TIDAL CHANNEL, LEVEE, AND CREVASSE-SPLAY DEPOSITS FROM A

CAMBRIAN TIDAL CHANNEL SYSTEM: A NEW MECHANISM TO

PRODUCE SHALLOWING-UPWARD SEQUENCES ~

K E L L Y C. C L O Y D AND R O B E R T V. D E M I C C O
Department of Geological Sciences
SUNY at Binghamton
Binghamton, New York 13901
AND
R O N A L D J. S P E N C E R
Department of Geology and Geophysics
The University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada

ABSTRACT: Two cliffexposures, 1 km and 0.7 km long and 10 m high, of the Middle-Upper Cambrian Waterfowl Formation were
mapped in detail on the Costigan Thrust in southwestern Alberta. The formation here comprises 5 rock types: intmformational
conglomerate; cross-stratified grainstone; wavy-bedded grainstone-mudstone; massive dolomite mudstone; and prism-cracked, crypt-
microbial-laminated mudstone. These rock types form a grainstone body in the upper 7 m of the outcrops and 4 fining-upwards
sequences in the lower 3 m. The grainstone body is divided into 5 storeys, each of which has a basal erosion surface overlain by an
intraformational conglomerate with interbedded thrombolites. Storeys contain lateral accretion bedding that is composed of deci-
meter-thick bedsets which are inclined up to 12 degrees relative to the basal erosion surfaces. The fining-upwards sequences comprise
basal cross-stratified grainstone overlain by wavy-bedded grainstone-mudstone that is capped by prism-cracked, cryptmicrobial-
laminated mudstones. Three fining-upwards sequences are laterally continuous. However, one fining-upward sequence pinches out
along the outcrop face. We interpret the grainstone body as the deposits of laterally migrating, sinuous tidal channels. It is not clear
whether the stacking of channel deposits into storeys represents superimposed channel-bar and channel-fill deposits from a single
channel belt or superimposed channel-belts. The fining-upwards sequences may be shallowing-upwards sequences in the sense of
James (1984) and represent aggrading-prograding tidal flat deposits. Alternatively, these sequences may be crevasse-splay and levee
deposits analogous to fluvial overbank flood sequences. In this case, these sequences may not be related to eustatic sea level changes,
although they resemble classic shallowing-upwards sequences and "'punctuated aggradational cycles."

INTRODUCTION from a Cambrian peritidal dolomite measured approxi-

Migrating tidal channels, levees and crevasse-splays are
important components of the modern carbonate tidal fiats
on Andros Island, on the eastern shore of Shark Bay in
Western Australia, and on the western margin of the Per-
sian Gulf(Hardie 1977; Shinn 1983; Wright 1984; Hardie
and Shinn 1986). Yet, facies mosaics recording these var-
ied tidal fiat sub-environments are only rarely reported
from ancient carbonate tidal fiat deposits (Friedman and
Braun 1975; Loucks and Anderson 1980; Sellwood 1986;
Diemer and Bridge 1988; Waters et al., 1989). Instead,
peritidal carbonate platform deposits throughout the geo-
logic record appear to be dominated by 1 to 10 m-thick,
laterally extensive, shallowing-upwards sequences. Such
sequences, or partial sequences (e.g., PACs, Punctuated
Aggradational Cycles, Goodwin and Anderson 1985) are
commonly reconstructed from widely spaced measured
sections which are correlated across and along deposi-
tional strike and commonly across major structural dis-
continuities (Goodwin and Anderson 1985; Grotzinger
1986; Strasser 1988). The sequences are then interpreted
to represent tidal flat aggradation and progradation under
various regimes of relative sea level fluctuations (cf. Grot-
zinger 1986; Goodwin and Anderson 1985; Strasser 1988).
Fundamental to the interpretation of carbonate cycles
as the deposits of aggrading-prograding tidal flats is the
correlation of measured sections along and across strike.
For example, Figure 1 presents two measured sections
' Manuscript received 30 December 1988; revised 23 June 1989.
mately 0.25 km apart on one thrust sheet. The base of
the sections is a shale to carbonate transition that can be
mapped over the region. In the absence of intervening
outcrop information, a number of different correlations
is possible between these two measured sections. Some
are more tempting than others, but strictly speaking all
correlations over covered intervals are guesses.
The purposes of this paper are to document lateral
facies variations within pefitidal carbonate platform
deposits exposed in continuous cliff outcrops that appar-
ently contain shallowing-upwards sequences, and to sug-
gest a possible mechanism for the origin of the shallowing-
upwards cycles in these deposits that may be unrelated
to sea level changes.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
This study focuses on continuous cliff outcrops of the
Middle to Upper Cambrian Waterfowl Formation ex-
posed in the Ghost River area of the Rocky Mountains
in southwestern Alberta. The stratigraphy of the Middle
Cambrian rocks in the Western Ranges, Eastern Ranges,
Foothills and adjacent plains in southeastern Alberta is
shown in Figure 2. The overall depositional setting of
these formations is relatively well known. Formations of
the eastern Plains, Foothills and Eastern Ranges form a
westward thickening wedge up to 2.5 km thick composed
of shales and carbonates deposited in a variety of shallow
subtidal and peritidal environments developed on a pas-
sive margin. Equivalent formations of the Western Ranges

JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARYPETROLOGY, VOL. 60, NO. 1, JANUARY, 1990, P. 73--83

Copyright © 1990, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 0022-4472/90/0060-59/$03.00
74 K E L L Y C. CLOYD, R O B E R T ~: D E M I C C O , AND R O N A L D J, S P E N C E R
( 0.25 Krn ) LEGEND
I0,
9,
~¢D5
mud fmc gravel
sand
FIG. l . - - T w o sections of Cambrian pefitidal carbonates measured
approximately 0.25 km apart from a continuous outcrop belt. See legend
for explanation of symbols. The reader is invited to correlate the sec-
tions. Lateral correlations walked out between sections are given in
Figure 6. (Columns II and IlI in Fig. 6, outcrop location given in Fig.
3).
are dominantly shales with minor carbonates and rep-
resent off-platform deposits (Aitken 1966, 1971, 1978;
McIlreath 1977; Bond and Kominz 1984).
The Waterfowl Formation is exposed across the Eastern
Ranges and Foothills in a number of eastward and north-
eastward verging thrust sheets. The thickness of the Wa-
terfowl Formation varies from 165 m to the west where
shelf margin facies are exposed, to 40 m in the Ghost
River area. The eastern limit of surface exposures is de-
fined by the Costigan-McConnell Thrust system (Fig. 3).
The Waterfowl Formation in the Ghost River area com-
prises dolomitic, inner-shelf, peritidal facies deposited
over 150 km (restored) away from the shelf edge (Waters
et al. 1989). The shaly Arctomys Formation underlies the
ROCK TYPES
Prism - cracked
cr yplrn icrobio - Iominalecl mudstone
Wavy-interbedded
grainstone- mudstone
Thrombolites in introformational conglomerates
.EJ
Massive mudstane with mudcracks
Grainstone
o ~ ~ i Intraformational conglomerate
Ji %
' ~\ \ grovel
f. mc
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
,~, Wave - ripple cross- st ratification
Unidirectional small-scale cross-stratification
Large-scale trough cross-stratification
Planar stratification
~1 Paleocurrent orientalion
Waterfowl Formation and represents a siliciclastic pefi-
tidal to marginal-marine playa depositional setting. The
Sullivan Formation that overlies the Waterfowl Forma-
tion comprises subtidal shales and carbonates.
METHODS
Six closely spaced sections of the lower 10 m of the
Waterfowl Formation were measured (including paleo-
current orientations) near the summit of Mount Costigan
along the Costigar, Thrust in the Ghost River area (Figs.
3 and 4). The outcrop comprises a NE-SW cliff face about
1 km long and a roughly perpendicular (NW-SE) cliffface
0.7 km long. Photomosaics were prepared from helicopter
and ground vantages. In addition, beds were carefully
walked out along the outcrop between the measured sec-
tions to document the three-dimensional arrangement of
rock types.
DESCRIPTIONOF THE ROCKS
The lower 10 m of the Waterfowl Formation on the
Costigan Thrust are composed entirely of dolostones that
can be divided into five rock types (Fig. 5): grainstone;
intraformational conglomerates; w a v y - b e d d e d grain-
stone-mudstone; massive mudstone; and prism-cracked,
cryptmicrobial-laminated mudstone.
Grainstones (Fig. 5A) are dominantly composed of me-
dium- to very-fine-grained peloids with minor amounts
of quartz sand. Mudstones are comprised of uniform,
anhedral mosaics of microspar-sized dolomite crystals.
Intraformational conglomerates (Fig. 5B) comprise mud-
stone clasts embedded in medium-grained peloidal grain-
stone. Mudstone clasts are mostly tabular, laminated or
 A N C I E N T CARBO&5t TE TIDAL CHANNEL. LEVEE, AND CRE VASSE-SPLA Y DEPOSITS
Fm~
WESTERN EASTERN
RANGES RANGES FOOTHILLS
-I< McKay Gp Mistoyo
Bison Creek Fm
~ Iottertail Frn Lyell Frn.
_~U. Chancellor FrnU'
Sullivan Fm
~IM. Chancellor Fm
ilL.Choncellor Fro.
Arctomys
Piko Fro.
Eldon Fm
Fm.
Fro.
tu
3E][
Stephen
~ I ___~_____----------j Cothedrol Fm
Mount Whyte Fm.
B A S A %v...~b...~..~..~,~..-..,~'..~...I.~-"* ' ' ' ' ' ' - "
FIG, 2.--Stratigraphy o f Middle to Upper Cambrian deposits of the
Rocky Mountains and adjacent Plains in southwestern Alberta.
nonlaminated internally, and range up to 0.1 m long. In
a number of cases, equant thrombolites up to 0.5 m in
diameter are interbedded with the intraformational con-
glomerates. Thrombolites (Fig. 5C) nucleate on intra-
clasts and are composed of upward-elongate mudstone
