joint effort towards a
technological advances, education level, target level, provided that subordinates to
experience), thus becoming an element of reach a high situational awareness / context
progress and risk at the same time. and requirements of effort and
Awareness of the need for transformation commitment.
will be achieved, however, in less time Transformational leader must be aware
than other types of organizations that he should appeal to vein common
considering the fact that the military professional knowledge, but that at the
organization has benefited from contextual same time, knowing that it is necessary to
adaptations fostered by military conflicts work and reframing emotions and
in which it has been involved or lessons cognition, raising them to the level of
learned from the institution's history. present and real to the ideal virtual
The vision of transformation will be more necessarily materialize. He must be both
easily shared and implemented, provided inspirational elements that are required to
that the progressive items of the institution instill feelings of pride among individuals,
will be employed as vectors of action (to using dialogue and motivational speeches
understand and transfer steps vision), to develop the morale of the organization
making sure that the progressive side will and using their own behavior as to become
play two roles: element of movement and an example of employment.
mentor for the less progressive . It is thus the need for a portrait that
Knowledge of the structure, values, norms, combines intellect with emotion and
principles and beliefs of members of the knowledge with empathy.
organization, the context in which it acted Psychologist Jack Block conducted a
and acts, history successes and failures survey to identify the psychological
should be a core component for the profile, reflected in how people with high
analysis when the vision is created. More intelligence and low emotional intelligence
than anything, a leader who wants to have behave and vice versa, emphasizing on
his vision succeed must think that the what brings them closer or isolates them
organization is in a certain frame of from society.
manifestation not because it lacks potential The psychological profile for a man of
or that individuals are uninterested in high intellectual quotient and emotional
progress, but that context was not planned quotient less can be described as ambitious
and properly used and that leadership was and productive, persistent, calm, unruffled
not present at the good place and time. about what concerns him because he thinks
In order to have a functional process, it is is right and not be vulnerable. This is
required to have a transformational predictable, you can see how it will behave
leadership aimed at empathy with the referred to the situation, how will react in
449
different occupational and social contexts. nuanced about their own people, is
He tends to be critical and without comfortable with him and with others in
condescension, fastidious, difficult and the social world in which he lives. [8]
inhibited, uneasy and embarrassed sexual Here, then, that Goldeman speaks about
and sensual experience, expressionless and the degree of emotional intelligence,
detached, emotionally being stupid and without giving more data on IQ, pointing
unfriendly [7]. out qualities like empathizing with the
We see this typology has behold a environment, which become the perfect
constructive part in the sense of rational environment for the implementation of a
predictability and employment, but, in the vision.
same time, it will bring the organization a Thus, we see that the psychological profile
climate of mistrust and suspicion, it will of the man with high emotional
create an unfriendly atmosphere based on intelligence quotient is expected in the
the low level of empathy. implementation of a strategy to streamline
This type of leader, even if necessary its organization.
qualities imagining, designing a rational The psychological profile of a woman with
vision, will have difficulties in sharing and a high emotional quotient (QE) presents
implementing the vision. These obstacles traits of a person who tends to be positive,
will be fostered by the poor capacity to expressing direct, natural feelings, feeling
foresee the environment in which the good in her skin, thoughts about yourself
strategy will be implemented. positive. For her life has meaning and
The psychological profile marked by a low worth living to the fullest, it is a social
degree of communion (friendship), being who expresses appropriate feelings
inhibition and embarrassment and adapts well to stress, socially balanced,
(determinants of organizational makes it easy meet new people, feel
communication) and high dose of comfortable with him being facetious,
criticism, might lead us to believe that such playful, spontaneous, natural and sexually
a leader is useless. rarely feels anxious [9].
Recitals state that leaders educate us to We note that there are significant gender
think about ways to develop the skills of differences, and if we follow the same
empathy and organizational route analytics, we find that this profile fits
communication. perfectly in the organizational
Predictability of behavior energetic, transformations.
ambitious, productive and persevering is
what the organization wants the process of Instead of conclusions.
transformation, and empathy with the Without taking into consideration any risks
organization's staff and with the other of manipulation, we should reflect on what
institutions will be an unattainable goal degree of balance is there needed between
more difficult, but not impossible. qualities of empathy and good
The psychological profile of a man with communication and planning,
skill or high coefficient of emotional organization, management and control of
intelligence (QE) is one that denotes the business.
possession social balance in relationships, The social responsibility assumed by the
a remarkable capacity to engage in leader does not question his character and
problem solving other people can devote to even less his desire to build and implement
good causes, is responsible in terms of a strategy to streamline its organization.
social and moral side considers the Intellectual capacity, the will, the desire,
circumstances in which it is involved. This especially cognitive and emotional
guy is lovable and caring interpersonal involvement, will be a core component of
relationships, has a rich emotional life, success.
450
Yet in a world seeking more excitement to supervise as the ratio of the challenges
than cognition, they are looking for more of intellectual and emotional to be kept in
post-truth and less in expressing the equilibrium.
objective facts, there is a risk of losing Moreover, I consider necessarily that
track towards an emotional abuse more military educational institutions put higher
than allowed. value on the education process having in
In this regard, I consider it a duty of honor mind that intellectual development is the
for the leaders, and the leaders of the skeleton of the construction while
leaders and their teachers, to explain the developing emotional intelligence can be
role of emotional intelligence in the act of seen as its muscles.
management and leadership and even more
References
[1] http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/constitutia_romaniei.php
[2] Nanus, B. Visionary leadership: Creating a compelling sense of direction for your
organization, Editura Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1992, pg.78
[3] Seeley, D.S.Visionary leaders for reforming public schools. Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, 1992, pg.104
[4] Idem,pg.109
[5] Goleman, Daniel, ,QWHOLJHQаDHPRаLRQDOă EGLWXUD&XUWHD9HFKH%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSJ
[6] Iidem,pg.70
[7] Iidem,pg.73
[8] http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EIAssets/EmotionalIntelligenceProper/
EI1990%20Emotional%20Intelligence.pdf idem,pg.73
[9] Goleman, Daniel,,QWHOLJHQаDHPRаLRQDOă EGLWXUD&XUWHD9HFKH%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSJ71
451
DIAGNOSTIC MANAGEMENT - METHOD OF INCREASING THE POTENTIAL

OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STATION FOR CATTLE FROM ARAD
6LOYLX,OLH6Ă3/Ă&$1, Ramona LILE
“Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad, Romania

silviusaplacan@yahoo.com
Abstract: Research and Development Station for Cattle Arad is a public institution of national
interest and its main activity is research and development in biotechnology and livestock breeding.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze and improve through recommendations, the management
applied on the livestock-breeding farm from the station. We are showing at first glance, the following
important aspects: methods and techniques used by senior management and livestock at the farm are
not up-to-date both morally and technology, which are also partly used. The station has a hierarchical
- functional organizational, but nevertheless, the information system is underdeveloped. Also using
such authoritarian management style promotes cooperation resort management, consulting and
delegation between the chambers, but in a way inefficient. The role and the performance of the
management system of the breeding farm is a decisional component with a privileged role. No other
element of the resort management has a specificity so obvious and so great of an impact on all plans
and performance results. The strengths and weaknesses of an institution of this kind are described in
the literature that we use to test, draw and make recommendations for the future growth potential of
the station, both in terms of managerial, economic -financial and in terms of the quality of work
processes and finished products. To achieve a practical study, we present the relevant results after
applying the latest technology management, reporting and decision-making for some time on senior
management, livestock breeding management and on cooperation between these compartments.
Keywords: management, potential, increasing, farm, cattle
1. Introduction result being the fulfillment of the purpose

The Research and Development Station for of the result that is creating a genuine
Cattle from Arad is a public institution with national race, enhanced by genetics and
funding from the state budget (category 01), certified by authorized entities.
the source coming from own revenues and This use of various technical and
subsidies from the state budget (Category technological means in order to achieve the
G). Considering that in reality subsidies objectives, planned in stages in order to
from the state budget from authorizing achieve the final goal in optimum
senior officers have been missing in recent efficiency, defines what we call
years thus financial resources being scarce, organizational management and its
concern for increasing organizational diagnosis[1] [2].
efficiency and effectiveness becomes The applied management of the resort refers
increasingly obvious. Trying to improve the to features such as future strategies, chosen
management applied in farm livestock management model, hierarchy
alongside with superior management should management, ethics and integrity
lead to a rise in productivity in terms of management or communication in order to
efficient resource consumption with the identify weaknesses in the management of
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0074
452
applied processes inside the breeding farm. table made in Microsoft Office Excel which
We will also address issues regarding was then added on the livestock farm
process management to identify the manager’s PC, table predefined with cell
characteristics applied to the resort and that block for generating documents in
might prove useful to public institutions of Microsoft Office Word by using the tool
this kind in Romania and in all private step-by-step mail merge wizard, necessary
entities related to livestock farms[3]. for acquisition of various materials
required, thereby allowing them to focus on
2. Methodology and data farm business management and not
The methodology used to conduct this preparing various statistical documentation.
research work were the study of specialized The 3rd system implemented was the use of
literature and analyzing information electronic signatures in the form of tokens
provided by the station. We also used tools for documents created in Microsoft Office
and techniques specific for qualitative Word and then converted to PDF file
research, analysis of internal documents, format and sending them via mailbox (e-
economic records and discussions with the mail) to people employed by the
managers of the resort. Also used were authorizing higher in rank person
comparative analysis and synthesis, all of responsible for loans to be able to assess the
which are useful in interpreting the results. different expenses needed to be made, to
The structure, organization components and view and approve them, and after their
the relations between them [4], in the approval sending the data to staff in charge
station are hierarchical – functional, of the supply department in order to follow
involving the use of human resources and the necessary steps to acquire them.
allocating responsibility for managing the
results. In this case, these processes were 3. Research results
determined to be obsolete from all points of Following the simplification of the
view. Document bureaucracy for equipping management processes described and
the breeding farm and everyday expenses applied on The Research and Development
regarding activity greatly slowed down all Station for Cattle from Arad [7] inside the
management processes[5] [6], employees breeding farm department, relationships
are unable to carry out its activities between employees, subordinates and
according to the job description and above senior management was improved, resource
all and they don’t respect the work program allocation time dropped from 2 to 3 days to
correctly. 2 to 3 hours. For example, drugs should be
Following these different findings, we procured urgently and had a precedent of
proceeded to implementation during the 2nd not being paid due to non-compliance with
quarter of 2016 of only three modern all the procedures. Finished product quality
systems of management implementation of and processes necessary for their
other such systems will be subject of future finalization have been improved. Total
studies. We implemented as beta-testing, a expenditure of the livestock sector of the
new electronic system (SVTech) of work resort reached a real and optimal level in
clocking and employee check, where a the 2nd quarter of 2016 amounting to
magnetic card is assigned to each employee 238,000 lei when the systems mentioned
personally to check in on whether the above have been implemented as opposed
employee is following the working program to the 1st quarter of 2016 when they were
thus the farm manager is encumbered to 253,000 lei. Revenues from the 2nd quarter
present various reports on the work of of the breeding farm increased by 4% from
employees so that they are paid correctly. A 723,000 lei in the 1st quarter of 2016 to
2nd management system was to create a 752,000 lei in the 2nd quarter of 2016. From
453
a zootechnical point of view, these to 31 in the 2nd quarter. The expenditure for
measures also led to an increase in implementing these systems amounted to an
livestock, the number of calves that died at initial investment of 11,000 lei, which
birth being reduced by 7% due to the includes training and operational programs
increasing concern of the zootechnical and an annual subscription for maintenance
manager upon the different treatments of 1,000 lei. If we do a simulation for 12
applied to livestock animals. With the help future quarters, we observe a 9% increase
of the implemented systems mentioned of total profit for zootechnical
above and the more thorough made compartment. Also we did an estimated
program for mounting heifers that reached profit linear simulation which we can
the optimal age for this procedure has led to observe bellow and estimate that profit at a
an increase from 23 heads in the 1st quarter point will decrease.
Figure 1: Estimated profit linear simulation
Figure 2: Increase of profit
454
4. Conclusions mentality in defining their mission, solving
In conclusion, we can say that the problems and obtaining results with these
implementation of modern management systems is a positive one.
systems is a major concern for a large part The implementation objective is to develop
of private entities in the livestock business a strong, open, fast and efficient
and their implementation could change the relationship between all staff members of
satisfaction level and the perception that the such an organization. We are also looking
staff has regarding all processes undertaken. forward to future research in this area,
It is normally to observe that at a point the which should emphasize better on how an
profit will decrease all because new investment upon certain management
technology would be ready to implement. processes using modern techniques can
Both public institutions and private entities generate a higher income for those
of this type can benefit from a good quality organizations.
applied management and good quality
References
[1] %XUGX‫(܈‬Tratat de management – (GLаLDD,,-a, Ed. Pro Universitaria, %XFXUH‫܈‬WL
[2] %XUGX‫&(܈‬ăSUăUHVFX*$QGURQLFHDQX$0DQDJHPHQWXOVFKLPEăULLRUJDQL]DаLRQDOH
– (GLаLDDWUHLD(G(FRQRPLFă%XFXUH‫܈‬WL
[3] Kupritz, V.W., Cowell, E., Productive Management Communication; Journal Of
Business
Communication; 48 (1): p. 54 – 82, 2011.
[4] Luk, S.Y., Questions of Ethics in Public Sector Management: The Case Study of Hong
Kong; Public Personnel Management; 41 (2) p. 361 – 378, 2012.
[5] Matei L.,Management public(G(FRQRPLFă%XFXUHúWL
[6] Nedelea, A., 0DUNHWLQJvQDGPLQLVWUDĠLDSXEOLFă(G'LGDFWLFăúL3HGDJRJLFă%XFXUHúWL
2006
[7] Research and development station for cattle from Arad, Bodrogului Street No 32 –
specific documents, interviewers, approvals.
455
INTANGIBLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - AN ORGANISATIONAL APPROACH
Sebastian Emanuel STAN
“Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu, Romania

