INTRODUCTION BY NICK SHIRLAW,

CONFERENCE COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN

The amount of underground construction, both in progress and planned, in Singapore is

simply amazing. This Conference includes papers on the North East MRT line, the Deep
Tunnel Sewer System, the Mandai Caverns and the High Voltage Cable tunnels, as well as a
number of private sector projects. To complement this construction, the two universities are
carrying out numerous studies on various aspects of underground construction, often utilising
data from the major projects that are in progress. As for the future, all one can say is ‘you
ain’t seen nothing yet!’.

Every construction project and every research project provides valuable lessons for the future.
Much of the knowledge we have on the behaviour of the soils and rocks of Singapore during
tunnelling and excavations comes from hard won experience over the last 20 years. It is
therefore essential that the experience is documented and shared. At the same time, lessons
are being learned elsewhere in the region, which can also be applied in Singapore.

We have organised this Conference to provide a forum to share experience related to

Underground Construction. We intend that similar Conferences will be held at intervals in
the future. From the enthusiastic response we have had from authors and delegates, it appears
to be meeting a need.

A Conference really only needs four main elements: organisation, funding, authors and
delegates. I must first thank the Organising Committee, which consists of:

Secretary: TAN Thiam Soon NUS

Treasurer: Dick FLANAGAN* TUCSS
Member: WONG Kai Sin* NTU
Member: LEE Fook Hou* NUS
Member: ZHAO Jian TUCSS
Member: C.F.LEUNG NUS
Member: OW Chun Nam TUCSS

Those with a * against their name doubled as members of the technical committee, who
reviewed all of the abstracts and papers submitted. The Secretary, assisted by Doctors
Rahman and Robinson of the NUS, carried out much of the day-to day work. I must thank all
of them for their unstinting work in support of the Conference.

Funding is provided both by delegate fees and sponsorship. It is contributions of the Sponsors
that allows us to keep the delegate fees to a minimum. I would like to give particular thanks
to the Conference Sponsor, MBT, for their generosity, both in terms of sponsorship and their
support in terms of papers and delegates. I would also like to thank the other sponsors; their
advertisements appear in the Conference Programme.

Finally, I would like to thank all of the authors and delegates. At the end of the day, it is their
contribution that really matters, and all that will really be remembered of this Conference.

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Managing risks in major civil engineering works –

North-East Line experience
Rajan Krishnan
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ASTRACT: Following the completion of the main MRT network in 1990 and the subsequent
Woodlands extension in 1996, the North-East Line is the next major line to be undertaken by the Land
Transport Authority (LTA). This S$5 billion 20km fully underground system is a major civil
engineering undertaking as it runs below a heavily developed corridor through mixed and highly
variable soil conditions. Right from the concept stage, risks associated with each stage of the project
as it affects safety, programme, quality and cost were identified and measures were put in place in
managing the project so as to minimise or mitigate these risks. The paper discusses some of these
measures and approach taken on the North-East Line.

1 INTRODUCTION

The North-East Line is a 20km long fully underground mass transit system connecting Punggol in the
North-East and HarbourFront (World Trade Centre) in the south. It runs through the heavily populated
areas of Chinatown, Little India, Serangoon, Upper Serangoon and Hougang and will serve the
upcoming new towns of Sengkang and Punggol. There are sixteen stations en-route and two of the
stations, Dhoby Ghaut and Outram Park will serve as interchange stations with the existing North-
South and East-West lines respectively. Supporting the system is a new Depot over a 22 Ha site at
Sengkang.

2 PLANNING

Planning for the line first started in 1984/1985. The North-East line sector had always been identified
as an area that would require a mass rapid transit system to serve the transport needs.

With HDB firming up its building programme for the Sengkang and Punggol new towns, the
commuter traffic these new towns would generate made this line economically viable.

The line is expected to carry a daily ridership of around 400,000 when these new towns are fully
developed.

On 16th January 1996, the government announced that it would proceed with the building of the new
line. The line is scheduled for opening in late 2002.

The budget allocated for the project is S$5 billion.

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3 MANAGEMENT DRIVERS

This paper looks at the approach and steps the North-East line project team (NELP) took in planning
the execution of the civil engineering aspects of the works. A risk management approach was taken by
NELP in the implementation of the project. The main drivers that had to be managed were :

a. Safety - The project had to be implemented safely and it has to be an

absolutely safe system for the commuters.

b. Quality - All aspects of the final product had to meet the requirements set out in
the materials and workmanship specifications, design criteria and
general specifications.

c. Schedule - Besides meeting the completion date of year 2002, the sheer size and
scope of the project meant that hundreds of interface key dates had to
be realistically set and measures implemented to meet each of them.

d. Budget - As in any project, this has to be closely monitored and controlled right
from the planning stage, through implementation to ensure prudent
financial control so that the project is managed within the budget of
S$5 billion.

e. Environmental - As large scale infrastructure projects have a major effect on the

controls and environment and daily lives of the residents and businesses along the
public relations route, the impact have to be very carefully managed to ensure that
these are mitigated and minimised.

NELP’s experience in managing these drivers has been influenced by LTA’s experience in handling
major infrastructure projects. As most of the key members of the NELP team were assembled from
experienced staff from earlier projects, a risk management approach meant first identifying, through
the collective experience, all the major risks that could derail the drivers mentioned above. These risks
are analysed and then allocated to the Contractor or retained by LTA, according to who would be the
best party to manage the risk. This would then guide how the various contracts are packaged, roles
and responsibilities are spelt out in the various contract documents, setting milestone dates within the
tenure of the contracts and stipulating payment terms.

4 PROCUREMENT STRATEGY

Once the decision to proceed with the project was given, and the time line for delivery set, a decision
was taken on the overall procurement strategy. It was decided that to kick start the project quickly the
Design and Construct arrangement on a fixed lump sum basis for the civil/structural/architectural
contracts, would be the most suitable strategy. This would enable construction to commence whilst
the detailed designs were being developed by the Contractor. This would shorten the overall time for
the project between inception and completion, thus meeting the stipulated schedule for the project.

With this arrangement, the Contractor assumes the design responsibility and he has to ensure the
design is suitable for its purpose and requirements as defined in the Authority’s performance
specifications, design criteria and be in line with the Authority’s concept drawings. The risk of
performance of the contract is thus firmly with the Contractor. The Contractor is at liberty to carry out
the design using his in-house staff or farm it out to design consultants who would then carry the
burden and risk of design.

Under the design and build scheme, the Contractor can stage his design and obtain the necessary
statutory clearances and acceptance of the Engineer in stages and proceed with the construction whilst
carrying out the detailed designs of the later stages. He could also optimise the design of his

6
temporary and permanent works and his construction methodology to achieve the most cost-effective
solution on site.

The Contractor, however, shall retain the responsibility to ensure that his design is adequate, practical
and suitable for its purpose. He also carries the full responsibility for the safe execution of the works
to the specified quality and within the stipulated time.

5 PRE-CONTRACT ACTIVITIES

With the physical parameters, including the route, number of stations, linkages with adjoining
developments and Depot established, the project team got down to the task of planning for its
implementation through effectively managing the 5 main drivers.

The main issues the team had to establish in the early project planning days were :

a) Setting up the NEL project team, both in terms of numbers as well as skill sets. This is
perhaps the most critical stage in managing the project. Steering the key drivers would be in
the hands of the staff. Construction of deep underground stations and tunnels in heavily built-
up areas always comes with its risks. People with the relevant engineering experience and
skills have to be identified and recruited either from Singapore or overseas to manage it. The
fact that work on all 20km (route length) of the twin tunnels, 16 stations and Depot are to
progress almost simultaneously and that LTA had decided at the outset to retain the
professional responsibility for the supervision of the works to ensure quality meant that a large
experienced team had to be assembled in a fairly short time.

These include engineers, architects, contracts officers, programme planners, designers and
various grades of technical officers and inspectors. Of specific importance were the tunnelling
engineers with experience in tunnel boring machines working in soft ground and geotechnical
engineers.

At its peak, the NELP team had a team of around 700 staff of which about 440 were to handle
the civil engineering, structural and architectural works. In their hands, lay the responsibility
to steer the main drivers stated above.

b) Pre-qualification of contractors – the Contractor is the other party that carries the burden and
risks of the project. Contractors undertaking the project have to have the relevant experience
in successfully handling underground projects of similar scope and scale. They have to be of
sound financial standing, able to handle contracts valued between S$150 and S$300 million.
Pre-qualification exercise was carried out, with advertisement placed around the world locally.
43 contractors/consortiums, either individually or as joint ventures (JV), applied to be
considered. They came from more than 8 nationalities with several partnering local firms in
joint ventures.

A review was carried out of all the applications against the various civil engineering contract
packages. 6 to 8 firms or JVs were shortlisted for each package. This shortlisting exercise
ensured that only contractors with the required capacity and ability would be carrying out the
works and there would be sufficient competitive element in the tender process. This is a very
important process in risk management on the project.

6 PACKAGING CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS

Of the S$5 billion budget for the project, about S$3 billion is for the civil/structural/architectural
works and trackworks. The works had to be carved out to packages of sufficient size to interest major
contractors and at the same time ensure that it does not pose a major financial risk to the overall

7
project. Generally, the whole of the NEL was divided up into packages of 2 stations and the twin
tunnels between them. However, for complex stations, such as Dhoby Ghaut and Chinatown, the
contract package was limited to only these stations by itself. The whole of the NEL was thus divided
up into 12 civil engineering packages numbered C701 to C712. Each of the packages was between
S$150 million to S$250 million.

In the case of the Depot, it was decided to treat the whole of the 22 Ha Depot as one entity. All
building services, including electrical works, air conditioning and mechanical ventilation, lighting, lifts
and escalators were also packaged into the civil contract. This approach was different for the rest of
the 16 stations where separate Mechanical and Electrical contracts were let out to different specialist
contractors and each of them had to fit out all the 16 stations as specialist system wide contractors.

At the time of placing the civil engineering contracts for the stations, the architectural works had not
been developed, though there were guidelines provided in the Authority’s architectural design criteria.
A sum of money, Provisional sum, was set aside in each civil contract to be expanded for the
architectural works. The Contractor is required under his design and build responsibility to develop
the architectural designs and details to the Authority’s requirements. This allows NELP a full say in
the quality and type of finishes. The main contractor then carries out a tender process together with
NELP to select a sub-Contractor to carry out the architectural works. This ensures that the
architectural finishes are value for money through a separate competitive tender exercise. Only
suitably pre-qualified contractors are allowed to participate in this architectural finishes sub-Contract
exercise.

Trackwork for the whole line is treated as a system wide contract covering the entire line and the
Depot. A single trackwork package ensures an identical trackway system throughout the system. For
efficiency and productivity tracklaying works require all stages of its work to be carried out in a
continuous linear fashion. Thus, the dates when the trackwork contractor will be given access into the
various stretches of tunnels constructed by the different civil contractors to carry out trackworks had to
be clearly defined early in the project. These key interface dates will also have to be similarly defined
in the respective civil works contracts so that tunnel sections will be completely ready for the
trackwork contractor to continuously progress his works without interruption. Managing of these
tunnel construction key dates remains one of the critical targets of the project team.

In all major underground projects, there is a need for a large number of pumps. These include ejector
pumps, sump pumps, booster pumps, etc. Procurement of these pumps could have been let under each
of the civil contract packages. However, the risk is that the NEL could end up with a large variety of
technically compliant pumps, leaving the Operator to maintain a variety of pumps and stocking a large
range of spares. It was decided to package the supply of pumps as a system wide package and the
successful contract was novated to the main contractors as sub-Contractors. This ensured a
commonality of pumps all through the system, LTA gets the benefit of bulk tender and the main
contractor retains the responsibility for the supply and installation of the pumps. A similar approach
was taken for all ironmongery items so as to ensure a common key suiting system for the whole NEL.

A common signage and graphics throughout the line is very essential to guide the commuters within
the transit system. Though the commuters do expect location of signages to vary according to the
layout of the station entrances, they do expect to be guided by a familiar arrangement of signages
(including size, colour and texture) once they are within the station proper, up to the platform and
trains. Thus, once the philosophy and guidelines regarding the signages and graphics were finalised, a
system wide contract was let. This contract was managed by the project team as a separate contract.
All the respective civil contractors and the signage and graphics contractor had to closely co-ordinate
with each other regarding the number, type, location and mounting details of all the signs. The NEL
project team had to closely manage and guide the process to ensure that signages and graphics would
effectively serve the commuters.

8
7 OTHER ADVANCED WORKS

To ensure that the works progress smoothly after contract award, the project team undertook a number
of advanced works, well ahead of the tender exercise for the various contracts. These include :

Site investigations

(i) These include an extensive range of soil investigations all along the route of the tunnels,
stations and depot. Soil bore logs were obtained at more than 840 locations with a higher
concentration around the station locations. Typically, a borehole was sunk every 50m of the
route and around 15 boreholes around each station. These extensive investigations and tests
such as Cone Penetration Test, Pressure Meter Test, Plate Loading Test, etc. are necessary to
ensure a good understanding of the soil conditions all along the route. The total cost of the
advanced soil investigation was about S$4 million. A failure to appreciate the variations in the
soil profile and the complexities at the interfaces between different soil formations could prove
to be very costly in terms of time, money or safety. Extensive and comprehensive soil
investigation and the proper interpretation and usage of the results is the most important factor
in developing appropriate construction techniques and minimising risks associated with deep
excavation and tunnelling works and to adjacent structures and buildings.

(ii) Condition survey of existing building and structures

In order to predict the effects of excavation and tunnelling works, it is necessary, besides
understanding ground and water table movements to have a comprehensive knowledge of the
foundation of buildings and structures along the corridor of the route. All the structures within
a 100m corridor are identified and an extensive search is made through building records and
archives to obtain the original structural and foundation drawings. Evaluations are made on
the effects of construction activities on these structures so that mitigating and preventative
measures can be planned early to ensure there is minimal effects on these structures as a result
of the construction activities.

A separate contract was let on the NEL to carry out the condition survey before tender as well
as during construction activities. This information was made available to the tenderers.

(iii) Utility lines

Investigation of existing service utilities and their precise locations along the route were
carried out using open trial trenches. This enabled a schedule of utilities affected by the works
to be listed out and early decisions made to either divert them out of the way or to keep them
within the construction site and temporarily support them. The risk having to deal with
unidentified utility lines and deciding how to deal with them in the midst of construction work
can be extremely disruptive and impact on the progress. The effort and care in identifying
utility lines early removes a significant risk during tender and construction stage.

(iv) Traffic diversion plans

Almost the whole of the NEL is below existing road reserves with a large number of stations
below the existing road junctions. This is to minimise additional land take and provide better
access to commuters who arrive on foot, buses or private cars.

However, this has a major impact on the existing traffic as these road junctions have to be
opened up to construct the stations.

Co-ordination have to be carried out with a number of authorities and landowners to plan road
and road junction diversion schemes well ahead of the tender stage. These road and road
junction diversion concept plans are provided to all tenderers for them to appreciate the scope

9
 of the issue. Contractors are also free to come up with their own proposals for the Engineer’s
approval.

A major project programming risk can be mitigated or minimised through a well thought out
road diversion scheme.

(v) Advance procurement of work sites

A considerable project time can be saved through the procurement and making available work
sites along the route. These can be used for offices, materials fabrication, storage and launch
sites immediately after contract award. Acquisition of land for construction purposes and
work sites need a long lead time. Impact on project schedule can be considerable if the land
required for the works is not available in time.

8 PROJECT PLANNING AND MONITORING

The key in ensuring that a project is delivered on schedule is identifying the key milestone dates,
allocation of responsibilities to the respective parties responsible to achieve these key dates and
subsequently putting in place the management and monitoring processes to ensure each and every of
the key dates are met.

On the NEL, due to the size of project, more than 30 major contractors and another 60 other contracts
have to be managed and co-ordinated. These include the civil, trackwork, architectural, specialist
electrical and mechanical contracts and consultants.

The packaging of contracts is often dependent on the overall project programming requirements. A
master programme was first drawn up for the overall project covering

a) design
b) civil construction and trackwork
c) electrical and mechanical procurement and manufacture
d) electrical and mechanical installation
e) architectural finishes
f) electrical and mechanical testing and commissioning
g) test running of the system including trains
h) trial running of train operations
i) system opening

These activities, together with some of the sub-activities are used to draw up a first level master
programme. Each of these activities is then broken to its components. Using average productivity
rates and the given time to complete the civil and structural works for the stations and tunnels, the
whole line is divided up into contract packages so that a sufficient number of fronts can be opened up
by different contractors simultaneously. This way, a number of parallel activities can be progressed to
meet the time allocated to complete the works. Of course, in sizing up the contract packages, the value
of the packages are also considered so as to manage the financial risk. A similar exercise is also
carried out for all the other major activities.

The master programme is then expanded to include all the procurement contract packages. Next
comes the interface programme between all the respective contracts. A far more detailed programme
is developed to work out the key dates when sections of the tunnels, areas of individual stations are to
be completed by the civil contractors so that it can be handed over to the trackworks and electrical and
mechanical contractors for them to commence work. Interface key dates have to go down to
individual room level within a station where architectural finishing works have to interface with the
equipment fit out followed by testing and commissioning of the equipment.

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These programme requirements, key dates and interface have to be spelt out clearly in the
specifications together with scope of responsibilities of each of the interfacing contractors, at each
stage, clearly narrated.

Each of the contractors, when producing their construction, programmes have to incorporate all the
specified programming key date requirements. The progress of the works is then closely monitored
against all of the key dates, so as to manage the programme schedule risk. Primavera is the specified
programming tool specified on the NEL project so that the project team and the contractors are able to
use a common platform in monitoring the progress of the project.

9 FINANCIAL AND CONTRACT MANAGEMENT

Management of the financial and contractual issues is another key task of the project team. The
project managers are not only responsible for the quality and progress but has to ensure financial
procedures are adhered to in dealing with payments, authorising and valuing variations and evaluating
claims.

Most technical and programming decisions made will have financial implications. The project team,
including the contracts officers and contract managers, have to be aware of the cost and time
implications of the decisions that are made or instructions given to the contractor. This is a key factor
in managing financial risks on a project.

Further to the procedures, a check and balance is provided by the LTA’s cost control team who carry
out independent evaluation of payment and valuations.

10 ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC RELATIONS ISSUES

Construction of the NEL is a major intrusion into the environment and daily lives of the people who
live and work along its route. The disruptions and inconveniences have to be mitigated, minimised
and managed.

Careful and meticulous planning of traffic diversions, drain and footpath diversions, relocation of bus,
taxi stops and pedestrian overhead bridges, not only benefit the public but also ensure smooth progress
of the works.

A comprehensive public relations is planned early in the project and instituted to ensure the public in
the vicinity are well informed of all stages of the work. Contact numbers of the project staff and the
contractors are provided, so that feedback/complaints are received quickly and remedial action, where
necessary, rapidly effected.

The project team has to be constantly aware of the risks the various construction activities pose to the
public at the different stages of the work. By working closely with the grass root organisations,
businesses and schools, the project team develops a close understanding of their concerns and is able
to be more pro-active in their approach to resolving these concerns. At the same time, the public and
businesses that are affected by the works have a better understanding of the construction activities as
well as the short term inconveniences they have to put up with.

Overall, this results in a better working environment.

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 Underground Singapore 2001

The use of foams and polymers in Earth Pressure

Balanced TBMs
F.J.Kupferroth, P.Ellenberger
Degussa Construction Chemicals - Underground Construction Group, Switzerland

Bo Anders Kalin
Degussa Construction Chemicals – MBT Singapore Pte Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Earth pressure balanced TBMs (EPBM) are being increasingly used to meet the
demands for excavation of urban tunnels for transportation, services and sewage systems. In some
circumstances slurry machines would be the obvious choice, but with the use of foam and polymers
the boundary between the two methods is becoming blurred as new polymers are developed.
Polymer development is not only directed towards better performance but must also meet the needs of
the environment and occupational safety.
This paper discusses the role of foam and polymers with projects using EPB machines.

1 INTRODUCTION

The demands for transport, water and other services by ever increasing population densities in modern
cities means that Mass Rapid Transit systems, sewage and electrical and telephone cable tunnels are
needed. Earth pressure balanced machines (EPBM) are becoming more favoured than slurry machines
due to the ground conditions and because there is often no possibility to set up the bentonite slurry
processing plants normally required.
Additionally, where bentonite slurry machines are used environmental issues have reduced the number
of available sites for land filling the contaminated soil. Re-use of the soil is again limited due to the
bentonite content, even if this is only 2-3%.
The range of use of Earth Pressure Balanced machine, and the typical conditioning requirements, in
comparison to Slurry type machines is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1:The approximate range of soil conditioning for EPB machines.Jancescz et.al 1999

15
Earth Pressure Balanced TBMs maintain pressure at the face using the soil as it is excavated, usually
conditioned with water or foam (with or without polymers) depending on the prevailing ground
conditions. Some of the important parameters for soil conditioning are improved stability for the
tunnel face, better control of ground movements; more uniform pressures in the working chamber;
better control of groundwater inflow and a reduction in clogging of the machine head. Additionally,
improved material flow through the cutter head; flow of soil and water through the screw conveyor;
reduced power requirements for the cutter head; reduced wear of cutterhead face, tools and wear parts
of the muck removal system and more acceptable spoil, which gives easier handling of the excavated
soil.

2 GENERAL BACKGROUND TO FOAM ADDITIVES

Foams are surface-active agents, alternatively surfactants or tensides, consisting of long chain
molecules made up from repeating structural units. The formulation and the chemistry of the foam
additive will determine the quality of the foam that can be produced at the foam generator. Different
products are needed as the chemistry of the foam additive may or may not work well with the soils on
the project. Examples of this are clay soils and soils containing large quantities of gypsum or
ironstone.
Foam molecules have a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head (Figure 2). When mixed with air the
molecules align themselves with the hydrophobic tail in the air and the hydrophilic head in the water.
Surface tension and repulsion create the bubble. Bubbles themselves actually are not round but take on
the approximate form of a hexagon (Figure 3), where the thickness of the bubble wall is determined by
the strength of the solution (Cf) and the expansion ratio (FER). The quality of the foam is also
governed to a large extent by the design of the foam generator.

Bulk Liquid

Figure 3: Close up of a bubble structure; Milligan

Figure 2: Schematic of foam
The basic requirements for a foam are that it should be stable during injection and mixing with the
soil, but should become unstable as soon as possible after discharge from the screw conveyor. In the
first case it is important to maintain pressure and a plug in the screw conveyor, in the second to reduce
the volume of soil for transportation and land filling.
Breakdown of the foam can last for minutes or days, depending on the type of soil and the quality of
the foam and the soil type. For instance if we measure the time it takes for foam alone to breakdown,
using a simple test, this may be a matter of minutes. If we then compare this same foam but mixed
with a sharp sand, breakdown may occur in several days. The rate at which the breakdown occurs is
also dependant on the formulation of the product and the length of time a foam has been confined as
well as the pressure of confinement.
A general use of foam and polymers and polymers related to soil types and conditions is shown in
Table 1 below.

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Table 1 : Summary of the use of soil conditioning in EPB machines (Milligan:2000)
Soil type Mining characteristics Treatment
Plastic clays Tend to reconstitute with little
loss of strength in machine
chamber.
Laminated, silty or sandy Break up better, but still tend to
clays re- constitute, slightly abrasive,
form plug.
Clayey sands and gravels. Flow easily, may form plug if
fines content in excess of 10%;
highly abrasive.
Silty fine sands Do not flow, do not form plug,
allow groundwater inflow,
Sand/gravel highly abrasive; - problems
increase with larger particle
sizes.
Gravel and cobbles
Cobbles and Boulders Tend to congregate in clumps
in head and/or jam screw.
High dosage of foam at head to keep
excavated material as separate pieces
Possibly none other than water to reduce
shear strength to acceptable value; in
stiffer clays, medium dosage of foam at
head. Possibly add lubricant to foam to
reduce abrasion.
Add lubricant polymer at head to reduce
wear; add water-absorbing polymer at
screw if required to form plug and control
water inflow.
Foam with polymer 0.1%
additive to stiffen foam
and provide lubrication; 0.25%
approximate dosage rates
for polymer dependant on
1 -3%
the polymer type
Large dosages of additive to keep cobbles
and boulders separate in head and provide
water control and lubrication.

3 POLYMERS

Polymers have a relatively long history of use and are for the most part spin-offs from the oil drilling
industry, which has very similar requirements to EPBM tunnelling viz.: prevention of face collapse,
removal of cuttings and reduction in wear and torque. Several methods of improving lubrication and
wear resistance have been used, for example adding oil or emulsifying agents to foam.(Lyon;2000)
Polymers are also used to modify bentonite slurries to improve yield without increasing shear and to
improve "cake formation".
Polymers have the following basic functions in EPB machines:
• To increase the viscosity of water in the soil in the immediate vicinity of the face
• To bind fine particles of silt & sand to reduce permeability
• To increase stiffness of the ground & help form a "plug" in the screw conveyor.
• To stiffen or strengthen the foam to help prevent breakdown (for instance during stoppages)
• To lubricate the soil to assist travel through the working chamber & screw conveyor
• To prevent or reduce adhesion to face plates, tools and other metal surfaces.
• To reduce cutterhead torque for lower maintenance and increased speed of advance

In slurry machines:
• Reduction/prevention of clay agglomeration
• Increase yield without increasing shear
• Improvement in the development of a "cake"

These are some of the most important features but by no means an exhaustive list.
3.1 Polymers -a simplified model
Where soil particles exist in a saturated condition the consistency of the soil is between wet and fluid
as seen in the simple illustration below (Figure 4a and 4b).

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 Water soluble polymer

Soil particle

Moisture

Figure 4a. Simplified soil / water model

When a water-soluble or partly water-soluble polymer is introduced into the system water is taken
from the surrounding soil.
The polymer swells with the uptake of water and the soil particles are able to move closer together,
increasing the inter-particle friction and so giving the impression of stiffening or 'drying'.
In fact the actual moisture content remains the same and some polymers will even release the trapped
water with time.
Water soluble polymer

Soil particle

Moisture

Figure 4b. The effect of adding water-soluble polymers to a soil water system

3.2 Types of polymer

Polymers types typically in use today range from Polyacrylamides, various gums, such as Guar &
Xanthan, Cellulose Ethers , Carboxy Methyl Cellulose(CMC) being one of the most common. The
basic property common to them all is that they have long polymer chains. A polymer is a repeating
chain of monomers. The length of the chain is expressed as an increasingly higher molecular weight.
Typical values, for these types of product, range from 10s of thousands to millions and usually these
products are supplied as powders to be mixed on site into a solution for use on the TBM.

3.3 New polymer types

New types of polymer being developed have no different requirements to those above, except in one
particular respect, and that is the products are delivered as liquids, ready to use, instead of needing to
be mixed with water on site. On first analysis it would seem to be an advantage to store powder and
have a simple mixing plant to make up the solution as required. It should be noted that a simple mixing
plant consists of pumps, flow-meters, storage tanks for water, the mixed product and the mixer itself.
However, some powder polymers do not readily dissolve in water and the use of high shear mixers can
break down the polymer chain, with a resultant loss of performance.
As one of the main properties of polymers is the ability to "absorb" or bind water this can result in a
loss of product if storage is not according to the manufacturer’s recommendations (e.g. in tropical
climates). Mixing therefore, apart from being more plant to maintain, becomes an additional quality
control point.
The polymers currently under development have a totally different chemistry to the previously
discussed polymer products. Examples of three of them are given in the case histories later in this

18
paper. The same polymers are not just designed for use in EPB machines alone but can also be used in
slurry shield machines. One of the applications is the prevention of clay agglomeration, which can be
seen in the example below. As an example, samples of clay were taken from a project where
agglomeration of the clay particles in bentonite slurry was occurring. The agglomeration resulted in
the clay sinking to the bottom of the cutterhead where it blocked the outlet for the slurry. In the test the
clay was cut into chips of approximately 8 –10mm diameter and 20 –25mm long.
Slurry made with the Bentonite from the site, at the same solids rate, was used in the testing. The
dosage of polymer was based on the bentonite slurry volume.
The clay chips (Fig 6 –13) were rolled using a bottle and rolling equipment (Fig:5) for one hour and
the appearance of the clay observed.