fingers a few tens of millimeters in diameter. Mudstone
fingers have rare encrustations of Renalcis and are sur-
rounded by very-fine-grained peloidal grainstone. The
wavy-bedded grainstone-mudstone (Fig. 5D) is com-
posed of fine- to very-fine-grained grainstones interbed-
ded with mudstone. The grainstone beds are 10-20 m m
thick, have flat bottoms and wave-tipple and current-
ripple form tops, and have internal current- and wave-
formed small-scale cross-stratification. The mudstone
beds are of similar thickness and are mudcracked in some
cases. Prism-cracked cryptmicrobial-laminated mud-
stones (Fig. 5E) comprise millimeter-thick lenses of cross-
stratified silt-sized peloidal grainstone that alternate with
mudstone laminae. Mudstone laminae commonly have
a notable wavy geometry and the entire deposit is typi-
cally disrupted by load casts, cryptmicrobial roll-up struc-
tures, and decimeter-deep prism-cracks. The massive do-
lomite mudstone beds are up to 0.1 m thick, may contain
traces of parallel internal laminae, and are mudcracked.
It is important to note that fossils (other than Renalcis,
see below), are not found in the Waterfowl Formation on
the Costigan Thrust sheet, although they are common on
westward thrust sheets (Waters 1986).
The rock types described above occur within this out-
crop as a (dominantly) grainstone body (upper 7 m of
section, stippled on Fig. 6A) and fining-upwards se-
quences capped by prism-cracked cryptmicrobial lam-
inites (the lower 3 m of section, unshaded on Fig. 6A).
This distinct division of the Waterfowl Formation into
grainstone bodies and fining-upwards sequences as seen
in this outcrop is also typical of 6 other outcrops along
the mountain front, where grainstone bodies comprise
25-30% of the formation and fining upwards sequences
comprise 70-75%. Although these two bedding associa-
tions can locally be seen to grade into one another, they
will be described separately.
75
Edm 51udy
~.- Outcrop
'~
~i Calgar~---~-.~.~_..~__
FIG. 3.--Location Map. Outcrop of Upper Cambrian Waterfowl For-
mation outlined on Costigan Thrust Sheet. Black portion of outcrop
belt shows location of exposure examined.
Grainstone Body
The grainstone body (Figs. 6 and 7) is composed of
dolomite grainstones (approximately 50%), dolomite
m u d s t o n e s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25%), i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l
conglomerates with thrombolites (approximately 10%),
wavy-interbedded grainstone-mudstone (10%), and prism-
cracked cryptmicrobial-laminated mudstones (approxi-
mately 5%). The grainstone body is bounded above and
below by two major, throughgoing erosion surfaces and
contains another four (Fig. 6). These six erosion surfaces
divide the grainstone body into five separate storeys (la-
belled A-E on Fig. 6B). Each major erosion surface is
traceable across the entire outcrop and is roughly parallel
to bedding. These erosion surfaces are generally overlain
by an intraclastic conglomerate up to 0.5 m thick that
contains equant thrombolites up to 0.5 m in diameter.
The lower two grainstone storeys (A and B on Figs. 6 and
7) are characterized by lateral accretion surfaces, i.e., mi-
nor erosion surfaces spaced 0.1 to 0.5 meters apart. On
the NW-SE cliff face, these lateral accretion surfaces dip
between 5 to 12 degrees relative to basal erosion surfaces
and are up to a few hundred meters long (Fig. 7). Lateral
accretion surfaces are truncated by overlying major ero-
sion surfaces.
Paleocurrent data is shown on the logs of Figure 6.
Paleocurrent directions within storeys of the grainstone
body are roughly normal to dip direction of lateral ac-
cretion surfaces. Paleocurrent directions near the base of
the lower storey (A) are toward the west, whereas roughly
eastward directed current indicators occur higher in the
storey. Reversing paleocurrent directions are common in
some sections at the top of the lower storey (Fig. 6).
Lateral accretion surfaces are parallel to major bounding
erosion surfaces on the NE-SW cliff face.
The bedsets bounded by lateral accretion surfaces are
composed of a variety o f rock types which change both
through the thickness of an individual bedset and along