officesstan@gmail.com
Abstract: This article is seeking to improve the intangible resource management at organisation level
by highlighting the importance of this type of management on one hand and, on the other hand, by
creating a pattern describing the process to be followed by the organisations that wish to implement
an intangible resource management system. Thus, this study shows the premises underlying the
author's approaches on the importance of intangible resource management, the concept of intangible
resource management is substantiated, and some general principles are formulated regarding the
substantiation and implementation of this type of management. Specific processes representing the
scope of the management at the organization level are analysed, which may be grouped in five phases
largely corresponding to the functions of the intangible resource management. Eventually, the phases
for implementing an intangible resource management system are identified.
Keywords: resources, intangibles, management
1. Introduction
The ability of organisations to exploit their x identifying available intangible
intangible resources is crucial in the current resources but also the ones needed to
context, especially since the exploitation of reach the goals;
physical resources is placed on a second x developing resource (as permanent
plan. It is therefore necessary to effectively "flow" resulting in the enrichment and
manage intangible resources since a superior valorisation of the intangible
sustained competitive advantage (in Porter's resource "stock") in order to maintain
view (1985) a competitive advantage is or increase their capacity to generate a
created when a product can be offered sustainable competitive advantage;
having a sufficiently high value at a cost x the difficulty to measure and assess
lower than other competitors could offer on intangible resources;
the market) depends on the organisation's x identifying their impact on
ability to create, develop and effectively use organisational performance [2].
these resources [1]. As a result, intangible The premises underlying our research and
resources management is a major area not approaches on the major importance of
only in the theory but also in the practice of managing intangible resources are the
the organisations. However, reality shows following:
that organisations face unexpected x the new knowledge-based epistemic
challenges in developing and implementing economy – a concept adopted after [3],
intangible resource management strategies deeply influences the content and
and processes. The most pressing manifestation of the management
challenges are: process in all its components;
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0075
456
x the need to place intangible resources in requires managers and managerial
the centreplane of the management, bodies specialised in this respect;
since they are regarded, at the same x intangible resources management is a
time, as an essential resource, an process which continues incessantly, as
important asset, a main product and a long as the organisation exists and
competitive advantage for operates;
organisations, requiring therefore a new x protecting intangible resources within
type of management [4]; the organisation, due to their location at
x considering intangible resources as the the foreground of organisation
object of management, as a whole, management;
starting from their origin, sources of x intangible resources are important
training, types, sizes, traits, and also on power sources at the level of individuals
their specific features, and pursued on and organisations, these being a key
several plans. element of the organisation's
The management of intangible resource, functionality and performance;
for the purpose of this paper, refers to the x treating intangible resources in a right
processes and practices used by the and proper way, by highlighting their
organisations to increase their value, by dependence on human capital;
developing the efficiency of creating and x addressing and using intangible
exploiting the intangible resources they resources in their multi-variety and
have. multi-dimensionality, focusing on those
Intangible resource management is a much of strategic importance to the
wider concept than knowledge management organisation;
[5]. Its main purpose is to increase the value x the firm must move towards a lifelong
of the firm by creating competitive learning organisation, by using both
advantages. The management of intangible individual learning and organisational
resources involves identifying these learning so as to be able to gather as
resources, assessing their impact on the much information and knowledge as
present and future value of the firm, possible and use it in the most effective
assessing them, discovering intangible way;
activities, and ultimately their ability to x the assessment of the need to implement
effectively manage these activities. both an intangible resource
Creating knowledge is an intangible management, and also its quality and its
resource that organisations need to manage decision-makers will be based on the
just as they manage other resources of this performance obtained.
nature; therefore knowledge management is It is certain that the management of
a subset of intangible resource intangible resources involves quite high
management. costs. It is an expensive management,
Based on our own analysis and taking into especially if we take into account the
account different approaches found in the logistics required, the specialists used and
literature, we have formulated some general the processes of creating, developing, use,
principles related to creating and protection, etc. of these resources that must
implementing the intangible resources be carried out on an ongoing basis. Despite
management, which refers to: these issues, non-implementation of this
x focusing the management on efficient type of management will generate even
and complex management of intangible higher costs, causing major organisational
resources within the organisation, problems in the future that may lead to
taking into account that the bankruptcy. Thus, organisations benefiting
management of intangible resources of effective management react quickly and
457
adjust to this reality by adopting strategies since they cost too much or it is
that they apply consistently by developing preferable to create them within the
decision-making, organisational, organisation itself, due to the strategic
informational and motivational mechanisms function they have.
to generate positive results/ efforts, and 3. The management, use and development
income / costs respectively. of intangible resources. This phase is
often formed by the majority of the
2. Specific processes of intangible processes treating these resources in an
resource management organisation. Within this framework, a
In a technical approach, intangible complex of operations is being carried
resources management is a set of activities out on these resources, mostly of a
in which the fundamental functions of repetitive character, generating highly
management are applied to a set of specific important products and services, with
processes related to intangible resources, innovative character. The laborious
understood as organisational resources of character of these processes, with many
strategic importance. These processes can technical, human and economic facets,
be used to increase and maintain the is to be taken into consideration.
intellectual capital, or the intangible Among these, we can mention:
resources of an organisation. identification and mapping: after
Specific processes which are part of the identifying intangible resources, the
organisation management object are means and methods are defined through
numerous, but they can be divided into five which they can be accessed; sharing: the
phases roughly corresponding to the process that allows the dissemination of
functions of intangible resources and knowledge on intangible resources
management and they refer to (see Figure 1): within the organisation; the use/
1. Forecasting the needs and sources of application of intangible resources and
intangible resources. This process is knowledge to a certain, well determined
done starting, of course, from what purpose, in order to solve a given
there exists and from the mission and problem.
strategic objectives of the firm. It is 4. The use of intangible resources gives
important that any managerial context purpose to the previous phases, being
related to intangible resources should be the stage where the company collects
linked to the overall managerial context the economic benefits of the intense
of the organisation. The quality and previous work processes. As a rule, this
performance of the intangible resource phase takes place on the market through
management system does not guarantee marketing, but as a specific aspect,
an organisation gaining the competitive following the integration of the
advantage if its overall strategy is not company into various networks. The
properly targeted and dimensioned [6]. use of intangible resources may be done
2. Generating intangible resources (by with partners even within the
purchase and creation). Particular organisation.
attention is paid to determining the 5. Besides these specific functions and
main ways in which the organisation phases, the management must also
obtains intangible resources. Getting exercise a quasi-permanent function,
them from the inside and outside of the accompanying the preceding ones –
organisation also includes generating protecting intangible resources of the
new intangible resources when the organisation [7]. Undertaking it is
existing ones are not enough and they particularly difficult since most of these
cannot be obtained from the outside, resources are not tangible, some of them
458
are individual, belonging to employees organisation, encouraging employees,
or other stakeholders. Effective taking actions to increase stakeholders'
protection of intangible resources participation in the actions of the
incorporates processes and activities organisation, attracting potentially
related to employee training, to building competing organisations into production
of an individual pro-development and marketing networks etc. [8].
climate and pro-innovation within the
Figure 1: Specific processes forming the object of organisation management
3. Phases of implementing an intangible management as a strategic issue closely

resource management system related to the capacity of these resources to
In the following lines, we briefly describe create value, and intellectual capital as an
the steps to be taken by an organisation that essential part of their business processes.
is aware of the importance of intangible When implementing an intangible resource
resources for the success of its work and is management system, we consider necessary
willing to adjust its management control the following three successive phases
system to explicitly take into account according to the pattern developed by
intangible resources. Organisations also Sanchez et. al (2000) (figure 2):
need to treat intangible resources
Figure 2: Intangible resource analysis model [9]
The identification phase focuses on the so- activities that could increase the level of
called critical intangible resources. The critical intangible resources, but also to
organisation must determine what its consider those that may hinder or decrease
strategic objectives are and which of the the level of these resources. In the next step,
intangible resources are most closely it is necessary to identify the measures to
related to them. Then, they need to identify monitor the level of these intangible
what they need to do in order to create and resources and the performance of selected
increase these critical intangible resources, intangible activities.
more specifically, the activities positively The pattern should be understood in a
and negatively affecting intangible dynamic sense. The organisation measures
resources (dynamic dimension). It is the level of intangible resources at a given
important not to focus only on those time (t). Then various activities are
459
developed that could affect these resources, ability to effectively manage these
measuring them again during (t + 1) period. activities. Creating knowledge is an
In this way, the firm may monitor any intangible resource that organisations need
changes in intangible resources as a result to manage just as they manage other
of management procedures. resources of this nature, so knowledge
management is a subset of intangible
4. Conclusions resource management.
All organisations have an interest in Despite its importance, organisations are
maintaining and enhancing their intellectual faced with a number of difficulties in
capital assets, and the management of implementing intangible resource
intangible resources is a helpful way of management, especially in identifying,
achieving this goal. Generating and assessing and monitoring intangible
enhancing intellectual capital is practically resources.
an organisational goal, whilst intangible In conclusion, under the new knowledge-
resources management is the means by based economy, organisations need to
which this goal is achieved, being a process adjust themselves in order to gain a
taking place within the organisation. dominant position, in order to survive and
Intangible resource management is a develop. Intangible resource management
concept much wider than knowledge may be regarded as a core branch of
management. Its main purpose is to organisational management during this
increase the value of the firm by creating period. That is why the trend of economic
competitive advantages. The management research in the coming years will probably
of intangible resources involves identifying go towards finding realistic methods of
these resources, assessing their impact on calculating the value brought by the
the present and future value of the firm, intellectual capital in knowledge-based
their assessment, the discovery of organisations.
intangible activities, and ultimately the
References
[1] Perez J. R., Pablos P. O., Knowledge management and organizational competitiveness:
A framework for human capital analysis. Journal of Knowledge Management, 7(3), pp.
82-91, 2003.
[2] Hsieh H.-J., Organizational characteristics, knowledge management strategy, enablers
and process capability: knowledge management performance in U.S. software
companies, UMI Number: 3256804, ProQuest, 2007.
[3] Apetroae M., &DSLWDOXO LQWHOHFWXDO ЮL HFRQRPLLOH HSLVWHPLFH, Ed. Focus Opinfo,
%XFXUH‫܈‬WL
[4] 2SUHDQ & ‫܉‬v‫܊‬X 0 0DQDJHPHQWXO FDOLWăаLL vQ HFRQRPLD ЮL RUJDQL]DаLD ED]DWH SH
FXQRЮWLQаH(G$*,5%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSS
[5] Sanchez M. P., Chaminade C., Olea M., Management of intangibles: an attempt to build
a theory, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1(4), pp. 312-327, 2000.
[6] Apetroae M., &DSLWDOXO LQWHOHFWXDO ЮL HFRQRPLLOH HSLVWHPLFH, Ed. Focus Opinfo,
%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSS
[7] 2SUHDQ & ‫܉‬v‫܊‬X 0 %XFXU 9 0DQDJHPHQWXO JOREDO DO RUJDQL]DаLHL ED]DWă SH
FXQRЮWLQаH(G$*,5%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSS
[8] 2SUHDQ & ‫܉‬v‫܊‬X 0 0DQDJHPHQWXO FDOLWăаLL vQ HFRQRPLD ЮL RUJDQL]DаLD ED]DWH SH
FXQRЮWLQаH, Ed. $*,5%XFXUH‫܈‬WLSS.
[9] Sanchez M. P., Chaminade C., Olea M., Management of intangibles: an attempt to build
a theory, Journal of Intellectual Capital, 1(4), pp. 312-327, 2000.
460
INTELECTUAL CAPITAL IN KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MILITARY ENVIRONMENT.
Leontin STANCIU, Cristian-Lucian STANCIU
´1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´ Land Forces Academy Sibiu

