08/03/2019 Understanding micro, mild, full and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles – x-engineer.

org

Understanding micro, mild, full

and plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles
Most of the vehicles in use worldwide are still powered by internal
combustion engines (ICE), either gasoline/petrol or diesel. A  Hybrid
Electric Vehicle (HEV)  has at least two sources of power for
propulsion: the internal combustion engine and an electric motor.

There are three main reasons for which the automotive

manufacturers are developing and selling HEVs:

reduction of the CO2 emissions (by reduction of the fuel

consumption)
reduction of the exhaust gas toxic emissions
improvement of the powertrain dynamics (by increasing total
power and torque)

The powertrain of a HEV is quite complex because it contains all the

components of an ICE vehicle plus most of the components of a pure
electric vehicle (EV). Also, depending on the level of hybridization, it
needs two energy sources, the fuel tank for the engine and a battery
for the electric machine.

Image: Toyota Prius V Hybrid Powertrain (HEV)

Credit: Toyota

If we have an ICE vehicle, in order to transform it into a HEV, we need

to add:

a high voltage battery (between 200 and 400 V)

a power electronics controller (inverter)
an electric machine
a DC-DC converter

The main disadvantages of a HEV are: it’s adding more weight to the

vehicle due to additional electric components, it’s more difficult to
build and the total price of purchasing and ownership increases
(compared to a ICE vehicle).

In most of the HEVs the electric propulsion is done using permanent-

magnet electric machines. The  main advantages of an electric
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machine, compared to an ICE, are:

constant high torque at low speeds

very high efficiency
instant torque delivery
energy recuperation capability

Image: Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid powertrain (HEV)

Credit: Chevrolet

Legend:

1. 1.8 L internal combustion engine and electric drive unit

2. lithium-ion high voltage battery system

Compared with  a conventional powertrain, by  putting together an

electric machine with an ICE we get the following advantages:

by providing torque assistance with the electric motor, the ICE

can work in the most fuel efficient point (speed and torque)
the ICE can be downsized, retaining in the same time a constant
overall torque and power of the powertrain, thanks to the
electric motor assistance
the kinetic energy of the vehicle during braking can be recovered
and stored in the high voltage battery, with the help of the
electric machine operating as a generator
the torque response of the powertrain can be improved,
because of the instant torque delivery of the electric motor
the gear ratios of the transmission can be lowered, to keep the
engine at lower speed operating points (better fuel efficiency),
because the electric motor can deliver instant torque request
from the driver

Having two sources of power, the hybrid control system needs to

decide what is the torque split between the ICE and electric machine,
depending on the driver input and vehicle operating state.

A  hybrid electric vehicle  can perform at least one or more of the

following functions:

engine idle stop/start

electric torque assistance (fill and boost)
energy recuperation (regenerative braking)
electric driving

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battery charging (during driving)

battery charging (from the grid)

A hybrid electric vehicle it’s also called a Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(FHEV), in order to make a distinction with the other types of hybrid
electric vehicles (mild and plug-in).

Image: Full Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FHEV) modes

Legend:
ENG – internal combustion engine
MOT – electric motor (machine)
TX – transmission
BATT – high voltage battery
PE – power electronics module (MOT controller)

Idle stop/start function

When the vehicle is stationary, the stop/start (S&S) function switches

off the internal combustion engine, without the intervention of the
driver (through the ignition key). This function reduces the overall fuel
consumption of the vehicle. When the driver shows the intention to
drive (clutch pedal pressed or brake pedal released) the engine is
restarted automatically.

Most of the vehicles with idle stop/start function have also some sort
of  energy management function, which optimizes the consumption
of the low voltage (12 V) battery energy. In a conventional ICE vehicle,
without any energy management, the primary function of the low
voltage battery is to generate the electrical energy required for the
engine to start. After the engine is running, the electrical energy for all
the electrical consumers is supplied by the alternator (generator),
which is putting a load torque on the engine.

If the vehicle has an energy management function, even if the engine

is running, the battery supplies electrical energy to the consumers. In
this way, the alternator doesn’t have to produce electrical energy, the
load torque of the alternator is nearly zero, and the fuel consumption
is reduces. Further, the battery is recharged when the engine is
working in the most fuel efficient points or when the vehicle is braking
(through energy recuperation).

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Image: Renault 1.6 dCi engine (Micro Hybrid)

Credit: Renault

An example for idle stop/start and  energy management functions is

the Renault engine 1.6 dCi. It comes with an  Energy Smart
Management (ESM)  function  which allows energy created under
braking and deceleration to be stored in the low voltage  battery,
helping to further reduce fuel consumption.