Bentonite Slurry
Rolling bottle (~100mm ) diameter
Clay chips

Mechanised Rollers

Figure 5. Schematic of the rolling bottle test

Results

Figure 6.Clay chips Figure 7.Effect of slurry alone

Figure 8. Effect of polymer 1 at 0.05% Figure 9.Effect of polymer 1 at 0.1% Figure 10.Effect of polymer 1 at 0.2%

Figure 11.Effect of polymer 2 at 0.05% Figure 12. Effect of polymer 2 at Figure 13. Effect of polymer 2 at
0.1% 0.2%

19
The pictures above demonstrate the effects of two different polymers in preventing clay
agglomeration. As can be seen Polymer 1 gives almost agglomeration free results at all dosages whilst
Polymer 2 initially improves the agglomeration but gives worsening results as the dosage increases.
This clearly demonstrates the need for testing to determine the correct polymer and dosage for each
application.
A third type of polymer has anti-clogging properties when used with sandy clayey soils. It acts like a
“dispersant” to allow foam to penetrate the soil. These “dispersants” do not have such long chain
length as the previous types used to bind soil and water.(Fig 14). They act by releasing water trapped
between the clay particles, which increases the fluidity of the soil, without the need for large quantities
of water to be added. Foam is, as a result, much easier to mix into the soil to provide the correct
structure for EPB excavation.

Figure 14:Approximate mode of action of a dispersing type polymer

4 CASE STUDIES

4.1 A water collector running close to the sea through beach sand
The first case study involved a tunnel of approximately 5km in length with a 3.85m diameter EPB
TBM. Most of the tunnel was excavated through cohesionless fine silty sand under 1.5 to 3 bar
seawater pressure.

Figure 15: Particle size distribution for the soil

20
Because of the nature of this soil it was necessary to create the correct plasticity and impermeability to
hold the pressure and allow excavation of the soil through the screw conveyor.
To maintain the pressure a mixture of polymers and foam were injected to the face and the screw
conveyor. A foam was made from a 2.5 -3% foam solution (Cf) and expanded to an FER (Foam
Expansion Ratio) of approximately 10. Polymer 2, at a rate of 0.7 litres/m3 of soil, was injected into
the face and working chamber with the foam. This gave structure to the soil by helping to bind the fine
soil particles and increase the viscosity of the water. This helped to reduce the permeability of the soil
and increase support at the face.
To add more stiffness to the soil, as well as lubrication, to form a better “plug”, Polymer 1 ,which
replaced polymer 2, was injected at 1 litre/ m3 with the foam at the bottom of the screw conveyor.
This allowed continuous advance throughout the project.

4.2 Polymer use in a sandy clay environment.

In a metro project using an EPB TBM of 9.5meters diameter the contractor encountered a difficult
zone of sticky sandy clay which clogged the cutterhead and working chamber.

Figure 16 :An example of a clogged cutterhead

Standard foam products were unable to prevent clogging of the cutterhead and working chamber and
polymers described above also did not help to reduce the adhesion, although under normal
circumstance they would have worked. (Figures 16,17 & 18)

Figure 17 & 18: Clogging of the working chamber

Typical progress was 20-30mm/min with frequent stoppages to manually to remove the clay.

21
After addition of the polymer, the advance rate increased to more than 70 - 80mm/min due to a
reduction in torque, with no further “clogging”, or soil adhesion in the cutterhead and working
chamber.

5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Certain polymers such as Cellulose Ethers are considered environmentally sound. They have a high
biodegradability with no toxic by-products in the process. New types of polymers also have to be
environmentally friendly.
Some polymers, such as Polyacrylamides, in the light of recent problems in Europe, are now
questionable as to their environmental “friendliness”. In low dosages they are considered perfectly safe
but high contents of the products leached into the groundwater and remaining in the soil have been
shown to have highly toxic effects. There are moves to ban the use of these products in Europe.
There is much made of the word “biodegradability” in the industry as if it were the only thing to
consider. Generally we are concerned with the environmental effects in soil and ground water. The
whole process of wastewater management is a subject in itself, but in broad terms the following
applies, certainly in Europe.

5.1 EU labelling guide - ecotoxicological properties

Aquatic environment Ecotoxiclogical Properties and Risk Phrases

• N, R 50 very toxic to aquatic organisms
• N, R 50/53 very toxic to aquatic organisms,
may cause long-term effects in the aquatic environment
• N, R 51/53 toxic to aquatic organisms,
may cause long-term effects in the aquatic environment
• R 52/53 harmful to aquatic organisms,
may cause long-term effects in the aquatic environment
• R 53 may cause long-term effects in the aquatic environment

Test Procedures to determine the ecotoxicological effects of foam additives and polymers are shown in
Table 2 below:

Table 2 . Test methods to OECD requirements

Aquatic Toxicity
Acute Fish Toxicity OECD 203
Acute Daphnia Toxicity OECD 202
Alga Toxicity OECD 201
Acute Bacteria Toxicity OECD 209
Biodegradability
Ready Biodegradability OECD 301 A-F
Inherent Biodegradability OECD 302 A-C
Coupled Units Test OECD 303 A

Relevant properties in an aquatic environment are, therefore, toxicity, biodegradability and

bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation refers to the build up up toxic substances in lifeforms which has an
effect on the food chain, for instance, the build up of mercury in fish which affects humans.

From the above in terms of toxicity:

• Non biodegradable or bioaccumulating substances have only to be classified, if:
• EC50 or LC50 >100 mg/L
and water solubility <1 mg/L
and NOEC <1 mg/L

22
Definitions:
LC50 = Lethal concentration for more 50% of the test population: e.g. Daphnia or fish
EC50 = Effective Concentration affecting more than 50% of the test population
NOEC=No Observable Effect Concentration

So,
• Biodegradability and toxicity are always correlated.That is you cannot consider one without the
other.
• Non-biodegradable or bioaccumulating substances have only to be classified if the above
mentioned criteria are met. An exception is N, Risk phrase 50.
• A low biodegradability does not imply that the substance has a high ecological relevance.
• Suitable test procedures have to be employed to obtain the most reliable results. The test method
has been shown to have a significant effect on the result.

Therefore it is necessary to have ecological information and possibly carry out a risk assessment on
each project to assess the possible effects of spillage or high dosages of polymer and foam
concentrates in the surrounding soil, and the effects of these products leaching into local groundwater
systems. Manufacturers should be able to provide details of how their products can be assessed to meet
environmental requirements.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Polymers are an essential tool for improving the properties of foam and the structure of soil.
Some of the properties that currently can be provided are:
• Better face support through binding of soil particles and modification of the viscosity of water
• Lubrication to allow smoother flow through the screw conveyor and at the same time form a
“plug”
• Improved stiffness/strengthening to foam
• Anti-clogging and anti-adhesion properties

Polymers are also useful in preventing adhesion of the mixed soil on to conveyor belts and rollers.
New forms of polymer for EPB and Slurry machines are liquid, ready to use products with superior
performance due to their chemical properties. Product research and development of new and
innovative polymer products continues to find ways of meeting the needs of the industry in terms of
performance and safety of use, meeting both environmental and worker safety demands, and of course
cost effectiveness.

REFERENCES
Janscecz,S & Krause,R & Langmaack,L. 1999. Advantages of soil conditioning in shield tunnelling: Experiences
of LRTS Izmir. ITA Oslo
Lyon.J. May 2000. World Tunnelling
Milligan,G. 2000. Lubrication and Soil Conditioning in Tunnelling, Pipe Jacking and Micro-tunnelling. A State
of the art review
MBT UGC International. Internal MBT reports

Acknowledgements
The authors are also grateful for the information on the case studies provided by Rafael Valenzuela of Bettor
MBT Spain.

23
 Underground Singapore 2001

Difficult Ground Conditions Encountered During

Construction of a Cross Passage in Old Alluvium
C.K. Knight-Hassell, H.B. Rosser & W.C. Eng.
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The North East Line Project (NELP) in Singapore involves the construction of sixteen
underground stations and interconnecting tunnels for a Mass Rapid Transit System. The project is
split into twelve, individual contracts for the civil construction works, namely C701 to C712.

The scope of C704 is both complex and varied encompassing the construction of two, deep level
stations (Woodleigh and Serangoon), a 1km twin bored tunnel from Woodleigh to Serangoon Station
and a 1.5km, twin bored tunnel from Serangoon up to Kovan Station. The tunnels were bored using
two Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPBMs). Extensive road works, including the construction of
a major, 1600m long, high level viaduct is also included in the contract.

To conform to Fire Safety Bureau (FSB) regulations a part of the NELP contract requirement is to
construct cross passages between the running tunnels. The cross passage in question (CP5) is located
on Contract 704 between Serangoon and Kovan Stations and lies beneath Upper Serangoon Road
near the junction of Surin Road. The first attempt at constructing CP5 was undertaken from the
completed southbound tunnel but considerable problems were encountered when water and sand
washed rapidly, at high pressure, into the excavation. The problematical ground conditions led to a
complete change in the construction methodology.

This paper describes the revised method of construction of CP5 and evaluates the geotechnical
behaviour of the Old Alluvium at the cross passage location.

1. INTRODUCTION

To conform to FSB standards the NELP contract specifies that cross passages must be constructed
503m from points of egress to the surface (emergency staircases, usually at stations) and 244m apart
where there is no escape route to the surface. For C704 it was necessary to construct six cross
passages to comply with the FSB regulations. There are two between Woodleigh and Serangoon
Stations (CP1, CP2) and four between Serangoon and Kovan (CP3 to CP6). CP5 is located as shown
in Figure 1.

The crown of the CP5 excavation is some 28m below the ground surface and the invert is 31.5m
below ground level. Pre-tender site investigation boreholes indicated that the cross passage would be
mined entirely through the Old Alluvium. The cross passage is 9m in length between the extrados of
the main tunnels. The basic plan for the construction of all cross passages on C704 was to:

(i) brace the main tunnels using circular, steel members

(ii) break out the tunnel segment
(iii) hand mine with a circular excavation profile (in two benches) using lattice
girders and shotcrete for temporary ground support
(iv) cast the reinforced concrete structure in situ

24
After the tunnel bracing had been installed at CP5, a 1.5m x 1m panel was opened up in the
southbound tunnel lining to expose the face for the top heading to allow for conventional
construction. Ground conditions were stable. Hand mining had to be carried out using pneumatic
spades and jiggers as the ground was competent. After several hours of excavating what was
essentially a weak, bedded rock, a small water seepage was noticed at the base of the 1.5m high face.
The excavation continued but within 30 minutes a sudden inundation occurred with an estimated
water flow of some 300 litres per minute. Large quantities of sand were also being washed into the
tunnel. Steel pipes with valves were driven into the face to relieve the water pressure thus enabling
the shotcrete to adhere, set and give support. The valves were in the ‘open’ position during pipe
driving and shotcreting but were closed off after the face was eventually stabilised. A large cavern
(3m x 2m x 2m) had formed behind the extrados of the tunnel. This void was backfilled with
shotcrete. There were no adverse surface settlements.

Following the major inrush of water and ground it was necessary to fully re-evaluate the construction
methodology for CP5. Relocation of the cross passage was considered but this was not possible
within the constraints on location laid down by the FSB.

It is interesting to note that the EPBM constructing the main, southbound tunnel had stopped for a
cutter head redress only 40m north of CP5 a few months before this event. The tunnel face in front of
the EPBM was exposed for a week with minimal seepage and there were no face stability problems.

Northbound Tunnel

To Serangoon
CP 5

Southbound Tunnel

Figure 1. Site Location Plan

2. REVISED WORKING METHOD

The closest borehole to CP5 indicates that the site is underlain by 5m of clayey silt FILL followed by
the Old Alluvium. The Old Alluvium is dominantly a yellow grey/light grey silty fine SAND with
fine, medium and coarse quartz gravel. SPT values increase relatively uniformly from a value of 10 at
the top surface of the Old Alluvium to values in excess of 100 below 19m. The very dense material
below 19m is described on the original borehole log as having a low to medium water content. The
SPT>100 material is present to a depth of 30m below ground level where the SPT suddenly drops to
33. No gravel is indicated in the material below 30m. The subsequent SPTs at 32m and 34m are 69
and 41, respectively. Several other boreholes in this vicinity also show this phenomenon of a layer of
lower SPTs (as low as 16 in one borehole) underlying the SPT>100 material. The depth at which the
SPT drops is virtually at the exact level where the water inrush occurred. The original boreholes were

25
carried out using washboring methods in which it is very difficult to pick up major water strikes
because the hole is continually topped up with drilling fluid.
The first remedial measure that was attempted was the injection of a cementitious grout (Water~125
litres/Cement~50kg/Bentonite~5kg), via 57 No. Tube-a-Manchette. Grouting pressures were limited
to a maximum of 7 bar so as not to damage the tunnel lining, with a volume limit of 50 litres per
grouting step. During the grouting process the horizontal convergence of the tunnel was measured
continually by observing a tape extensometer fixed to convergence bolts at axis level. There was a
communication link to the surface so that the grouting could be immediately stopped should the
extensometer show any adverse trends. Diagonal convergence was also measured twice per day.
There was no major deformation of the lining during grouting but a post construction survey
indicated that there was a 12mm bodily movement of the southbound tunnel, and an 8mm movement
of the northbound tunnel, away from the grouted zone. The ground took some 80m3 of grout but
when a horizontal probe hole was drilled through the tunnel lining into the treated zone, water and
sand at high pressure came through the probe hole. These further problems meant there would now be
a delay in the completion of the cross passage. At this time it was imperative to allow access to the
tunnels for works trains associated with programme-critical track and services installation so it was
decided to construct CP5 from the surface.

To enable the safe construction of CP5, it was decided to sink two shafts from the surface - a 1.5m
diameter shaft for man access and another, 1.2m diameter shaft for materials and mucking out - and
then dewater the ground. Dewatering was carried out via two, 400mm diameter, screened wells
located 1m on either side of the cross passage extrados near to the southbound tunnel collar. The
wells were 38m deep and equipped with submersible pumps. To aid this dewatering 100mm diameter
drainage holes were installed through the tunnel lining and the outlets provided with filter boxes to
ensure that fines would not be drawn from the ground. Three drainage holes with filter boxes were
installed in each tunnel just below the cross passage opening at approximately 2m centres. A
diagrammatic cross section at CP5 is shown in Figure 2.

Depth SPT Piezo. Level in P5226 Site Conditions RL (m)

(m) blow s Before After Pumping Well Acess Shaft Pumping Well Ground Level 122
-1 Pumping Pumping 121
-2 3 v 120
-3 Fill 119
-4 2 v 118
-5 117
-6 10 116
-7 115
-8 13 114
-9 113
-10 45 112
-11 v Old Alluvium 111
-12 50 SPT<100 110
-13 Unconfined 109
-14 44 Aquifer 108
-15 107
-16 57 106
-17 105
-18 63 104
-19 103
-20 >100 tip 2 tip 2 102
-21 101
-22 >100 Old Alluvium 100
-23 SPT>100 99
-24 87 Aquiclude 98
-25 Bentonite Bentonite 97
-26 >100 Seal Seal 96
-27 v 95
-28 >100 94
-29 93
-30 33 92
-31 tip 1 tip 1 Old Alluvium 91
-32 69 SPT<100 90
-33 Filter Boxes Confined 89
-34 41 in Tunnel Aquifer 88
-35 end of 87
-36 Pumping borehole 86
-37 Zone 85
-38 84
-39 83
-40 Not to Scale 82

Figure 2. Diagrammatic Cross Section at CP 5

26
Piezometer readings indicated that there were two distinct water tables on site. An upper water table
separated by an aquiclude from a lower water table. The borehole suggests that the SPT>100 material
below 19m (described as having low to medium water content) is acting as the confining layer. CP5
was, therefore, located within the lower, confined aquifer. It was considered that pumping from this
confined aquifer at depth would not significantly affect the upper water table, hence settlements at the
surface would be small and would not damage nearby properties. During a pumping test there was a
rapid, 5m depression of the lower water table whereas the upper water table was generally unaffected.
This gave confidence that pumping from depth would not induce large surface settlements. The
dewatering wells were unslotted and sealed with bentonite to a depth of 26m below ground level to
ensure that no water would be extracted from the upper water table. The portion of the well below
26m was perforated, wrapped in mesh and backfilled with a granular filter material. Further surface
settlement points were installed within a 100m radius of the site together with 4 additional
piezometers to monitor the effect of the works.

As CP5 is located directly below Upper Serangoon Road a road diversion had to be put in place to
allow access for the conventional bored piling rig which was used to sink both the fully cased shafts
and the two dewatering wells. Pumping commenced and the effect on the lower water table was
immediate with a quick reduction in the piezometric level. There was minimal depression of the
upper water table and minimal settlements were induced during the course of the works. A typical
plot of piezometric level with time is shown in Figure 3. The readings shown were obtained from a
double tipped Cassagrande Piezometer (P5226) that was located 10m from the dewatering wells. The
tips were located within the confined and unconfined aquifers at 92 and 103mRL respectively.

Figure 3. Piezometer Readings from P5226 During the Course of the Works

The combination of filter boxes and pumping could only depress the piezometric level to 95mRL but
this was considered adequate to allow the safe excavation of the cross passage. The maximum water
yield from the two, dewatering wells was approximately 70 litres per minute and the flow from the
filter boxes was a further 60 litres per minute. Pumping rates from the wells significantly reduced
when the piezometric level was reduced to 95mRL but some of the filter boxes continued to flow,
albeit with a slightly reduced volume, during the entire course of the works.

27
During the installation of the remedial works described above, a three-week window opened up in the
services laying programme which gave the opportunity to gain access and commence the CP5
construction from the tunnels. This was clearly the best option from a safety aspect so this
opportunity was used and the excavation commenced from the northbound tunnel.

Two probe holes were drilled through the northbound tunnel lining and taken through to the extrados
of the southbound tunnel. The probe hole through the upper bench indicated good ground conditions
whilst the lower probe indicated a saturated sand with water under low pressure. It was considered
safe to continue and the top panel of the segment was broken out to commence the excavation.
Experienced personnel were specifically employed for what was anticipated to be a difficult
excavation.

The revised scheme was to advance the cross passage excavation in a timber heading and then
complete the profile by breaking down and out, again using timber. However, the contractor took the
design concept of the temporary works a step further and proposed a hexagonal steel frame at a centre
to centre spacing of 875mm. This allowed greater flexibility with respect to the optimum method of
ground support in use at any one time. For example, timber boards could be used as side tree supports
installed vertically or horizontally or alternatively shotcrete/mesh could be applied depending on site
conditions experienced.

The top section of the excavation was tackled firstly by constructing a rectangular, timbered heading
from the northbound tunnel and breaking through into the southbound. The access and material shafts
were intercepted during the mining and incorporated into the heading. These shafts were then used to
supplement the power, ventilation and communication system established in the tunnels. The shafts
were invaluable in enabling material to be supplied to the cross passage and at the same time they
could be used for man access or egress, if necessary.

Having completed the rectangular top heading the left and right sloped sides were completed to form
the top half of the hexagonal profile. The ground in the top heading was, in general, highly competent
and shotcrete/mesh was used to support the sides of the excavation. Only small quantities of the
cementitious grout were seen in the face of the top heading and only then as hydrofracture infills.
The vertical “I” beam supports for the initial, rectangular, timbered heading and the enlarged sides to
form the top half of the hexagonal excavation is shown below in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Completed Top Bench with the Steel Sets at 875mm Spacing

28
It took approximately one week with a 24-hour working period to complete the top half of the cross
passage excavation and install the temporary works. The next phase to complete the bottom half of
the hexagonal profile was difficult and required constant refinement in methodology as the
excavation proceeded due to the deteriorating ground conditions. The miners firstly had to complete
the excavation for the northbound collar so that it could be cast and allow the removal of the tunnel
bracing. This was necessary because the northbound tunnel had to be released so that cabling
operations could continue and the bracing was obstructing the installation. It was immediately
evident that large amounts of water would have to be managed. This was mainly achieved by digging
down and establishing a pumped sump at a level below the main excavation.

On completion of the excavation and casting of the northbound collar it was agreed that the rest of the
ground would be tackled by subdividing into two, smaller benches. In this case a top bench was kept
approximately 1 metre ahead of the bottom and once invert level was achieved the horizontal steel
members could be bolted or welded into place. The ground between steel frames, a length of 875mm,
was then meshed and shotcreted. The sequence described above was only possible for the initial 6m
of excavation. The ground continued to deteriorate as more and more water had to be managed. The
key issues were the ability to support the sidewalls below axis and also maintain stability at the invert
as the benching progressed forward. As more and more water entered the excavation the ground
began to flow more quickly and shotcreting became more problematical as it would not adhere to the
ground for a sufficient period of time to gain strength and give support.

To overcome this a number of 'defence walls' were established ahead of the face by driving down ‘C’
channels as far as they would go, generally about 1 metre. The channels were installed using a
sledgehammer and/or a pneumatic hammer. The ‘C’ channels were interlocked as far as possible so
that the ground could not run between them. Straw was then pushed into the gaps to control any
flowing ground. Filter boxes were also installed in the cased portion of the access shaft below invert
level of the cross passage and used as a pumped sump. The ‘C’ channels and the flowing ground
conditions can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Flowing Ground in the Bottom Bench (note the ‘C’ Channel being pushed over, top left)

29
For the side-walls 5mm thick, flat steel plates were specially fabricated so that they could be installed
ahead of the bench and later exposed during excavation but at the same time giving support to the
ground. There was great difficulty in maintaining the stability of the invert and the best method
adopted was that of placing gravel in the bottom of the excavation to form a drainage blanket to the
pumped sump and then placing tailored steel ‘C’ channels horizontally from steel frame to frame.
This then formed a decking onto which shotcrete could be sprayed so that the bottom of the
excavation could be completed.

As an added precaution the square section of the frame in the top heading was stiffened by cross
members so that it could cantilever over any localised lost ground, if necessary. In order to minimise
the exposed face it was decided that the sloping legs of the steel frame would be cut into three
sections to further subdivide the bench. The top of the bench at each stage was sprayed with about
50mm of non-reinforced shotcrete. Only enough ground was taken to place a single section of the
steel leg and this was then welded and shotcreted into position. The bottom section of the excavation
took just over two weeks with 24 hour working to complete. Following the successful, but difficult
installation of the temporary works the permanent lining was then cast in situ. Pipes were left within
the permanent structure so that back grouting could be carried out. The pumps and filter points were
kept running for the entire time and were decommissioned once the back grouting had been
completed. As soon as the pumps were turned off the piezometric level began to recover immediately
as can be seen in Figure 3. During the excavation for the bottom heading, there were no obvious signs
of any cementitious grout being present.

The completed temporary works are shown in Figure 6. The outline of the hexagonal bracing can be
seen in the side walls and roof. The vertical bracing for the initial, rectangular top heading and the
horizontal bracing at axis level have been removed.

Figure 6. Completed Temporary Works at CP5 with the Northbound Collar Cast
(Note the Hexagonal Profile)

30
3. DISCUSSION

A total of eleven cross passages have been constructed through full face Old Alluvium on the NELP.
They were constructed by hand mining methods adopting either shotcrete or timber lagging/steel sets
as temporary support. CP5 was the only Cross Passage on the NELP in full face Old Alluvium where
there were any significant problems with flowing ground.

Boreholes indicated a similar drop in SPT value beneath SPT>100 material at the location of CP4
some 250m to the south of CP5. CP4 had been successfully excavated prior to the commencement of
CP5 with no stability problems so there was no forewarning of the difficulties to come. Fortunately,
CP4 was mined entirely through the SPT>100 material and there were no inherent stability problems.
The problem occurred at CP5 because the confined aquifer with sub-artesian water pressure
daylighted in the face.

At CP6, 250m to the north of CP5, borehole logs indicated full face, SPT>100 Old Alluvium with no
layer of low SPTs. There were no stability problems at this location either.

Similar, rapid, high-pressure water inflows were encountered on the NELP at Sengkang Station
where large diameter piles were being constructed in the Old Alluvium. At Sengkang some of the
borehole logs also indicated a low SPT horizon below a SPT>100 layer.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The Old Alluvium contains confined aquifers with water under sub-artesian pressures. These
horizons, when encountered, can give rise to major stability problems when constructing underground
structures (or piles).

Water strikes associated with confined aquifers within the Old Alluvium may not necessarily be
picked up in washbores and care should be exercised when choosing methods of boring for site
investigation. Boring methods in which the hole is not continually topped up with drilling fluid, e.g.
Shell and Auger, may be preferable when attempting to investigate these horizons.

A horizon with lower SPT values underlying SPT>100 material may be indicative of a problem area.
If piezometers show the presence of a confined aquifer at depth this may also be indicative of a
problem area and should be further investigated.

The occurrence of these horizons is not widespread but if encountered can have a major implication
on the progress of the works. The location of the confined aquifer and its relation to the excavation is
critical to the stability of the works. This needs to be fully defined during the site investigation phase.
It is a possible that the low SPTs recorded below the SPT>100 material could be due to soil
disturbance caused by boiling at the base of the borehole due to an inadequate hydraulic balance
being maintained during the boring process. However, the behaviour of the ground during the
excavation of the shafts, dewatering wells and the cross passage itself does strongly suggest the
presence of a pressurised, less dense, more permeable horizon rather than a layer of very dense
material that is being disturbed on the release of sub-artesian water pressures.

In the Old Alluvium cementitious grouting alone is ineffective for permeation to control water flow.

31
 Underground Singapore 2001

Underpinning and Tunnelling under existing Bus Ramp

for Singapore Changi Airport MRT Station
C. Izumi & B.G. Vaidya
Kumagai-SembCorp Joint Venture, Singapore

A. Norrish
Richard Davies Associates, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The construction of the MRT Station at Changi Airport (LTA Contract 504) requires
the construction of overrun tunnels for the two running tunnels and a deep baggage tunnel beneath
existing Terminal 2 and associated structures. The central section of the overrun runs beneath an
existing Bus Ramp and the Control Room and Viaduct for the 'Sky Train' People Mover System
(PMS). Piled foundations of existing structure were present along the line of the tunnels, which had to
be underpinned as the tunnel was constructed. Access from ground/ramp level was restricted and the
works were constructed by excavating beneath the Bus Ramp to underpin the piles followed by a form
of 'top-down' mining method to construct the tunnel walls and base slab. The underpinning involved
an active response of the load transfer system as works progressed, based on observation and
monitoring. The severe site constraints and the sensitivity of the operational structures to be
underpinned required a novel and flexible approach to temporary works. This paper describes the
design philosophy adopted for underpinning the existing structures and the geotechnical aspects of the
tunnel construction, including limit equilibrium stability analysis of the ‘top-down’ construction.

1 INTRODUCTION

The excavation work required for the construction of the Overrun Tunnels of Changi MRT Station
was complex. The tunnels included two MRT tunnels (East Bound and West Bound) and one Baggage
Tunnel which run below Terminal 2 Structures and the Bus Ramp / Sky Train System. The Baggage
Tunnel runs underneath the East Bound MRT Tunnel. Figure 1 presents the picture of the Sky Train
and Bus Ramp. The piled foundations for the existing structures lie within and adjacent to the tunnel
alignment and these structures required underpinning prior to the main excavation. Figure 2 presents
the Scope of work in C504 Contract.