leontinstanciu@yahoo.com, stanciu_cristian_ro@yahoo.com
Abstract: The near future, but also the farther future, in the knowledge society, will belong to the
intelligent knowledge-based organizations that, in order to be sustainable, make efficient use of their
available intellectual capital. This will play an active and determining role in any kind of organization,
including the military ones. The authors’ intention is that, by using the power of the scientific arguments,
to identify the main theoretical approaches of the concepts of knowledge-based organization and
intellectual capital, to highlight their role in the knowledge era and to provide solutions for them to
become realities in the Romanian economic and military environments.
Key words: knowledge society, knowledge-based organization, intellectual capital,

knowledge, organizational performance
Introduction 1. The Knowledge Society – Framework

In a particularly dynamic and challenging for Developing the Knowledge-Based
national and international environment, the Organization
only inexhaustible resource, whose Worldwide, along with other major issues,
developing trend is ascending, is knowledge. such as globalization and sustainable
This invaluable capital, which is a legacy of development, the knowledge society has
the effort and the creative work of past and become, in recent years, a fundamental topic
present generations made possible the of prospective research.
emergence and the manifestation of the The Romanian scientific thinking has its
knowledge society. This modern type of own contributions to understanding the
human society can only work within and essence and the tendencies of this complex
through knowledge-based organizations. In phenomenon. For example, Professor Mihai
its turn, any knowledge-based organization, 'UăJăQHVFX DQDO\]LQJ WKH HYROXWLRQ RI WKH
including the military one, is founded mainly post-industrial society, introduced the
on its intellectual capital, and its quality concept of informational era, which includes
determines both the value of the three distinct stages, namely:
organization's intangible assets and the x the information society;
sustainability of its actions. x the knowledge society;
x the conscience society.[2]
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0076
461
The opportunities for building and x Ordinarily, the useful effect is obtained
developing the Romanian knowledge society by using numerous different types of
are mainly associated with the actions knowledge.[3]
ensuing from the Europe 2020 Strategy. It Starting from these prerequisites, we
suggests three priorities mutually supporting consider that the main role of this modern
each other, respectively: type of organization consists in generating,
1. smart growth by developing an economy protecting and making special knowledge
based on knowledge and innovation; operational so as to enhance the competitive
2. sustainable growth by promoting a more strength of the organization. The conducted
competitive and more ecologic economy; research, as well as the realities of the
3. inclusive growth by promoting an organizations using state-of-the-art
economy with a high level of technologies, highlight the fact that there are
employment, which will provide social major differences between the classical
and territorial cohesion. organization that currently prevails and the
In this context, we consider that achieving a knowledge-based organization. Thus, the
knowledge society in Romania is a priority key features of the knowledge-based
for ensuring a sustainable economic organization can be synthesized as follows:
competitiveness and development. It cannot x The development of its own knowledge
become a reality unless its specific tools are base and links with the external environment
used, such as: specific mentalities, (clients, suppliers, labor force);
organizational cultures with innovation- x The internalization of the activities that
oriented values, practices such as intelligent are part or are complementary to the core
action, learning and interactivity among essential knowledge of the organization,
partners, and so on. concurrent with the externalization of those
that are not essential to the organization
2. The Knowledge-Based Organization - x The organization's development will be
Environment for Developing the based on widening and deepening its own
Intellectual Capital knowledge, on the timely capitalization of
The theory of the knowledge-based synergetic collaborations in the field of
organization approaches the organization as knowledge.
being that entity whose primary resource is x The model of its internal organization is
knowledge, its core activities being aimed at similar to the human cognitive model,
obtaining, protecting and integrating it in having less structured networks, semi-
order to enhance its performance. automatic teams, made up of knowledgeable
This theory, undergoing a consolidation individuals, with individual and
process, has the main premises: organizational learning abilities, etc.;
x Knowledge is acquired by the members x Decreasing the number and roles of the
of the organization who, in the case of middle and lower level managers, while
implicit knowledge (based on people), also integrating and enhancing the roles of
store them; knowledge managers;
x In terms of limited cognitive processes x Remodeling the managerial and economic
and time constraints, the members of the abilities of the organization in order to
organization must develop skills to acquire capitalize on its own knowledge;
and use certain knowledge; x Developing an open culture and
collaborating with other organizations under
better availability, time and cost conditions;
462
x Increasing the interest in obtaining, using, "The mere possession of the capital offers no
protecting and making effective use of the guarantee that the talent required in a
intellectual capital. [4] company can be properly achieved and
organized. Experience has shown this, and
3. The Intellectual Capital - the Engine of therefore we can anticipate a shift of power
the Knowledge-Based Organization's in industrial enterprises from the capital to
Achievements the organized intelligence."[6]
John Kenneth Galbraith, ever since 1960, The new economy validates the opinion of
highlighting the importance of the human John Kenneth Galbraith, who, over half a
capital in relation to the technical one, century ago, suggested for the first time the
asserted that: use of the phrase intellectual capital.
"If the machines are the decisive thing, then The concept of intellectual capital was first
the social arrangements through which we defined and argued by Thomas A. Stewart.
develop the infrastructure and the tools will In his point of view, the intellectual capital
be of the utmost importance. But if people includes, besides the capital, the knowledge
are the ones that matter, then our first and the human resource, the tools and the
concern must be to achieve those networks into which they are incorporated
arrangements by which the personal talents and which participate to the processes of
are preserved and developed. "[5] creating products and services, of an
and that: economic nature.[7] This approach to the
intellectual capital is presented graphically
as in the figure below:
x The human capital

Total Tangible assets n (skills and knowledge of the
market members of the organization)
value x The structural capital
(databases, networks, patents, etc)
Intangible assets x The relational capital
(relationship with clients and
suppliers)
Figure no1. Model of the Intellectual Capital (according to Thomas A. Stewart)
Although this approach to intellectual capital x The supplementary individual

is the most widespread, there are points of knowledge and values of the members of
view in the literature which are different. the organization (which we find in the
Thus, the Indian consultant Srinivasan C. minds of those focused on knowledge).
argues that there are two components in the As we can easily observe, this approach
structure of the intellectual capital of an places the sign of equality between the
organization, namely: intellectual capital and the knowledge
x The basic knowledge of the capital.[8]
organization (which we find in all its We incline for Thomas A. Stewart’s model
specific activities, systems and processes, of the intellectual capital, and its
some of which are written in the documents- components are represented in the figure
instructions, standards, methodologies, etc.) below:
463
Soft (skills,
abilities,
expertise, values,
Human L loyalty of
O members of the
N
C organization)
A
A Components
Structural T
TI 1 grouped 2 U
O according
to: R
N Hard (patents,
E
Relational copyrights,
databases,
programs, and so
on)
Figure no 2. Components of the Intellectual Capital

Source: 1LFROHVFX2YLGLX1LFXOHVFX&LSULDQ2UJDQL]DаLDЮLPDQDJHPHQWXOED]DWHSHFXQRЮWLQаH
Bucharest, Pro Universitaria Publishing House, 2011, p.91)
Thomas A. Stewart identified six Institute, Nick Bontis, estimates that there
characteristics on which his ability to create are currently four systems of measuring the
added value and to enhance the performance intellectual capital, namely:
of the organization are based, which can be budgeting the human resources (by
synthesized like this: which the economic value of the
1. the enhancement of the other resources of members of the organization is quantified
the knowledge-based organization; in order to be used in substantiating the
2. the strong dependence of its value on the managerial and financial decisions);
characteristics and the degree of motivation added economic value (represents a
of the members of the organization involved measurement of the organization's
in its use; performance based on its budgetary effort
3. the value structure of the intellectual and its set objectives);
capital is different from the structure of the the balanced table method (requires
classical capital in the traditional filling in the traditional financial
organizations (in this case, the share of perspectives with non-financial items);
expenditures refers to the intangible the navigator model (is a dynamic and
elements of the organization); holistic reporting model in which the
4. the great ability to multiply; intellectual capital is divided into human
5. the investments in the intellectual capital capital and structural capital)
usually generate ample complementary At present, measuring the intellectual capital
investments; at organizational level is voluntary rather
6. the intellectual capital circuit has a high than mandatory, and is not reflected in their
specificity. financial and accounting records. Although
Measuring the intellectual capital of a any methodology for assessing the
modern organization, has been a topic of intellectual capital can be challenged from
research since the 1990s. In this respect, the different points of view, we consider that the
director of the Human Capital Research
464
most important methods and models of At the same time, we believe that through
measuring the intellectual capital are: the organizational culture specific to the
x The Intangible Assets Monitor; military organization, the creation, the
x Balanced Scorecard; innovation, the transfer and the reuse of
x The Business Navigator of Scandia information and knowledge have to be
The intellectual capital is a factor which both supported more intensely. In this way, we
generates and increases the performance of are confident that the military structures can
the organization, as well as a main effect of make a better use of their intellectual capital
the continuous process of the transformation in order to fulfill the missions they have
of knowledge. [9] We also support the idea been assigned.
that the organizational performance can only
be increased continuously when: Conclusions
x the relationship between the individuality The future will surely belong to the
of the intellectual capital and the diversity intelligent knowledge - based organizations
of the organization’s interests is that, in order to gain a competitive
optimized; advantage, effectively use their intellectual
x the social system optimally integrates the capital. We consider that the golden coin of
new knowledge and the intellectual the third millennium will be the intellectual
capital into the overall structure of the capital, and its intelligent use will be the key
value added generating mechanism; to success in the era of knowledge.
The process of training and specializing the
6. Implications for the Military human resource to ensure the functioning
Environment and the development of the knowledge-
Moving from the classical military based organization, including in the military
organization to the military knowledge- field, needs to be considered and rapidly
based organization is an objective and adapted to the demands of the knowledge
primary necessity. At the same time, within society.
the new type of military organization, the Currently, the speed of changes in the
intellectual capital must be redefined and environment (economic, military, etc.) in
considered "the engine" of its operation and which we live and function has generated
development in a particularly volatile mutations in the way we look at things
security environment. around us, we find solutions to the multiple
In this context, in order to achieve this and complex existential problems. In this
purpose, which is fundamentally important context, we consider that the human
for the military organization, we consider intelligence must become that intangible
that a series of decisions need to be made, asset of any modern organization that is able
concerning the following: to create that sustainable added value not
x training and specializing the human only for entities, but also for nations.
resource; Therefore, we assert that in the knowledge
society, the organizations through
x implementing and developing its own
information and technological database; appropriate investment, training and
motivation must continually develop their
x implementing an appropriate and
intellectual capital, and their own knowledge
effective knowledge management system;
must be identified and stored under
x increasing the research and development efficiently usable forms.
expenditures in the field of national
defense;
465
References
[1] Filip Gheorghe, Dragomirescu +RUDаLX “3UREOHPD VRFLHWăаLL FXQRDЮWHULL vQ 5RPkQLD
5HIOHFаLi vQ FRQWH[W HXURSHDQ” in the paper called 6RFLHWDWHD FXQRD‫܈‬WHULL HGLWRU 5R‫܈‬FD ,RQ
Bucharest, Economic Publishing House, 2006, p.18.
[2] Dragomirescu, Mihai, “Societatea LQIRUPDаLRQDOă ЮL D FXQRDЮWHULL 9HFWRULL VRFLHWăаLL
FXQRDЮWHULL´, iQ )*)LOLS &RRUG 6RFLHWDWHD LQIRUPD‫܊‬LRQDOă- VRFLHWDWHD FXQRD‫܈‬WHULL
CRQFHSWH VROX‫܊‬LL ‫܈‬L VWUDWHJLL SHQWUX 5RPkQLD %XFharest, Expert Publishing House, 2001,
pp.43
[3] Oprean, C-tin, Tv‫܊‬X 0LKDLO %XFXU Viorel, “0DQDJHPHQWXO JOREDO DO RUJDQL]DаLHL ED]DWă SH
FXQRЮWLQаH”, Bucharest, AGIR Publishing House, 2011, p.36
[4] Nicolescu Ovidiu, Nicolescu Ciprian, “2UJDQL]DаLD ЮL PDQDJHPHQWXO ED]DW SH FXQRЮWLQаH”,
Bucharest, Pro Universitaria Publishing House, 2011, p.33-34
[5] Stewart Thomas, “Intelectual Capital. The New Wealth of Organisations”, Nicholas Bredly,
Publishing London, 1998, p.4-9
[6] Holt Gheorghe, Holt Alina, “Capitalul intelectual-DYHUH DVFXQVă QHUHIOHFWDWă vQ VLWXDаLLOH
financiare”, in the Annals of ´&RQVWDQWLQ %UkQFX‫܈‬L´ University LQ 7kUJX-Jiu, Economic
Series, nr.3/2010, p.166
[7] Ibidem, p.167
[8] New Skills for New Jobs-Action Now, EN, Bruxelles, 2008, p.17-24
[9] %XUOHD ‫܇‬FKLRSRLX $GULDQD “Impactul capitalului intelectual asupra SHUIRUPDQаHL
RUJDQL]DаLHL”, iQ,QIRUPDWLFD(FRQRPLFă Magazine, nr.1 (25)/2003, p.119-121
466
ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF OUTSOURCING SERVICES FOR MAINTENANCE