the length of an individual bedset (Fig. 6B). The most
common bedsets grade through their thickness from in-
traformational conglomerate or grainstone up to mud-
76 K E L L Y C. CLOYD, R O B E R T ~ DEMICCO, AND RONALD J. SPENCER
stone. In general, each bedset also fines up the length of
a lateral accretion bedset. Thus each storey overall com-
prises a fining-upwards sequence. Sedimentary structures
also change through the thickness and along the length
of an individual bedset. Above the basal intraformational
conglomerate, a bedset generally comprises large-scale,
trough cross-stratified medium-grained grainstone that
grades up through a small-scale cross-stratified fine-grained
grainstone up into mudstone. Planar stratification rarely
occurs beneath the trough cross-stratification. Toward the
top of a storey, bedsets generally comprise small-scale
cross-stratified very-fine-grained grainstones that grade
up to mudcracked mudstones (Fig. 8). Mudcracks are
commonly found in the mudstone along the entire length
ofa bedset. In a number of cases mudstones are not found
at the tops of bedsets.
There are two notable exceptions to this general scheme.
In sections I, III, and IV, bedsets of the upper portion of
the lower storey comprise cosets of herring-bone cross-
stratified medium-grained grainstone (Fig. 6B). In section
II, the upper bedset is 0.5 m thick and the upper 0.2 m
comprises wavy-laminated mudstone that contains deep
prism cracks (Fig. 8). This prism-cracked laminated mud-
stone is a lens traceable tens of meters that is truncated
by the overlying major erosion surface. Paleocurrent ori-
entations from the cross-stratified grainstone at the base
of this bedset are 50 to 60 degrees from the trend in the
underlying lateral accretion deposit.
Bedding geometries are not as well exposed in the upper
3.5 m of the grainstone body. However, the three storeys
in this upper part show notable thickness changes along
their lengths. Between sections II and III (Fig. 6) there is
a notable thickening of the upper-most storey (E) at the
expense of the underlying storey (D). The middle storey
(C) in the sequence also contains a lens of prism-cracked
laminated mudstone that is not traceable laterally.
FIG.4.-- Photographof outcropbelt on Mount
Costigan. Arrow points out Waterfowl Forma-
tion (approximately45 m thick).
Fining- Upwards Sequences
The lower 3 m of the Waterfowl Formation on the
Costigan Thrust comprises similar rock types as the upper
7 m but in different proportions and in a different ar-
rangement. Thrombolites and other fossils are absent in
the lower three meters. Four fining-upwards sequences
occur, 0.5 to 1.5 m thick (labelled 1--4 in Fig. 6). Com-
monly, fining-upwards sequences have erosive bases
overlain by discontinuous lenses ofintraformational con-
glomerate. Unlike the inclined bedsets of the grainstone
bodies, these sequences contain no dipping bedsets in
either cliff exposure. Furthermore, although the basal two
fining-upwards sequences are continuous throughout the
outcrop, the third fining-upwards sequence is not laterally
traceable (Fig. 6). Instead, it is lens-shaped with a flat
bottom and convex top. The overlying fining-upwards
sequence has a flat top but thickens laterally as the un-
derlying sequence pinches out.
Most commonly, fining-upwards sequences are com-
posed of a basal intraformational conglomerate that grades
up to wavy-bedded grainstone-mudstone and is capped
by a wavy-laminated, prism cracked mudstone. Many of
the mud layers in the wavy-interbedded grainstone-mud-
stone are also mudcracked. In another kind of fining-
upwards sequence, planar-stratified basal grainstone
grades up to large-scale trough cross-stratified grainstone
which in turn is overlain by a small-scale cross-stratified
grainstone, and ultimately is capped by a wavy-laminat-
ed, prism-cracked mudstone. In a number of cases, uni-
directional small-scale cross-stratification is overlain by
wave-ripple cross-stratification (Fig. 9).
Paleocurrents in the basal fining-upwards sequences in
general follow the trend of those in the grainstone body.
However, there is notably more dispersion in direction.
 A N C I E N T ()4RBONA TE T I D A L CHA3~WEL, L E V E E , AND ( ' R E V A S S E - S P L A Y D E P O S I T S 77