Terminal 2 Car park B

Sky
train Bus
ramp

Fig. 1 The Sky Train and Bus Ramp

32
 Fig.1

Airport Terminal2

Fig.3
Fig. 2 Scope of work in C504 contract

The tunnels are generally constructed within diaphragm walls which are used to underpin existing
foundations and provide temporary support. However, the central section of the overrun tunnels runs
beneath an existing Bus Ramp and the Control Room and Viaduct for the 'Sky Train' which had to
remain fully operational during construction. It was therefore considered not feasible to install
retaining walls across the Bus Ramp. The excavation work was achieved by mining beneath the
structures and constructing the permanent works ‘top-down’. This paper focuses on the design aspects
of the underpinning and excavation beneath the Bus Ramp.

2 GROUND CONDITIONS

The general ground conditions at the site comprise reclamation fill and soils of the Kallang Formation
underlain by Old Alluvium (O.A.) which is encountered from between 96 and 97.5mRL (Figure 3).
The general ground level of the site is 105.5mRL. The site is characterized by a stiff reddish brown
silty clay Fill above the water table, with clean, loose graded sand (hydraulically deposited Fill) above
a layer of sandy Kallang Formation of about 1m thickness above the Old Alluvium.

The Old Alluvium can generally be described as very dense lightly cemented silty sand. SPT 'N'
values in the Old Alluvium are between 50 and 100 blows/300mm, with 'N' values typically above 70.
A layer of hard silt/clay is consistently encountered in the O.A. between about +82 and +77mRL.

The ground water table based on standpipes installed in the Bus Ramp wall and adjacent boreholes
has been taken as 102mRL. The soffit of the Bus Ramp is 97.5mRL whilst the crown and soffit of the
MRT running tunnels are 93.1 and 86.5mRL respectively (Figure 3). The Baggage Tunnel extends
below the eastbound running tunnel to 80.5mRL.

3 CONSTRUCTION METHOD
3.1 General Construction Sequence
The general construction sequence for the overrun tunnels beneath the Bus Ramp was:
• Install cofferdam for water cut off
• excavate to the underside of the tunnel roof slab to construct transfer beams
• load transfer to the transfer beams using jacks
• excavate underneath the Bus Ramp in horizontal digs of limited length

Before excavation, ground water flow was at first controlled by a perimeter cofferdam/cut-off wall
surrounding the Bus Ramp. Sheet pile walls were used between pre-constructed diaphragm/bored pile
walls to complete the cut-off either side of the Bus Ramp. Jet grouting was used locally at utility
crossing locations where sheet piles could not be continued. To control the flow of water into the
excavations from under the Bus Ramp, grout curtains (TAM Grout) were installed from the Bus Ramp
approximately 12m either side of the works (Figure 3). The cofferdam was found very effective
during excavation.

33
 Car park B side

G1
Typical
Section
Underpining
Jacks
F1

Terminal2 side

Sky train

105
Bus ramp
100

95
O.A.
MR MR
90
T T
By mining
85
method

80
Fig. 3 Plan and typical section of Overrun Tunnels at the Bus Ramp area

Maximum excavation depths prior to underpinning were assessed for both tunnels based on existing
foundations and loadings. Excavation then proceeded in open cut from ground level to allow
construction of the permanent roof slab / transfer beams spanning longitudinally between pre-
constructed diaphragm walls/piles on either side of the ramp.

The load was then transferred to the permanent works by staged jacking and the existing piles
supporting the Bus Ramp and Sky Train were removed once the load in the transfer structures had
been confirmed. With the underpinning works in place, excavation for and construction of permanent
works beneath the roof slab proceeded in limited horizontal digs.

The construction of the East Bound MRT tunnel and the baggage tunnel beneath it are addressed in
this paper. The excavation for the West Bound running tunnel followed the same principles of
construction.

3.2 Excavation Stages under Bus Ramp along East Bound

Stage 1: Excavation beneath the Bus Ramp was extended as nailed slope to a maximum depth of
93mRL (top of roof slab) as shown in Fig 4a. The depth of excavation was limited by the bearing
capacity of the relatively short, heavily loaded piles within the tunnel footprint. To ensure minimum

34
 Construction
is

Diaphragm Mining method Diaphragm wall

Jack

EB

Jack

EB
EB

Jack
EB
EB
E1 E2 E3 E2 E1
E2 E3 E4 E5 E4 E3 E2

Fig.4 Construction sequence under Bus Ramp (East Bound) Fig.5 Existing piles cut partially

possible disturbance to existing foundations and maximum safety of the sensitive structures, piles
along the transfer beam alignment were partially cut (Figure 5) and a maximum level of soil around
the existing piles was retained prior to underpinning (Figure 4a). The transfer beams EB1 (2.3m deep)
running directly above the wall line of the tunnel were then constructed which span between the
capping beams on either side of the Bus Ramp (Figure 4b).

Stage 2: After casting EB1, 30% of the Bus Ramp structure load was transferred to it by jacking. Fig
6a and 6b shows the jacks placed on EB1 for load transfer. Before casting EB1, compressible material

Fig. 6a Jacks placed between EB1 and Bus Ramp Fig. 6b Detail of jack arrangement

(polyfoam) was laid underneath to allow the beam to deflect during jacking and to limit displacements
during subsequent excavation. Excavation then continued to 90.8mRL to cast the tunnel roof slab and

35
upper 2.3m section of wall (Figure 4c). During this stage, the structure load was distributed between
the transfer beam and the partially cut piles. The 2.3m deep upper section of tunnel and roof was
designed as a second transfer beam (EB2). The remaining load from existing structures was then
transferred to EB1 and the existing piles removed.

Stage 3: Excavation below the roof slab was carried out in vertical cut from both sides of the Bus
Ramp in limited horizontal digs of 3.6m (E1 to E5 in Figure 4d) for both the MRT tunnel and the
baggage tunnel. The maximum exposed vertical height of excavation for the running tunnel was 4.7m
and that for the baggage tunnel was 5.0m. The baggage tunnel excavation lagged the main tunnel
excavation by 3.6m as shown in Figure 4d.

During excavation for each dig horizontal drains were installed to avoid build up of water pressures
associated with water seepage. Shotcrete was sprayed onto exposed soil face and the permanent walls
were cast directly onto the shotcrete face using waterproof concrete. To enhance excavation safety,
each 3.6m section, from excavation to casting, was completed within 20 days. The excavation for the
next 3.6m section commenced only after the cube strength of the preceding structure achieves 20MPa.

4 DESIGN
4.1 Structural Design of Underpinning
4.1.1 Concept of Underpinning
Transfer beams spanning 18m longitudinally between pre-constructed diaphragm wall/piles on either
side of the Bus Ramp were used to underpin the existing structures and to control the settlement of the
Bus Ramp during excavation. Temporary underpinning jacks were used to transfer the load from the
Bus Ramp to the transfer beams. Four to six jacks, each having capacity of 1500kN to 2500kN, were
used at every support location.

4.1.2 Bus Ramp Frame Analysis

Underpinning forces (jack support forces) required at the jacking locations were determined by frame
analysis of the Bus Ramp. The bending capacity of existing Bus Ramp was estimated based on as-
built drawing. By simple structural calculation, the sagging bending capacity for one side wall of Bus

Fig. 7 Bus Ramp frame analysis model

Ramp was assessed as 22,735 kNm. In the frame analysis, dead and live loads of Bus Ramp were used
and the supporting piles were assumed to be springs whose modulus depends on the stage of
construction. The model for the Bus Ramp frame analysis is presented in Figure 7. The required jack
force was obtained from iterative analysis by ensuring that the forces on the Bus Ramp structure
remain within its capacity. The assumptions in the analysis and the resulting jack forces, as well as
expected settlement behavior of Bus Ramp is presented in Table 1.

36
Table 1 Summary of predicted jack force and Bus Ramp’s behavior for Section G1

Jack force Bus Ramp

Condition of existing pile Car park Terminal Maximu Maximum
Stages
under Bus Ramp B side 2 side m Vertical
Moment Deflection
Stage 1: Before Reduce the spring value of 14,952
- - 1.4 mm
EB1 construction pile based on excavation kNm
Stage 2: After Jack up and cut off the
16,322
construction of influenced existing piles 2000 kN 2000 kN 1.3 mm
kNm
EB1
Stage 3: Final Adjacent piles assumed to
15,048
excavation under cause pull down force due to 4000 kN 7000 kN 2.4 mm
kNm
EB1&EB2 ground movement

4.1.3 Transfer Beam (EB1, EB2) Frame Analysis

2.3m (W=0.8m)

Fig. 8 Condition of EB1 analysis

The structural model for 18m long Transfer Beam Frame Analysis is presented in Figure 8. The forces
at jack locations were obtained from the results of the Bus Ramp Frame analysis. The results obtained
from the Transfer Beam Frame Analysis are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Summary of transfer beam (EB1,EB2) frame analysis

Transfer Moment Shear Max. Deflection

EB1 (pin) 18,266kNm 4733kN 34mm
EB1 (fix) 14,254kNm 4862kN 7mm
EB2 (fix) 10,259kNm 3557kN 5mm
Note: 1)Transfer beam EB1 is located above the roof slab for which a conservative analysis is adopted
considering both pinned and fixed end conditions. 2) Transfer beam EB1 and EB2 are assumed as two
independent beams in the analysis since minimum shear connectors are provided between the beams.

4.2 Geotechnical Design for Stability of Excavated Slope

4.2.1 General
The design check for the stability of excavated slope was made for two critical stages – for the initial
excavation to the soffit of upper part of wall (90.8mRL) and for excavation below the roof slab. A
design check on the possibility of local failure of the excavated face for a maximum exposed slope
height of 5.0m in the baggage tunnel was also performed.

Analysis at each stage of the excavation was carried out using effective strength parameters for the
Old Alluvium (c’=20kPa, φ’=37 o) and pore pressures based on steady state seepage analysis. These
parameters were considered to be a lower bound for the material at the Changi Airport site. By
applying partial safety factors to these lower bound effective stress parameters, it was considered that

37
a relatively simple upper bound approach to stability analysis would maintain sufficient conservatism
for the sensitive existing structures.

Partial safety factors of 1.2 were applied to c’ and tan φ’ and a factor of 1.1 was applied to the soil
density. A safety factor of 2.0 was applied to the pull out capacity of soil nails.

Nail Capacity: The pullout resistance of the nails required an assessment of the structural tensile
capacity of the reinforcement, the reinforcement-grout bond and the grout-soil shearing resistance.
Anchor tests at depth in the site indicated ultimate grout-soil shearing resistance of over 350kPa.
However, since the nails were located close to the surface of the Old Alluvium and the overburden
pressure was low, the grout-soil friction (τnail) was assessed using effective stress considerations, so
that τnail is limited to:

τnail=K σv’ tan φ’ + c’

τnail=1.88 σv’ + 20 kPa (K=2.5, φ’=37 o and c’=20kPa)

4.2.2 Initial Excavation

The initial stage of excavation to 90.8mRL used open slopes cut at 1: 1.8 (V:H) in the Fill / Kallang
Formation and 3:1 (V:H) in the Old Alluvium. Two levels of soil nails were used to enhance the
stability. The critical slope height from 97.5mRL to 90.8mRL has been investigated by considering
the equilibrium of a potential sliding mass as illustrated in Figure 9a. Any additional resisting force
required to maintain equilibrium was provided by the pull-out capacity of the nails.

90 2.1

85

2.0

80

75 1.9

70

1.8

Fig. 9a Analysis model for initial dig 65

60 1.7
28 32 34 36 40 44
Angle of Slip, degrees

Fig. 9b Stability of initial dig

For the maximum required additional resisting force to maintain equilibrium, the critical angle of
failure slope was determined as 34o as indicated in Figure 9b. Assuming a nail length of 6m, the ratio
of nail pull-out resistance and required resisting force was always greater than 1.7 (Figure 9b).
Although the capacity of the nails was greater than required at this initial stage of the works, the nail
capacity was required for the later stages of work.

4.2.3 Excavation below the roof slab

The stability analysis of the vertical digs beneath the transfer beams was carried out using a limit
equilibrium analysis of an assumed failure mechanism as shown in Figure 10a. The model shown in
the figure is for excavation of a section of the MRT running tunnel. Similar models have been used
for the analysis of the baggage tunnel. Since the excavation was limited in horizontal extent, 3-D
effects associated with shear on the ends of the assumed failure wedge was included in the analysis.

38
To assess the resisting forces the side shear was computed using both effective cohesion and friction
components. The ratio of restraining and disturbing forces was calculated for increasing excavation
lengths and the vertical cut from 90.8mRL to the running tunnel base slab at 86.5mRL. The results are
summarized in Figure 10b. Figure 10b also presents the analysis for the Old Alluvium strength
parameters (c’=35kPa and φ’=34o) as recommended by Orihara and Khoo (1998). Although Figure
10b indicates that the excavation is stable for a dig length of more than 4 meters, for the sake of

2.
2

2.
0
Running φ'=37deg,

Restraining/Disturbing Moment
' 20kPa
Baggage φ'=37deg, c'=20kPa
1.
8 Running φ'=34deg,
' 35kPa
Baggage φ'=34deg, c'=35kPa
1.
6

1.

1.

1.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Excavation Length, m

Stability check for varying excavation

length of running and baggage tunnels

Fig. 10a Analysis model for excava- Fig. 10b Results from analysis below
tion below roof slab roof slab

construction suitability, sensitivity of existing structures to ground movement and the possibility of
more critical failure mechanisms, the length of horizontal dig was limited to 3.6m and was
successfully carried out. The maximum measured inward movement of the vertical excavation during
20-day construction period was 2.9mm.

Local Failure: As the depth of excavation increases, the potential for localized failure at the cut face
increases. Hence, the excavation was checked for local failure of circular arc slip at the face using a
simple upper bound analysis. Only the cohesion component of soil strength was considered in the
1.25
Restoring/Disturbing Moment F

1.20

1.15
Min.F =1.09

1.10

1.05
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Slip Circle Position x, m

Fig. 11a Model of local failure Fig. 11b Local failure analysis result
design. Water pressure acting on the potential slip plane was accommodated by assuming a
hydrostatic increase in water pressure with depth. The geometry of the problem is provided in Figure
11a and the analysis result for a 4.7m vertical excavation is presented in Figure 11b. The minimum
computed ratio of the restoring /disturbing moment (F factor) is 1.09. A similar analysis was used for
the maximum vertical dig of 5.0m for the baggage tunnel excavation and a factor F of greater than
unity is maintained. However, with the contribution from friction and side shear included, the factor F
will be greater that that presented in Fig. 11b.

39
4.2.4 Trial Slope

Fig. 12 Trial slope

As the structures in the vicinity of the Bus Ramp excavation area are highly sensitive, it was decided
to observe in advance the behavior of the excavated open face.

A 6m high Trial Vertical Slope face was formed in the Station Excavation at the Baggage Tunnel
level as shown in Figure 12. The slope was instrumented with optical prisms at two levels which were
monitored regularly. The open slope was retained for a period of more than 2 months. The maximum
outward movement of the slope during the period measured was less than 5 mm.

5 MONITORING AND JACKS ADJUSTMENT

The underpinning of the existing structures was carefully monitored using an automatic real-time
monitoring system and manual precise leveling. The real time monitoring instrumentation included
horizontal electro level beams, vertical electro level beams and total station optical prisms. However,
the underpinning and jack adjustments were mainly controlled using the readings from the manual
precise levels and the load cells. Settlement pins for the precise level monitoring were installed on the
Bus Ramp (soffit, wall and base slab) and at the transfer beams. For the monitoring of load, one load
cell at each support location was fixed between one of the hydraulic jacks and the soffit of the Bus
Ramp.

The sequence of load transfer is indicated in Figure 13. As shown in the flow chart, the jacks were
first loaded using a hydraulic pump and then the existing piles were cut to transfer the loads to the
diaphragm walls / contiguous bored pile walls through the transfer beams. The ring nuts in the
hydraulic jacks were then tightened and the hydraulic pressure released for mechanical transfer of
load. During this load transfer from hydraulic system to mechanical system, the load cell readings
were reduced considerably. As the excavation works progressed, the load on the load cells reduced
further resulting in the increase in settlement of the Bus Ramp. In view of the importance of the Bus
Ramp and Sky Train system, both the load cell readings and the settlement of the Bus Ramp were
carefully monitored and analyzed in each excavation stage. The hydraulic jacks were readjusted as
required to maintain the load cell readings above 30% of dead load and limit maximum settlement of
the Bus Ramp structure to less than 2mm. A typical plot of load cell readings and settlement vs. time
is shown in Figure 14.

40
 Fig.13 Excavation and jacking adjustment procedure

500 0.0

Load Cell
450 -0.1
100 % of Dead Load Settlement
400 -0.2
70 % of Re-Jacking

350 -0.3
Final Pile Cutting

SETTLEMENT, (mm)
Partial Pile Cutting
LOAD/JACK, (kN)

300 -0.4
30 % of Re-Jacking

70 % of Jacking
30 % of Jacking

250 -0.5

200 -0.6

150 30 % of Dead Load -0.7

100 -0.8

50 -0.9

0 -1.0
11/20/00 0:00 12/10/00 0:00 12/30/00 0:00 1/19/01 0:00 2/8/01 0:00 2/28/01 0:00
DATE, (mm/dd/yy hh:mm)
Fig. 14 Jack loads and settlement during construction at East Bound Bus Ramp (terminal 2 side)

41
6 CONCLUSIONS

• The construction of Overrun MRT Tunnels and a Baggage Tunnel under the existing Bus
Ramp and Control Room and Viaduct for the “Sky Train” has been successfully completed as
a part of construction of MRT Station at Changi Airport.

• The maximum settlement of the Bus Ramp during the excavation and underpinning was
limited to less than 1mm and there was no influence on the serviceability of existing
structures.

• The cofferdam around the proposed open excavation that comprised of sheet piles, jet
grouting and TAM grouting beneath the bus Ramp was effective and no water seepage related
problem was encountered during the subsequent excavation.

• Underpinning using adjustable jacks is effective in maintaining structural integrity assuming

that ground movements and stability associated with the excavation are controlled. Careful
monitoring, regular analysis of monitoring results and proper control / action on the site is
required.

• Simplified limit equilibrium analysis can be used to check the stability of slopes at depth
assuming lower-bound effective stress parameters for the Old Alluvium.

REFERENCES

ORIHARA K. and KHOO K. S. (1998), “Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium in Singapore and Its
Parameters for Bored Pile and Excavation Design”, Thirteenth South East Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Nov. 16-20, 1998, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.

42
 Underground Singapore 2001

TBM Tunnel Construction for the Bangkok MRT-

Tunnelling through Station Box
F. Prinzl & A.R.A. Gomes
Geoconsult Consulting Engineers, Salzburg, Austria

ABSTRACT: According to the construction programme of the MRTA ISP Underground Structures
North, in Bangkok, Thailand, three cut & cover station boxes will be tunnelled through by earth-
pressure-balance shield machines. The passage of the shield machines and the tunnel lining
installation will occur when the excavation works inside each station is in a different stage. The
tunnel section along the stations will be used for construction operational works, such as the transport
of muck from the excavation face and the lining will be removed when the excavation within the
station is finalised. For the design of the temporary pre-cast concrete tunnel lining, a detailed finite
difference analysis was carried out to assess the interaction between the lining, the soil and the station
diaphragm walls as the excavation within the station proceeds. The paper outlines the criteria utilised
in the analysis and summarises typical results obtained from the assessment.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Initial System Project (ISP) Underground Structures, North Contract, is the northern section of the
Blue Line, which is the first stage of the underground mass rapid transit system being implemented by
the Metropolitan Rapid Transit Authority (MRTA) in Bangkok, Thailand.

In this contract, nine cut & cover station boxes will be connected by twin single-track bored tunnels in
a total length of about 16km.

Owing to the construction schedule, the shield machines are driven through three cut & cover station
boxes after the installation of the diaphragm walls and at different phases of station excavation. A
temporary tunnel lining is installed and removed when the excavation inside the station is finalised.
Figure 1 shows a section through a typical station box, after the installation of the tunnel lining.

The excavation inside the station causes a continuous change in the ground stresses around the tunnels.
Vertical loads decrease whilst the horizontal loads increase with the development of the passive earth
pressure from the diaphragm-walls.

A detailed modelling of the ground-tunnel-diaphragm wall interaction with respect to the tunnel lining
section forces and overall lining stability was carried out for each station.

43
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURES
2.1 Bored tunnel precast concrete lining
The temporary tunnel lining consists of precast concrete rings of six segments plus one keystone. The
nominal inner diameter is 5700 mm and the segment thickness is 300 mm. The design strength of the
concrete is 40MPa. Segments are installed in a staggered arrangement and are connected in
longitudinal and radial direction by curved steel bolts.
In the station the top of the bored tunnel lining is generally located at approximately 14.5m below the
ground surface.

2.2 Other structural element

The cut & cover station boxes are typically 200 m long and 23 m wide. Retaining walls consist of
1.0m thick diaphragm walls. The toe level of the walls is slightly different for each station, ranging
from 32.5m to a maximum depth of 37.5m.

The construction follows a top-down excavation method. The bracing support is provided by the
installation of temporary steel struts and the definitive concrete slabs. The stations have a roof, a retail,
a concourse and a base slab. For the support of the temporary decking and for temporary support of
the concrete slabs stanchions of steel H-beams are installed in boreholes during Diaphragm-wall
construction. For the final station stanchions are removed after casting of the station columns.

Figure 1. Typical section through a station box

3 GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS

Soil conditions correspond to the typical Bangkok subsoil. It is constituted of a first layer of man made
ground of about 2.5m, followed by the soft clay layer 11 to 15m thick and the stiff clay layer with
thickness ranging from 6 to 14m. Below these clay layers is the topmost Bangkok aquifer, which is
constituted of dense to very dense sand interlayered by thin layers and lenses of stiff to hard clays.

Regarding ground water conditions, deep well pumping has caused a drop of the water pressure of the
various aquifers and an under drainage of the clay layers. At present the ground water level of the
Bangkok aquifer, which was originally at the ground surface, is at app. 20m depth.

Bored tunnels are mainly located in the stiff clay layer with the top of the tunnel at the boundary with
the soft clay layer. Diaphragm walls of the station penetrate the stiff clay and the underlying sand
layer.

44
A section through a typical station box, including the soil profile and the piezometric profile, is shown
in Figure 1. Soil Parameters are shown in Table 1.

4 GROUND-STRUCTURE MODELLING

The two-dimensional explicit finite difference analysis (FLAC code, Coetzee et al 1993) is used for
the modelling of the interaction between soil and structure. With this method, a complete modelling of
the structure and ground, including stress and strain distribution in the ground, deformation and
section forces of the lining is possible.

4.1 Ground modelling

The constitutive model is based on an ideal elasto-plastic (Mohr-Coulomb) failure criterion. Regarding
stress conditions for the design of the tunnel lining, ground stresses of the full overburden are used.
Stress-release (ground relaxation) due to tunnel excavation is neglected as preliminary investigation
had shown that it has minor influence due to the particular load conditions.

As the interaction of the tunnels with the walls will occur in short-term conditions, undrained
parameters are assumed for the cohesive soil layers.

Strength and deformation soil parameters are assumed isotropic and defined as a function of the depth,
as shown in the Table 1 and Equations (1) to (3).

Table 1. Soil parameters

SOIL LAYERS
PARAMETER MADE
SOFT CLAY STIFF CLAY SAND
GROUND
Cu [kPa] - (1) (2) -
E'c (1.0%)* [kPa] 20000 200Cu 350Cu 2000N60
E'c (0.1%)* [kPa] - 430Cu 850Cu 2500N60
E'r (1.0%)* [kPa] - 3E'c 2E'c 3E'c
Eu,c (1.0%)* [kPa] - 225Cu 400Cu -
Eu,c (0.1%)* [kPa] - 500Cu 1000Cu -
Eu,r (1.0%)* [kPa] - 3Eu,c 2Eu,c
u' [-] 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25
u [-] 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
k'0 [-] 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.50
k0 [-] 1.00 1.00 1.00 -
* Correspondent shear strains

Cu = 2 ⋅ Dp + 5 (15 ≤ Cu ≤ 50) (1) Cu…undrained shear strength (kPa)

(2)
Cu = 50 − 7.8(15 − Dp)
N 60 = 20 − 0.78(16 − Dp) (3) N60…Standard Penetration Test Value

Where:
E’c / Eu,c…drained / undrained Young’s modulus for loading-reloading (MPa)
E’r / Eu,r…drained / undrained Young’s modulus for unloading (MPa)
ν’ / ν...drained / undrained Poisson’s ratio
k’o / ko…drained / undrained lateral earth pressure coefficient
Dp…depth with relation to the ground surface level (m).

The standard ground model used for the design of station retaining walls and tunnels made use of
different stiffness parameters. For these analyses, stiffness correspondent to 0.1% and 1.0% shear
strains are applied for the retaining wall design and tunnel design, respectively. The assumption is in
accordance to the typical range of strains involved in the construction of the respective structures, as
shown in Figure 2.

45
For the assessment of the interaction between the tunnels and the diaphragm walls, a combined ground
model is used. The stiffness-shear strain model is shown in Figure 3. Ground stiffness correspondent
to 0.1% shear strain is generally applied to the model and the higher shear strain associated with the
tunnel construction is considered by the definition of a zone of larger strains (1.0%) within a distance
of approximately 3.0m measured radially from the periphery of the tunnel lining. At this distance,
shear strains due to the tunnel construction will be less than 0.1% shear strains, as derived from by
deformation plots.

Figure 2. Stiffness-shear strain relationship – by Menzies (1997).

To avoid an unrealistic heave and to consider the elastic behaviour of the ground due to the unloading
from the tunnel excavation, an unloading Young’s modulus (correspondent to 1% shear strain) is used
for the area below the tunnel invert.

Figure 3. Stiffness-shear strain model.

4.2 Modelling of the structural elements

The diaphragm wall is modelled by continuum elements with an ideal linear elastic behaviour. The
interaction between the walls and the adjacent soil is simulated by interface elements (springs) in
normal and tangential direction.

The normal springs are defined as very stiff so that the transfer of forces between the soil and the wall
would be controlled by their relative stiffness. Tangential (shear) parameters are defined according to
the shear parameters of the soil layers.

Permanent concrete slabs and temporary steel props are simulated by compression-only beam
elements connected to the diaphragm wall grid points.

46
The steel arch support used for the strengthening of the tunnel lining is simulated by beam elements
with the correspondent flexural and axial stiffness per linear metre.

4.3 Bored tunnel precast concrete lining

Two different approaches are used for the modelling of the precast concrete tunnel lining structural
behaviour. These models are applied in dependence of the purpose of the assessment:

a) beam elements, for the assessment of the section forces in the lining (Structural Design)
b) continuum elements, for the analysis of the overall lining stability (Stability Analysis).

4.3.1 Structural design

The assessment of section forces for the design of the temporary precast concrete lining is carried out
with the assumption of a continuous lining of beam elements with reduced lining flexural stiffness.
The joints and their reduced thickness cause the decrease of the flexural lining stiffness, which is
modelled in accordance to Muir Wood (1975).

The results obtained from this assumption, which was also the standard approach for the design of the
tunnel lining, provides the critical section forces for the structural design of the tunnel lining at station
sections. The detailed methodology used for the structural design of the precast concrete tunnel lining
is described by Prinzl and Gomes (1999).

4.3.2 Stability analysis

For the assessment of the overall tunnel stability, the lining is simulated by means of continuum
elements with detailed consideration of the geometry and the layout of segments and joints, as shown
in Figure 4.
The pre-cast concrete tunnel lining is modelled with a very dense radial grid with interface elements at
the joints. Applying cells with fictive properties simulates the reduced joint thickness. A linear elastic
behaviour is assumed, with exception of the areas close to the radial joints, where the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion is applied to simulate possible plastification of joints.