AND REPAIR OF THE EQUIPMENT AND ARMAMENT AVAILABLE IN THE
STRUCTURES OF THE BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES
Nikolay STEFANOV

niki.s@abv.bg
Abstract: The longlasting process of transformation of the armed forces, as well as the reduction of
staff resulted in the loss of certain capabilities. In times of transformation, the different structures of
the Bulgarian Armed Forces, led by the desire to preserve their most important capabilities, namely
the combat ones, are forced to lay off mainly parts of their maintenance and support units. In order to
compensate for these lost capabilities, the armed forces resorted to the use of outsourcing services for
the repair and maintenance of armament and military equipment.This article studies and analyses the
use of outsourcing services for the maintenance and repair of equipment and armament available in
the structures of the Bulgarian Armed Forces.
Keywords: outsourcing services, analysis, Bulgarian Armed Forces, repair of equipment

and armament
1. Introduction case, this does not mean that they only get
The main objective of the implementation equipped with the latest technologies,
of outsourcing services in the armed forces materials and weapons, but also have a
is the acquisition of resources that are modern internal organisation aimed at
needed to manage the main areas of activity effective execution of core tasks. From this
at a professional level. perspective, it is not just a question of
From an organisational perspective, we talk finance, but also a way of thinking and
about simplification of management and internal culture of the organisation. Finance
organisational structure. This leads to can accelerate these processes, but it cannot
increasing specialisation of the staff and the stop them in any way.
management of the armed forces. Thus, the The implementation of outsourcing services
use of outsourcing is not necessarily just a in the armed forces is seen as a result of
matter of financial results, but it also close interaction between the service
enhances the culture in the military. provider and the armed forces in the role of
In our specific conditions, the user, and the inside activity of the provider
implementation of outsourcing can only be related to satisfying the needs of the armed
justified by cost savings. Another very forces [13].
important factor is the cultural change
throughout the organisation. In the military 2. Analysis of the state of applicable
environment, this change in culture is a outsourcing services in the structures of
fundamental point. It is related to the the Bulgarian Armed Forces
growing negative attitude towards military As far as military operations are conducted
service in society. by the humanity only in exceptional cases,
The main objective of the reform of the but maintaining the armed forces has to be
armed forces is their modernisation. In this permanent, the preparation of combat
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0077
467
activities lies on the state as a heavy burden approximate percentage is specified.” They
[12]. The modernisation of the military, the refuse to provide specific data or evidence,
optimisation of the staff, and the reduction but say that after outsourcing certain
of costs are directly related to the activities, their cost is reduced. When asked
outsourcing of certain ancillary and service about the transfer of which activities is
activities. In this connection, the report on assessed as profitable and with which ones
the, section 5 Maintenance and Security the ministry incurs losses, the
Defence, says: “In 2009, some of the main administration states that “the analyses and
tasks of this sector policy were the estimates show greater efficiency in the use
construction of a certified secure of outsourcing, but only when the
information system, continuing the process contractor has completed the contracts
of military standardisation, certification and properly and with the desired quality.” In a
codification, armaments, equipment and report of his, the former Deputy Defence
property, development and implementation Minister Valentin Radev says that by using
of measures for the formation of a this mechanism, the MoD reduces the cost
sustainable positive public attitude towards of maintaining defence capabilities [8].
the activity of the Ministry of Defence, and Dimitrova, Nichev and Stefanov (2015)
in particular the participation of the consider that outsourcing within the armed
Bulgarian Armed Forces in operations forces means using the capacity of private
abroad, as well as outsourcing of service sector management of such activities
activities” [4,14,15]. previously carried out by personnel of the
This leads to the conclusion that the armed forces or their civilian employees [9].
Ministry of Defence holds a steady policy The number of outsourcing contracts signed
concerning the use of outsourcing services, in the structures of the Bulgarian Armed
despite the conflicting results and the claim Forces from 2009 until today varies every
of the former Defence Minister Anyu year. For example, in 2009 18 outsourcing
Angelov that the transfer of certain contracts were concluded mainly for
activities to external contractors does not providing catering services, security of
result in cost savings, which is the main military installations, maintenance and
goal, but even has a the opposite effect. repair of equipment and armament [4]. In
Overall, outsourcing services prevent the 2010, 27 contracts were signed or extended
appearance of corruption. Using for services such as maintenance of
outsourcing helps to overcome the causes communication and information systems,
for the appearance of corruption or to software and equipment, maintenance of a
restrict it [10]. Outsourcing is associated system for flight and landing control on
with reducing corruption pressure by military airports, security of military
improving the organisation and technology installations, repair and maintenance of
of the activities and services in the transport equipment, air-conditioning
formations of the Bulgarian Armed Forces, equipment, elevators, etc [5]. In
and with improving the effectiveness of comparison, in 2011 only three contracts
internal departmental and civil control in were concluded for activities related to the
the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of repair and maintenance of equipment and
Bulgaria. armament [8]. After 2011, there is a
According to the structures of the Ministry significant increase in the number of
of Defence, engaged in the activities on outsourcing contracts signed in the sphere
planning and preparation of reports on of the armed forces, and the focus was
outsourcing contracts, “the percentage of again primarily on security, repair and
return for the various activities is different, maintenance of equipment, catering, etc [5].
and it will not be accurate if a total Both the reduction and the increase in the
468
number of such contracts executed by the armed forces resorted to the use of
Ministry of Defense of the Republic of outsourcing services for the repair and
Bulgaria over the years (Figure 1) is due to maintenance of armament and military
the fact that in most cases they are long- equipment. Historically, this practice is not
term, that is concluded for more than one new, but it applies only when performing
year. general overhauls. [2,3,11]
For the purposes of this analysis, it is
30 necessary to clarify the scope of
27 applicability of the concepts of operation
25
and technical maintenance in the structures
20
of the Bulgarian Armed Forces.
18 In view of the specific activities of the
15 Bulgarian Armed Forces, the operation of
armament and equipment includes their
11
10 10 intended use, timely and full-volume
6 maintenance and proper storage.
5 The methodological basis for this is the
3
regulatory framework for establishing the
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
rules and standards for operation (concepts,
doctrines, manuals, regulations, handbooks,
Figure 1: Number of contracts for outsourcing methods) of the Defence Ministry. On the
services from 2009 to 2014 basis of this framework, the Armed Forces
The given personal interviews by military develop their handbooks, statutes, manuals
personnel support the fact that some of the and procedures relating to systems of
most commonly used outsourcing services armaments and equipment typical of the
in the armed forces currently are the branch of the armed forces which exploits
provision of food for the personnel of them.
military units, repair, maintenance of According to the doctrine of logistics, the
equipment and armament, and security of technical maintenance of equipment and
the military areas. This is the reason why armament combines all activities and
we will look at one of this type of procedures related to cleaning, lubrication,
outsourcing in this article. replenishment, diagnostics and minor
repairs related to the replacement of worn
3. Analysis of the use of outsourcing elements and / or elements whose resource
services for the maintenance and repair of has expired (parts, assemblies and
equipment and weapons available in the aggregates) and materials in order to
structures of the Bulgarian Armed Forces maintain the material resources in good
Both the long process of transformation of condition. In some cases, the maintenance
the armed forces and the reduction of may include replacement of weapons [6].
personnel have contributed to the loss of The exploitation and maintenance of the
certain capabilities. In times of operational new equipment in recent years
transformation, the different structures of justifies the use of outsourcing services for
the Bulgarian Armed Forces, led by the these activities by the military structures.
desire to preserve their most important In 2001, outsourcing was first implemented
capabilities, namely the combat ones, are and is still used to ensure the maintenance of
forced to lay off mainly parts of their the fleet of vehicles of the Ministry of
maintenance and support units. In order to Defence.
compensate for these lost capabilities, the Thus, the lack of expertise on the
maintenance and repair of new and more
469
sophisticated automobiles was compensated Studying the documents database of the
for as they were different from the Russian Defence Acqusition Directorate and the
vehicles, which the Bulgarian Armed orders made at the Public Procurement
Forces were equipped with and prepared to Agency in the field of defence and security
maintain by then. for the period from 2011 to 2014, it appears
With the acquisition of new transport that the Bulgarian Armed Forces used
equipment, the larger units (off-road outsourcing in the field of repair and
vehicles, trucks and Mercedes buses) service. After this research, it has become
started to use outsourcing for its even more apparent that outsourcing has
maintenance and repair. not only been used for maintenance and
According to data provided by the Ministry repair of combat and transportation
of Defence at the request of Mediapool, the equipment and armament, but also in terms
three outsourcing contracts signed in 2011 of both communication and information
are at a total cost of about 440,000 equipment, equipment for food storage and
Bulgarian levs, and include activities the equipment used for the maintenance of
related to the repair and maintenance of military areas.
equipment and armament. In all the above mentioned cases, the
It is thus obvious that the Defence Ministry activity takes place constantly in military
continues to rely heavily on outsourcing, units, not just once (contracts are usually
despite the conflicting results and the concluded for several years). It is also one
Minister of Defence Anyu Angelov’s claim of the features that distinguishes
that the transfer of certain activities to outsourcing from simple counselling or the
external contractors does not lead to cost typical use of external mechanised services.
savings, which is the main goal, but even In counselling it is only recommendations
has the opposite effect [8]. that are given on how to achieve the desired
Regardless of this opinion, over the years of result, while in outsourcing the relevant
operation of the Plan for Development of specialists embody their advice into
the Armed Forces by 2014, the trend was practice. In the first case, the military unit
towards an increase of the use of benefits from advice, and in the second one
outsourcing services by the armed forces in - payment is received against an outcome,
the sphere of repair and maintenance of and besides that, the customer is held liable
equipment and weapons, as the data in on the way the money is spent.
Figure 2 show [7]. In traditional outsourcing agreements for
external mechanised services, it is usually a
question of delegating an activity that the
2014 9
armed forces, for one reason or another, can
not currently carry out by themselves;
2013 8 however, no efforts to transfer it completely
and longterm can be noticed. A good
2012 6 example for this is the contract with an
outside contractor for conducting repairs or
2011 3 a replacement of a particular unit in a
certain type of equipment that due to
0 2 4 6 8 10 insufficient capacity (lack of trained
professionals in this field) the military unit
Figure 2: Number of outsourcing contracts for could not perform on its own within
services in the sphere of repair and favorable service deadlines. Certainly, in
maintenance of equipment and armamament cases when the specific military structure
from 2011 to 2014
decides that in the future there is no
470
possibility to carry out this type of of financial resources for security and
mechanised service and signs a long-term defence. Undoubtedly, when choosing
contract for external services with another between “for” or “against” outsourcing
organisation, which is subject to certain services, it is necessary to analyse each and
requirements, only then this may be every outsourcing contract and assess its
referred to as outsourcing [1]. cost-effectiveness and benefits for the
The use of outsourcing by the Bulgarian Bulgarian Armed Forces and how
Armed Forces for services related to appropriate an alternative it is related to a
maintenance, repair and servicing of certain activity for the Defence Ministry.
various types of equipment is driven by the Making the decision to outsource certain
desire to provide better quality services at activities should be based on the analysis of
lower costs. the advantages and disadvantages of using
outsourcing, on evaluating the costs of the
4. Conclusion various options for implementing the
Despite all the negatives, it is an undisputed activity, of possible risks in its use and the
fact that outsourcing is increasingly used in objective comparison of alternatives on the
the armed forces and proves its efficiency basis of an acceptable balance between
in making decisions related to the spending quality and cost.
References
[1] Georgieva, V., “Outsourcing of Processes Related to the Vehicle-Tractor Fleet in the
Agrarian Sector”, Scientific Works Volume LVIII, Academic Publishing House of the
Agricultural University in Plovdiv, 2014.
[2] Parashkevova, A. D., “Strategy for the Organisation of Termination of an Outsourcing
Contract”, Scientific Almanac, Issue 8 of the Chernorizets Hrabar Varna Free
University, 2011, pp. 172-183.
[3] Peycheva, K., “The crisis in Security and Defence Before and During the Economic
Crisis”, Almanac of G. S. Rakovski Defence College 2012, National Security and
Defence Faculty, pp. 93-111.
[4] Report on the State of Defence and the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria in
2009, http://www.mod.bg/bg/doc/drugi/ 20100413_Report_ 2009.pdf.
[5] Report on the State of Defence and the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria in
2010, http://www.md.government.bg/bg/doc/ drugi/20110323_
DokladMS_SustoianieVS.pdf.
[6] Doctrine for Logistics, Sofia 2013, www.mod.bg/bg/doc/drugi/
20130916_Doktrina_logistika.pdf 28.10.2015.
[7] Investments in Defence made by the Ministry of Defence, Procurements,
http://io_old.mod.bg/archive 02.11.2015
[8] The MoD Will Not Give up on Outsourcing Even Though it is Not Cost Effective,
http://www.mediapool.bg/mo-ne-se-otkazva-ot-autsorsinga-vapreki-che-e-na-zaguba-
news181723.html. 05.10.2015
[9] Sevdalina Dimitrova, Nikolay Nichev, Nikolay Stefanov “Development ɨf Outsourcing
Services” (2015) International Conference on Knowledge-Based Organisations, Volume
21, Issue 1, pp. 192–197
[10] Terziev, V., Nichev, N., Bankov, S., &RUUXSWLRQ ɚQG 1DWLRQDO 6HFXULW\. (2016)
International Scientific Journal “Innovation Research”ʋSDUWpp. 189-196
[11] Harizanova, M. “Outsourcing: Role, Characteristics and Trends of Application”
Scientific Works, Volume 2/2012
471
[12] Terziev, V., Filipov, S., Ninth International Scientific Conference 17-19.6.2016, Durres,
Republic of Albania “Characteristics and Elements of Military Infrastructure”, Volume
13.1, p. 301
[13] Banabakova, V., Stefanov, Sv., State and Development of Logistics Services in
Bulgaria. Land Forces Academy Review, Sibiu, Romania, N. 2, 2013, pp. 156.
[14] Petrova, E., Nichev, N., Financing and Place of the Bulgarian Army in the Operations
of International Crisis Management, Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre, NR. 3 (75),
Sibiu, Romania, Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, 2014, pp. 307 ÷312.
[15] Petrova, E., A Review of the Expenditures on Defence of the Republic of Bulgaria for
2010-2015, Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre, NR. 4 (80)/2015, Nicolae Balcescu
Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania, pp. 488 ÷ 496, 2015.
472
ANALYSIS OF SOME OF THE APPLICABLE OUTSOURCING SERVICES IN THE