FIG. 5.--Rock types of Waterfowl Formation on Costigan Thrust. (A) Large-scale, trough cross-stratified grainstone composed of medium- to
fine-grained peloids. Flat intraclasts lie along foresets. From approximately 5 m above base of section III (Fig. 6). Scale bar 10 m m . (B) Large-
scale cross-stratified intraformational conglomerate overlying basal erosion surface beneath storey A in section VI (Fig. 6). Lens cap is 50 m m
in diameter. (C) Etched slab of margin of tbrombolite. Upward oriented mudstone fingers with encrustations of Renalcis (arrow) surrounded by
dolomitic mudstone. Thrombolites above basal erosion surface of storey A in section I (Fig. 6). Scale bar is 10 m m long. (D) Wavy-bedded
grainstone-mudstone from 0.5 m above base of section I (Fig. 6). Note mudcrack at arrow. Scale bar is 50 m m high. (E) Prism-cracked (arrow)
cryptmicrobial laminated mudstone from top of fining-upwards sequence 1 in section lII (Fig. 6). Note load casts and cross-stratification in some
of the peloidal grainstone lenses. Penny is 16 m m in diameter.

INTERPRETATIONS across an intertidal flat. The lateral accretion bedding

Grainstone Body
The grainstone body is interpreted as channel bar de-
posits of sinuous tidal channels that migrated laterally
bounded by the major erosion surfaces is direct evidence
of lateral migration of channel bars. The intraformational
conglomerates represent basal channel lags derived from
eroded cutbank materials. The bidirectional cross-strat-
78 K E L L Y C. CLOYD, R O B E R T V. D E M I C C O , AND R O N A L D J. S P E N C E R

SW
I

i'i !i'i :"::i:~i:!i!":ii!;i]i!:

!i: ii NE ISSE

:::: L " ]11 ~. ........ ......

5.m] "::?.!'.
~!
~
:-:. -,.:~:~ .: . . . 5 (
i : . . .::::i: :: iI

- 1
j J f
i
IOrn.
f
®
I f

3 ® ®

.- ®

B 0
I ]I I]I IE

FIG. 6.--(A) Bedding diagram for outcrop on Mount Costigan. The grainstone body is stippled, the fining-upwards sequences are unshaded.
Storeys within grainstone body labelled A-E, fining-upwards sequences labelled 1-4. Heavy outline shows location of photomosaic in Figure 7.
See text for details. (B) Detailed measured sections (labelled I-VI) from A. Symbols explained in legend to Figure 1. Arrows show paleocurrent
orientations (north toward top of page). See text for details.

ification patterns and the herringbone cross-stratification
suggest tidal currents. M u d c r a c k e d m u d drapes o f lateral
accretion bedsets also indicate that channels were occa-
sionally all but empty, supporting an intertidal interpre-
tation. Large organisms were not c o m m o n in these chan-
nels. However, the e r y p t m i e r o b i a l t h r o m b o l i t e s ( K e n n a r d
a n d James 1986) found in some i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l con-
glomerates overlying the basal erosion surfaces suggest
that p o n d e d water m a y have r e m a i n e d in the deepest
portions o f the channels at low tide.
Regional p a l e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l reconstructions suggest
that paleoshorelines were to the west (Aitken 1966; Waters
1986; W a t e r s et al. 1989). Thus, relative to the inferred
paleoshoreline, the lower portions o f the channels were
generally ebb d o m i n a t e d (westerly paleocurrents, Fig. 6),
whereas the u p p e r p o r t i o n s o f the channels were flood
 .+INCIENT CARBOliC! TE TIDAL CHANNEL, LE FEE, AND CRE P)tSSE-SPLA Y DEPOSITS 79

A BASAL EROSION
SURFACES

FIG. 7.--(A) Photomosaicand (B) bedding diagram of lateral accretion bedding from storeys A and B. Locationof mosaic given in Figure 5+
The thickest lines are two basal erosion surfaces. Thinner lines are lateral accretion surfaces that dip 5 to 15 degreesto the northwest. Locations
of sections IV and V shown by vertical lines. Human figuregives scale.