The effect of the radial connecting bolts, between the ring segments are simulated by tension-only
“cable” elements. The boundary between the segments and the ground is established by interface
elements, which should allow a quasi friction-free movement of the tunnel lining.

As this model does not consider the staggered arrangement of the lining (effect of the longitudinal
bolts and friction between the rings), this model is more flexible than the continuous lining previously
described. It should provide a worst-case stability assessment and the results should be understood as
indicative only.

Figure 4. Detail of the longitudinal joint between two segments.

47
5 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN CRITERIA
5.1 Analysis cases and construction programme
With regard to variation of the construction programme it had to be assumed that tunnels are driven
through the station boxes when the excavation works are at different stages.

As to cope with these conditions, five different .scenarios are analysed as shown in Table 2. The main
excavation stages of a selected station are shown in Figure 5. In an additional analysis, the installation
of a steel arch support inside the concrete lining at the final excavation stages was simulated.

Table 2. Analysis cases - percentage of excavation

completed at the moment of lining installation.

Analysis
Cases % of excavation with respect to the distance of
the tunnel top from the ground surface level
a 0.0%
b 16%
c 29%
d 65%
e 96%
* The distance of tunnel top to the ground surface level
is approximately 14.5m

Figure 5. Main excavations stages

5.2 Design criteria for the temporary lining

The following criteria was used for the assessment of the lining performance:

48
5.2.1 Structural design
Segments are designed for the ultimate limit state in accordance with the BS 8810 based on the results
obtained from the beam model with continuous lining and reduced lining flexural stiffness.
Due to the temporary character of the lining, the structural capacity is checked for a reduced load
factor (1.2) and reduced partial safety factors for the materials (1.3 and 1.05 for the concrete and steel
respectively).

5.2.2 Stability analysis

Of relevance for the analysis of the tunnel lining stability, is the relative displacement between
segments and the yielding of the radial connection bolts, which could indicate likely unstable joints.
As a general criteria, the deformations of the lining are considered to become critical when the
maximum relative displacement between adjacent segments would be larger than 10mm, which
corresponds to the gap between the bolts and the bolt holes, and the start of yielding of the radial
connections bolts. The general criteria for the definition of critical lining deformations are shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6. General criteria for the definition of critical lining deformations.

6 RESULTS AND ADDITIONAL MEASURES

6.1 Structural design
Based on the results obtained from the analysis of a selected station, a plot of the required
reinforcement (ReqReinf) normalised with the standard lining reinforcement (StandReinf) versus the
excavation depth (He) inside the station normalised with the distance from the tunnel top to the ground
surface (Ho) is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Normalised required reinforcement (ReqReinf/StandReinf) versus normalised excavation depth (He/Ho).

49
According to the results, the earlier the tunnel is installed with respect to the progress of the
excavation works inside the station, the larger will be the effect of the stress changes to the tunnel
lining. This situation will occur due to the redistribution of stresses during the station excavation,
which are partially transferred to the tunnel lining. The most unfavourable section forces in the lining
(required reinforcement) occur when the excavation reaches the top of the tunnel (He/Ho of
approximately 1.0).
From Figure 7 it can be also seen that the required reinforcement increases by app. 50 % to the actual
reinforcement.

6.2 Stability analysis

Regarding lining stability, the analysis indicates that critical conditions (relative segment
displacements higher than 10mm and bolt yielding) will be achieved generally for a He/Ho of
approximately 0.8 (80% of the tunnel cover excavated).

It is also important to notice that although section forces and lining displacements obtained from the
two different structural models were of different order, they followed the same basic patterns. A
typical moment distribution is shown in Figures 8.

6.3 Consequences and additional analyses

Due to the critical results of both, structural and stability, analyses, a monitoring program was
developed and implemented during station excavation. This included monitoring of tunnel lining
deformations and strains of the main segment reinforcement.

For deformation monitoring in each station and tunnel three rings were selected. At the selected rings
two or three targets were installed at every segment and monitored with a 3-D survey. In addition the
vertical crown deformation was measured at app. 20m spacing along the tunnel section.

For stress analysis strain gauges were installed on the main reinforcement at opposite segments at the
sidewall of selected rings.

In addition further analysis was carried out. From the segment testing programme data with regard to
the failure load due to pure bending and associated segment deflection were available. As due to the
unloading during station excavation normal forces in the lining are very small a comparison with the
pure bending behaviour is possible. From these data it was concluded that the actual load capacity of
the lining is higher and will be sufficient for the expected maximum bending moments. With
consideration of the temporary stage a factor of safety close to one can be adopted.

With regard to the monitoring further analysis of an additional steel support at the final excavation
stages proved to be a satisfactory solution for the increase of the tunnel lining stability and the
limitation of the required reinforcement to the standard lining reinforcement.

Figure 8. Typical bending moment distribution.

50
7 CONCLUSION

During the actual excavation deformation was less than analysed. While the maximum convergencies
were determined in the order of about 50 mm the monitoring data were in the order of 15 to 20 mm.
The general deformation pattern followed the analysis with a horizontal decrease and a vertical
increase of the tunnel diameter. The actual deformation was rather in accordance to the moment
distribution as shown in Figure 8 and was a mirror image for the up-track and the down-track tunnel as
it was also determined in the analysis. The heave of the tunnel, measured at the tunnel invert, was
about 5 to 10 mm.

The measurement of the strain changes during excavation were very minor and showed rather
inconsistent results.

From the monitoring it is concluded that the analysis was too conservative. One reason could be the
selection of the stiffness parameters, which followed the method which was developed over many
years in the Bangkok region. From the back analysis of the Diaphragm-wall deformation of the
stations it was found that the stiffness parameters of the Bangkok soil are strain dependant. Because of
the low strains of the applied top-down construction method higher stiffness parameters would be
adequate, see also Davies (2001) and Prust (2001).

Another reason is possibly the way of modelling which is well adopted for higher overburden. With
regard to the low normal forces bending moments are likely to be overestimated using a lining
stiffness, which is very similar to the stiffness of a continuous ring. A different approach for modelling
of the jointed lining by using lower flexural stiffness may be more appropriate.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Metropolitan Rapid Transit Authority
(MRTA), the ION Joint Venture and Ove Arup and Partners for the possibility of publishing this
paper.

REFERENCES

Coetzee, M.J., Hart, R.D., Varona, P.M. & Cundall P.A. et al., 1993. Flac User’s Manual. Itasca Consulting
Group, Minneapolis, U.S.A.
Davies, J., Thompson P. & Young S., 2001. A Comparison between tender, detail design and the field
pereformance of diaphragm walls in Bangkok, 14 ASEAG Conference, Hongkong.
Menzies B., 1997. Applying modern measures. Ground Engineering pp 22-23.
Muir Wood A.M., 1975. The circular tunnel in elastic ground. Geotechnique 25, No. 1.
Prinzl F. & Gomes A.R.A., 1999. Structural Design of Precast Concrete Linings for Bored Tunnels – Example
from the Bangkok MRT. Design of an Urban Mass Rapid Transit System. 10th Australian Tunnelling
Conference 1999. Melbourne VIC, Australia.
Prust R.E., Davies J. & Gaba.A., 2001. Self-boring pressuremeter testing in Bangkok subsoils. 14 ASEAG
Conference, Hongkong.

51
 Underground Singapore 2001

Construction of 230 kV Underground Power Lines

Between Lardprao and Vibhavadi Substations (Bangkok)
S.A. Farkhad
Mott MacDonald Group, UK

ABSTRACT: This paper outlines the application of the state of the art large diameter pipe jacking
techniques used in the construction of tunnels for power lines between Lard Phrao and Vibhavadi
substations Bangkok for the Metropolitan Electricity Authority. Reference is made to the
methodologies adopted for the construction of shafts and tunnels, with particular emphasis given to the
techniques used to control pipe jacking forces and minimise developing friction forces using the
application of “Automatic Lubrication System ”.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Metropolitan Electricity Authority of Bangkok (MEA) is a state enterprise under the Ministry of
the Interior with responsibility for the distribution of electrical power. As part of a programme of
improvement, reliability and expansion, the MEA instigated a project to install 230kV underground
transmission lines to transfer power from Lardprao terminal station to Vibhavadi sub-station.

Figure 1. Tunnel route

2 SCOPE OF WORKS

This project consists of the design and construction of 21 drive and reception shafts, approximately 8
km of 2.6 m internal diameter tunnels, installation of two circuits of 230kV oil filled cables within
cable troughs with “cooling” pipes, low voltage cables, lighting, communication cables, ventilation

52
system, a cooling plant building. There is also capacity for one circuit of 230kV cable and two circuits
of 115kV cables to be installed in the future.

(Lighting)
Control Cable 115 kV
(Future)

115 kV
230 kV (Future)
(Future)

230 kV 230 kV

220 Ø 2600 (ID) 220

Ø 3040 (OD)

Figure 2. Tunnel cross section. Figure 3. Tunnel HV cable installation.

3 THE CONTRACT

The Consortium of Tokyo Electric Power Services Co., Ltd ( TEPSCO ) and Pro-En Consultants Co.,
Ltd. were appointed by MEA to prepare Tender and Contract documents, carry out tender assessment
and check design document submissions.

Prospective consortia of contractors were invited to bid for the design and construction ( a turnkey
contract ) of the project in June 1997. The Contract was consequently awarded to the Consortium of :
Sumitomo Corporation (responsible for financial and shipping arrangements), the Joint Venture of
Italian Thai Development Pcl and Skanska Lundby (both responsible for the civil works design and
construction), Sumitomo Electrical Industries ( responsible for electrical design, manufacturing,
installation and commissioning ).

The Contract became effective in March 1999 for completion by October 2002 with a Contract price
of 4.2 Billion Baht (approximately).

The Association of Consultants:- Electricite de France (electrical expert), Mott MacDonald (

Tunnelling expertise and project management), ATT Consultants (local civil and electrical expertise
for site supervision) were appointed by MEA in January 2000 to carry out site supervisory services.

At present the tunnelling works is 95% complete and installation of high voltage cables is in progress.

4 GEOLOGY, GROUND CONDITION AND SITE INVESTIGATION

Situated in a river basin the sub-strata in Bangkok consist of unconsolidated marine sediments. A soft
and medium clay layer exists at the ground surface to a depth of approximately 14-17 m the first stiff
clay layer with, a thickness of approximately 10 to 15 m. This first stiff clay layer having low
sensitivity and high stiffness was found appropriate to be the bearing layer for the drive and reception
shafts with the tunnelling media being in medium clay. Below these clay layers lies the first Bangkok
sand deposit with a thickness of 5 to 15 m. The ground water condition of soft and medium Bangkok
clay is hydrostatic starting from 1 m below ground level.

53
Site investigation was carried out at 21 locations along the tunnel route mainly at shaft locations.
Twenty-one boreholes were drilled to 26 m depth to investigate soil layers and properties. Average
unconfined compression test values for soft and medium clay were, on average, 15 and 35 kPa
respectively. And that of stiff clay was 150 kPa (obtained from standard penetration test results).
Average natural moisture content for soft / medium / stiff clay were approximately 60 / 40 / 30%
respectively. Based on the soil investigation results, the optimum tunnelling media was determined to
be in medium clay.

S-10

S-11

S-12

S-13

S-14

S-15

S-16

S-17

S-18

S-19
S-0

S-1

S-2

S-3

S-4

S-5

S-6

S-7

S-8

S-9
0M.

5M.
SOFT CLAY SOFT CLAY SOFT CLAY
10M.

15M.

20M.
SAND STIFF CLAY
HARD CLAY STIFF CLAY
25M. SAND HARD CLAY HARD CLAY SAND
DEPTH LARDPRAO MOHCHIT VIBHAVADI
SUBSTATION SUBSTATION SUBSTATION
VERY SOFT STIFF TO HARD CLAY VERY LOOSE MEDIUM DENSE
S = SHAFT TO MEDIUM VERY STIFF SANDY CLAY TO LOOSE TO VERY DENSE
CLAY CLAY/SANDY CLAY SAND/CLAYEY SAND SAND

0 500 1000 1500 2000 m.

HORIZONTAL SCALE

Figure 4. Sub-soil profile

5 TUNNEL ROUTE

The tunnel route runs mainly beneath the drainage canal along Vibhavadi Rangsit road. It commences
from Vibhavadi Sub-station and will terminate at Lard Phrao terminal Sub-station (Figure 1). The
tunnel alignment was designed to by-pass several obstructions existing along the tunnel route the most
significant of which were MRT subway tunnels, water transmission and waste water tunnels, and the
drainage canal pumping houses. The minimum horizontal radius of 400 m for a spiral curve was
achieved (Figure 3).

6 SHAFT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

6.1 Design features

For pipe jacking operations and installation of mechanical & electrical systems, each shaft was sized to
provide, inter alia, sufficient space to suitably accommodate the tunnelling machine and jacking
equipment and to provide a fine balance between providing the structural strength to withstand jacking
forces with minimal shaft movements, whilst minimising the weight of the structure, to prevent
sinking under its own weight.

Nineteen rectangular and two circular shafts have been constructed. These are of two types:- the
ventilation shafts and exhaust shafts. The inside plan dimensions of the rectangular shafts is 8.8 m by
4.5 m with wall thickness of 800 mm. Inside diameter and wall thickness of the circulars shafts is 9 m
and 500 mm respectively. The shafts are spaced at typically 500 m centres along the route.

6.2 Construction
6.2.1 Utility Diversion

Major temporary and permanent utility diversion works were required to gain access to the shaft
locations in the canal between the Vibhavadi Rangsit Road (East bank) and the footpath access to the
adjacent buildings (West bank). It was therefore necessary to build a staging within the canal, which
necessitated major water diversion works.

54
 HANGING BEAM

ROW.
Vibhavadi
Rungsit Rd.
TEMPORARY
WALL 4700

2100
4600
BACKFILL
SHEET PILE

ELEMENT E6

11220
TEMPORARY

25490
JET FAN
E5 SHEET PILE WALL

E4

E3

9780
FIRST STAGE CONCRETE RAFT

E2 SAND FILL SAND FILL

E1
CONCRETE SUB SLAB CONCRETE SUB SLAB

10400

Figure 5. Shaft sinking Figure 6. Shaft elevation

6.2.2 Shaft sinking

Shafts were sunk to the required founding level using the Open Caisson System (open at the top and at
the bottom). Single reinforced concrete elements (6 in total) were individually cast in-situ and sunk in
sequence. This cycle of operation was repeated until the cutting edge had reached the required
founding level. Continuity of reinforcement was provided at construction joints thereby making the
elements an integral part of the shaft structure. During each sequence of the shaft sinking operation,
excavation was kept to a limited depth leaving sufficient residual load at excavation base to provide
basal stability. The rate of sinking was governed by a fixed cycle of operations.

To reduce the magnitude of developed ground friction forces during sinking operations and to
minimize sinking / excavation induced ground movements in the vicinity of the shafts, shaft walls
were initially designed to set back for a distance of 75 mm from the shoe. A total of 20 bentonite slurry
injection ports were installed just above the cutting edge (or shoe level) to provide a membrane of
slurry around the walls. In addition, similar injection ports were installed at 3rd and 5th elements.
Successive injections were made as caisson elements were sunk to their final level. The shaft wall set
back value was later reduced to 30 mm after the Contractor had gained a better understanding of the
actual soil behavior with respect to ground/structure interaction forces. Upon completion of shaft
sinking operation the void (annulus) behind the shaft wall was cement grouted.

The caisson sinking system used a hydraulic control system to lower each element using suspension
links from piled staging. Bi-directional hydraulic cylinders were connected to high tensile stress bars
which enabled the elements to be sunk either by being held and lowered when sinking in soft clay or
jacked down when in stiff clay. Verticality and eccentricity of each shaft were checked at sinking
intervals of 500 mm and were controlled by means of operating hydraulic cylinders either
independently or in combination when necessary. Actual shafts inclinations and eccentricities were
maintained within the specified values of 1:100 and ± 200 mm respectively with the exception of one
shaft where its long wall inclination reached 1:52.

After completion of sinking operations, a concrete plug was placed at shaft formation level to seal the
shaft bottom. This was followed by placing a layer of hydraulically compacted sand and further
followed by constructing the first stage concrete raft connected to the shaft wall by means of couplers.

55
7 CONCRETE PIPE MANUFACTURE

A total of 3200 steel collar banded reinforced concrete pipes were produced by the local pipe
manufacturer, Nippon Hume Des Joint Venture, using the pipe-spinning process as was specified in
the Contract documents. Pipe joints were sealed using a composite rubber gasket with hydrophilic seal
at the centre. The physical features are:

Pipe length and thickness 2430 mm, 220 mm

Internal and external diameters 2600 mm, 3040 mm
Rubber gasket (hydrophilic at centre) 60 mm wide & 23.5 mm deep
Steel collar (tar epoxy coated) 300 mm wide & 9 mm thick

28-Day cylinder compressive strength 500 kg/cm2

Design load for bending strength test (cracking) 8.28 t/m
Design load for bending strength test (breaking) 19.92 t/m
Axial capacity (uniformly distributed) 2200 tf
Rubber seal water tightness test 98 kPa
Internal hydrostatic test 0.14 MPa

Physical bending strength tests for both cracking and breaking load tests were successfully carried out
by the manufacturer at a frequency of once every 500 pipes produced. The actual bending strength
tests for both crack and breaking load tests were, on average, 27% and 34% above the anticipated
design values respectively.

The water tightness test on the water seal, when two pipes were joined and tested at a maximum
angular deflection of 0.5 degrees, and internal hydrostatic test applied on a single pipe, were
satisfactorily conducted. The test pressures for the seal and the pipe were 98 kPa and 0.14 MPa(140
kPa) respectively.

8 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE (TBM)

Two 3.050 m diameter Earth Pressure Balanced articulated shields with muck pump shields were
designed and manufactured by Herrenknecht. The design of these machines and associated equipment
were refined for the conditions found in Bangkok.

The TBM assembly consisted of two sections:- The cutting shield in the front section and the muck
pump shield in the rear. The overall length was 10.4m. The muck pump shield was 4.35 m long and
the length of cutting shield was 6.026 metres.

The cutting shield housed the power pack and steering system. Typical details were:

Overall dimensions 3.050 m O/D x 6.026 m long articulated shield

Steering cylinders 8No.
Earth pressure sensor Located in the baulk head
Soil conditioning 4 No. mixing arms with injection points on bulk
head, 4No. injection points, 5No. grout nozzles.

The Cutting Wheel drive had six arms with circumferential rim (bi-directional rotation) and was
equipped with replaceable 100 mm carbide tipped cutting tool. Attached to its rear face were 3 mixing
arms for soil conditioning. The over cut at the cutting tool was 20 mm (3080 mm dia.) and at the
circumferential rim 10 mm tapering down to 5 mm at the shield. The over cut at the muck shield was
0mm (3040mm dia.) thereby minimising radial ground losses due to over excavation.

The Screw Conveyor was attached to the articulated joint in the invert area of shield pressure
bulkhead. It was equipped with 6 injection ports for soil conditioning, 1 earth pressure sensor,

56
discharge gate of 300 mm aperture, pressure differential screw/hopper warning lights with auto shut
down system.

The Screw was 500 mm in diameter, with bi-directional rotation, 400 mm pitch and variable rotation
speed of up to 29 rpm with variable discharge capacity of up to 95 m3/hr.

9 AUTOMATIC LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The use of “ Automatic Lubrication System ”, for the first time in Thailand, was the most significant
application of state of the art pipe jacking techniques on this project. Application of this technique
was a major technological achievement. The contractor was able to increase the tunnelling advance
rate and to reduce the developed friction forces from the anticipated friction value of 0.25 t/m2 down to
0.1 t/m2 resulting in significant reduction of the magnitude of main jacking forces from 900 down to
400-450 tonnes in tunnel drives with approximate tunnel span length of 500 meters.

The followings is a brief introduction to this innovative technique:

During TBM advance a small over cut is created by the head of the machine, and bentonite slurry is
injected into this annulus through injection points in the tail skin and at bentonite pipe stations. Careful
use of lubrication enables jacking loads to be controlled. The automatic bentonite injection system is a
fully programmable unit, which allows the operator to inject a pre-determined amount of bentonite at
all, or specific areas of the tunnel without tunnel entry.

The system is controlled by a Programmable Logic Control (PLC) unit connected to the operator’s
main control panel and a number of bentonite injection stations connected to the bentonite supply line
in the tunnel at 15 m intervals (every 6 tunnel pipes).

Each bentonite station consists of a control box and a triple spool electro-pneumatically operated valve
block assembly. These injection stations are numbered and assigned a unique address code, which
means that each station must be installed in the pipeline in the correct sequence.

The bentonite supply line is connected to the inlet port of the injection station. Three bentonite lines
are connected from the injection station to three bentonite ports at the pipe. On the control panel each
station is represented graphically as a box on a computer screen and is illuminated when selected by
the operator. The operator can select or deselect any station in any order or sequence.

The amount of bentonite injected through each port is controlled on a time sequence and is preset from
10 – 20 seconds for each bentonite port as necessary.

In addition, three bentonite stations are installed along and within the TBM’s cutting shield. Each
station is equipped with 4 valves. Each valve is connected to an injection port making a total of 12
injection ports on the shield skin.

One significant application of this system is that, during long stoppage times, the TBM operator is able
to operate each cycle of lubrication at 2 hour intervals to prevent build up of friction forces and hence
to minimise the need for a additional jacking force to restart driving the tunnel forward.

10 TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
10.1 Construction Method

In brief, the following steps were taken to successfully complete a tunnel drive:

• The base lines and levels for each tunnel drive were established at the jacking shafts followed by
installing laser brackets, jacking guide rails, thrust plates, 1200 tons capacity telescopic jacks
(push rams), double eye seals, pump and discharge pipes.

57
• Control cabin and services for remote control operations were set up at top of the shaft providing
the operator with a full view of all activities being carried out at shaft bottom.
• First section of tunnelling machine (cutting shield) was lowered down the shaft and launched
through soft eye [the ground behind the soft eye was jet grouted to provide face stability].
• Once sufficient advance was made into the ground, the cutting shield was pinned down and jacks
were retracted. This was followed by lowering second part of the machine (muck pump shield).
Further advances were made [It was necessary to hold the machine and the first few pipes in the
ground between strokes of the jacks because of the face pressure tending to push the machine and
the pipe back into the shaft].
• First concrete pipe was lowered down the shaft and was jacked forward to the required length of
advance followed by lowering down the second pipe and jacking it forward, etc.
• Pre-assembled intermediate jacking stations were installed at pre-determined locations [the main
jacking system was augmented on longer drives by introducing one or more 2000 Ton capacity
intermediate jacking stations into the pipe line].
• As the machine approached the reception shaft, the rate of jacking and speed of excavation was so
controlled to prevent development of undue stresses placed on the reception shaft. The machine
was then cut through the soft eye and was recovered [When the head of the machine was entered
into the reception shaft, it was broken down into two sections (cutting shield and muck pump
shield)].
• The interjacks were dismantled and the pipeline was pushed to its final position and the tunnel
eyes at each shaft were grouted and the entrance seal was removed.
• After cleaning out both drive and reception shafts, the protruded pipe ends were disc cut and
trimmed forming rocker pipes at both tunnel ends, and pipe annulus around soft eyes were
concreted flush with the shaft wall.
• Tail void grouting to the tunnel annulus was carried out.
• The jacking equipment was then either turned in the jacking shaft to carry out a second drive in the
opposite direction, or was relocated to the next shaft to carry out another drive.
• During each shift, gas tests were carried out in the shaft and the pipeline before work commenced
and before anyone was permitted into these areas.

Figure 7. Earth pressure balanced TBMs Figure 8. Pipe jacking operation

10.2 First Tunnel Drive

Some 1600 concrete pipes were produced before commencement of tunnelling works. Main jacking
forces were taken up to 850tons for the first tunnel drive. [The maximum allowable jacking force in
the drive shaft was 900 tons and the designed axial capacity of the pipe, when uniformly distributed
around the circumference of the pipe, was 2200tf]. During tunnelling operation some infiltration of

58
water through the walls of some concrete pipes, appearing as damp or wet patches, and formation of
some fine hairline cracks, some 0.1 mm wide, were observed.

During tunnelling operations for the 2nd tunnel drive, bentonite grout pressures were rechecked and
additional controls were introduced to ensure that the acceleration and deceleration of main jacking or
retracting forces was slow. Some improvement was observed but, similar damp / wet patches and fine
longitudinal hair line cracks occurred, albeit to a much lesser extent. A detailed investigation was
therefore, carried out to establish the cause and to identify all possible contributory factors by devising
a physical testing programme to investigate jacking pipe performance. Several radial and axial cores
from concrete pipes in the stock yard and in the tunnel were taken for both visual examination and
compression tests followed by conducting further physical bending tests on selected pipes. The values
of all these physical tests were found to exceed the specified design strength of the pipes. Visual
examination of all cores taken from the pipes showed presence of two dominant bands of cementitious
sand (10 to 20 mm thick) on every core indicating segregation of concrete due to the inherent feature
associated with spun concrete pipes. [It is a general phenomenon that concrete is separated into
formations while it is formed by centrifugal force, due to different specific gravity of materials].

The primary causes for the formation of damp/wet patches and fine hairline cracks were concluded by
the contractor. Concrete pipes were typically up to 6 month old prior to inclusion in the tunnel. These
were taken out of the storage yard having been exposed to the hot sun for up to six month and then
immediately subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure of up to 2 bars through the application of the
bentonite grout. That these concrete pipes possessed a high suction and imbibed water from the ground
when they were exposed. Site investigation and monitoring showed that damp/wet patches and damp
fine hairline cracks had undergone autogenous healing within less than two month. [The process
whereby fine cracks in concrete heal completely under moist condition due to the hydration of
previously un-hydrated cement]. Those few damp hairline cracks which persisted to remain damp
beyond three month where however treated using polyurethane based resin.

10.2.1 Preventative measures taken

10.2.1.1 Concrete pipe curing

Automatic water sprinkler system was used at the factory’s stockyard to saturate concrete pipes for
two weeks prior to transportation to the drive shaft. These pipes were then covered with wet hessian at
the shaft site before being incorporated into the tunnel. This proved to be a successful measure in that
formation of damp / wet patches were significantly reduced.

10.2.1.2 Main jacking forces

The main maximum allowable jacking force of 900 tons was revised and reduced to 400 tons to suit
the system set up and the equipment used for tunnelling operation. The steel spacer pipe ( open at the
invert ) was replaced with a sacrificial concrete pipe ensuring that axial jacking forces from the 4 main
jacking rams were evenly distributed around the circumference of the leading pipe. In addition,
bentonite lubrication material was replaced with polymer when jacking forces had reached 350-400
tons. The friction cut lubricating properties was therefore enhanced resulting in the magnitude of
developing friction forces at the ground / pipe interface being reduced to 0.1 t/m2.[The anticipated
friction value was 0.25 t/m2].

10.3 Tunnelling progress and rate

Some 7km of these tunnels have been constructed to date (18 tunnel spans). Tunnel span lengths vary
from 85 to 490 m with the majority of them being 450 m long approximately. Average tunnelling
advance rate of 26 m per day (two shifts) has been achieved. And the maximum and minimum
average jacking advance rates were 25 and 17 min/pipe.

59
10.4 Tunnel Leakage

A maximum allowable tunnel leakage rate of 80 litre/100m/day was specified. All constructed tunnels

have shown no signs of any leakage and have so far been completely dry.