STRUCTURES OF THE BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES
Nikolay STEFANOV

niki.s@abv.bg
Abstract: Supplying the Bulgarian Army with the necessary material resources is an extremely
important activity. This is an activity with a fundamental significance for making quality logistics
decisions on strategic, operational and tactical levels. Therefore, it is necessary to analyse the issues
related to the use of outsourcing services in the armed forces. They are implemented in the field of
defence primarily in the sphere of utilisation of unnecessary munitions, catering, providing various
public utilities, repair and maintenance of equipment and provision of security to military sites.
Despite of its limited application, outsourcing is currently an important tool for conducting a great
number of the logistics activities, providing support of the combat and special training of military
formations and the execution of their specific tasks.This article studies and analyses the use of
outsourcing services for providing catering for the personnel in the structures of the Bulgarian Armed
Forces and for protection of the military territories.
Keywords: outsourcing services, analysis, Bulgarian Armed Forces, catering, security
1. Introduction main specific tasks, improving the quality

Outsourcing is a strategic management of products and services transferred for
approach which is needed to meet the needs outsourcing, gaining access to the latest
of the armed forces regarding their technologies, attracting qualified
renovation and improvement. It is a system professionals and the opportunity to share
open to external sources of supply of goods the risk in the performance of certain
and services, and certain activities related to services.
supporting the armed forces are outsourced, The application of outsourcing in the armed
i.e. transferred to organisations that are not forces follows the established trends
part of defensive structures - construction, worldwide related to a gradual switch from
supply of material resources, catering, etc using single traditional services to the
[13]. Its appearance was caused by the need implementation of complex outsourcing
to streamline the activities of the structures services offered by specialised companies
in the defence sector in modern conditions. [14].
This need is achieved within a
comprehensive and consistent process. 2. Analysis of the use of outsourcing
A prerequisite for the use of outsourcing services for providing catering for the
services is the opportunity for savings. personnel in the structures of the
Factors of great importance are Bulgarian Armed Forces
concentrating on the implementation of the Supplying the Bulgarian army with the
necessary material resources is an
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0078
473
extremely important activity. This is an senior deputy chief of the Logistics section,
activity which has a fundamental role on a the benefits for the Military University
making quality logistics decisions for from the use of outsourcing services for
strategic, operational and tactical level. For catering are the following [6]:
this reason, pursuant to a decision of the o the external provider must ensure
Defense Council made on 02.06.2012 and a monthly, according to the season, varied
letter with a 5HJʋ-228/14.02.2006 of and nourishing food by presenting at least
the Chief of General Staff [5], catering was 12-15 kinds of snacks, at least 15-18 kinds
introduced in the Bulgarian Armed Forces of soups, at least 18-20 kinds of main
units. It started on 01.12.2006, and Veselin dishes, and at least 16-18 kinds of desserts
Bliznakov, the Minister of Defence at that including a variety of fruits, in each variant
time, signed contracts with four companies of the weekly menu;
for the catering of 43 military units [7,8]. o the provider must prepare three variants
An important feature of the demand for of the current menu in different faculties;
outsourcing services are the motives of the o the groups of foreign students eat a
army as a customer. The main motives variant of the weekly menu, consistent
proved to be the quality and reliability of with the characteristics of their national
service. [15] cuisine and their religion;
The idea is to achieve savings of financial o saving financial resources and a
resources, as well as use the possibility for possibility for redirecting them to other
external providers to take complete care of categories because of:
feeding the military personnel, and the x payment of fee by the external provider
personnel in the units will provide the for the used premises and the equipment
specialised training [10]. provided by the university amounting to
An example for the preference and use of 8229.20 levs;
outsourcing services in the field of catering x construction and renovation completed
are the National Military University, the by 01.07.2011 and kitchen equipment
National Guards Unit and the Nikola purchased by the supplier and donated to
Yonkov Vaptsarov Naval Academy. the Rector of the National Military
The catering at the Vasil Levski National University in the amount of 703,836.92
Military University is performed under a levs;
contract ZLWK 5HJ ʋ 1729/27.05.2011 x overhead costs resulting from the
between the university and the company difference between the value of the
Nove Trading LTD based in Sofia. The overhead costs specified in the current
contract is concluded for a period of four PLQLVWHULDO RUGHU ʋ OH-482/30.07.2010
years and requires the external provider to regulating the feeding, i.e. 2.77 levs
prepare and distribute in the premises of the including VAT, and the amount paid by
university dishes /cooked food, personal the university set in an agreement with
rations and packed meals/ for the daily 5HJ ʋ/27.05.2011 – 0.96 levs
feeding of cadets, NCO cadets, course including VAT;
participants and officials three times a day, x transportation costs for the supply of
specified by type, quantity, energy values food and the fact that it is the provider
and values in daily food allowance in a who pays the utilities, such as electricity,
weekly menu. water, etc.;
According to a letter with a RHJ ʋ x savings from not paying salaries to own
1240/25.03.2014, sent by the Rector of the personnel for the preparation and
Vasil Levski National Military University distribution of food;
to the head of the Logistics Directorate and x elimination of the need for having
the justification pointed out in it by the then officials on duty at the nutrition sector,
474
and hence the costs associated with commander of the National Guards Unit
them; [1]. The request is based on the contract
x no need to provide cleaners, which expired in 2014 concerning the
disinfectants and washing liquids, as supply of ready-made food to the military
well as washing powder for washing the unit and Art. 16, Para. 8 in conjunction with
table cloths and other material property; Art. 14, Para. 1, Point 2 of the Law on
x cost savings of funds allocated for daily Public Procurement, and demands a
control samples of the food. procedure to be conducted for selecting a
The data provided in the rationale contractor for the preparation and delivery
referred to in a letter with a 5HJ ʋ of food to the National Guards Unit for a
1240/03.25.2014 can be summarised in the period of sixty months.
following analysis which compares the cost Another example for using outsourcing
of using outsourcing services for the services for catering purposes is the Nikola
provision of catering and the nutrition Yonkov Vaptsarov Naval Academy. The
organised with the university’s own academy has provided catering to cadets,
resources – Figure 1 [6]. military and civilian personnel through an
external provider from 2007 to the present.
Thus, by using outsourcing services in the
field of nutrition from 2007 to 2014 the
350000
300000 Naval Academy managed to provide
250000 quantitative and qualitative nutrition under
200000 external the current regulations, and the overhead
150000 costs are lower almost twice than the
ow n
100000
projected costs in the ministerial order.
50000
0
Besides providing food, the benefit of using
com parison of cost this type of service, as in other institutions
and units, is a substantial renovation of the
kitchen sector and the dining areas
Figure 1: Comparison of cost for the
peformed by the external service provider
National Military University with the different
catering models for the period of six months [2].
The analysis of the available literature
From everything stated so far, it becomes (Peicheva, 2013; Dimitrova et al., 2015;
obvious that the use of outsourcing services Terziev et al., 2016; Nichev, 2011; Morkin,
by the National Military University for 2012,etc.) allows to summarise the
catering provides it with the opportunity to following benefits of using outsourcing
save financial resources and use them for services to provide food to soldiers and
other purposes. civilian employees of the Bulgarian Armed
Another representative of the armed forces Forces: [4,12,16]
using an external contractor for the x a balanced, rational and varied diet,
preparation and delivery of food is the specified in the contract requirements;
National Guards Unit. This is also one of x relatively low overheads;
the first formations, preferring the use of x clearly defined criteria for pricing the
outsourcing services for catering. The dishes in the contracts;
success of using such services in this x reducing the practices for the use of
formation is evident. This conclusion lis official position for personal gain;
based on the reasoned request of the deputy x effective opportunity to carry out daily
commander for logistics supply of the control over all the clauses of the
National Guards Unit, expressed in a contract by the contracting authority;
memorandum written in 2015 to the
475
x renovated kitchen and dining facilities at of Defence allocates to each guard.
the expense of the contractor; According to the National Association of
x meal fee to selected meals (lunches) and Industrial Security Companies, the overall
quick snacks at reasonable prices; cost to the employer for the wage of a
x opportunity to negotiate feeding against security guard in 2012 was 447.86 levs. The
payment for military and civilian average net amount that the guards receive
personnel who do not receive free food; annually is 298.03 levs. On the other hand,
x opportunity to negotiate catering for the according to experts from the Ministry of
personnel during exercises, classes, Defence, the amount that the companies
trainings and other events; receive for a guard is approximately 700 levs
x high level of food and service culture of [3]. In these circumstances, it is quite easy to
the personnel; explain the reluctance of young people to
x dispensation of the personnel from apply for the this job. This is the basic
unusual activities. reason for the lower quality of the provided
The transition from military catering to service. And the nature of security business,
catering by an external provider raises a which is mainly connected with passing very
problem related to the food supply of the long distances, lack of enough sleep,
contingents employed in operations abroad. responsibility and possible use of weapons,
Outsourcing is not attractive for domestic is in itself indicative that the effective
companies because of the small size of implementation by security guards employed
Bulgarian contingents. Supply through own in retirement is hard to achieve.
bodies is an extremely difficult task because Another important problem of using external
of the large financial costs associated with security company in the field of armed
the delivery of food to such a great distance forces is caused by the fact that the guards
[11]. In this case, the it is profitable to use are not directly subordinate to the military
multinational approaches related to using units in which they perform the service. This
the capabilities of the allies in the area of leads to frustration in certain situations and
the operation or outsourcing through to the inability to require them to perform
NSPA. their specific duties.
There have also been cases of theft by
3. Analysis of the use of outsourcing guards, which should not be underestimated.
services for the provision of security to In confirmation of this is the number of
the structures of the Bulgarian Armed prosecutions against security companies for
Forces missing property in the facilities guarded by
The possibilities for providing security of them. The Bulgarian Armed Forces impose
military units and the facilities in the units of fines on contractors who guard closed
the Bulgarian Armed Forces are either military sites. In this relation, relevant
through hiring an external security company, reports have been announced in public space
or by using their own resources. which show that the Ministry of Defence has
Experience so far shows that the use of claims on private security companies for
outsourcing in this direction is ineffective. damages, amounting to 538,521 levs for the
This raises a number of reasons. In the period January 1, 2009 – October 31, 2011.
foreground stands the low quality of the The imposed fines for missing property have
provided service. Another negative is the a priority among them (according to data for
aging staff which the company uses to 2010). The object of unlawful activities is
provide the service. The reasons for these mainly property such as doors, sinks,
negatives are mainly the low pay of the radiators, rails, plates, etc. For this period,
guards provided by the contractor as the companies have received statements for
compared to the resources that the Ministry the lacks amounting to 376,176 levs, and the
476
majority of them, however, are appealed by Defence paid the contractors by 2012 for a
the companies and there is no information on guard, the annual cost is 8,400 levs. Thus, it
the possibility of recoup the damage and the appears that there is a difference from 1,567
harm done to the Ministry of Defence [9]. levs a year for each guard (Figure 2).
All this leads us to the conclusion about the
appropriateness of the discussion which is
10000
more profitable for the Bulgarian Armed
Forces in terms of the studied activity - 8000 guard employed
by an external
outsourcing services in the field of security 6000 contractor
or the appointment of full-time employees 4000 guard on the
for this activity. The decisions in this pay-roll of the
2000 unit
direction should be based on relevant
analytical estimates of the cost that the 0
Ministry of Defence pays for a security
guard in both alternatives.
Based on the minimum wage – 290 levs for Figure 2: Graphic display of the cost of one
guard in 2012
2012 in which the majority of military units
still used outside contractors for security, the
Multiplied by the number of guards, for
average gross monthly salary of a civilian
whom the Ministry of Defence transferred
security guard assigned to work in the
funds, that amount is increased many times.
Bulgarian Armed Forces amounted to
The above analytical estimates attest that:
589.25 levs. This figure includes not only
x the guards appointed by the contractors to
the minimum wage, but also the average
perform the security service, receive very
sum of the grade of service at the rate of 1%
low pay, which is why they can not find
for each year of service, a supplement for
suitable employees to ensure the
working for the Ministry of Defence – 32%
necessary quality of service;
ration – 30 levs per month, additional pay
for food when on duty, payment for working x using outsourcing to provide the security
at night and on official holidays. To this of military areas, commanders /heads/
should be added the amounts for clothing, have no direct control over the work of
received once a year, determined by a the guards as they are not in the pay-roll
ministerial order. After adding the social of the respective unit;
security payments made by the employer x for the Ministry of Defence of the
which amount to 18.1% (52.49 levs), the Republic of Bulgaria, outsourcing the
cost is obtained that the Bulgarian Armed security of its subordinate structures has
Forces pay as a salary in the amount of been an unacceptable option so far
641.74 levs. When accounting for the fact because it does not lead to the fulfillment
that an employee paid 12.9% (76.01 levs) of of the main objectives of the outsourcing
that amount for social security and 10% tax – saving financial resources and
(51.32 levs), the pure amount received by a improving the quality of services
guard assigned to work for the military performed.
amounted to 461.91 levs. These calculations
4. Conclusion
show that a civilian security guard recruited
The use of outsourcing in the armed forces
by the Bulgarian Armed Forces in 2012 cost
makes it possible to increase the efficiency
the Ministry of Defence 6833 levs a year,
of invested funds to improve the national
excluding the costs for food and night work
defence of a country. It is necessary to
during his annual leave [3].
concentrate efforts on its implementation on
For a year, considering the amount referred
a broader scale, in terms of activities and
to above (700 levs) that the Ministry of
services related to the support of he armed
477
forces. Its duration, scope and their basic tasks dictated by the specifics of
implementation provides an opportunity to the military profession.
focus the attention of the military to fulfill
References
[1] Memorandum written by the deputy commander of Logistics of the National Guards Unit
to the commander of the National Guards Unit in 2015 on starting a procedure for
selecting a contractor for the preparation and delivery of food to the National Guards Unit.
[2] Memorandum written by the head of the Logistics section of N. Y. Vaptsarov Naval
Academy to the commandant of the N. Y. Vaptsarov Naval Academy with a Reg. ʋ
162/20.01.2014 on catering for the cadets at the N. Y. Vaptsarov Naval Academy.
[3] Peycheva, K. Effectiveness of Outsourcing in the Bulgarian Armed Forces – problematic
areas”, Almanac 2/2013, National Security and Defence Faculty, G. S. Rakovski
Defence College
[4] Peycheva, K. “The Public Sector of Defence and its Interaction with the Private Sector”,
report on the scientific conference “Market Development of the Bulgarian Economy –
Two Decades after the Change”, 2010, D. A. Tsenov Academy of Economics –
Svishtov, p. 212.
[5] Letter with a Reg ʋ -228/14.02.2006 from the Chief of the General Staff of the
Bulgarian Armed Forces.
[6] Letter with a Reg. ʋ VHQW WR WKH 5HFWRU RI WKH 9DVLO /HYVNL QDWLRQDO
Military University to the head of the Logictics Directorate.
[7] Comparative Analisys of the catering at the Vasil Levski NMU and Measures for its
Improvement in 2014.
[8] The Army Will Eat Sandwiches, They Stopped the Catering, http://www.24chasa.bg/
Article.asp?ArticleId=524259 03.11.2015
[9] Morkin, D. “The Armed Forces Fined Security Companies” – Newspaper Trud,
12.02.2012, http://www.trud.bg/Article.asp?ArticleId=1228352.
[10] Sevdalina Dimitrova, Nikolay Nichev, Nikolay Stefanov. Development ɨf Outsourcing
Services. (2015). International Conference Knowledge-Based Organisation. Volume 21,
Issue 1, pp. 192–197
[11] Nichev, N. Theoretical Foundations of Military Logistics – Organisation of Logistical
Support. Vasil Levski National Military University, V. Tarnovo, Bulgaria, 2011, p. 140
[12] Terziev, V., Nichev, N., Bankov, S., &RUUXSWLRQ ɚQG 1DWLRQDO 6HFXULW\. (2016)
International Scientific Journal "InnovatiRQUHVHDUFKʋSDUWSS 189-196
[13] Terziev, V., Filipov, S., Ninth International Scientific Conference 17-19.6.2016, Durres,
Republic of Albania. “Characteristics and Elements of Military Infrastructure”, Volume
13.1., p. 300
[14] Banabakova, V. Logistics and Development of Economy. Buletin Stiintific. Land Forces
Academy, Sibiu, Romania, N. 1, 2013, p. 6.
[15] Banabakova, V., Sv. Stefanov. State and Development of Logistics Services in Bulgaria.
Land Forces Academy Review, Sibiu, Romania, N. 2, 2013, p. 157.
[16] Nichev, N., Petrova, E., Professional Training of Future Logistic Officers at the National
Military University of Bulgaria, Sibiu, Romania, The 21st KBO, 2015, pp. 259 ÷ 263.
478
THE PLACE AND ROLE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY POLICIES IN AN

ADVANCED SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND EDUCATION UNIVERSITY
0LKDLO$XUHO‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8*, Constantin OPREAN*, Sebastian STAN*‫܇‬WHIDQ‫܉‬Ì‫܉‬8**
*³/XFLDQ%ODJD´8QLYHUVLW\RI6LELX5RPDQLD
* ³,XOLX+D‫܊‬HJDQX´8QLYHUVLW\RI0HGLFLQHDQG3KDUPDF\&OXM1DSRFD5RPDQLD
PLKDLOWLWX#XOEVLELXUR; FRQVWDQWLQRSUHDQ#XOEVLELXUR;
VHEDVWLDQVWDQ#XOEVLELXUR; VWHIDQWLWX#\PDLOFRP
Abstract: Intellectual property plays an important role in the sustainable development of an

university. Nowadays we can not talk about economic growth respectively about innovation and
technology transfer if there is no analysis regarding the place and role of intellectual property
protection in universities done. In this context, the authors conducted a study and have expressed a
view on how the Intellectual Property policies must be understood and implemented later in an
advanced scientific research and education university.
.H\ZRUGV ,QWHOOHFWXDO 3URSHUW\ 3ROLFLHV ,QWDQJLEOH $VVHWV 8QLYHUVLWLHV NQRZOHGJH

EDVHGVRFLHWLHVLQWHOOHFWXDOFDSLWDO
,QWURGXFWLRQ Industrial countries' history has shown that