Vehicles that have idle stop/start and energy management functions

are called Micro Hybrids.

Electric torque assistance

The electric motor can provide additional torque to the wheel,

improving the overall torque response of the powertrain. There are
two types of torque assistance:

torque fill
torque boost

When the drive is pressing the accelerator pedal, it requests more

torque from the powertrain. An internal combustion engine
(especially diesel) has a certain delay in delivering the
requested  torque. The torque response delay of the internal
combustion engine has several causes:

the inertia of the air in the intake manifold

the mechanical inertia of the moving parts
the torque limitation (to prevent smoke in the exhaust)

In these situations, called torque  transients  (engine is changing the

operating point), the electric motor can assist, providing additional
torque, which compensates for the engine torque response delay.
This function is called torque filling.

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Image: Honda IMA powertrain (MHEV)

Credit: Honda

An internal combustion engine has a maximum torque capability,

which depends  on the engine speed.  By adding the electric motor
torque, additional to the engine torque, the maximum overall torque of
the powertrain is increased (positive offset). This function is
called torque boost and can be supplied only for a short duration of
time (order of seconds) due to battery depletion.

The function of electric torque assistance is usually provided by mild

hybrid electric vehicles (MHEV), full hybrid electric vehicles (FHEV)
and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).

When both, the engine and the electric motor, are providing torque for
vehicle acceleration, the vehicle is in hybrid/parallel mode.

Energy recuperation (regenerative braking)

When the driver is pressing the brake pedal, the vehicle needs to slow
down. Basically we need a braking torque at the wheels in order to
reduce  the vehicle speed. The total required braking torque at the
wheels can be achieved in several ways:

only through the foundation brakes (hydraulic brakes)

through the foundation brakes plus the powertrain

If the vehicle has a conventional powertrain, only with internal

combustion engine, when the driver brakes, the fuel injection is
interrupted (fuel-cut) and the engine overruns (engine braking). The
amount of engine brake is equal with the total torque losses of the
engine (friction torque + pumping losses + auxiliary devices).

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Image: Audi Prologue concept (MHEV)

Credit: Audi

Legend:

1. 48V electric machine

2. 48V lithium-ion battery
3. 12V battery
4. DC-DC converter (bidirectional)
5. 12V electrical system

In an hybrid electric vehicle, when the driver brakes, a negative torque

can be requested from the electric machine,  enhancing the braking
capability of the powertrain. In all hybrid electric vehicles, during
vehicle braking, the electric machine is in generator mode. The kinetic
energy of the vehicle spins the rotor of the generator, overcoming its
negative torque, and electrical energy is generated. The amount of
electrical energy generated (harvested) during braking
(recuperation/regeneration) depends on the power of the electrical
machine.

Electric driving

If the electric machine is powerful enough, the vehicle can be driven

in electric mode (EV). In this mode, the internal combustion engine is
switched off and the electric motor is proving all the necessary torque
for the propulsion of the vehicle.

In the case of full hybrid electric vehicles, the electric mode is only
possible up to vehicles speeds of 5 – 10 kph, due to limited energy
available in the battery. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles,
the high voltage battery has higher capacity, the EV mode
being possible up to speeds of 90 – 100 kph.

Battery charging (during driving)

Every battery has a minimum state of charge (SOC) which needs to

be maintained in order to avoid permanent damage. The state of
charge represents the theoretical amount of electrical energy
available in the battery. If the SOC of a battery is 100% means that
there is a maximum theoretical amount of electrical energy which can
be used. If the minimum SOC for the battery is 20% we can only use
80% of the theoretical maximum.

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Image: Mitsubishi Outlander powertrain (PHEV)

Credit: Mitsubishi

Depending on the size, power and chemistry of the battery, the

minimum SOC is different. In the table below there is synthesis of the
minimum SOC battery function of the type of hybrid electric vehicle:

Type of hybrid Micro Mild (MHEV) Full Plug-in

electric (S&S) (FHEV) (PHEV)
vehicle

Minimum 80 … 40 … 60 30 … 10 …

battery SOC 90 50 20
[%]

Battery voltage 12 48 / 160 200 – 300 –

[V] 300 400

Battery lead- lithium-ion / lithium- lithium-

chemistry acid nickel – metal ion ion
hydride

In any hybrid electric vehicle, function of the SOC level, the battery
can be is several states:

charge deplete
charge sustain
charging

Image: BMW i8 powertrain (PHEV)

Credit: BMW

When the battery is fully charged, the electrical energy is available for
use. In this case the battery is in charge deplete mode. When the SOC
of the battery reaches the minimum level, the internal combustion

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