11 LASER GUIDANCE SYSTEM

One of the interesting features on this project was the application of Laser Guidance System ( SLS-
RV, StuerLeit System Im RohrVortrieb) for long curved piped jacked tunnels. The ELS(Electronic
Laser System ) guidance system was augmented with by an advanced SLS-RV guidance system,
which was employed on the TBM. This system constantly checked the progress of the tunnel drive,
compared the information to the specified drive line, and provided information on the corrections
required to rejoin the correct line at the most appropriate position. Overall, the system consists of an
ELS active target mounted on TBM with a survey prism, a servo-motorised total station and laser
mounted, a number of survey prisms, and a length measuring system or length decoder.

The EPB machine was fitted with ELS guidance system which used a laser beam projected from the
jacking shaft (or from within the tunnel when alignment was on the curve) for reference. The ELS
system was operated by means of an active electronic target (two built in inclinometers) mounted in
the machine which detected the laser beam and sent signals to the computer in the operator’s control
panel at the surface. The active target also measured the inclination and roll of the machine axis. The
yaw angle was calculated from information received from special sensors built into the ELS unit.
Using the software for this system the computer translated the signals from the target onto a visual
display which enabled the operator to steer the machine by making adjustments to the small hydraulic
steering rams which articulate the head.
By this method, the tunnelling machine was kept on line and level. The horizontal and vertical
locations were given every 20cm.

The Contractor also conducted manual survey checks for every tunnel span and at every 100m of
tunnel advance in order to establish the exact location and coordinates of the TBM. These values were
then fed into the computer in order to adjust the alignment.

The actual pitch of the TBM, during tunnelling operation, varied between ± 0.6% (6mm/m of
advance). The actual roll of the TBM was kept between ± 2 degrees using the cutting wheel’s bi-
rotational facility. And the maximum yaw of the TBM was 6-7mm/m.

12 GROUND MOVEMENT AND MONITORING

12.1 Drive Shafts

Pipe jacking related shaft movements were assessed by carrying out numerical simulations using the
finite element program PLAXIS to determine anticipated shaft deformation at working loads and
approximate deformations at failure. Staged construction features were used in order to simulate the
step-by-step excavation during shaft construction as well as stress strain variations in the surrounding
soil during construction and pipe jacking operations. Updated Langarian analysis (Updated mesh) was
used to account for mesh deformations during the calculation process. The maximum predicted
displacement at the active side of the shaft was predicted to be 110 mm in the immediate vicinity of
shaft wall when a maximum main pipe jacking load of 900 tons was used.

Where possible, surface settlement points were installed to monitor ground movements. Actual ground
settlements of up to 9mm in the vicinity of the shafts were experienced. Shaft movements at each drive
shaft were regularly monitored when these shafts were subjected to maximum jacking forces.
Maximum permanent movement of the drive shafts when subjected to the maximum jacking force of

60
900 tons was at 7 mm. And for those shafts where the maximum jacking force was 500 tons, the
maximum permanent movement was 5 mm.

12.2 Tunnel drives

Assessment and prediction of anticipated ground movements were carried out adopting the empirical
equation of O’Reilly and New (1982) in making the prediction based upon the error function of the
surface settlement trough proposed by Peck (1969). [Dominating ground movements in very soft clay
layers are attributable to the consolidation of cohesive soil layers following pore pressure changes
from tunnel lining:- stress rearrangements, excess or deficiency of face pressure, pressure of void
grouting].

Assessments of time dependent ground movements were made based upon unavoidable ground losses,
like movements due to changes of stresses in the soil, face losses, a percentage of the maximum
possible tail void closure, curvature losses, and losses due to lining deflections taking into
consideration the strength and nature of the ground, the method of tunnelling, and the quality of the
equipment used and quality of the workmanship.

Conservative volume loss assumption and depths to give maximum settlement predictions were
considered. The assessed maximum settlements between 14mm (3% volume loss, deep position) and
33mm (5% volume loss, shallow position) were predicted.

Due to the prevailing constraints and site conditions along the tunnel route only surface settlement
monitoring points, 1m below ground level, were installed. However, monitoring instruments such as
inclinometer and extensometer are planned to be installed for the next tunnel drive at accessible
locations.

A systematic monitoring of the settlement of the ground surface was carried out and the monitoring
data obtained over a period of 12 month of shield passage revealed that the maximum surface
settlement above tunnel centre line was in the order of 12 mm. The short-term settlements were
measured to be in the order of 5mm at one month after excavation. The initial ground heave increment,
at some locations, was measured and interpreted to be negligible (in the order of 1-2 mm) which could
have been attributed to the application of high face pressures.

13 CONCLUSION

The successful completion of the shafts and tunnels has been due, in large measure, to decisive project
management by the Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), the contractors and consultants, the
management of the works by the team and the extensive co-ordination and planning efforts necessary
to bring the largest cable tunnel project in Bangkok to this stage. Fundamental to the success has been
the amicable working relationships which have developed.

The engineering precision used for shaft sinking operations using the Open Caisson System, the
manufacture of high performance tunnel boring machines with refined design to suit sub-soil
conditions found in Bangkok, the application of Automatic Lubrication System, the precise and
defined procedures for the sequence and control of pipe jacking operations, the accuracy and quality of
workmanship, and the commitment to deliver a high quality project have all culminated in success.

61
 Underground Singapore 2001

Damage Assessment of Adjacent Structures due to Bored

Tunneling for Changi Airport Line
G.V.R. Raju, C.C. Ng
Maunsell Consultants (S) Pte. Ltd., Singapore

B.S. Kumar
Nishimatsu Construction Co., Ltd.., Singapore

ABSTRACT: This paper discusses an ‘Observational Method’ used in the construction of the Changi
Airport Line tunnels to minimize ground movement and thus risk of damage to adjacent structures.
The twin tunnels, which measure 6.13m in external diameter and are each 3.5km long, are the longest
in Singapore. These bored tunnels were driven through 3 different soil conditions: at the interface
between Kallang Formation and completely weathered Old Alluvium, entirely within completely
weathered Old Alluvium, and entirely within fresh to slightly weathered Old Alluvium. An extensive
instrumentation program was used to monitor the surrounding ground movement and the response of
the existing structures. This paper presents the theoretical predictions, monitoring data and the
damage assessment of the adjacent structures.

1 INTRODUCTION

The proposed Changi Airport Line (CAL) is a Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system that will link the
Changi Airport to the existing MRT network, which comprises both elevated and underground
sections. The bored tunnel section of CAL, which forms part of Contract 503, is approximately
3.5km long and consists of twin 6.13m in external diameter tunnels with a center-to-center spacing of
approximately 15m. The tunnel alignment passes beneath the existing drainage reserve of a canal, the
Pan-Island Expressway, and along the western perimeter of Changi Airport. Other structures in the
vicinity of the bored tunnels are JTC Business Park, SASCO Bridge, Yan Kit pond (storm water
reservoir) and sluice gates, Changi Airport Runway One and a Taxiway. A location plan showing the
route of the bored tunnel alignment is given in Figure 1.

The construction of an underground tunnel is associated with a change in the state of stress in the
ground and with corresponding strains and displacements. Ground surface settlements due to
tunneling occur as a result of relief of the stresses existing in the ground before excavation
commences. This stress relief, together with the flexure of the tunnel lining causes radial convergence
of the support system. The inward convergence of the tunnel is accompanied by settlement of the
ground surface. Besides, the ground surface settlement may also arise due to additional face loss
caused by tunnel over-break.

It was necessary to assess the surrounding ground movements and the response of adjacent structures
during and after tunnel driving. The ground response due to bored tunneling often differs from that of
the predictions during design stage. In order to rationalize the differences between predicted and
actual ground response, extensive field measurements were undertaken to monitor the ground
movements and response of adjacent structures during and after tunneling. An ‘Observational
method’ (Figure 2) was employed to check and modify the original design based on the interpretation
of the monitoring results (Sakurai, 1999) in order to minimize ground movement.

65
Figure 1. Location plan of C503 bored tunnel alignment

Start

Exploration

Design

Construction Modification of
Design/
Construction
Field Measurement Methods

No
Back Analysis
No

Identification of
Mechanical Model and
Constant

Assessment of
Stability and
Design/Construction
Method

Yes

End of
Construction

Yes
Stop

Figure 2. Observational Method in Geotechnical Engineering Projects (after Sakurai, 1999)

66
2 GROUND CONDITIONS

The regional geology of the ground along the bored tunnels can be described locally as the Kallang
Formation underlain by a very thick bed of Old Alluvium, in which its crust has been subjected to
deep weathering in its geologic past. Thus the ground condition generally comprises the following
strata with increasing depth from ground level:
• Fill/Reclamation Fill
• Kallang Formation (KF) (not always present)
• Old Alluvium (OA) Formation

The KF occurs as infill in the valleys of the underlying OA. This formation can be classified as a
cohesionless material comprising loose to medium dense silty gravelly sands and a soft cohesive
material comprising peaty/marine clay. The thick deposit of OA also exhibits a distinct weathering
profile, which can be classified into:
• Residual soil: Firm to stiff sandy clay and clayey sand
• Completely Weathered Old Alluvium (CWOA): Dense to very dense sand and gravel with
occasional lenses of stiff to hard silty clays
• Fresh to slightly weathered Old Alluvium (Sandstones): Coarse grained Brown or Blue
Sandstones
• Mudstones: Pale greenish brown layers of mudstones

The geotechnical properties of the above soil types are summarized in Table 1. The tunnel axis levels
typically fall between 10 to 20m below the existing ground level and the tunnels generally traverse the
OA. However at some sections of the tunnel drives (eg. CH. 95+830 and 98+800) the KF extends to
the tunnel level. The assessed geology of the ground along the tunnel drives is indicated in Figure 3.
The ground water table was fairly constant throughout the drive. It could be considered to be fairly
high, generally less than 5m below ground surface.
EXPO ORIGINAL TOPOGRAPHY APPROXIMATE POSITION AIRPORT
APPROX POSITION OF

STATION APPROX. POSITION AND ELEVATION OF STATION

OLD TOPOGRAPHY - 1975
HOLDING POND RL 120.00
OLD COASTLINE

DRAINAGE
RESERVE RL 110.00
CANAL

RUNWAY 1
XILIN AVENUE SASCO TAXIWAY TAXI WAY APRON

RL 100.00
CP1

RL 90.00
CP2

?
? ? ?

?
?
? RL 80.00
? ? ?
?
? ? ?
? ?
? ? ?
?

?
?

?
?
RL 70.00
?
?

RL 70.00
CH 93 + 900
CH 94 + 000

CH 94 + 500

CH 95 + 000

CH 95 + 500

CH 96 + 000

CH 96 + 500

CH 97 + 000

CH 97 + 500

CH 98 + 000

CH 98 + 500

CH 99 + 000

CH 99 + 500
CH 99 + 600

FILL RECLAMATION RESIDUAL SOIL (O.A)

K.F.C. K.F. SAND OLD ALLUVIUM (BROWN SANDSTONE)

C.W.O.A. OLD ALLUVIUM (BLUE SANDSTONE) STATION

Figure 3. Interpreted geotechnical profile along tunnel drives

67
Table 1. Summary of geotechnical properties (Extracts from CAL Geotechnical Investigation Report)

Soil type Density cu c’ φ’ E Permeability N

(Mg/m3 ) (kPa) (MN/m2)) (m/s)
-7
Reclamation Fill 2.0 10(W) - - - 7.8 X 10 <4
50(CPT)
(29ο−33ο)
-7
Fill 1.9 43-105(UU) (5-79) 10.4 2.9 X 10 to (3-6)
o -9
50(CPT) 0 30 (200cu) 6.5 X 10
Kallang Formation
o
Cohesive Soils 1.6 11(FVT) 0 22 2.6
15(UU) 13(small strain)
25(CPT) 200cu
-8
Cohesionless Soil 65-78 8.8 X 10 to <4
-9
22.6(small strain) 10
Old Alluvium
o -7
Residual Soil 2.0 28-310(UU) 0 30 65-78 1.0 X 10 (10-
30)
100- 60(small strain)
200(CPT)

o
Completely Weather 2.0 250(UU) 0* 31.5 100 (50-
90)
-6
116-313(UU) 41.6(small strain) 4X10
o –7 –8
Brown Sand Stone 2.1 750(UCT) 59 (CD) 39 E=45 UCS (PMT) 10 to 10 N>100
1000-3400
(PMT)
cu=200
φu = 35(UU)
o –7
Mud Stones 2.1 750(UCT) 67 (CU) 53 E=74UCS (LAB) . 10
1300(PMT)
E=140UCS (PMT)
o –7
Blue Sand Stones 2.0 375(UCT) 20 35 E=65UCS (LAB) 5 X 10 <100
1250(PMT) (CU) (CU)
cu=120 E=60 UCS (PMT)
φu = 30(UU)
35(small strain)
(very low)

3 BORED TUNNEL

The 6.13m external diameter bored tunnels were driven by a TBM with the option of open or
closed face modes. The bored tunnels were launched from a portal in the cut and cover
section at approximately CH. 95+500 and driven towards Changi Airport Station. The tunnels
were constructed using bolted 1.4m wide, 250mm thick precast reinforced concrete lining
segments. 5 segments and 1 key formed each ring. There are 12 cross-passage between the
tunnels. The cross-passages were constructed by hand-mining method using steel frame and
timber lagging. The approximate opening size for the cross-passage is 3m in diameter.

4 INSTRUMENTATION & MONITORING

A comprehensive instrumentation and monitoring program was implemented for Contract 503. The
monitoring scheme comprises both ground and adjacent structure monitoring. The ground monitoring
for the tunnel drives was carried out at 5 Greenfield sites (GFS) at approximately CH. 95+800,
96+050, 96+225, 97+039 and 98+297. These 5 GFS can generally be categorized into 3 different
ground conditions, which the tunnels traversed through:

68
• Type 1 (GFS1) where tunnels were driven through interface between CWOA and KF
• Type 2 (GFS 2 & 5) where tunnels were entirely within CWOA with overlying KF
• Type 3 (GFS 3 & 4) where tunnels were entirely within Brown or Blue Sandstones without
overlying KF

Figure 4. Typical instrumentation plans at the Greenfield site

The instrumentation at the GFS consisted of arrays of settlement markers, piezometers, in-place
inclinometers and magnetic extensometers. A typical instrumentation layout plan at the Greenfield
site and a typical cross-section are shown in Figures 4 and 5 respectively. Besides ground monitoring,
monitoring of adjacent structures was also carried out, which included settlement markers on walls
and column tiltmeters, to ensure the stability of the structures. Only ground monitoring results are
presented in this paper. The monitoring data was used to revise the initial prediction of settlement
trough for damage assessments.

Figure 5. Typical instrumentation arrays at the Greenfield site

5 ESTIMATION OF SETTLEMENT TROUGH PARAMETERS FROM GREENFIELD SITES

The settlement data from the GFS was used to define the geometry of the settlement troughs needed to
assess the likely damage to the adjacent structures. The prediction of Greenfield settlements due to
the construction of a single bored tunnel were outlined by Peck (1969), O’Reilly and New (1982) and

69
extended by New and O’Reilly (1991). Considerable observations on a number of tunneling projects
demonstrated that the ground surface settlements are usually in the form of Gaussian Distribution
Curves. These curves can be defined in terms of the Equivalent Face Losses (EFL) and the Trough
Width Parameters (K).

EFL value, which is defined as volume of ground loss in terms of percentage of tunnel face area, is
governed by the nature of surrounding soil conditions, including the ground water conditions and
influenced by the methods of construction and workmanship. K value is an empirical parameter,
which is used to define the horizontal distance from the tunnel centerline to the point of inflection on
the settlement trough.

The settlement troughs for twin tunnels were obtained by superimposing the predicted ground
settlement trough for each tunnel acting independently. This approach is conservative for tunnels
where the clear separation is more than one tunnel diameter. In the back calculation for the EFL and
K values for the 3 different types of soil conditions, theoretical Gaussian settlement trough was
iteratively fitted around the monitoring data at the GFS by adjusting the EFL and K values. These
fitted troughs give an upper bound envelope but not best fit troughs. These EFL and K values were
subsequently used to define the settlement troughs at the sections with adjacent structures mentioned
above for damage assessments.

The monitoring data, characteristic EFL and K values of the ground surface settlement troughs in the
3 different types of soil conditions which the tunnels traversed through are summarized in Table 2.
The following sections describe in detail the monitoring data and the back calculated EFL and K
values of the ground settlement in the 3 different of soil conditions.

Table 2. Monitoring data and characteristic EFL & K values for 3 types of ground conditions

Type of ground conditions 1 2 3

Description Tunneling through interface Tunneling entirely in Tunneling entirely in Brown or
between CWOA and KF CWOA with overlying KF Blue Sandstones without overlying
KF
GFS 1 2&5 3&4
Chainage(s) 95+584 to 95+835 96+033 to 96+065 96+225 to 96+243
98+289 to 98+317 97+039 to 97+061
Maximum Ground Settlement 85mm 7mm 6mm
Maximum Lateral Movement 45mm 5mm 3mm
Ground Water Table Unchanged Unchanged Unchanged
EFL 5.5% 0.25 to 0.4% 0.15 to 0.25%
K 0.5 0.3 0.3

5.1 Type 1 (GFS 1 at approx. CH. 95+800)

The monitoring data: settlement markers and inclinometer, as well as the theoretical Gaussian surface
settlement trough at GFS 1 are shown in Figure 6. At this GFS, tunnels were driven through interface
between CWOA and KF. The monitoring data shown in Figure 6 was recorded 2 weeks after both
tunnels were driven through this monitoring site.

Large settlements (up to 300mm) occurred after the westbound tunnel was driven through this
monitoring zone. This is because there was an unexpected abrupt change in the ground at the tunnel
level from OA to KF. The TBM driving parameters such as face pressure and the grout pressure used
in OA had to be adjusted for driving in such soft and loose soils. During this process, the continued
presence of the loose soils resulted in the large immediate ground settlements. When these driving
parameters were adjusted for the subsequent tunnel drives, the settlements above the tunnels were
limited to about 55mm above fluvial deposits to 85mm above marine clay deposits. Hence, the large

70
settlement initially recorded above the westbound tunnel was treated as non-representative of actual
settlement trough due to tunneling in such ground and this monitoring data is not shown in Figure 6.
The maximum lateral ground movement was 45mm and there was no significant change in ground
water table. Based on the monitoring data for the subsequent tunnel driving through this site, the
critical EFL and K values at this site are 5.5% and 0.5 respectively. These are assumed as parameters
defining the settlement trough where tunnels are driven through the interface between CWOA and KF.

Lateral Movement (mm) Distance (m) Lateral Movement (mm)

0 10 20 30 40 50 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 0

-20
Measured settlement data

Fill
-40 4

-60
Theoretical Settlement Trough
-80 (EFL = 5.5%, K = 0.5) 8
Depth to axis of
-100 tunnel = 17m

KFC
-120 12
Settlement (mm)

Depth (m)
-140

-160 16

-180

CWOA
-200 20

-220

-240 Center to Center Spacing = 15m 24

Tunnel External Diameter = 6.126m
-260

OA
-280 28

-300
Settlement Marker

Settlement Marker
Inclinometer
East bound
Inclinometer Inclinometer GFS
EB W
B West bound

Figure 5 Settlement trough and Inclinometer reading at GFS 1

Figure 6. Settlement Trough and inclinometer reading at GFS 1 (CH.95+584 to CH.95+835)

5.2 Type 2 (GFS 2 at approx. CH. 96+050 and GFS 5 at approx. CH. 98+297)

The monitoring data: settlement markers and inclinometers, as well as the theoretical Gaussian surface
settlement troughs at GFS 2 and 5 are shown in Figures 7 and 8 respectively. At these 2 GFS, the
tunnel driving was entirely in CWOA, but with some KF, ranging from 2 to 6m, overlying the CWOA
above the tunnels. The monitoring data shown in Figures 7 and 8 was recorded 2 weeks after both
tunnels were driven through these monitoring sites.

Distance (m)
Lateral Movement (mm) Lateral Movement (mm)
0 1 2 3 4 5 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1-2 -3-4-5
0 0
Fill

-2 Measured settlement data 4

Theoretical Settlement Trough

-4 (EFL = 0.25%, K = 0.3) 8
KF

Depth to axis of
Settlement (mm)

tunnel = 19.65m
-6
12
Depth (m)

-8
16
CWOA

-10
20

-12
24

Center to Center Spacing = 15m

-14
Tunnel External Diameter = 6.126m
28
OA

-16

Figure 7. Settlement Trough and inclinometer reading at GFS 2 (CH.96+033 to CH.96+065)

71
Lateral Movement (mm) Distance (m)
Lateral Movement (mm)
-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1-2-3-4-5
0 0

Fill
-2 Monitoring data 4

KF
-4
8
Depth to axis of
Settlement (mm)

tunnel = 20m
-6
12
Theoretical Settlement Trough

Depth (m)
(EFL = 0.4%, K = 0.3)

CWOA
-8
16

-10
20

Brown Sandstones
-12
24
Center to Center Spacing = 15m
-14
Tunnel External Diameter = 6.126m
28

-16

Figure 8. Settlement Trough and inclinometer reading at GFS 5 (CH.98+289 to CH.98+317)

The maximum ground surface settlement was about 4mm above KF of 2m thick and 7mm above KF
of 6m thick. There was no significant change in ground water table. The maximum lateral ground
movement was about 3mm. The EFL values at these 2 GFS range from 0.25% to 0.4% at location
where the thickness of KF overlying the CWOA ranges from 2 to 6m. The K value at these 2 GFS is
0.3. These are assumed as parameters defining the settlement trough for tunneling entirely through
the CWOA with overlying KF above the tunnels.

5.3 Type 3 (GFS 3 at approx. CH. 96+225 and GFS 4 at approx. CH. 97+039)

The monitoring data: settlement markers and inclinometers, as well as the theoretical Gaussian
surface settlement troughs at GFS 3 and 4 are shown in Figures 9 and 10. At these 2 GFS, the
tunnel driving was entirely in Brown or Blue Sandstones without any KF above the tunnels.
The monitoring data shown in Figures 9 and 10 was recorded 2 weeks after both tunnels were
driven through this monitoring site.
Lateral Movement (mm) Distance (m) Lateral Movement (mm)
-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 4 3 2 1 0-1-2-3-4-5
0 0
Fill

Monitoring data

-2 4

Theoretical Settlement Trough

Brown Sandstones

-4 (EFL = 0.25%, K = 0.3) 8

Depth to axis of
Settlement (mm)

tunnel = 19.75m
-6
12
Depth (m)

-8
16

-10
20

-12
24
Center to Center Spacing = 15m
Blue Sandstones

-14 Tunnel External Diameter = 6.126m

28

-16

Figure 9. Settlement Trough and inclinometer reading at GFS 3 (CH.96+225 to CH.96+243)

72
The maximum ground surface settlement was about 6mm. The maximum lateral ground
movement was 3mm and there was no significant change in ground water table. The EFL at
these 2 GFS range from 0.15% to 0.25% and the K value is 0.3. These are assumed as
parameters defining the settlement trough for tunneling entirely through the Brown or Blue
Sandstones.
Lateral Movement (mm) Dis tanc e (m) Lateral Movement (mm)
-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 4 3 2 1 0 - 1- 2- 3- 4- 5
0 0

Brown Sands tones

Monitoring data

-2 4

Theoretical Settle ment Trough

-4 (EFL = 0.15% , K = 0.3)
Depth to axis of 8
tunnel = 20.25m
Settlement (mm)

-6
12

Dept h (m)
-8
16

Blue S ands tones

-10
20

-12
24
Center to Center Spacing = 15m
-14
Tunnel External Diameter = 6.126m
28

-16

Figure 10. Settlement Trough and inclinometer reading at GFS 4 (CH.97+039 to CH.97+061)

6 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT OF ADJACENT STRUCTURES

The assessment of the potential damage to the structures along CAL tunnels is based largely on the
works of Burland and Wroth (1974), Boscardin and Cording (1989), Burland (1995) and Mair, Taylor
and Burland (1996). The classification into various categories of damage is based on the limiting
tensile strains on the subsided ground surface and those experienced by the structure. The damage
categories is based on the work by Burland et al. (1977).

The damage analysis consists of evaluating the ground settlements due to the construction of bored
tunnel and determination of the angular distortion and critical tensile strain experienced by the
buildings due to the ground settlements. Hence, settlement troughs need to be predicted when
adjacent structures, which could be adversely affected, are required to be assessed for possible
damage.

Damage assessment had been done for the following adjacent structures:
• SASCO Bridge (approx. CH. 97+100 to 97+200)
• Yan Kit Pond (storm water reservoir)/ sluice gates (approx. CH 97+900 to 98+000)
• Airport Structures – Runway One and Taxiway (approx. CH.98+500 to 98+700)

The above damage assessments are based on the assumption that the ground and the structure settle by
the same amount and primarily based on the approach used for masonry structure where the structure
stiffness is ignored.

At the design stage, single conservative values of EFL and K were used for damage assessment of the
above adjacent structures based on the soil descriptions and the past experience on similar ground

73
conditions. These assessments were then reassessed based on the available GFS monitoring data.
The damage assessment was repeated using EFL of 1% and 4.5% for the Yan Kit Pond/sluice gates,
and using EFL of 3% and 4.5% for Airport Runway and Taxiway, and 0.4% for SASCO Bridge. The
damage categories of these structures are shown in Table 3. For Airport Runway, Taxiway and Yan
Kit Pond/sluice gates, higher values of ground loss were used for the OA, as compared to GFS
monitoring data. This was necessary to cover the likely variation in ground loss between the open and
closed modes of the TBM operation and possibility of soft soil pockets beneath the structures.

It could be seen from Table 3 that the most critical damage category predicted for any of the structures
assessed is Category ‘3’ (Moderate), which can be described as ‘aesthetic to serviceability damage’,
due to typical crack widths ranging from 5 to 15mm. The cracks can be easily filled and recurrent
cracks can be masked by suitable linings. However, no structural damage is expected. The predicted
worst damage categories for Yan Kit Pond/sluice gates and Airport Taxiway are ‘Moderate’, which
exceeded the ‘Slight’ category as per the particular specifications for Contract 503.

The damage category predictions for the sluice gates shown in Table 3 should be interpreted with
caution. The damage assessment is primarily based on the approach used for masonry structures,
which in a strict sense is not suitable for the sluice gates. In the case of masonry structure, cracks of
the size predicted can easily be filled. But in the case of the sluice gates, the possible adverse effects
on the canal barrage mechanism of the sluice gates were difficult to predict, and difficult to repair if
damage did occur. If the EFL value reaches 4.5% due to the presence of pockets of KF extending to
the tunnel level, the function of the sluice gates as canal barrage may be adversely affected as the
differential settlements may cause jamming of the gates in the sliding grooves. Hence, it was decided
to adopt higher standard of control at this location in order to limit the severity of damage to the sluice
gates. It was proposed to increase the depth of the tunnel at this location so that adequate firm ground
cover is available between the tunnel crown and the gates to minimise differential settlements.

For the Airport Runway and Taxiways, the settlements due to tunneling were not expected to cause
any damage even when the face loss reaches 4.5% at location where there were pockets of soft soils
extending up to the tunnel level. This is because the thick taxiway structure would help to flatten the
settlement trough, hence reduce the differential settlements. The maximum settlement monitored at
Airport Runway and Taxiway were 5mm and 6mm respectively. These values were well below the
limit in the particular specifications. The SASCO Bridge is supported on deep foundations in good
ground. The settlement of the ground due to tunneling in the vicinity (7 to 8m away from the piles)
was not expected to increase the moments in the piles. Excessive settlements of the piles are unlikely
because the toes of the piles are below the invert level of the tunnels.