In the long run, the competitiveness of an the success of an economy at the
economy depends on the innovative macroeconomic level, depends on
potential won through the valorification development of the innovation process, and
process of intellectual property rights. But the practice confirmed that in order to
we can talk about this only in the context promote a process of innovation at the
where there is a solid education in the field national level it requires more knowledge,
of intellectual property. The Romanian applied science, embodied in the new
economy in the process of "transition" technologies, new products and services, a
stabilizing the macroeconomic framework new form of presentation of new products,
requires, in such a way as to be able to a new functional structure, a new
address all relevant aspects and needed organisational form, new management
restructuring and modernization of the methods and organization of education. In
Romanian society. Considering the current short to develop on the basis of creative
situation, the only way to ensure economic efforts, a process leading to innovation:
development and to create prerequisites for creating value by knowledge valorification.
increasing the competitiveness of national So, the main role of the organizations is
industry is by applying the model of represented by protection and integration of
development based on innovation and one specialized knowledge
of the central strategic elements should be To develop innovations, the national
an educational system. In this way will be economy must be prepared to encourage
created a framework in which well-being creative activity, economic exchanges with
will be a constant that will last in the long not only new products and services but also
term. new ideas, new results of innovative
DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2017-0079
479
activity. All the stakeholders must be within innovation can be achieved based on a
the innovation chain that facilitates the strategy aimed at making human resource
creation of new jobs, new products and aware about the importance of these issues
services that facilitate the conditions for in relation to the economic development.
increasing well-being. In this respect, Romanian Ministry of
Conditions for increase in wealth are Education starting with the academic year
created also by public funds. Looking at the 2015-2016 proposed the introduction of
national reports we can say that the largest four new optional disciplines among which
amounts were received by the governmental include the one called "education for
sector (66.0%), followed by higher intellectual property rights". It proposes
educational entities (17.3%). Sources of exposure to high school students to the
funding for research and development issue of intellectual property rights,
activity from abroad have been targeted involving youth in the development and in
mostly to the business sector (52.6%), the promotion of projects for copyright or
higher education sector (26.0%) and other intellectual property rights, preparing
government sector (20.9%). This highlights high school students for appropriate
the fact that the higher education sector behaviour in respect to sustainable
units have received the smallest portion of development [19].
resources from public funds. Introduction of at least one teaching
specialty disciplines proposes awareness
,QWHOOHFWXDO SURSHUW\ LQ 5RPDQLD concerning the importance of intellectual
3HUFHSWVDQGSHUVRQDOSRLQWVRIYLHZ property in the current life, with an
The increased interest in protecting emphasis on creativity and the development
intellectual property rights and thus for of new technologies (figure 1).
Skills development & professionalism

enhancement
Exploitation of IP Financial development
Confidence in IP Social development
Intellectual
General knowledge on IP property education Economic development
Figure 1: Intellectual property education. Links and correspondences
This academic discipline in the University digital world of today. This means the
match the context in which the European inclusion of all models that are built on
Commission encourages the promotion of intellectual property in the modern world,
the concepts of open education. What is to Internet world, including unlimited free
be analysed and applied carefully in relation licenses and access to resources.
to this topic about intellectual property, is Beyond this action that implies the
that emphasis should be placed on introduction of at least one academic
understanding the basic concepts of disciplines related to intellectual property,
intellectual property and encourage at Romanian level, there were other
creativity in direct relationship with the initiatives to enhance the role of intellectual
480
property in the development of the nation, and arrangement on public policy, based on
for example, OSIM program, “Intellectual its actual situation and future development,
Property in universities”. But unfortunately, for the purpose of answering questions
the number of initiatives is one significantly regarding intellectual property, such as
reduced, this having determinant whether intellectual property should be
consequences over the long term. protected or not? What should be granted
University goals are typically more intellectual property? On what level should
complex than those of firms. For example, the intellectual property be protected?
public universities are accountable to a Public policy, as a term in the field of
broader range of stakeholders. Public policy science, is generally defined as “a
universities typically have less flexible course of restriction or guideline chosen by
policies than private universities regarding the public decision-making authorities to
patenting, licensing, the formation of start- address a public or private social conduct,
up companies, and other interactions with for the purpose of realizing the given goal
private firms [20]. "Furthermore, public in a certain period of time and in
universities may be less focused on comparison, with policy cost and policy
technology transfer and commercialization effect. It is generally expressed in the body
as a source of revenue than private of laws, rules, regulations, programs, plans,
universities. In addition, public universities measures, decisions and so on” [28]. This
may have objectives relating to the definition shows that intellectual property
promotion of local and regional system is also an intellectual property
development through IP spill-overs. This policy. Substantively speaking, intellectual
last objective leads to a preference for local property policy is made, implemented and
licensing agreements, perhaps to smaller initiated in the name of a country. Simply
firms, with a consequent income loss" [29]. speaking, intellectual property policies
Private universities may find it easier to refers to the sum of guiding and regulating,
adapt faculty royalty incentives to promote utilization and management of knowledge.
licensing, which may be constrained by The link between universities and industry
political pressures in public universities. An is complex and comprises various channels
study made by two Americans [24] of interaction, such as joint research,
examine a number of central issues contracted research (research outsourcing),
surrounding university patenting and technological consultation, technology
licensing using US data from the transfer through licensing, academic
Association of University Technology spinoffs, education and training. From
Managers (AUTM), as well as their own among these vast issues, we will focus on
surveys. Their identification of a growing emphasizing the need of implementing
trend in patenting and licensing by intellectual property policies in universities
universities is paralleled elsewhere. In the and research centres.
UK, for example, patents issued by Several studies have investigated the
universities increased 59 per cent and new effectiveness of technology transfers by
licenses executed increased 39 per cent universities and research centres [1], [5],
between 2001 and 2002 [27]. [8], [9], [11], [17], [21], [23], but at
Romanian level there is a lack of such
,QWHOOHFWXDO SURSHUW\ SROLF\ LQ initiatives.
XQLYHUVLWLHV&XUUHQWDQGIXWXUHLVVXHV "Among these, Siegel et al. (2007)
summarize the recent empirical studies on
In terms of a country, “intellectual property university technology transfer offices and
system is used as a tool for social policy” the key factors in their performance,
[16]. Each country should make a choice reporting that the performance of a
481
technology transfer is affected by university applications" [32].
characteristics such as ownership (public
vs. private), academic quality, the local
high-tech demand, and the design of the
licensing contract and by research centres
characteristics such as size and age. More
recently, Caldera and Debande (2010)
examine how research centres
characteristics affect a university’s
performance in a technology transfer,
controlling for the nature and type of
technology transfer and academic quality.
Using the survey data on the technology
transfer activities of 52 universities in Spain Figure 2: European patent applications
between 2001 and 2005, they find that a Source: EPO Annual Report 2015
university’s rules on the conflicts of "In the past, the general observation was
interests between academic teaching that many universities and research and
responsibilities and external activities have development institutions have been
a positive effect on research and "amateur" in their relations with sponsors of
development contracts, licenses, and spin- research and development activities. One of
off creation. Thus, previous empirical the reasons for this is that most universities
studies suggest the importance of and research and development institutions
intellectual property policy for the do not have intellectual property policies in
performance of technology transfers from place with which to safeguard their interests
universities. However, the effects of in managing collaborative research
university intellectual property policies on activities. Particularly sensitive are issues
the performance have never been explicitly related to ownership, disclosure and the
addressed or empirically examined" [30]. distribution of income in the event of an
"University patenting is not only a small, invention being commercialized.
albeit growing, phenomenon in the patent The aim of this article is to explain the
landscape, it is a growing phenomenon. intellectual property policy needs of
Only a few countries and a few institutes universities and research and development
account for the bulk of university institutions and to highlight the issues that
patenting", (figure 2) [31]. "Almost half of may be addressed when developing an
all European patent applications came from intellectual property policies" [33].
the European Patent Office member states, Intellectual Property is inherent to many of
followed by the United States, Japan, South the research and teaching functions of a
Korea and China. Applications from university or research centres.
Europe grew modestly overall, with marked A successful research program can generate
differences among the larger economies. patentable inventions and other forms of IP.
The most significant growth came from Decisions must be made regarding whether
Italy, the United Kingdom, Spain, the to protect and how to bring those inventions
Netherlands and Switzerland. France grew to the next step of development. This, then,
moderately, while Germany and some of raises the question of who the inventors are.
the Nordic countries filed fewer There can be different types of people
applications. The US and China were the involved in the research. For example,
main drivers of growth for applications. professors, students, visiting scholars ,
Growth from South Korea was moderate postdocs or research employees. ˪
and Japanese companies filed fewer The university’s teaching activities will also
generate intellectual property, such as
482
teaching materials, theses or articles. time, the competitiveness of an economy
It is generally considered that universities depends on the innovation potential process
and research centres shall have a priority to won through the valorification of
serve the public interest by insuring that intellectual property rights.
such intellectual property is transferred and Beyond the effects of the globalization
developed or otherwise disseminated for process, which relates to foreign direct
ultimately the benefit of the public, for investment, relocation of production
example in the form of new products, new activities, etc., there are deeper causes
therapies, new services, environment which determine the evolution of
improvement, job creation, etc. competitiveness, these being correlated
with investments in research and
7KH QHHG WR LQWURGXFH LQWHOOHFWXDO exploitation of innovation. As can be seen
SURSHUW\ LQ WKH 5RPDQLD DFDGHPLF in figure 3, at European level the number of
curricula patent applications are growing which mean
There are many people who could be that investments in research and
involved in the process of development are made.
commercialization of inventions and the
funding of research. Starting with
universities as such through their research
centres, teachers, researchers and inventors,
students, technology transfer, etc. Each of
the participants which may be involved in
the process of generating and marketing of
research results or in the process of
obtaining contracts research make a Figure 3: Total European patent applications