dominated (easterly paleocurrents, Fig. 6). Ebb-flood seg-
regation of flow in different levels is commonly observed
in modern tidal channels (Elliot 1986).
Individual bedsets bounded by lateral accretion sur-
faces represent deposition on sloping point bar surfaces
during single depositional events. The exact nature of
these depositional events is uncertain. They probably rep-
resent either maximum flow strength associated with
spring-neap tidal cycles or storm generated floods. How-
ever, the general erosive nature of bedset bases, the lack
of mudcracked muddrapes throughout a bedset, and the
overall lack of "tidal bundle" type bedding (Nio et al.
1983) in the cross-stratified grainstones suggests that storm
generated floods were primarily responsible.
Sedimentary structures within bedsets in general record
dune migration on lower portions of channel bar surfaces
with rarer plane bed conditions. On the upper portions
of channel bar surfaces, small current ripples were com-
monly developed. These tipples commonly climbed dur-
ing deposition. The cosets of herringbone cross-stratified,
relatively coarser-grained grainstones at the tops of some
lateral accretion bedsets do not fit this general pattern.
These may be interpreted in two ways. In the first case
they may represent preservation of portions of channel
bars close to bend cross-over points. In analogous fluvial
channel deposits, these areas are typically somewhat shal-
lower and coarser-grained. Alternatively, these grain-
stones may represent extraordinary flows in the channels
where the locus of maximum current strength straightens
and shifts well up the point bar surfaces. Paleocurrents
of the lower sets in the herringbone cross-stratified cosets
are flood oriented, whereas the upper sets are ebb oriented
as would be expected for storm enhanced tides.
The decimeter-thick, tens-of-meters long, discontin-
uous lenses of wavy-laminated prism-cracked laminated
mudstones at the tops of storeys are not similar to the
mudstone of the lateral accretion bedsets that they over-
lie. The laminites are parts of fining-upwards bedsets sim-
ilar to those that comprise the lower 3 m of the outcrop.
We interpret these bedsets as levee or (possibly) crevasse-
splay deposits. Deviation of paleocurrents from the basal
grainstones of these bedsets relative to the trends in the
underlying lateral accretion deposits strongly support this
interpretation. Cryptmicrobial laminites accumulated on
the levee crests adjacent to the channel and are analogous
to the laminated muds found in the levees of tidal chan-
nels on Andros Island (Hardie 1977).
The variations in storey thicknesses within the grain-
stone body most likely represent variations in the scour
depth of the channel thalweg. Increased depth of scour
could be due to storm flows. Alternatively, storey thick-
ness variation might simply reflect positions of the sec-
tions relative to shallower portions of channels, e.g., as
between thalweg cross-over points.
Fining- Upwards Sequences
The meter-thick fining-upwards sequences that com-
prise the lower three meters of the Waterfowl Formation
are interpretable in several ways. A standard interpreta-
tion would be that they represent individual shallowing-
upwards sequences (James 1984; Hardie and Shirm 1986)
or PACs (Punctuated Aggradational Cycles, Goodwin and
Anderson 1985). In either case, they would be interpreted
as the deposits of aggrading and prograding tidal fiats
where the basal erosion surfaces represent reworking dur-
80 K E L L Y C. CLOYD, R O B E R T V. DE/VIICCO, A N D R O N A L D J. S P E N C E R

FiG.9.-- Two bedsets from fining-upwardssequence 3 from 2 m above

the base of section 1. Each bedset comprises fine-grained peloidal grain-
stone that fines up to a mudcracked mud drape. Both grainstones have
planar stratification at their bases, a central core of small-scale cross-
stratification produced by unidirectional currents, and an upper part of
wave-tipple cross-stratification. Scale-bar is approximately 0.1 m long.