Table 3. Damage categories for adjacent structures

Structure Predictions based on Predictions for Allowable values in Monitoring

monitoring data 4.5% EFL for the case particular data
of KF at tunnel level specifications
Max. Damage Max. Damage Max. Damage Max.
settlement Category*2 settlement Category*2 settlemen Category*2 settlement*1
(mm) (mm) t (mm) (mm)
SASCO Bridge (Ch. 7 0 - - 25 2 -
97+150m) (EFL=0.4%, K=0.3)
Yan Kit Pond/sluice 18 1 82 3 50 2 4
gates (Ch. (EFL=1%, K=0.45)
97+950m)
Airport Runway 8 0 80 3 30 2 5
One (Ch. 98+500m) (EFL=0.4%, K=0.3)
Airport Taxiway 52 3 80 3 40 2 6
(Ch. 98+700m) (EFL=3%, K=0.45)
*1
Based on Greenfield settlements assuming that the ground and the structure settle by the same amount.
*2
Structure stiffness is ignored.

74
7 DAMAGE MITIGATION MEASURES

Mitigation measures such as changing the mode of driving and lowering the vertical alignment of the
tunnel was successfully implemented to minimize the ground movement, especially for the Yan Kit
Pond/sluice gates structure. These mitigation measures were used to minimize damage identified
from ‘Observational Method’. Lowering of the original tunnels vertical alignment at Yan Kit
Pond/sluice gates had been proposed to minimize ground movement and thus structures damage and
was accepted by the client, Land Transport Authority (LTA).

After the lowering of the tunnels vertical alignment, the maximum settlement monitored at the Yan
Kit Pond/sluice gates was 4mm. The EFL and K values obtained by iteratively fitting a Gaussian
settlement trough on the monitored data at this site were 0.3% and 0.45 respectively. As a result, the
damage category of the Yan Kit Pond/sluice gate was improved from ‘Moderate’ to ‘Very Slight’,
which is within the limits of the particular specifications.

8 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions can be drawn from the above findings:

1. The monitoring results at GFS 2 to 5 in the current project suggest that very small EFL values
(0.15 to 0.4%) can be achieved when tunnelling entirely through OA using Earth Pressure
Balancing TBM.
2. Monitoring results at GFS 1 indicated that tunnelling through the interface of OA and KF could
cause potentially large settlements with a consequent risk of damage to adjacent structures.
3. The monitoring data at the 5 GFS provided a better understanding of the ground response to
bored tunneling in OA and KF. This enabled an observational approach to be successfully
implemented to minimize risk of damage to adjacent structures.
4. Lowering of tunnels vertical alignment at Yan Kit Pond/sluice gates to give sufficient ground
cover between the tunnels and the sluice gates was proposed and accepted by the LTA. The
damage category for the Yan Kit Pond/sluice gates was reduced from ‘Moderate’ to ‘Very
Slight’ by the proposed lowering of alignment.

REFERENCES

1. Boscardin M. D. and Cording E. J. (1989), ‘Building Response to Excavation Induced Settlement’, ASCE
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering., Vol. 115, No. 1, January, pp. 1-21
2. Burland J. B. (1995), ‘Assessment of Risk of Damage to Buildings due to Tunneling and Excavation’,
Proceedings of First International Conference on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Tokyo, pp.
1189-1201.
3. Burland J. B., Broms B. B., ad de Mello V. F. B. (1977), ‘Behaviour of Foundations and Structures’, State
of the Art Report, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 495-546
4. Burland J. B. and Wroth C. P. (1974). ‘Settlement of Buildings and Associated Damage’, Proceedings of
Conference on Settlement of Structures, London, England, Pentech Press, pp. 611-654.
5. Mair R. J., Taylor R. N. and J. B. Burland (1996), ‘Prediction of Ground Movements and Assessment of
Risk of Building Damage due to Bored Tunneling’, Geotechnical Aspects of Underground
Construction in Soft Ground, Rotterdam, Balkema, pp. 713-718.
6. New B. M. and O’Reilly M. P. (1991), ‘Tunneling Induced Ground Movements: Predicting Their
Magnitude and Effect’, 4th International Conference on Ground Movements and Structures, Cardiff.
7. O’Reilly M. P. and New B. M. (1982), ‘Settlements above tunnels in the United Kingdom – Their
Magnitude and Prediction’, Tunneling ’89, London, pp. 171-181.
8. Peck R. B. (1969), ‘Deep Excavations and Tunneling in Soft Ground’, State of the Art Report, 7th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, State of the
Art, Volume, pp. 225-290.
9. Sakurai S. (1999), ‘Interpretation of The Results of Displacement Measurements in Geotechnical
Engineering Projects’, Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Field Measurements in
Geomechanics, Singapore, pp. 13 – 18.

75
 Underground Singapore 2001

Immediate Settlements Due To Tunnelling For The North

East Line
J.N.Shirlaw, J.C.W. Ong, H.B. Rosser, N.H. Osborne, C.G. Tan and P.J.E. Heslop
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The construction of the North East Line of Singapore’s mass transit system involved
the driving of 22,830m of bored tunnel. The ground conditions encountered varied from soft clay to
tropically weathered rocks. Tunnel construction on all but one section was by the use of earth pressure
balance shields. Surface settlement points were placed at 15m to 50m intervals along the tunnels.
There were over six hundred of these points directly over one or other of the twin tunnels. 80% of the
results showed a Relative Volume Loss of less than 1%, and 93% of points recorded a Volume Loss
of less than 2%. The remaining 7% of points recorded values of Volume Loss of up to 12%. The
larger measured settlements mostly occurred in the softer soils encountered, and were inversely
related to the face pressure used. There were 22 known cases of visible localised settlement or
subsurface ground losses, which were generally not identified in the surface monitoring data. High
localised settlements or ground losses generally occurred in three situations: at launching of the
machines, at docking of the machines, or at interfaces between highly dissimilar materials.

1 INTRODUCTION

The settlement caused by tunnelling is usually divided into two components: the ‘immediate’
settlement as the tunnel is driven beneath a monitoring point, and the ‘long term’ settlement that
develops over time. The ‘immediate’ settlement mainly results from movement at the tunnel face and,
for machine driven tunnels, the effects of the shield passing and tail void closure. ‘Long term’
movements are typically due to consolidation settlements that result from seepage towards the tunnel;
or to the dissipation of excess pore pressures generated during tunnelling (Shirlaw et al. 1994).

Construction of the North East Line of the Singapore subway system started in late 1997. The 20
kilometre long underground line includes 11.4 route kilometres formed as twin 5.8m I.D. running
tunnels. Surface settlement points were typically placed at 15m to 50m intervals over each of the
tunnel drives. The results of this monitoring provide a significant data base of the range of initial
settlement in the varying ground conditions in Singapore.

Not all of the settlement that occurred during the tunnelling for the North East line was captured by
the settlement monitoring. On a number of occasions there was a localised loss of ground at the tunnel
face. This lead to subsurface voids developing which, in most cases, migrated upwards and created
localised depressions at the ground surface. The limited size of the depressions meant that they
generally appeared between surface settlement points and were not reflected in the settlement
monitoring. In some cases, there was time to take remedial action to fill the subsurface voids before
they could migrate to the surface. This paper will present a summary of all of the settlements
associated with the tunnelling for the North East Line, including both the monitored settlements and
the observed losses of ground.

76
2 BACKGROUND
2.1 The North East Line.
The North East Line extends from Harbourfront Station, near the World Trade Centre in the South of
Singapore, to Punggol in the North East. There are 16 underground stations, as shown in Figure 1.
From Outram Park to Farrer Park Stations the line passes through some of the oldest areas of
Singapore, running across the northern edge of the Central Business District, and crossing Orchard
Road. In this section the line also passes through the two major conservation areas of Chinatown and
Little India. In these areas there are many of the two to four storey shophouses that were the
characteristic building style in Singapore prior to World War II.

From Boon Keng to Hougang the line runs through areas that were mainly developed after the war.
The characteristic structures in these areas are 6 to 20 storey apartment blocks built by the Singapore
Housing and Development Board since independence.

When construction of the North East Line started the area to the north of Hougang was mainly
undeveloped, consisting for the most part of scrub. Development of this area, mostly for HDB
apartment blocks, has proceeded at the same time as the construction of the railway.

The civil work for the North East Line was let as twelve design/build construction contracts in 1997.
Of the twelve civil contracts, six included bored tunnelling as part of the required works. All of these
contracts also included substantial cut and cover works for stations, and, in some cases, for tunnels.

Figure 1. Profile along the North East Line, showing ground conditions and direction of tunnel drives.

2.2 Ground Conditions

The ground conditions along the route are summarised in Figure 1, which also shows the direction of
the drives and the numbers of the six contracts that involved bored tunnelling. As shown in the Figure,
the northern contracts (Contracts 703, 704, 705 and part of 706) were in the Old Alluvium, except for
a buried ridge of granite encountered in the Serangoon area. There were also number of old valleys

77
that had been eroded into the Old Alluvium, and infilled with recent deposits of marine clay and
fluvial sands and clays. These infilled valleys were encountered at intervals along the tunnel drives on
Contracts 705 and 706.

The tunnelling to the south of Little India Station, including the remaining drives under Contract 706,
and the tunnelling under Contracts 708 and 710, was mainly in the sedimentary rocks of the Jurong
Formation. Marine clay or fluvial sand were encountered locally, particularly under the Singapore
river, at the southern ends of Clarke Quay and Chinatown stations, and in occasional, small infilled
valleys between Outram Park and Harbourfront Stations. Just to the south of Little India Station the
tunnels encountered the Fort Canning Boulder Bed (S3), over a length of about 150m. The Boulder
Bed consists of very strong, quartzite boulders in a hard, silty clay matrix. It was originally thought to
be part of the weathering profile of the Jurong formation, but is now generally considered to be a
colluvial deposit (Shirlaw et al 1990, Han et al 1994). The Boulder Bed was also encountered over a
length of about 180m under the western flank of Fort Canning Hill, next to the Singapore River.

Most of these types of ground had been encountered during the tunnelling for the earlier Phases 1 and
2 of the Singapore MRT system. Those tunnels were mostly driven using open faced shields, often
with the use of compressed air. Details of the tunnelling are given in Hulme and Burchell (1992) and
Hulme et al. (1987). Table 1 shows the observed ground behaviour from those tunnels, using the
‘Tunnelman’s classification’, as amended by Heuer (1974).

Table 1. ‘Tunnelman’s classification for the soils and weathered rocks of Singapore, assuming no support
pressure at the face
Formation Material Behaviour
Kallang Formation Marine and Estuarine Clays Rapid squeezing. The Stability Number is
typically between 7 and 9 in free air, and
uncontrolled squeezing is immediate on exposure.
Kallang Formation Fluvial sands Flowing
Boulder Bed Firm
Bukit Timah Residual Soil (Grade VI) Firm to slow squeezing, except where dykes of
Granite less weathered rock were encountered.
Jurong Formation Residual Soil (Grade VI) Firm
Jurong Formation Highly (Grade IV) or Moderately Very variable, from rapidly raveling to firm
(Grade III) weathered rock
Jurong Formation Slightly (Grade II) weathered or Firm
Fresh (Grade I) rock

2.3 Tunnelling Methods

Apart from a very short section of shotcrete lined (SCL) tunnel, all of the North East Line running
tunnels were constructed using shield machines and lined using one pass segmental linings. Of the 24
tunnel drives, 2 drives were constructed using open face shields and 22 drives using 14 No. Earth
Pressure Balance Shields (EPBS). The two drives with open face shields were under Fort Canning
Hill, between the Singapore River and Dhoby Ghaut Station. The shields used for the North East Line
tunnelling are summarised by Reilly and Tham (1999), while the linings are described in Doran et al.
(1999).

2.4 Monitoring
Typically, surface settlement points were placed at intervals of 15m to 50m over the centre line of
each of the bored tunnels. In addition to these centreline points, lateral arrays of monitoring points
were placed at interval of about 200m. Most of the monitoring points were placed on road or
pavement slabs, and consisted of a simple road nail driven into the surface. For turfed areas the
settlement point usually consisted of a length of rebar driven into the ground.

78
3 ASSESSMENT OF IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENTS
3.3 Methodology
Six hundred and seventeen points were selected for detailed assessment. The basis for the selection of
these points was that they had to be over the plan area of the tunnel, i.e. within 3m of the tunnel centre
line. The points were also selected so that the typical spacing along the tunnels of 15m to 50m was
maintained.

A graph of the development of settlement with time for each of the 617 points was plotted. This was
relatively easy to do as all of the North East Line monitoring data was stored on a server, and could be
accessed remotely using web browser based software (Kimmance et al. 1999). The date at which the
face of the tunnel passed under the point was then plotted onto the graph. It was a contract
specification requirement that the two tunnels on any section should be kept at least 15m apart, and in
most cases the separation was much more than this. There was therefore little problem in separating
the effects of the two tunnels on any point. From the graph the immediate settlement associated with
the face passing was assessed by inspection. Only the effect of the tunnel directly beneath the point
was assessed. Typically the immediate settlement developed over two to four weeks, mainly after the
face had passed beneath the point. An example of a settlement/time plots is shown in Figure 2.

-30
-20
Northbound
L2010
Southbound
Displacement (mm)

-10
0
10
20

30
May 99

May 00
Mar 99

Apr 99

Oct 99

Mar 00

Apr 00

Oct 00
Aug 99

Nov 99

Aug 00
Feb 00
Jun 99

Jul 99

Sep 99

Dec 99

Jan 00

Jun 00

Jul 00

Sep 00
Figure 2. Development of settlement with time, point L2010 (over Southbound tunnel).

Once the immediate settlement had been assessed, the relative Volume Loss was calculated using the
formula:

Vl = 2.5 i Smax / A (1)

Where: Vl is the Relative Volume Loss

i is the distance to the point of inflection
Smax is the assessed immediate settlement
A is the cross sectional area of the tunnel

The ‘i’ values were based on measurements made at lateral arrays installed at intervals along the
tunnel, and checked against the previously published data from both the North East Line and
tunnelling for the earlier phases of the Singapore subway system. Typically ‘i’ values were based on
the formula:

i = K Zo (2)

Where K is a constant and Zo is the depth between ground surface and the axis level of the tunnel.
The values for ‘K’ used for the analysis are given in Table 2.

79
Table 2. ‘K’ values used for study
______________________________________
Ground Type ‘K’
__________________________________________
Kallang Formation 0.5
Old Alluvium 0.45
Jurong Formation 0.45
Residual Soil (Grade VI Granite 0.5
Boulder Bed 0.5
Granite (Grades I to V) 0.3
__________________________________________

3.2 Results of the study

The calculated volume losses measured at all 617 points are presented as a histogram in Figure 3. It
can be seen from Figure 3 that at 58% of all of the measured points the immediate volume loss was
less than 0.5%. 93% of the results were below 2% relative Volume Loss. The 44 results (7% of the
whole) above this can be considered exceptions to the norm during the NEL tunnelling.
1 0 0 .0
9 0 .0
8 0 .0
Cases, percent

7 0 .0
6 0 .0
5 0 .0
4 0 .0
3 0 .0
2 0 .0
1 0 .0
0 .0
< 0 .4 9 0 .5 to 1 to 1 .5 to 2 to 2 .5 to 3 to 4 to >5
0 .9 9 1 .4 9 1 .9 9 2 .4 9 2 .9 9 3 .9 9 4 .9 9
V o lu m e L o s s , p e rc e n t

Figure 3. Percentage of the 617 cases falling into different ranges of Relative Volume Loss.

If 2% Relative Volume Loss is an achievable norm, then it is useful to look in some detail at the 44
results which exceeded this value. This would provide an understanding as to why, and in what
ground conditions, this value was exceeded. Conclusions can then be drawn on what changes in
tunnelling practice would be necessary to consistently achieve 2% Relative Volume Loss.

3.3 Assessment of immediate settlements

The first step in the analysis was to assess how the ground conditions in the face affected the number
of cases of Relative Volume Loss exceeding 2%.

For this exercise the ground conditions were divided into broad categories, consisting of:
• Old Alluvium (all weathering grades)
• Residual soil derived from Bukit Timah Granite
• Mixed weathering grades II to V, Bukit Timah Granite
• Mixed weathering grades II to VI, Jurong Formation
• The Fort Canning Boulder Bed
• The Kallang Formation
• The interfaces between the Old Alluvium or Jurong Formation and the Kallang Formation

After the initial assessment it was decided to subdivide the Jurong Formation between those areas

80
where the ground level was above +110m, and those areas where the ground level was lower than this.
Generally, the rock at tunnel level where the ground was above +110m was stronger and less
weathered than the rock encountered where the land was lower lying. It was necessary to use this
indirect means of quantifying the rock quality because of the high degree of variability of the
weathered rocks of the Jurong Formation. In the open face shield drives between Clarke Quay and
Dhoby Ghaut there were several occasions where the face conditions changed very rapidly.
Conditions could change from strong rock, which had to be blasted, to highly fractured, highly
weathered rock that required face timbering for stability, and vice versa. These changes could occur
within 1m of advance. Such changes were observed under both high and low lying land, but the
proportion of unstable face conditions was higher under the lower lying ground. It was not practical to
try to separate out the direct effects of varying rock quality, particularly for the EPB drives where the
face conditions could not be observed. Instead, the ground surface level was used as a general
indicator of relative rock quality.

Over 20 km. of tunnelling for the North East Line was by means of Earth Pressure Balance shields,
while just over 2km was constructed using open face shields. The open face shields were used under
Fort Canning Hill, where the ground consisted initially of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed, and then
weathered rock of the Jurong Formation. The number of points where a relative volume loss of over
2% was recorded, separated by ground condition, is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Number of points where a Volume Loss of over 2% was recorded, separated by ground condition in the
face of the tunnel
__________________________________________________________________________
EPB Shields Open Face Shields
Ground Type in face Total points >2%V l Total points >2%Vl
_________________________________________________________________________________
Old Alluvium 231 0 N/A
Grade VI Granite 43 0 N/A
Granite, Grades II to V 18 1 N/A
Jurong Formation, surface 110m+ 22 0 65 0
Jurong Formation, surface 110m- 93 11 42 7
Boulder Bed 7 0 25 0
Old Alluvium/Kallang 16 1 N/A
Jurong Formation/Kallang 16 10 N/A
Kallang 39 14 N/A
_________________________________________________________________________________
Total 485 37 132 7
_________________________________________________________________________________

Although the highest number of points surveyed were in the Old Alluvium, there were no points in
this material where a Relative Volume Loss of over 2% was recorded. Other ground conditions where
there was no case, or only one case, exceeding 2% Relative Volume Loss were: all grades of granite,
the Fort Canning Boulder bed; and the Jurong Formation where the ground level was over elevation
+110m. Most of the volume losses over 2% were recorded when the tunnel face was in the Kallang
Formation, a mixed face including Kallang Formation soils, or in the Jurong Formation where the
ground level was at or below elevation 110m.

This survey of the results from the 617 settlement points appears to give a comprehensive summary of
the settlements that were caused by tunnelling during the North East Line. However, at various
locations there were large localised settlements that occurred between the settlement points. This
settlement either did not extend to the nearest settlement point, or only a small proportion of the
maximum settlement occurred at the nearest settlement point. These settlements could only be
identified by inspection of the ground surface. The surface settlement had to be at least 150mm for it
to be observed. In addition to the observed settlements, there were also known to be some significant
losses of ground at the tunnel where the resulting voids were filled by grouting before they could
reach the surface. In order to obtain a complete understanding of how and why the tunnels caused

81
ground movements, these observed settlements and known subsurface ground losses need to be
considered , as well as the measured settlements.

4 OBSERVED SETTLEMENTS AND GROUND LOSSES

4.1 Recorded Information
There were 5 recorded cases of significant ground losses that did not appear at surface as the void was
grouted, from the surface and from the tunnel, before it could migrate to the surface. These voids are
recorded in Table 4. One of these cases was during tunnelling using an open face shield, the
remaining four with Earth Pressure Balance shields.

There were 17 recorded cases of local depressions which were found over the tunnels, and which
appeared as, or soon after, the tunnel face has passed beneath. Of the 17 cases, 16 were during
tunnelling using EPB machines and 1 during open face shield tunnelling. The localised depressions
were between 150mm and 3m in depth, and varied significantly in area and volume. Table 5 gives the
available information related to each depression.

Table 4. Subsurface ground losses during tunnelling for the North East Line.
Contrac Bound From To Ring Ground conditions Volume Comments
t of void
704 South SER WDL 324 Zone 3/Zone 6 46 m3 Grouted under zero
weathered Granite pressure from surface
704 South SER WDL 332 Zone 3/Zone 6 96 m3 Grouted under zero
weathered Granite pressure from surface
704 South SER WDL 333 to Zone 3 weathered 196 m3 Grouted under zero
383 Granite pressure from surface
708 North CLQ DBG 525 to Jurong Formation 150 m3 Fault zone encountered
545 in open face shield.
710 North OTP CNT T8 Jurong Formation 20 m3 Launching of EPB shield

4.2 Discussion on visible settlements and ground losses

There were twenty-two cases of some form of visible settlement or ground loss. Five of these occurred
as the shield was either in the process of being launched (two cases), or as it was approaching the
shaft or station excavation at the end of the drive (three cases). All of these cases of docking and
launching involved EPB shields. Of the seventeen cases that occurred during regular tunnelling, two
were during tunnelling using open face shields, and fifteen with EPB shields. Both of the cases
involving open face shields occurred when the tunnel was wholly in the Jurong Formation. On one
occasion the tunnel was being advanced through strong rock using blasting, when a zone of very
broken rock was encountered, probably a small fault zone. The broken rock was unstable in the face,
and there was a major loss of ground into the face. The other instance involved the same tunnel, when
the tunnel face encountered a steeply dipping bed (80o) of completely weathered Sandstone, with a
strike at a small angle to the direction of tunnelling. The grade V Sandstone behaved as a very lightly
cemented sand, and raveled quickly under seepage into the face. Of the remaining fifteen cases, seven
occurred when the EPB shield was in mixed grades of granite, five when the shield was in the Jurong
Formation, and three at the Jurong Formation/Kallang Formation interface. The picture that emerges
after considering these visible settlements and ground losses is somewhat different to that from just
the measured settlements. A significant number of the visible settlements and ground losses occurred
when the tunnel was in a face of mixed grades of weathered granite. The settlement records did not
pick up similar problems. The visible settlements appeared as narrow cavities that extended from the
tunnel to the ground surface. These cavities had a limited plan area at the surface, as shown in Figure
4. This limited extent of the cavities explains why there was no indication of them in the settlement
records. Despite the limited area of the cavities at the surface, the total vol-

82
Table 5. Visible areas of settlement, North East Line
Contract Bound From To Ring Ground conditions Size of depression Volume of Comments
depression
704 South SER WDL 384 Zone 3/Zone 6 weathered Granite 67 m3
704 South SER WDL 384 Zone 3/Zone 6 weathered Granite 33 m3
704 North SER WDL 343 Zone 3/Zone 6 weathered Granite 50 m3
704 South SER KVN 263 Zone 3/Zone 6 weathered Granite 0.2 m deep, 3m EPB operator changed
diameter
705 South PTP WDL T6 Fluvial sand and soft clay 3.0 m deep 30 m3 Launching. Sand flowed around annulus, past
seal in shaft.
705 South PTP WDL 330 Old Alluvium 15 m3 Loss of ground approaching station
708 North CLQ DBG 636 Jurong Formation 0.1m+ Bed of Grade V Sandstone dipping across face
in open face shield. Over 70mm settlement on
adjacent bridge. 25m3 of grout injected
708 North CLQ CNT 240 Jurong Formation, just after exiting 0.25m 1 m3
Kallang Formation
710 South OTP HBF 60 Jurong Formation 1.5m deep, area 30 m3
5x4m
710 South OTP HBF 399 Jurong Formation, with fluvial 0.6m deep Under railway track slab, extent not known
sand/marine clay just above crown
710 South OTP HBF 464 Jurong Formation, 5m cover to 0.16m deep Under road slab, extent not known
fluvial sand
710 South OTP HBF 787 Jurong formation, 8m cover to soft 0.5m deep, 3m
clay cone
710 North OTP HBF 976 Jurong Formaiton, 9m cover to soft 0.6m deep, 1m
clay cone
710 North OTP HBF 1292 Jurong Formation 0.25m deep, 5x4m
710 North OTP HBF 1801 Jurong Formation, 6m cover to soft 0.5m deep, 1m Docking at HBF. Soldier piles extracted,
clay cone holes backfilled with sand at this point.
710 North OTP CNT 304 Jurong Formation with marine clay 0.15m deep,
at crown widespread
710 North OTP CNT 330 Mainly marine clay in face 0.5m deep, Docking at CNT
widespread

83
ume of the cavity, based on the volumes of grout used to fill them, could be quite large. In two cases
over 150m3 of grout was used.

Column of set
grout poured into
cavity caused by
tunnelling.

Figure 4. Road repair after cavity formed due to tunnelling.

Five cases occurred during EPB tunnelling in the Jurong Formation. In all of these cases the shield
was fully in the weathered sedimentary rocks of the Jurong Formation, with at least six metres of
cover between the crown of the tunnel and any overlying soft deposits. In one of the five cases an old
water main broke as the tunnel face passed below the main. The main was in poor condition, and it is
likely that most or all of the cavity that resulted was associated with the water main bursting, rather
than the tunnelling per se. For the other four cases, it is not certain what conditions in the weathered
rock resulted in the ground loss. There were no face inspections in these areas. However, based on the
observations in the open face tunnelling in the Jurong Formation, it is likely that small faults or highly
weathered, highly fractured beds of rock were associated with the ground losses.

There were three cases of visible surface settlement at the Jurong Formation/Kallang formation
interface. In two cases the shield was being advanced from the Jurong Formation rocks into a valley
infilled with soft soils of the Kallang formation. The EPB machine was not being operated under
pressure in both cases, although the infilled valleys had been identified in the site investigation.

4.3 Settlements, visible settlements and ground losses.

In the sections above, the number of cases of settlement exceeding 2% Relative Volume Loss, of large
visible settlements (exceeding 150mm) and of subsurface cavities has been recorded for a number of
broad categories of ground condition in the tunnel face. However, the length of tunnel excavated in
the various ground conditions varied considerably. It is therefore useful to consider the number of
cases recorded per kilometre of single tunnel. Figure 5 shows the cases in the two categories per
kilometre of tunnel. It can be seen that settlements greater than 2% Relative Volume Loss were
particularly prevalent at the interface of the Jurong and the Kallang formations. However, the visible
settlements and ground losses were proportionally much more frequent when the tunnel was in a
mixture of weathering grades II to V in the Bukit Timah Granite.

5 CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT AND VISIBLE GROUND LOSSES

From Figure 5 it is clear that the ground conditions in the face are a major factor in the risk of
relatively large settlements or ground losses occurring during tunnelling. However, the ground
conditions are ‘the problem’ that has to be overcome during tunnelling. ‘The solution’ to the problem
is the method of tunnelling, and how well the chosen method is applied. The settlement is a measure
of how

84
 25

20
Average cases per km

15

>2% /km

10
Visible
settlement/km

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Figure 5. Settlements exceeding 2% Relative Volume Loss and visible settlements/ground losses, for
different conditions in the tunnel face.
well the ‘solution’ has been applied to overcome the ‘problem’. For EPB tunnelling, major factors in
immediate settlement are: face pressure, overcut, shield inclination, and tail void grouting (Lee et al.,
1999).