Source: Facts and figures 2016,
contribution. But, they have their own
http://documents.epo.org/projects/babylon/epon
interests and expectations, a situation et.nsf/0/defeec4bf6ba1057c1257f69004f13bc/$
which, in the majority of cases, will result FILE/epo_facts_and_figures_2016_en.pdf
in a conflict of interest. It should be noted,
however, that a university, as such, is the Taking the example of Finland, the most
main participant in the process of research innovative country in the European Union,
results, as this provides: research we can find that this country has earned this
infrastructure, staff salary, funds for position on account of some massive
research, the good name of the institution. investment in research and in intellectual
Valorification of intellectual property property rights (table 1). In just ten years,
rights, especially by countries that are in Finland has increased investment in
development, it is often correlated with the research up to 3.17% of GDP, which
process of globalization so that it is difficult resulted in an increase in the annual rate of
to identify negative or positive growth up to 4.2%. Comparing these
consequences in a given economic system. figures with what is happening at Romania
The positive effects of the valorification of level, it can be seen that there is still much
intellectual property rights may include to be done to reach the level of Finland.
increased productivity, the development of
complementary activities with local firms, Table 1. Research development expenditure as
while the negative effects may include a percentage of GDP
adverse competitiveness effects in relation Year
to local firms, personnel layoffs and the Country 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
implications of lowering the welfare. Romania 0,45 0,49 0,48 0,39 0,38
Must be aware the fact that, in the long Finland 3,73 3,64 3,42 3,3 3,17
483
Investment in research, development and potential users and this process must have
innovation in valorising intellectual an end and a conclusion as soon as possible
property rights is a key factor determining in order to evaluate its degree of success or
long-term economic development. Thanks failure" [34]. The failure of an idea doesn’t
to research and innovation new products have to demobilize that industrial and
and processes that contribute to the overall health organization but to make it stronger
well-being of a nation are created. for refining what can offer in the future.
In order to bring economic benefits, have All these lead to a try of quantification of
developed various organizational forms of the resources involved in innovation. Even
the universities, which include intellectual if the creative spirit can’t be put into default
property offices, technology transfer, shapes, the practical and analytical feature
licensing, incubation and spin-off. of innovation must contain elements and
In principle, universities are required to resources of time. That is the reason for
carry out its mission of education, research what the allocation of budgets can stimulate
and service. But, the purpose and function the innovation showing on this way the
of the university have always been importance within the industrial and health
knowledge and wealth creation for the organization, but it has to be
benefit of the public. This model has counterbalanced by emphasizing the results.
evolved to the one which concerns the This thing will show the degree of success
university as a major player in the of the initiatives that took place and it can
economic development process. be a deciding element in the analysis of the
More than ever before, universities should future actions.
be orient to the management of intellectual The historical moment where we are found
property and patenting. Thus, maintaining is one where no matter the place in the
the basic functions of education and world we are, we are able to access a large
theoretical development, they should amount of information that no human being
increase the attention directed to the or a group of people would be capable of
creation of wealth, not only for society in processing and remember. But just the
general, but in particular by generating information is not enough. For example, to
income for these universities. be able to access the data disposed by the
Thus, changing the structure and functions internet, a connection to the internet is not
of universities has become a crucial enough, it must be known the way of using
necessity in turning the flow of knowledge the computer, what means owning some
into new sources of industrial innovation knowledge. The characteristic of the
[21]. knowledge based society is not that we
have great amount of information but that
,QWHOOHFWXDO SURSHUW\ ULJKWV in this framework we must find out more
LQWHOOHFWXDO FDSLWDO LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI through the process of their transformation
NQRZOHGJH-EDVHGHFRQRP\ in knowledge (new products, technology,
Innovation is not a process that has a etc) [34].
beginning and an end, but this doesn’t mean In spite of the vast amount of research on
that it shouldn’t happen in an organized the topic, there is still no single definition
manner, with a degree of strategy. It must that is universally accepted and applied
be mentioned that innovation doesn’t have with some homogeneity in the majority of
an end, there is also an aspect that can bring studies [6], [10], [4], [13], [22], [34]. "Thus,
value, or even a whole new thing that could intellectual capital can be defined as the
replace what was there before. "But a relationships with customers and partners,
defining element for innovation is that it innovation efforts, the infrastructure of the
must be tested by a great number of firm and the knowledge and skill of the
484
members of the organization. Similarly, continuing profitability.
Sullivan (1999) indicates that intellectual In addition, it is often the key objective in
capital is that knowledge that can be mergers and acquisitions, and
converted into future profits and comprises knowledgeable companies are increasingly
resources such as ideas, inventions, using licensing routes in order to transfer
technologies, designs, processes and these assets to low tax jurisdictions [25],
informatics programs. Stewart (1991) [34]. Nevertheless, the role of intangible
indicates that intellectual capital is assets in the industrial and health
everything that cannot be touched but can organizations is insufficiently understood.
earn money for the firm. On the same line, Accounting standards are generally not
Lev (2001) considers that intangible helpful in representing the worth of
resources are those that can generate value intangible assets in organizations accounts
in the future but have no physical or and they are often under-valued, under-
financial form" [35], [10]. managed, or underexploited [26], [34].
For an organization, the identification and Namely, despite the importance and
acquisition of resources will be of vital complexity of intangible assets, there is
importance to achieving good performance generally little coordination between the
in the long term [12], [3], [15], [18]. different professionals dealing with these
Thus, in the last decades the strategic relating issues.
management literature has emphasized the All the above leads us to propose the
crucial role of intangible factors or the principal objective of this research.
intellectual capital as determinants of Namely, to evaluate the intangible assets
business competitiveness. On that line, that influence the success of the
authors such as Lichtenstein and Brush organizations. To that end, we also propose
(2001) find that intangible assets are more an indicators list in accordance with the
important and critical than tangible assets in fourth categories of intellectual capital most
such a decisive period of the life of a frequently referred to in the literature:
business. Thornhill and Gellatly (2005) human capital, intellectual property,
found that the investment in intangible structural capital and relational capital,
assets is associated with a track record of [34].
growth [14], [34]. Taking into account the above-mentioned
However, one of the main problems of theory we can say that, the medical act,
research into this topic is the fact that many seen as an ideal one, represents an activity
organizations do not explicitly recognize in the service of some human principles,
their intangible assets and so do not manage and its progress could not have been
them correctly [2], [34]. If, from the possible without the economic factor. One
moment of the organization’s beginning, aspect of fundamental importance is the
the managers and owners were aware of the very relationship between inventions,
importance of these assets to the short and innovations, medical treatments and laws
medium-term performance of the firm and, governing intellectual property rights over
especially to the long term competitive them. It is well known that the medical
advantage, the management of these assets treatments and methods of diagnostics are
would improve, as would the profits they governed as unpatentable by European laws
generate , [34]. but the way that they can be recognized is
Intangible assets or intellectual capital are publishing in journals or presentations at
recognized as the most important assets of national and international congresses or
many of the world’s largest and most conferences. The decision taken against
powerful organizations. These represent the patenting treatments and methods of
foundation for the market dominance and diagnostics is based on some arguments
485
that are more or less founded. A first mechanism to transfer knowledge from the
category of arguments is related to ethical university to industry, particularly when the
concerns and the various public health knowledge to be transferred is hard to
policies. On the other hand, it is believed codify and is embodied in human capital"
that patenting these innovative treatments [36].
could lead to an obstruction of the free flow Research institutions, whether public or
of information though patenting entails a private, are endowed for doing research.
stronger advertising. Among the arguments The primary function of universities, on the
for introducing the possibility of patenting other hand, has traditionally been teaching.
methods of treatment and diagnostics, the Yet, universities are increasingly
most important one highlights that the undertaking also research and technology
financial rights that are recovered from transfer activities.
patenting, will help to cover the costs So, the universities must implement
involved in the discovery of those intellectual property policies mainly
treatments, while at the same time, having because this means promoting the scientific
financial possibilities for further research investigation and research. Also, it clarifies
[34]. the way the institution intends to balance
the dual goals of disseminating the
&RQFOXVLRQV knowledge created and rewarding and
The evidence clearly shows the important incentivizing those who produce
role academic research can and does play in knowledge.
economies at wide and for their local Encourage researchers to consider the
economies in particular. global value and the possible opportunities
"The pathways through which this for any new inventions and to increase the
contribution materializes are manifold. potential flow of benefits to society.
Evidence on academic patenting shows a Another important aspect is that it provides
growth over time, but at the same time it practical guidance and specific procedures
shows how concentrated the phenomenon is for the identification, evaluation, protection,
in few institutions, few technology areas management and licensing or transfer of IP.
and on few academic patents with high It also promotes balanced opportunities for
(licensing) value" [36]. collaboration with the economy and provide
Patenting and licensing is only two of a researchers with freedom to operate,
number of pathways for the transfer of balancing the various conflicting interests
knowledge from universities to industry. and ensuring the compliance with
"Student & researchers’ mobility from applicable national laws and regulations.
academic to industry is a critical
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] Anderson, T. R., Daim, T. U., & Lovoie, F. F., Measuring the efficiency of university
technology transfer. Technovation, 27, 306–318, 2007.
[2] Andriessen, D., IC valuation and measurement: classifying the state of the art. Journal
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[11] Friedman, J., & Silberman, J., University technology transfer: Do incentives,
management, and location matter? Journal of Technology Transfer, 28, 17–30, 2003.
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Ventures: Evidence from the Small Business InnovationResearch Program, paper
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[26] ‫܉‬v‫܊‬u, M., Oprean, C., Boroiu, Al., &HUFHWDUHD H[SHULPHQWDOă DSOLFDWă vQ FUHЮWHUHD
FDOLWăаLL SURGXVHORU ЮL VHUYLFLLORU. AGIR Publishing House, ISBN 978-973-720-362-5,
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[32] http://meridia.iec.cat
[33] http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/index.html
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[36] http://www.foreurope.eu
488
Desktop-publishing (DTP):
Eta CECLAN
Rodica HURJUI
Gabriel MNESCU
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520$1,$´1,&2/$(%ą/&(6&8µ