b o t h single event and m u l t i p l e event bedsets can c o m p r i s e

levee a n d crevasse splay deposits, a n d indeed are the
e a r m a r k o f o v e r b a n k deposition (Bridge 1984).
A n u m b e r o f lines o f evidence s u p p o r t the interpreta-
tion that the fining-upwards sequences were d e p o s i t e d on
crevasse-splays a n d levees adjacent to tidal channels.
There are no fossils o r t h r o m b o l i t e s in these deposits.
Either the " s u b t i d a r ' portions o f the tidal-flats were very
FIG. 8.--Several bedsets capped with mudcracked mud drapes from restricted or they were d e p o s i t e d in intertidal areas as
between approximately 6.5 to 7.0 m above the base of section II (Fig. o v e r b a n k deposits. In support o f this, m u d c r a c k s occur
6). The lighter colored bed near the top of the photograph is a prism- throughout s o m e o f these fining-upwards cycles. The fin-
cracked cryptmicrobial-laminated mudstone overlyingdark colored cosel
of large-scale trough cross-stratified peloidal grainstone. Lens cap is 513 ing-upwards sequences are directly c o m p a r a b l e to the
mm in diameter. bedsets that cap migrating channel b a r deposits (storeys)
in the grainstone body. This is significant because cre-
vasse-splay a n d levee deposits should occur at the top o f
ing initial flooding, and the r e m a i n d e r o f the deposit rep- c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s . F i n i n g - u p w a r d s s e q u e n c e s c h a n g e
resents subtidal, intertidal a n d supratidal deposits. It is thickness considerably over short distances and in at least
i m p o r t a n t to note however, that fining-upwards sequence one case occur in a fiat-bottom, c o n v e x - t o p lens that dies
3 is not laterally traceable. Indeed, in the absence o f in- away laterally. W e interpret this to represent a cross-
tervening outcrop, the nature o f the correlation between section o f either a levee or crevasse-splay with the over-
sections II a n d III would n o t be determinable. lying o v e r b a n k deposit p o n d i n g in the low areas to the
A distinct alternative interpretation is that these fining- NE. W a v e - r i p p l e cross-stratification is c o m m o n in the
upwards bedsets are crevasse-splay a n d levee deposits lower fining-upwards sequences, m o s t c o m m o n l y occur-
(i.e., o v e r b a n k deposition) o f migrating tidal channels ring a b o v e unidirectional cross-stratification (Fig. 9). W e
similar to those recorded in the grainstone body. These interpret this to represent wave reworking o f the o v e r b a n k
deposits would be directly analogous to fluvial o v e r b a n k deposits beneath p o n d e d water i n t r o d u c e d by the flooding
sequences (Bridge 1984) a n d would start with m i n o r ero- event. T h e m u d drapes and eventual desiccation repre-
sion during initial storm flooding. Bedsets in which m u d - sent runoff a n d e v a p o r a t i o n o f the flood waters.
cracks occur only at the top m a y represent "single e v e n t " A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e m e t e r - s c a l e f i n i n g - u p w a r d s se-
deposits. However, fining-upwards bedsets with m u d - quences in the lower part o f the Waterfowl F o r m a t i o n
cracks throughout represent a n u m b e r o f depositional m a y represent sluggish tidal creeks which d e v e l o p e d in
events on the crevasse splay or levee as it was successively the u p p e r intertidal zone. A n u m b e r o f lines o f evidence
reoccupied by storm-flood flows. In both cases, after local are consistent with this interpretation: 1) the fact that
a b a n d o n m e n t or c o m p l e t e upbuilding o f the deposit, the they fine u p w a r d from a basal lag; 2) the m o d e r a t e a n d
highest portions o f the deposits b e c a m e covered with cy- variable flow c o n d i t i o n s recorded in the lower part o f the
anobacterial mats a n d thereafter only received s e d i m e n t sequences; 3) cracked m u d drapes that occur throughout
during storms. In analogous fluvial o v e r b a n k sequences, some o f the sequences; 4) the lack o f fauna; 5) the dis-
 A N C I E N T C A R B O N A T E T I D A L C H A N N E L , L E V E E , AND C R E V A S S E - S P L A Y D E P O S I T S
persion in paleocurrent directions; 6) the thickness of
these sequences corresponding to the depth of most mod-
ern tidal creeks (Hardie 1977). However, this interpre-
tation is less likely than our crevasse splay interpretation,
because these sheet-like sequences do not contain lateral
accretion surfaces, a feature that would be expected in
the deposit of any laterally migrating channel.
DISCUSSION
No direct modern carbonate analogs completely match
the interpretations presented here. Indeed, the best mod-
e m analogs come from modern fluvial and estuarine de-
posits and their ancient counterparts (Fisk 1947; Coleman
1969; Allen 1965; Bridge 1984; Thomas et al. 1987; Smith
1987). However, North Sea migrating intertidal channels
leave behind lateral accretion bedsets (Reineck and Singh