5.1 Kallang Formation and interfaces with the Kallang Formation

The majority of the tunnelling in the Kallang Formation was in the Singapore marine clay, although
fluvial sands were also encountered locally. The marine clay (Tan and Lee, 1977) has a low
permeability of about 10-9 m/s, and behaves in an undrained manner during tunnelling. Due to the high
stability number of the clay during tunnelling, a support pressure has to be maintained at all times.
Figure 6 shows the face pressure applied, normalised for the total overburden pressure, against the
measured relative volume loss for where the tunnel was in the Kallang Formation. It can be seen that
there was a strong trend between increasing volume loss and reducing face pressure. Data from
centrifuge testing (Kimura and Mair, 1981) can be used to assess the same relationship. The line that
is shown on Figure 6 is based on published results from centrifuge testing assuming no unsupported
length behind the face (i.e. P/D = 0). The calculations were based on a depth to tunnel axis of 18m and
an undrained shear strength of 28 kPa for the marine clay. This depth and strength were based on the
design for Contract 708. It can be seen that the general trend of the centrifuge data is similar to that of
the field measurements, although the field measurements typically show a relative volume loss that is
1% to 2% higher. This difference is because in using the centrifuge data, no allowance has been made
for the effects of overcut, shield inclination and tail void closure. All of the EPB machines were
equipped with grout pipes laid along the tailskin, to allow tail void grouting to be carried out
simultaneously with shield advance. This method of grouting was generally effective, as shown by the
highlighted point where the grouting pipes were all blocked, and the measured volume loss plots well
above the trend line. Nine of the settlement points were over areas where a ring of jet grouting had
been preinstalled around the tunnel periphery. The jet grouting was clearly effective in limiting
settlement independent of face pressure, although the benefits were partially outweighed by heave
during

85
 8

6
Tail void grout
pipes blocked
Volume Loss, percent

Centrifuge
4
C705 &
706
3 C708

Jet
2 grouted

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Face Pressure/Overburden Pressure

Figure 6. Variation in Relative Volume Loss with face pressure for tunnelling in the marine clay of
the Kallang Formation.
the installation of the jet grouting. The trend lines for the ungrouted Kallang Formation shows why
there were a number of cases of visible surface settlements when no or little face pressure was used.
These cases of visible surface settlement were all at launching, docking or as the machine was
advance from weathered rocks of the Jurong Formation into the soft clays and loose sands of the
Kallang Formation.

5.2 Jurong Formation

As discussed in Shirlaw et al. (2000) the weathered rocks of the Jurong Formation are highly variable
in nature, ranging from massive quartzite beds with an unconfined compressive strength of up to
200Mpa, to highly weathered, highly fractured mudstones which acted as fast raveling materials.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between the face pressure (normalised by the overburden pressure)
and the relative volume loss, calculated for the Contract 710 tunnels. The majority of the points plot
in a group where the Relative Volume Loss was less than 1%, and the face pressure was less than 0.2
of the total overburden pressure. 60 out of the 86 points evaluated plot in this group. The other 26
points show a pattern of increasing Volume Loss with reducing face pressure. Only 6 points show a
Relative Volume Loss above 2%, and the tunnel was driven under these at under 0.3 of the total
overburden pressure. However, the face pressure/ Relative Volume Loss does not give a full picture.
There were five cases in the EPB shield tunnelling, and two cases in the open face shield tunnelling,
where there was a major loss of ground, much more than the 1m3 that would correspond to a 3%
volume loss. These cases of major ground loss typically occurred when there was no or little face
pressure.

Based on Figure 7, a Relative Volume Loss of less than 2% can be achieved consistently if a face
pressure of about one third to half of the total overburden pressure is applied at all times.
Alternatively, the target pressure can be set as the piezometric pressure at tunnel axis level, which
gives a similar pressure. This pressure is only necessary in, on average, about one quarter of the
length of the tunnelling in the Jurong Formation. However, it is difficult to predict exactly where
pressure is required and where it is not. In any area where settlement is of concern, the use of a face
pressure equal to the water pressure at axis level would be a reasonable precaution against excessive
settlement.

86
 3.5

3.0
HBF SB Drive
HBF NB Drive
Relative Volume loss (%)

2.5 CNT SB Drive

CNT NB Drive
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Face Pressure/Overburden

Figure 7. Variation in Relative Volume Loss with face pressure for EPB tunnelling in the Jurong
Formation, Contract 710.

10
9
Relative Volume Loss (%)

DBG NB Drive (OFBM)

8
7
DBG SB Drive (OFBM)
6
5
4
3
2
1
Points over area with pipe roof
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Face Pressure/ Overburden

Figure 8. Variation in Relative Volume Loss with face pressure (from compressed air) for tunnelling
in the Jurong Formation, open face shields, Contract 708.
Figure 7 is for tunnels driven using EPB shields. For the open face shields the data is less clear than
for the EPB shields (Figure 8), but appears to follow the same general trends. For the last 35m of the
open face shield drives the tunnelling was carried out under the protection of a pipe roof, due to the
presence of operational railway tunnels directly above the North East Line tunnels. Three of the
settlement points were over this section, Figure 8. The ground under the existing tunnels was difficult,
and face timbering had to be used as the ground was raveling. The combination of low compressed air
pressure and a pipe roof appears to have been successful in keeping settlements to very low values.

5.3 Bukit Timah Granite

As discussed above, the measured settlements over the 2.66 kilometres of tunnel that were constructed
through the Bukit Timah Granite were low. However, there were seven major ground losses that
occurred when the machine was in a mixed face of soil and rock grades of the tropically weathered
rock. The ground losses, face pressure and skip counts for one section of tunnel are shown in Figure 9.
It can be seen that the skip count provided a more useful indicator of over-excavation than surface
monitoring.

87
 146m3 of 96m3 grout
140 Cavities to surface grout
R 46m3 grout
e 130
25m3 67m3
d 120
u
c
e 110 Zone 6 granite
d (Grade VI)
100

90
Zone 6 granite
e (Grade V)
80
v
e 70
Zone 3 granite

60

15 16 19
14 14
Numbe
rs of Numbers
Theoretical
Skips/ of Skips/
8 8
Ring Ring
4 4

420 410 400 390 380 370 360 350 340 330 320

Ground water pressure (Axis)

Face Face
2.0 2.0
press pressure
ure (bars)
(bars) 1.0 1.0

0 0

420 410 400 390 380 370 360 350 340 330 320
Ring Number
Figure 9. EPB tunnelling through buried ridge of granite (after Shirlaw et al. 2000)

It can be seen that the problems developed due to the face pressure dropping to zero as the machine
passed though areas of mixed weathering grades. The drop in the pressure was due to the nature of the
cut material. The rock grades of the granite were cut into gravel size pieces by the machine. The
mixture of these gravel size pieces and the granular, completely weathered granite could not be
formed into a plug to allow pressurised tunnelling. As soon as the discharge gate at the top of the
screw conveyor was opened, a mixture of water and cuttings blew out, and the pressure in the head
dropped to zero. The lack of an effective plug compounded the problems of tunnelling through a
sloping interface between unstable (grade V) material and stable, difficult to cut (grade II to III)
material. From the data it appears that a face pressure approximately equal to the piezometric pressure
at axis level is adequate to control movements to a reasonable level in all grades of the Bukit Timah
Granite. The tunnel machines were generally operated at this pressure except where the pressure could
not be maintained because of the nature of the cuttings.

6 FACTORS IN DETERMINING IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENTS

From Section 5 above, it is clear that the major factors governing the magnitude of the immediate
settlements are face pressure and tail void grouting, although overcut and shield inclination also affect
the amount of settlement. The combination of an appropriate face pressure and simultaneous tail void
grouting should ensure that Relative Volume Losses are kept below 2% in all cases, and probably
below 1%, provided there is no excessive overcutting. However, it is one thing to know what to do in
theory, and another to achieve it in practice. Based on the North East Line data, there were a number

88
of reasons why the ideal results were not consistently achieved in practice. These reasons involve the
ground, the machine design, the choice of materials, and the human factor in operating the machine.

6.1 Ground
Most of the tunnelling involved Earth Pressure Balance Tunnelling, and in this form of tunnelling the
ground is both the material requiring support and the medium through which that support is provided.
The ease with which the cut ground could be turned into a suitable EPB plug was therefore a factor in
the pressure that could be applied. The example of the tunnelling in the Bukit Timah Granite, given in
Figure 9, shows what can happen in a material that is difficult to condition into a proper plug.

The abrasiveness of the ground can also be a factor in the pressure selected. In highly abrasive ground,
fear of abrasion of the machine can (and did) lead to a reluctance to use adequate face pressure.
Actual abrasion can (and did) lead to excessive wear of the cutting tools and the screw conveyor. One
of the screw conveyors used for tunnelling through the Jurong Formation became so abraded that it
was not possible to operate the machine in a pressurised mode.

6.2 Design of the machine

The ground and the machine interact, and the machine must be designed to effectively cut and support
the ground encountered. In abrasive ground the cutting tools and other exposed surfaces need to be
designed and maintained appropriately, to reduce both the abrasion and the fear that operating in a
pressurised mode will result in excessive abrasion.

Many of the larger settlements and ground losses occurred in rocks and weathered rocks. In these
materials it is essential to ensure that the spoil is mixed and kept mobile by using mixing paddles. An
inadequate number of mixing paddles may lead to the material in the head ‘plugging’, particularly
when the machine is under pressure. Plugging is likely to lead to excessive settlement/ground loss,
while fear of plugging can (and did) lead to a reluctance to use adequate face pressure.

Just as plugging of the head can lead to settlement, so can blockage of the grout pipes used to grout
the tail void. Figure 6 gives a clear illustration of this. In that particular machine the grout pipes were
laid in housings on the outside of the tail skin. When the pipes became blocked, it was not possible to
access them to remove the blockage.

6.3 Choice of materials

In EPB tunnelling, conditioning agents can be added to improve the nature of the spoil. The agents
can act to improve the ability of the spoil to act as an effective support medium, to reduce abrasion
and the risk of plugging.. Generally, the North East Line contractors used water, a bentonite slurry or
polymers for conditioning. Only one contractor consistently used foam, which proved to be effective
in reducing the abrasion on the machine. The large ground losses that were experienced in the mixed
soil and rock grades of weathered granite occurred when the spoil was conditioned with a bentonite
slurry. A better plug, and ground control, was achieved when the conditioning material was changed
to a mixture of sand, sawdust, flyash, polymer and bentonite.

6.4 Human factor

The human factor is just as important in mechanised tunnelling as in traditional tunnelling. One of the
large visible volume losses that occurred was due to the experienced shield operator handing over to
an inexperienced operator while the machine was passing through a difficult interface in the
weathered granite. There were several cases of visible ground losses due to the shield entering a
buried valley infilled with soft ground of the Kallang formation, from the weathered rocks of the
Jurong formation. These valleys had been identified in the site investigation, but no action was taken
to develop a pressure in the head before the machine entered the valley.

89
7 CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that settlements during tunnelling for the North east line were generally well controlled.
Areas where there was a high risk of larger settlements or ground losses were at the launching and
docking of the shield, and at interfaces between highly dissimilar materials. Interfaces of particular
concern were where one material was difficult to cut, and the other was unstable unless supported.

When any part of the face is in, or just below, the soft clays or loose sands of the Kallang Formation,
it is necessary to maintain a face pressure of between 0.9 and 1.2 times the total overburden pressure
in order to avoid visible ground losses and keep Relative Volume Losses below 2%. In the weathered
rocks of the Jurong Formation and the Bukit Timah Granite, there is a wide variation in the nature of
the ground. Interfaces between dissimilar materials are common.. These interfaces can be difficult to
identify. Unless tunnelling is carried out at a face pressure equal to about the ground water pressure,
there is a high risk of large settlements / loss of ground where such interfaces are encountered.

In order to control settlements it is necessary to design and operate the tunnelling machines to
consistently achieve the necessary face pressures and tail void grouting. This is easy to say in theory,
but there are many factors that can adversely affect the practice. In localised areas of the North East
Line additional measures were used to reduce settlement. Jet grouting was used in the soft clays of the
Kallang Formation and pipe roofs in the fractured and weathered rocks of the Jurong formation. The
data presented shows the effectiveness of these measures relative to untreated areas.

REFERENCES
Doran, S.R., Copsey, P. and Poh, S.T. Developments in precast tunnel lining design for the Singapore MRT. In
International Conference on Rail Transit, Proceedings, Singapore 11-13 March 1999. Volume 1: 337-348
Han K K, Wong K S,Broms B B and Yap L P, 1994 “The Origin and Properties of Bouldery Clay In
Singapore,” Journal of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, Vol. 24, No 2: 151-166
Heuer, R.E. (1974). “Important ground parameters in soft ground tunnelling. Proceedings of Speciality
Conference on subsurface exploration for underground excavation and heavy construction. ASCE.
Hulme, T.W., Nicholls, D., Burchell, A.J. and Stewart, D. 1987. Tunnel construction for the Singapore MRT.
Proc. Singapore Mass Transit Conference, Singapore 6-9 April. 261-274
Hulme T W and Burchell, A.J. (1992). Bored tunnelling for Singapore Metro. Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management, Vol. 118, No 2, ASCE.
Kimmance, J., Heslop, P. and Bradshaw, M. 1999. Geotechnical and construction data management on the North
East Line. In International Conference on Rail Transit, Proceedings, Singapore 11-13 March 1999.
Volume 2:567-576.
Kimura, T. and Mair, R.J. 1981. Centrifugal testing of model tunnels in soft clay. Proceedings of the 10th
International conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm. Publ. Balkema,
Rotterdam, Volume 1: 319 – 322.
Lee, K.M., Ji, H.W., Shen, C.K., Liu, J.H., and Bai, T.H. 1999. A case study of ground control mechanisms of
EPB shield tunnelling in soft clay. Proceedings, Geotechnical aspects of underground construction in soft
ground. Tokyo, 19-21 July. Balkema, Rotterdam. 251-256
Reilly, B.J. and Tham, K.S. EPBM selection on the North East Line project. In International Conference on Rail
Transit, Proceedings, Singapore 11-13 March 1999. Volume 1: 355-368
Shirlaw J N, Poh K B, Hwang R N, 1990. “Properties and Origins of the Singapore Boulder Bed”, Proceedings
of the Tenth South East Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei, ROC, 16-20April 1990. Volume 1:463-468
Shirlaw, J.N., Busbridge, J.R. and Yi, X. 1994. Consolidation settlements over tunnels: A Review. Canadian
Tunnelling 1994. The Tunnelling Assocatiation of Canada. 253 to 266.
Shirlaw, J.N., Hencher, S.R and Zhao, J. 2000. Design and construction issues for excavation and tunnelling in
some tropically weathered rocks and soils. Proceedings GeoEng200, Melbourne, Australia, 19-24
November 2000. Technomic Publishing, PA, USA. Volume 1: 1286-1329
Tan, S.B. and Lee, K.W. 1977. Engineering geology of the marine member of the Kallang Formation in
Singapore. In Proc. International Symposium on Soft Clay, Bangkok, Thailand, 5-6 July 1977. 75-88.

90
 Underground Singapore 2001

Automated Monitoring of the existing Airport Express

Line at Nam Cheong Station
P. Thurlow & S. Carayol
Sol Data Asia Ltd, Hong Kong

A.Cogman
Balfour Beatty Zen Pacific, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: KCRC1 West Rail Contract CC402 for Nam Cheong Station, Hong Kong entails the
construction of an underground interchange with the existing MTRC2 Tung Chung Line directly
beneath the high speed Airport Express Line and the elevated West Kowloon Expressway. The
contract also included the diversion of numerous utilities beneath the existing railway line, requiring
repeated pipe-jacking operations; all works had to be carried out without disruption to the existing
services. To monitor the existing infrastructure throughout the construction works a sophisticated real-
time monitoring system has been installed. Combining the CYCLOPS3 Automatic Deformation
Monitoring System with liquid level gauges, electrolevel beams and in-place tiltmeters, this system
was proposed as an alternative to manual optical surveying. To illustrate the benefits of the automated
monitoring system this paper describes the system installed and illustrates the deformations measured
during the pipe-jacking operations. This paper also addresses the important subject of data comparison
and relative benefits of various instruments.

1 INTRODUCTION

Phase I of the KCRC West Rail Project will link Kowloon to Tuen Mun in the western New Territories
of Hong Kong passing through 7 intermediate stations. Nam Cheong Station, located on the West
Kowloon Reclamation, directly beneath the West Kowloon Expressway (WKE) and the Airport
Express Line (AEL), will be the southern terminus for Phase I and will be the first wholly integrated
KCRC and MTRC station in Hong Kong. To facilitate the future construction of Nam Cheong Station,
a one-meter thick reinforced concrete slab was built beneath the AEL during its construction. The
trackslab, which extends over the station footprint, would support the track during the forthcoming
construction works; outside this area the rails are supported by ground-bearing ballast. Figure 1 is a
cross-section thought Nam Cheong Station showing the existing AEL enveloped between the WKE
piers and the construction works below the existing trackslab.

1
KCRC Kowloon Canton Railway Corporation
2
MTRC Mass Transit Railway Corporation
3
CYCLOPS Sol Data Trademark, Automated Total Station

91
The contract also included the diversion of several utilities beneath sections of the AEL railway not
supported on the trackslab. Pipe-jacking, the adopted solution for the diversion works had to be carried
out without causing disruption to rail services or imposing speed restrictions on this heavily trafficked
line; trains runs at 5 minute intervals for more than 19 hours a day. This paper discusses the first of the
pipe-jacking operations for the installation of the WSD pipes below the AEL, the choice of
instrumentation installed to monitor the effects of the operation, the data recorded and concludes with
comparisons between instruments used and design predictions.

Figure 1: Nam Cheong Station is being constructed below and on either side of the existing AEL and WKE

2 CONTRACT MONITORING REQUIREMENTS

BBZPJV were awarded the contract for construction of Nam Cheong Station on the basis of an
alternative design, which primarily consisted of redesigning the station foundations as shallower shaft-
grouted barrettes, redesigning the excavation methods to enable top-down construction to be carried
out within a sheet-pile cofferdam as opposed to within diaphragm walls, and supporting the existing
AEL trackslab on the station foundations through shear connections to the station structure, so that
once fully supported excavation could be carried out beneath.

Since construction works were to be carried out both adjacent to and beneath existing services the
Contract specified a high frequency of monitoring and control. During periods of intense construction,
monitoring of the existing structures and utilities, including the AEL track, trackslab and overhead line
masts and the WKE piers, is required to be carried out twice per day. Since both the AEL and WKE
are located within the MTRC Railway Protection Boundary, to which access can only be obtained
during railway possession hours, this would have proved difficult. So in order to both optimise the
alternative design solution and fulfil the contractual monitoring requirements, an automated
monitoring system was proposed in place of the conforming manual monitoring scheme.

92
3 AUTOMATED MONITORING SYSTEM

Robert Benaim and Associates, the designers of the alternative design and the instrumentation sub-
contractor, Sol Data (Asia) Limited, designed and installed a fully automated monitoring system
utilising a combination of optical prism targets, liquid level gauges and tiltmeters. The optical prism
targets, which were installed on the existing AEL trackslab, rails sleepers, overhead line masts and on
the WKE piers, monitor vertical and horizontal deformations using motorised theodolites. Liquid level
gauges were installed on the AEL trackslab, or outside the trackslab area in the ground, to monitor
vertical deformation. Two different types of tiltmeters were used; electolevel beam tiltmeters were
fixed on the AEL track sleepers to monitor tilt and in-place vibrating wire tiltmeters were bolted to the
WKE piers in orthogonal pairs to monitor tilt of the piers. Figure 2 illustrates the types of instruments
used in the automated monitoring system at Nam Cheong Station and their positions within the MTRC
Railway Protection Boundary.

West Kowloon Expressway (WKE)

CYCLOPS Automated Prisms and Vibrating

Theodolite Wire Tiltmeters

Liquid Level Gauges

Prisms
Electrolevel Beams
AEL Railway

Pipe Jack

Figure 2: Instruments monitoring the Airport Express railway and West Kowloon Express way

Prism targets are monitored automatically by four CYCLOPS motorised total stations with automatic
target recognition controlled by remote computer running purpose built software; the co-ordinates of
the prism targets can be recorded either continuously or at predefined intervals. The total stations,
three of which are mounted on WKE piers and the other on the road bridge passing over the AEL,
check their own positions from reference prism targets located outside the work area. This system
calculates the position of the prism targets relative to the corrected position of the total station. The
liquid level gauge uses a displacement transducer floating in a fluid reservoir to monitor relative
settlement in comparison with the reservoir. Electrolevels mounted on the sleepers comprised of
standard electrolytic sensors mounted in a reduced length steel beam. The tilt of the WKE piers is
measured using vibrating wire tiltmeters bolted to the structure. Data from the tiltmeters and liquid
level gauges is continuous recorded on trackside data loggers.

93
Monitoring data is retrieved at specified intervals by Sol Data’s GEOSCOPE database installed on a
computer network in the Main Contractor’s office and is compared with pre-set Alert, Action and
Alarm values, such that in the event of an exceedance of a response value a warning message will be
forwarded to authorised parties either by fax or mobile phone text message. Through computer
network links to the Main Contractor and a frame relay network connection to dedicated PC computers
in the Designers and MTR Railway Protection Engineer’s office, the Contractor’s key staff, the
Engineer, Designer and MTRC personnel can simultaneous view, at their workstations, real-time data
and graphical representations of instrument’s movement through Sol Data’s SMACS system. Current
values are displayed superimposed on schematic diagrams of the site with “traffic light” coding of
their Alert, Action and Alarm status. This data is collected without disruption to the running of the
train services

4 ENGINEERING AND MONITORING CONTROL

The Contract specified a high frequency of monitoring and control of the works. To comply with this
requirement the Main Contractor has developed a rigorous action plan using the Observational
Method, supplemented with daily review meetings. For each of the existing structures and utilities to
be monitored the Contract specified three levels of response actions, namely Alert, Action and Alarm.
Alert level being the first level of response is the value at which closer attention needs to be paid to the
instruments in case of subsequent reaching of an Action value. At Action level implementation of
response actions to prevent further movement are mandatory. If an instrument reaches Alarm level
works must be stopped.

Prior to commencement of each element of the works a Detail Response Plan of Action is prepared
setting of possible scenarios that could result in deformations exceeding the pre-defined levels, and the
passive or active response actions that would be implemented in the event of response values being
reached. Having identified the possible scenarios, response actions and mitigation measures could be
put in place to ensure that Alarm level was not exceeded. The diagram in Figure 3 shows that with the
through the implementation of response measures at Alert and Action levels, reaching Alarm response
level can be prevented.

B
L
Monitored Value e.g.surface settlement

U ActionTrigger
E
Movement Trend
R
without M
E odification
D
ActionTrigger

A
M Discovery
B Movement Trend with
E Alert Trigger Response Action
R
Implemented

G
R
E
E Normal Status
N Decision Implementation

Time

Figure3: Implementation of response measures ay Action level to prevent Alarm level being reached

94
5 PIPE-JACKING FOR DIVERSION OF UTILITIES

The pipe-jacking operations discussed in this paper was conducted for the diversion of the Water
Services Department (WSD) pipes, north of the station below a section of the AEL track not supported
by the existing trackslab. The subway comprises two 2730mm external diameter pipe with a centre
separation of 3260mm at an average depth of 9m below the AEL varying by ±0.5m. The 43m drive
was completed using a Herrenknecht AV1200E full-face slurry pipe-jacking machine, through
reclamation ground described as “medium dense to very dense, silty fine to course sand” with SPT N-
values ranging from 10 to 30 over the depth of influence of the tunnels. Previous works in the area
showed a geological profile of sand-fill containing boulders and alluvial material.

Prior to commencement of pipe-jacking, designers RBA, through geotechnical specialists T&T

Konsult Sdn Bhd (TTK), carried out a design analysis to predict the effects on the AEL and WKE;
forewarning of excessive settlement would allow appropriate mitigation measures to be taken. RBA
predicted a relatively narrow settlement trough, characteristic of cohesionless soils; jacking of the first
pipe likely to result in a maximum settlement of 26mm with a trough width of 11m. Maximum ground
loss would occur behind the tail of the machine resulting in a longitudinal settlement gradient
approximately 10m in length. Since the two tunnels were to be constructed at close centres, they
concluded that the disturbance due to construction of the first would tend to cause the loss of ground
for the second to be significantly higher, resulting in settlement increasing to between 41mm and
64mm.

Table 1 summarises the predicted settlement and gradient results. The predicted settlement (most
likely case) for both tunnels is given in Figure 4 and figure 5 shows the ground settlement contour.

Table1: Settlement Predictions for Pipe-Jacking under the AEL

Tunnel Maximum Vertical Transverse Gradient Longitudinal Gradient

Settlement (at AEL) (during boring)

1st Tunnel 26mm 1:230 1:385

2nd Tunnel (best case) 26mm 1:230 1:385

(most likely case) 52mm 1:115 1:190

Both Tunnels* (best case) 41mm 1:170

(most likely case) 64mm 1:120 N/A

95
 Horizontal Distance (m)
-8.00 -6.00 -4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
0.00

10.00

Tunnel 1
20.00
Settlement (mm)

30.00
Tunnel 2
40.00

50.00
Both
Tunnels
60.00

70.00

Figure 4: Predicted settlement of ground above the pipe jacking alignment

20
19
50 40 30 20 10 0
18
Distance from Head of Settlem ent Trough (m)

17
16
15
14 AEL Rails
13 0mm
12 10mm
11
20mm
10
30mm
9
8 40mm
7 50mm
6
5
4 T unneling Machine
3
2
1
0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance from Pipe Axis (m )

Figure 5: Ground settlement contour above the WSD subway

The analysis findings was compared with the Contract permissible Alert, Action and Alarm response
levels; the predictions far exceeded the maximum allowable settlement level of 10mm settlement per
week and a maximum tilt or rotation of the track of 1:1000. Forewarned of the likely settlement, the

96
Contractor was able to put in place mitigation measures to ensure that the works would be allowed to
proceed without causing disruption to rail services. Mitigation measures included carrying out the
pipe-jacking works during MTRC non-traffic hours, limiting the amount of driving per shift and
placing the MTRC tamping machine on standby for the duration of the works. These measures would
allow sufficient time activate the site response plan and to allow tamping to reset the rails ahead of
services resuming in the morning.

To test the Designer’s settlement predictions ahead of the tunnelling machine passing beneath the AEL
rails, a grid of manual monitoring pins were established at close centres above the pipe jacking
alignment in its approach to the AEL. These pins were intensely monitored as the machine excavated
below. The results obtained compared very favourable with the predicted values, giving the Contractor
increased confidence in the expected settlement of the AEL. A comparison between the actual
settlement recorded on the manual monitoring pins and the predicted settlement value is shown in
figure 7.

4
2
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Settlement (mm)

-4
-6
-8
-10
Actual
-12
-14 Predicted
-16
-18
-20
-22
-24
-26
-28

Distance from centreline of pipe (m)

Figure 6: Settlement recorded on the manual monitoring pins established along the pipe-jack alignment ahead
AEL tracks

During pipe jacking, the AEL was monitored by an array of automated instruments located installed
above the pipe alignment (see Figure 7). To mitigate the risk of loss of monitoring data during a
critical stage of the works, a manual backup system was installed on the AEL. During the pipe-jacking
works, subject to railway possessions, surveyors carried out manual monitoring of these points.

97
 Jacking Pit

Receiving Pit

Edge of existing
trackslab

Figure 7: Automated monitoring instrument array located above the pipe jacking alignment.

98
6 INSTRUMENTS AND MONITORING DATA

Throughout the pipe jacking operation intense monitoring of both the automated and manual
monitoring instruments was conducted. The charts in Figure 8 shows the progress of the TBM and the
settlement recorded on the automated instruments; the sections when the machine is located
underneath the AEL can be compared with the periods when movement was recorded.