The 23rd International Conference

MANAGEMENT AND MILITARY

The 23rd International Conference

MANAGEMENT AND MILITARY SCIENCES

15-17 June 2017

© 2017 ´Nicolae BĄlcescu” Land Forces Academy

´Nicolae BĄlcescu” Land Forces Academy

The authors take full responsibility of the content of their articles.

MILITARY SCIENCES. SECURITY AND DEFENCE

Distribution of Combat Capabilities on Objectives by Using a Transport Problem,

Manners of Performing Terrorist Attacks, Tomasz %Ą. 8QLYHUVLW\ RI ,QIRUPDWLRQ

WICS Model’s Impact Upon Successful Military Leaders, 0ăGăOLQD-Ioana %Ă',/Ă,

Security and Privacy in Smart Devices Era, Laviniu BOJOR, ³1LFRODH%ăOFHVFX´/DQG

Complex Challenges, Complex Responses and the State, Gábor BOLDIZSÁR,

Military Education and Training Supported by Blended Simulation, Pavel %8ý.$,

Challenges of the Security Environment Before the Correlation “Resources-

Using Geopolitics in the Comparative Analysis of Two International Systems Based on

Towed Anti-Tank Guns Renaissance of Almost Forgotten Weapons in Ukrainian

Revolution in Military Affairs and Outer Space, Jakub )8ýË., &HQWUHIRU6HFXULW\DQG

The Operational Environment Influence on the Development Level of Military

Emergence and Development of Civil-Military Cooperation, Grigor GRIGOROV,

Improving Coordination, Interaction and Cooperation in Humanitarian Aid Operations,

EU Policy Initiatives in the Mediterranean Region, Mariya HADZHIPETROVA-

Hybrid Warfare – a Form of Asymmetric Conflict, Laura-Maria +(5‫܉‬$, ³%DEH‫܈‬-

Wargaming and Challenges in the Experimentation Domain, Jan HODICKY, &HQWUH

Keystones of Irregular Warfare, Michal +51ý,$5, $UPHG )RUFHV $FDGHP\ RI

Cultural Interoperability – Prerequisite for the Response to Hybrid Threats, Lucian

Modern Approaches in the Training of Military Police Cadets at “Vasil Levski”

The Importance of Developing Security Culture Among Military Personnel as a Way to

Commander’s Managerial Competences in the Czech Armed Forces, Pavla

Deployability of Armed Forces in the Current Armed Conflicts, Ivan MAJCHÚT,

Military Terminology – Meanings and Grammar Approach, Ileana-Gentilia METEA,

Physiognomy of the Operations Against Terrorism, Mihai-Marcel NEAG, “Nicolae

Criteria Determination for Obstacle Effectiveness Evaluation, Tibor PALASIEWICZ,

Comparative Analysis of National Approaches to Military Capability Planning, Zdenek

Brexit – Major Consequences on the Process of European Military Integration?,

Civil Preparation of the Battlespace – Necessity in the Irregular or Hybrid Warfare,

Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield as a Part of Knowledge Development,

Theoretical and Methodological Aspects on Military Students’ Education, Robert

Non-Military Intervention Through Sanctions, Veronika STOILOVA, “Neofit Rilski”

Is Russia that Powerful in Hybrid Warfare?, 7RPL‫܊‬ă &ăWăOLQ 720(6&8, “Nicolae

The Relation Cultural Awareness – Tactical Multinational Military Structures’

Opinions Regarding the Fundamental Domains of National Security, Gheorghe

The Vicious Circle of Subsidised Employment, Boryana VARBANOVA, “Vasil

The Relationship Between Leadership and Employees, Oana Georgiana ANDRONIC,

Translation of Capability Requirement into Management by Objectives Environment,

Knowledge Management Via Erasmus Programmes, Irina Ioana BOCIANU*, Sorin

Aspects of the Management of Negotiating Class II Material Resources for the

Leadership and Corporate Social Responsibility, Hortensia GORSKI, 5RPDQLDQ-

The Organization’s Internal Environment and Its Importance in the Organization’s

Validating a Defense-Specific Cluster Conceptual Model Using Statistical Instruments,

Research on the Preparation and Professional Realisation of Newly Appointed

Security Management of University Campuses, Constantin OPREAN, Mihail Aurel

Applied Research on Strategic Management of SMEs in Romania in the Digital Age,

Empirical Study Regarding the Influence of Communication Upon the Purchasing

Considerations Regarding the Redesign of Management System of an Organization,

The Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Implementation of Vision, Vasile ROMAN,

Diagnostic Management – Method of Increasing the Potential of Research and

Intangible Resource Management – An Organisational Approach, Sebastian Emanuel

Intellectual Capital in Knowledge-Based Organization. Implications for the Military

Analysis of Some of the Applicable Outsourcing Services in the Structures of the

ROLE OF WOMEN IN SECURITY AND DEFENSE: BULGARIAN NATIONAL

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Manners of Performing Terrorist Attacks, Tomasz %Ą. 8QLYHUVLW\ RI ,QIRUPDWLRQ

Introduction The information about the situation is

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,QWURGXFWLRQ of power in terms of attracting or