1980, p. 104-105). Moreover, intertidal and subtidal
channels are common in carbonate tidal fiats (Shinn 1983).
Lateral migration has left behind a basal channel lag de-
posit (Shinn 1983) and presumably lateral accretion bed-
ding as well.
Figure 10 is an aerial photograph from Joulters Cays
in the Bahamas showing modern subtidal and intertidal
channels with levees (overgrown by mangroves) and cre-
vasse-splay deposits. The levee deposits next to mean-
dering channels of the Bahamian tidal fiats described by
Hardie (1977) are of the same scale as the ones described
here and are similarly capped with cyanobactefial-lami-
nated pellet mud.
By direct analogy to fluvial deposits, we infer that the
fining-upward sequences at the base of the Waterfowl
Formation give way laterally, within a few kilometers, to
a grainstone body that represents coeval channel deposits.
Such transitions have been documented from other out-
crops of the Waterfowl Formation by Waters et al. (1989).
81
FIG. 10. -- Oblique air photograph of tidal flat
deposits developed east ofJoulters Cays, north-
ern Great Bahama Bank. Note the mangrove-
vegetated levee and crevasse-splay deposits.
Levees and crevasse-splays are rarely reported from
siliciclastic and carbonate tidal fiats (Barwis 1978, Table
1). However, levees are well documented and conspicu-
ous features of the tidal fiats of northwestern Andros
Island (Hardie 1977) and the Caicos Platform (Wanless
et al. 1988). Large washover fans from barrier beaches
are common on Andros Island but crevasse-splays have
not been reported. However, some siliciclastic tidal fiat/
estuafine areas do have both levees and crevasse splays
along tidal channels. Staub and Cohen (1979) describe
crevasse-splay deposits from tidal fiats of the South Car-
olina coast and Frey and Howard (1986, their Fig. 14, p.
921) figure intertidal crevasse-splays and levees from the
Georgia Bight.
I f we are correct, the meter-thick, fining-upwards se-
quences of the lower portion of the Waterfowl Formation
need not be the result of an instantaneous base level rise,
nor is it necessary to explain them as the result of tidal
flat progradation in the sense of Ginsburg (1971), James
(1984), or Hardie and Shinn (1986). Our overbank scenar-
io differs from these models because it involves the de-
posits of smaller features that are themselves portions of
larger tidal flats. These local subenvironments are re-
sponsible for fining-upwards sequences that superficially
resemble true tidal flat shallowing-upward sequences.
Discontinuous fining-upwards sequences capped with
cryptmicrobially-laminated mudstones that we interpret
as levee deposits are found capping all but the upper
storey of the grainstone body. This is different from the
situation described by Waters et al. 1989, where much
more of the overbank tidal-flat portions of storeys were
preserved. It is not clear if this stacking is the result of
lateral migration of channels within a channel belt or
whether each storey is itself a separate channel belt de-
posit. Storeys probably record superimposed channel belts,
because it is unlikely that upper point bar deposits would
82 KELLY C. C L O Y D , R O B E R T ~: D E 3 / I I C C O , A N D R O N A L D J. S P E N C E R
be preserved if all the deposition took place in one channel
belt. It is not possible to determine whether each storey
records a sea level still stand or normal lateral migration
of tidal channels during gradual subsidence.
CONCLUSIONS
1) The Waterfowl Formation on the Costigan Thrust sheet
is composed of a 7 m thick grainstone body overlying
4 meters of fining-upwards sequences.
2) The grainstone body contains 5, meter-thick storeys
that have lateral accretion surfaces separating deci-
meter-thick bedsets that fine both upwards and along
their length. The grainstone body represents the chan-
nel bar deposits of sinuous intertidal channels.
3) The fining-upwards sequences comprise tabular, planar
bedsets that fine upwards and are capped by a crypt-
microbial laminated mudstone. Three of the sequences
are sheetlike, and one is lenticular. The fining-upwards
grainstone-mudstone interbeds are interpreted as
overbank crevasse-splay and levee deposits built out
away from channels on to adjacent tidal flats.
4) The fining-upwards sequences resemble classic shal-
lowing-upwards sequences and PACs (Punctuated Ag-
gradational Cycles) but may not be related to sea level
fluctuations.
5) The stacking of channel bar deposits is a normal fea-
ture for aggrading deposits and neither precludes nor
necessitates episodic sea-level changes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is based in part on a Ph.D. dissertation by
Cloyd at S.U.N.Y., Binghamton. RVD and KCC were
s u p p o r t e d by National Sciences F o u n d a t i o n G r a n t
EAR8511001. RJS received financial support from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada. John S. Bridge and Tim Lowenstein reviewed
early versions of the manuscript. Eric Davaud, Andr6
Strasser, and V. Paul Wright reviewed the manuscript for
J.S.P.
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