5/19/00 12:00 5/20/00 0:00 5/20/00 12:00 5/21/00 0:00 5/21/00 12:00 5/22/00 0:00 5/22/00 12:00 5/23/00 0:00 5/23/00 12:00 5/24/00 0:00 5/24/00 12:00 5/25/00 0:00 5/25/00 12:00 5/26/00 0:00 5/26/00 12:00
45000
Progress of the TBM (mm)

40000
35000
Third night driving
30000
Second night driving
25000
20000 TBM beneath the AEL
15000
10000
5000 First night driving
0

-1
Settlement (mm)

-2
CYCLOPSoftarget
Movement movement
Cyclops
-3

-4

-5

-6

-7

0
-1
Settlement (mm)

Liquid
Liquid Level
Level Gauge
gauge movement
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7

1.5
Tilt of Track (mm/m)

Movement
Electrolevel of
beam movement
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5

Figure 8: Time/distance plot showing the progress of the TBM and the settlement recorded on the Cyclops prism
targets, liquid level gauges and electrolevel beam tiltmeters during pipe-jacking

99
Data recorded on the prism targets confirms the movements recorded on the liquid level gauge system.
The comparison of data from two independent systems confirms that the movements are being
recorded during the works and are not a result of a system error or fluctuations on either system. It can
also be seen that settlement continued to be recorded after the jacking, possible as a result of soil
consolidation. Although settlement was recorded on the both the ground and track during the jacking
operation, this settlement was uniform and tilt of the rails was not recorded. Manual monitoring results
were compared with the automated data and found to correlate.

It can be seen clearly on all data plots 80% of the settlement was observed during a 12-hour period. If
only manual monitoring was being used to monitor the AEL a 5-hour window would have been
available in with to carry out surveys and hence a picture of the true settlement would not have been
available until the following night possession. The uncertainty of this scenario could have severely
disrupted the works programme and safe operation of the railway traffic.

From the above graphs a maximum of 5mm settlement was recorded during the first of the pipe-
jacking operations; this was significantly less than predicted settlement of 26mm. This is in part
attributed to the narrowness of the settlement trough. Since the maximum settlement is recorded above
tunnel centreline, instrument installed slightly off the centreline will not record the maximum values.
The monitoring results obtained from the continuous monitoring of the AEL during the pipe-jacking
operations gave the Engineer, the Contractor and the Railway Protection Engineer a better
understanding of the effects of the works on the safe operation of the railway. As a direct result of the
confidence obtained from the automated monitoring system subsequent pipe-jacking operations were
allowed to proceed during railway traffic hours.

7 ADVANTAGES OF THE AUTOMATED MONITORING SYSTEM

The liquid level gauges provided very high precision settlement data relative to the reference cell. The
electrolevel tiltmeters also provided useful and stable readings, from their mounted position on the
sleepers. The drawback of both of these instruments is that cabling is required to all instruments. The
Cyclops and optical prism targets system provides absolute values in the X, Y and Z directions, with
very limited cabling required to the motorised total stations; cabling is not required to the targets. One
drawback for this system is that on this site, the data obtained fluctuated ±1mm. This is compared to
fluctuations of ±0.5mm on the electrolevel tiltmeters and negligible fluctuation on the liquid level
gauges. It should be noted however that the “stability” remains the same for all the targets, whereas the
integration over longer length affects the readings on an electrolevel.

The automated monitoring system allowed the continuous collection of monitoring data without
interruption to rail services in areas inaccessible for manual monitoring during railway operation
hours. The in-built alerting facility ensured that trigger levels were not missed by sending fax and
email text messages to interested parties when a pre-defined response level was exceeded.

8 CONCLUSION

The combination of different types of monitoring instruments and systems, together with design
predictions and response action plans, allowed a full picture of the movements to be obtained during
critical stages of the construction works. Careful planning and the correct choice of instruments for
projects as sensitive in nature as the one discussed is crucial for Engineers, Clients and transport
authorities to be able to conduct cutting edge construction techniques with confidence and safety. In
this case, the proposition of an automated monitoring system helped the Contractor convince the
Engineer to accept its major design changes.

100
9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author s would like to thank the following companies KCRC, Balfour Beatty Zen Pacific Joint
Venture, Bachy Soletanche Group, and Hyder Consultants Ltd for their kind permission to reproduce
the data and their generous advice. Any opinions expressed are not necessarily the views of KCRC.

101
 Underground Singapore 2001

Predictions Of Tunnelling-Induced Ground Movements:

Assessment and Evaluation
N. Loganathan
PB Merz and McLellan Pte Ltd, Singapore
(A Parsons Brinckerhoff Company)

R.F. Flanagan
Parsons Brinckerhoff Consultants Limited, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Engineers responsible for the design and construction of tunnels must have an
appropriate technique for estimating the potential tunnelling-induced ground movements to assess
whether adjacent structures are subject to excessive settlements and lateral movements. There are
three different techniques, namely, empirical, analytical, and numerical, that are commonly used in
practice to estimate tunnelling-induced ground deformations. The selection of the appropriate
method depends on the tunnelling-induced risk associated with the existing surface and sub-surface
structures in the vicinity of the tunnel alignment. Current design practice to predict tunnelling-
induced ground movements is generally based on empirical methods that have limitations in
different ground conditions, and inability to predict sub-surface lateral movements accurately. The
main objectives of this paper are three-fold: (1) to summarize and assess the advantages and
limitations of available techniques to predict tunnelling-induced ground movements, (2) to present
and to examine analytical-closed form solutions proposed by the first author to predict tunnelling-
induced ground movements, and (3) to compare the predictions by various techniques with field
measurements obtained from major tunnel project.

1 INTRODUCTION

The effects of tunnelling on existing adjacent piled foundations and underground utilities in weak soils
may be a major and governing concern in the design and excavation of underground works. In an
urban environment, many high rise buildings are typically supported by piled foundations and,
generally, tunnelling will cause ground movements, which in turn have the potential to impose axial
and lateral forces on the deep foundations. Relatively little research work associated with this kind of
problem has been found in the literature.
The main objective of this paper are three-fold: (1) to summarize and assess the advantages and
limitations of available techniques to predict tunnelling-induced ground movements, (2) to present and
to examine analytical-closed form solutions proposed by the first author to predict tunnelling-induced
ground movements, and (3) to compare the predictions by various techniques with field measurements
obtained from major tunnel projects.

2 AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES TO PREDICT TUNNELLING-INDUCED GROUND

DEFORMATIONS

Methods of estimating soil movements associated with tunnelling may be classified broadly into three
categories; empirical methods, finite element methods and analytical methods. The usage and the
limitations of each category are discussed below.

102
2.1 Empirical Methods
The well-established empirical methods to date are primarily for estimating surface settlements. The
one most commonly used in practice for estimating surface settlement is that proposed by Peck (1969)
who, based on a number of field measurements, found that the surface settlement trough could be
represented by a shape of a probability distribution, or error curve, as shown in equation (1):

 − x2 
S = S max . exp 2  (1)
 2i 
 

where, S = surface settlement at a transverse distance x from the tunnel centre line, Smax = maximum
settlement at x=0, and i = location of maximum settlement gradient or point of inflexion. A significant
amount of research involving field observations and model tests have been devoted to the estimation of
Smax and the i values for different ground conditions. The estimation of i values by various researchers
are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Recommended i-values by Various Researchers

Name i- value Remark

Peck (1969) i  z 
n Based on field observations
=  0  : n = 0.8 to 1.0
R  2R 
Atkinson & Potts (1979) i = 0.25( z 0 + R ) :loose sand, Based on field observations and
i = 0.25(1.5z 0 + 0.5R) :dense sand model tests
and over consolidated clay
O’Reilly & New (1982) i = 0.43z 0 + 1.1 : cohesive soil Based on field observations of UK
tunnels
i = 0.28 z 0 − 0.1 : granular soil
Mair (1983) i = 0.5 z 0 Based on field observations
worldwide and centrifuge test
n
Attewell et al (1977) i  z  Based on field observations of UK
= α . 0  :α= 1 and n = 1 tunnels
R  2R 
n
Clough & Schmidt i  z  Based on field observations of UK
= α . 0  :α= 1 and n=0.8
(1981), R  2R  tunnels

Note: z0 is the depth of tunnel below ground (at tunnel springline) and R is the tunnel radius.

Maximum settlement may be estimated using equation (2):

0.313VL D 2
S max = (2)
i
where VL = ground loss volume and D = diameter of the tunnel.

Figure 1 shows a comparison of various predicted surface settlement troughs for a hypothetical 6 m
diameter tunnel at a 30m depth. The ground loss volume ratio was assumed as 1%. It is observed that
the maximum surface settlements predicted by various methods are in the range of 7mm to 10mm. The
surface settlement trough width, i, varies from 7.5m to 10.4m. This shows the variability of empirical
predictions proposed by various researchers due to the variability in the database that were used for the
derivation of “i” values.

103
 Distance (m)
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
0

-3

-6

Atkinson & Pots

(1979) -9

O'Reilly & New

Settlement (mm)
(1982) -12

Mair (1983) &

Attewell et al -15
(1977)
Clough & Schmidt

Figure 1. Comparison of various Surface Settlement Troughs

At present, only few empirical methods are available to predict the subsurface settlement profiles.
Empirical methods proposed by Mair (1993) and Atkinson & Potts (1979) are widely used in practice.
It is often assumed that the shapes of subsurface settlement profiles developed during tunnel
construction are characterised by a Gaussian distribution, in the same manner as for surface settlement
profiles (Mair, 1993).
Mair (1993) proposed an empirical method to estimate the subsurface settlements;

 − x2 
S z = S z , max exp  (3)
 2i 
 z 
where, i z = k ( Z 0 − Z ) and

 Z 
0.175 + 0.3251 − 

 Z0 
k=
Z
1−
Z0
S z , max 1.25V L R
Therefore, = .
R  Z  Z0
0.175 + 0.3251 − 

 Z0 

Atkinson & Potts (1979) proposed a method to estimate subsurface settlements, for shallow tunnels
based on model tests;
Sz Z −R
= 1.0 − α   (4)
S z , max  2R 

where,
α = 0.57 for dense sand
α = 0.40 for loose sand
α = 0.13 for over-consolidated clays.
Sz = settlements at depth z, and Sz,max = maximum settlement at depth z.

104
Vermeer et al (1991) proposed a similar empirical formula;

0.8
 z   − x2 
S z =  0  S z ,max exp  (5)
 z0 − z   2i z 

Very few attempts have been made in the past to predict the lateral deformations using empirical
methods. Available methods are not accurate in predicting the lateral deformation of the subsurface.
Norgrove (1979) established an empirical relation as a ratio of the subsurface settlement;

x
Sx = Sz (6)
z0
where Sx = lateral deflection, Sz = settlement at depth z, x = lateral distance from the tunnel centreline,
and z0 = tunnel depth.

These empirical methods are subject to some important limitations; (i) in their applicability to different
ground conditions and construction techniques, and (ii) in the limited information on horizontal
movements and sub-surface settlements.

2.2 Analytical Methods

For ground deformation prediction to be of practical use, it should account for the effects for a number
of parameters, such as the construction method and tunnel driving details, tunnel depth and diameter,
ground water condition, initial stress state and stress-strain-strength behaviour of the soil around
tunnel. Current “rules” to estimate ground settlement from tunnelling operations have been generally
derived from empirical correlations between some of those variables and settlements observed in
actual tunnels as described in Section 2.1. Hence, they account for only a few of the significant factors,
and extrapolation to other cases is questionable mainly because similar conditions are generally not
fulfilled.
Only a few attempts have appeared to develop analytical methods (closed-form solutions) which
incorporate all factors which contribute to ground deformations. Sagaseta (1987) presented closed-
form solutions for obtaining the strain field in an initially isotropic and homogeneous incompressible
soil due to near-surface ground loss due to tunnelling. Verruit and Booker (1996) presented an
analytical solution for tunnel in a homogeneous elastic half space, using an approximate method
suggested by Sagaseta (1987) for the case of ground loss. The solution given by Verruijt and Booker
(1996) is a generalisation of Sagaseta’s solution in that it gives the solution for the case of ground loss
not only for the incompressible case, but for arbitrary values of Poisson’s ratio, and that it includes the
effect of ovalisation. Closed-form solutions presented by Verruijt and Booker (1996) for the estimation
of the settlements and the lateral deformations are;

 z   2 
 + δR 2  z1 (kx − z 2 ) + z 2 (kx − z 2 ) 
2 2 2
z
U z = −εR 2  12 + 22
r   4 4 
 1 r2   r1 r2 
(7)
 (m + 1) z 2 mz ( x 2 − z 2 2 )   2 2 
 − 2δR 2 h x − z 2 + m 2 zz 2 (3 x − z 2 ) 
2
2εR 2
2
+  +
m  r 2 4   r 4 m +1 6 
 2 r2   2 r2 

 x   2 
 + δR 2  z1 ( x − kz1 ) + x( x − kz 2 ) 
2 2 2
x
U x = −εR 2  2 + 2
r   4 4 
 1 r2   r1 r2 
(8)
2εR 2 x  1 2mzz 2  4δR 2 xh  z 2 mz ( x 2 − 3 z 2 2 ) 
−  
− − +
m  r2  2 4  m + 1 r 4 6 
r2   2 r2 

105
where, ε = uniform radial ground loss as shown in Figure 2a, and δ = long term ground deformation
due to the ovalization of the tunnel lining, z1 = z − H , z 2 = z + H , r1 2 = x 2 + z1 2 , r2 2 = x 2 + z 2 2 , R
and H are tunnel radius and depth, m = 1 (1 − 2ν ) , k = ν (1 −ν ) , and ν = soil Poisson’s ratio.

2.3 Finite Element Methods

Some of the limitations in empirical methods may be overcome by the finite element method, which
has indeed been used widely for tunnelling analyses, e.g. Rowe and Kack (1983). In their analyses of
some case histories, Rowe and Kack (1983) found that their finite element technique can generally
give good estimates of soil settlements as compared with those measured, although unfavourable
comparisons were also found in some cases. Successful predictions of lateral soil movements by the
finite element method were also reported by Lee et al (1994). However, Gunn (1993) reported that a
finite element analysis, even with a refined constitutive soil model, gave poor predictions for surface
settlements. He found that the surface settlement trough given by the finite element method is too wide
and shallow as compared with those given by the empirical methods (error curve) and field
measurements.
Simpson et al (1996) concluded from analyses of excavation in London Clay that the predicted surface
settlement trough is substantially influenced by the anisotropic shear modulus, but little influenced by
non-linearity. Addenbrooke (1995) reported that better predictions may be achieved by using
sophisticated soil models, which account for non-linear soil behaviour at small strain.
The findings by various researchers appear contradictory in terms of selection of appropriate soil
models in order to predict the tunnelling-induced ground deformations. Finite element predictions
require considerable expertise and interpretation skill to obtain accurate results. In order to obtain more
realistic results, the following aspects should be modelled accurately;
• Realistic stress path that soil (soil-structure interaction mechanism) experiences during the
tunnel excavations for different tunnelling methods,
• The three-dimensional effect of various ground loss components, typically face loss and the
radial ground loss, and
• The stress-strain behaviour of the soil around the tunnel.

3 PROPOSED CLOSED-FORM SOLUTION

In the light of the limitations and uncertainties of the empirical methods and the problems in
application of the finite element method, simple closed form analytical solutions, such as those given
by Sagaseta (1987), Verruijt and Booker (1996) and Loganathan and Poulos (1998), may be useful,
particularly when there is inadequate detailed site information to warrant the use of either the empirical
method or a complex finite element analysis. In this Section, a brief outline of the closed-form
solutions proposed by the first author is presented.
Excavation of the tunnel provides an opening into which the soil can deform. The movement of the
soil into the opening can be related to the concept of "loss of ground," which is defined as volume of
material (whether through the face or radial encroachment over and around or behind the shield) that
has been excavated in excess of the theoretical design volume of excavation. Theoretically, in
empirical methods, the ground loss is assumed as the result of uniform ground movement around the
tunnel opening as shown in Figure 2a. In practice, as pointed out by Rowe and Kack (1983), the radial
ground movement into the tunnel excavation is not uniform since the equivalent two dimensional (2D)
gap (tail void) around the tunnel is noncircular (e.g., typically oval-shaped) as shown in Figure 2b. The
possible reasons for the formation of an oval-shaped gap around the tunnel are (1) tunnel operators
advance the shield at a slightly upward pitch relative to the actual design grade to avoid the diving
tendency of the shield; (2) the tunnel lining settles when the tail shield is moved forward; and (3) 3D
elasto-plastic movement of the soil occurs at the tunnel face.

106
 Uniform radial ground Oval shaped ground movement
movement
Tail Void
* *
T 'g' - > 2xT
Tunnel

* *
T ~T

Empirical This study

(a) (b)

: Ground movement vector

*
T : Thickness of the annular gap
Figure 2. Circular and Oval-Shaped Ground Deformation Patterns around Tunnel Section

In this paper, the ground loss estimated assuming the uniform radial ground movement (average
ground loss) is denoted as, ε0. In practice, the soil movement around the tunnel is non-uniform due to
oval-shaped gap.
In the present study, the ground loss parameter obtained in equation (9) is further modified in order to
incorporate the non-uniform radial movement of the soil around the tunnel, which basically influences
the deformation pattern of the surrounding soil. When the portion of the soil above the tunnel crown
touches the tunnel lining, the soil at the side of the tunnel displaces towards the bottom of the tunnel.
Therefore, the upward movement of the soil below the tunnel is limited. Centrifuge model tests carried
out by Stallebrass et al (1996) and Loganathan et al (2000) revealed similar results. It is assumed that
about 75% of the vertical ground movement occurs within the upper annulus of the gap around the
tunnel.

x
ε0,0 =100%ε0 ε(R+Hcot β),0 = 25%ε0
Ground surface εx,z=0 X

H Assumed wedge
boundary
Inclinometer
actual ground
loss, εx,z

β = 450+ φ/2
εx,H=50% εx,0
Tunnel

R
average ground
loss, ε0
Z

Figure 3. Ground Deformation Patterns and Ground Loss Boundary Conditions

107
Figure 3 shows the boundary conditions used in the derivation of the ground loss. It is assumed that
the magnitude of the horizontal movement at the tunnel springline is approximately half of the vertical
movement (g) at the tunnel. By applying these boundary conditions, the modified equivalent ground
loss parameter, incorporating the non-linear ground movement around the tunnel soil interface;

  1.38 x 2 0.69 z 2  
ε x , z = ε 0 exp−  +   (9)
  ( R + H cot β )
2
H2  

where H = the depth of the tunnel from the ground surface, and R = radius of the tunnel

A closed-form solution presented by Verruijt and Booker (1996) considers two deformation
mechanism of the tunnel. They are: (1) a uniform radial displacement (representing the ground loss
that may occur during construction of the tunnel); and (2) long-term ovalisation of the tunnel lining. It
has been found that Verruijt and Booker (1996) solutions give a much wider settlement trough when
compared with empirical methods and field measurements. The reason for this observation is the
ground deformation at the tunnel soil interface may not be the uniform radial ground movement.
Verruijt and Booker (1996) solutions were modified to accommodate the ground loss parameter εx,z
(equation 9) that incorporate the nonlinear ground movement around the tunnel soil interface. The
generalized modified analytical solutions for the estimation of the surface settlement, sub-surface
settlement and the lateral deformation are given in equations (10), (11) and (12), respectively:

4 H (1 − ν )  1 .38 x 2  (10)
U z =0 = ε 0 R 2 . . exp  − 2 
H +x  ( H cot β + R ) 
2 2

 z−H z+H 2 z[ x 2 − ( z + H ) 2 ] 
U z = ε 0 R 2  − 2 + (3 − 4ν ) 2 − 2 
 x + (z − H )
2
x + (z + H ) 2
[ x + ( z + H ) 2 ]2  (11)
  1.38 x 2 0.69 z 2  
⋅ exp −  + 
  ( H cot β + R )
2
H 2 
 1 3 − 4ν 4 z( z + H ) 
U x = −ε 0 R 2 x  2 + 2 − 2 2 2 
 x + (H − z) x + (H + z) ( x + (H + z) ) 
2 2
(12)
  1 .38 x 2
0 .69 z   2
⋅ exp  −  + 
  ( H cot β + R )
2
H 2 

where Uz=0 = ground surface settlement; Uz = sub-surface settlement; Ux= lateral soil movement; R =
tunnel radius; z = depth below ground surface; H = depth of tunnel axis level; ν = Poisson’s ratio of
soil; ε0 = average ground loss ratio, and x = lateral distance from tunnel centerline.
These equations allow rapid estimation of the ground deformations and require only an estimate of the
Poisson's ratio ν, of the soil. Though these equations appear long, it is easy to work with a simple
worksheet program. The applicability of these solutions have been evaluated with reference to seven
case histories (Loganathan and Poulos, 1998, 1999) and with the results obtained from a total of three
detailed centrifuge tests (Loganathan et al 2000).
In empirical methods, the settlement trough width "i" is considered as an important parameter in the
determination of the surface settlements. The relationship obtained between the normalised
parameters i/R and H/2R parameters for the proposed analytical solution is shown in equation (13):
0.9
i 1.15  H  (tan β ) 0.23 (13)
=  
R (tan β ) 0.35  2R 

A comparison of the maximum settlements and surface settlement trough width “i” parameter derived
from various methods and observed values for reported case histories are shown in Table 2, and this
shows that the predictions made using equations (10) and (13) are in good agreement with the values

108
predicted using empirical relationships established by Mair (1993), and O’Reilly and New (1982), and
observed values.
Table 2. Comparison of Estimated and Observed Surface Settlement Trough Parameters

Case Max. Surface Settlement (mm) Trough Width, i (m)

Mair Clough et Loganathan & Observed Mair Clough et Loganathan &
(1983) al (1981) Poulos (1998) (1983) al (1981) Poulos (1998)
Heathrow Express 32.5 38.1 36.3 39 9.5 8.1 12.2
Trial Tunnel, UK
Thunder Bay 49.0 65.6 40.0 50 5.35 4.0 6.4
Tunnel, Canada
Green Park Tunnel, 6.0 8.9 5.8 6 14.7 10.0 16.9
UK
Barcelona Subway 29.0 30.3 23.2 24 5.0 4.8 6.8
Network Barcelona
Bangkok Sewer 14.8 21.8 11.8 12 9.2 6.3 10.6
Tunnel, Thailand

4 CASE HISTORY

In this study, data obtained from two contracts (Contract-A & Contract-B) from a tunnelling project
(each with a different diameter) will be used for the comparison studies with theoretical predictions.
Surface and sub-surface monitoring programme is implemented at tunnel excavation to verify the
performance of the Earth Pressure Balance Tunnel Boring Machines (EPB TBMs) and to assess the
effect of tunnelling on the structures in the vicinity of the tunnelling work. Monitoring zones are
generally provided to measure tunnelling-induced ground behaviour that consists of a series of
settlement markers along the tunnel centreline and across the tunnel at a right angle to the tunnel axis
designed to determine the shape and depth of both the longitudinal and transverse settlement troughs.
In addition, one piezometer, four inclinometers and three extensometers also installed at each
monitoring zone.
In general, ground loss values are obtained empirically based on past experience. In this study, ground
loss parameters were obtained from the design charts presented by Loganathan et al (2000). These
design charts were based on the following parameters;
1. Stability Parameter, NP: Stability parameter is estimated based on the tunnel depth, unit weight of
the soil, and tunnel face pressure.
2. Soil Strength, cu
3. Physical Gap Parameter, PG: Physical gap parameter is obtained based on the TBM
configuration, considering thickness of tail shield, clearance for the erection of lining, length of
shield, allowable excess pitch, thickness of cutter bead, backfill grouting parameters.

Tables 3 shows the tunnel and TBM details of both Contracts A and B for the estimation of the ground
loss.
Using the design chart by Loganathan et al (2000), the ground loss values obtained are estimated at
0.52%, and 0.46% for Contract-A and Contract-B, respectively.
Figures 4a, 4b and 4c indicate the comparison of measured and the predicted tunneling-induced
surface and sub-surface settlements and the lateral deformations. The estimated ground loss at this
location was about 0.56%. The soil type encountered was an Alluvium with SPT N value greater than
50. Alluvium encountered in this project was mainly lightly cemented to non-cemented clayey sand
and silty sand.

109
Table 3. Tunnel and TBM Details
Contract A B
Tunnel Details and Geotechnical Parameters
Monitoring Zone Zone-1 Zone-1
Tunnel depth (m) 34.5 29
Tunnel diameter (m) 7.2 5.47
Soil Type Alluvium (N>50) Alluvium (N<50)
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 0.3
Undrained strength (kPa) 250 100
Earth pressure coefficient 0.8 0.8
Unit weight (kN/m3) 21 20
Depth of water table (m) 0.5 2.0
TBM Face pressure (kPa) 75 340
TBM Details
Tunnelling method EPB(1) EPB(1)
Length of shield (m) 8.5 9.14
Outer Diameter of cutter head (m) 6.98 5.47
Thickness of tail piece (mm) 60 100
Clearance for erection of lining (mm) 30 25
Bead thickness (mm) 0 0
Skin grouting Yes Yes
(1)
EPB- Earth Pressure Balance

Lateral Distance (m)

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0

-2

-4

-6
Settlement (mm)

Loganathan & Poulos (1998)

-8 Mair (1983)
Settlement Markers
CH20+606 to CH20+612 Clough & Schmidt (1981)
Tunnel depth = 34.5m Observed
Tunnel diameter = 7.16m -10

Figure 4a. Surface Settlement

Figures 5a and 5b indicate the measured and predicted tunnelling-induced surface and sub-surface
settlements at Section 2. The estimated ground loss at this location is about 0.46%. The soil type
encountered was Alluvium with SPT N value less than 50.

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The applicability of empirical relationships to predict sub-surface settlements and lateral deformations
are limited due to inadequate field measurements. Closed-form solutions proposed in this paper is a

110
 useful tool to estimate tunneling-induced surface and sub-surface ground movements. Table 2 shows
the surface settlement trough widths calculated using the proposed analytical solutions. These are
slightly higher than the estimates made using empirical methods proposed by Mair (1983) and Clough
and Schmidt (1981).
Sub-surface settlement (mm) Lateral Deformation (mm)
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 -5 0 5 10
0 0

-5 Loganathan &
-5
Poulos (1998)
-10 -10
Observed
-15
-15
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
-20
-20

-25
-25

-30
-30
Loganathan & Poulos (1998) -35
-35
Mair et al (1993)
-40
-40 Observed
Figure 4b. Sub-surface Settlements, Figure 4c. Lateral Displacement, 6.6m offset
Above Tunnel Centreline From Tunnel Centreline

Figure 4. Contract-A: Monitoring Zone 1 (Ground Loss = 0.52%)

Lateral Distance (m)

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
0

-2

-4
Settlement (mm)

Settlement Markers Loganathan & Poulos (1998)

-6
CH47+310 to CH47+335 Mair (1983)
Tunnel depth = 30m Clough & Schmidt (1981)
Tunnel diameter = 5.47m Observed
-8

Figure 5a. Surface Settlement

Predictions were made using empirical and proposed closed-form solutions for a case history. Two
contracts (A & B) were analysed. The tunnelling-induced ground deformations were predicted using
the ground loss values estimated for each case using the design charts proposed by Loganathan et al
(2000). This design chart considers the stability factor, soil strength parameters, and the tunnel boring
machine configurations. It is noted that the physical gap created by TBM and the face pressure are two
major factors in the determination of the ground loss. The TBM being used in Contract-B has a

111
physical gap about 125mm. Similarly the Contract-A TBM has a physical gap of 90mm. The physical
gap is the addition of the thickness of the tail, clearance for the erection of lining and the cutter bead
thickness.

Sub-surface settlement (mm)

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
0

-5

-10

-15
Depth (m)

-20

-25

-30
Loganathan & Poulos (1998)
-35 Mair et al (1993)
Observed
-40

Figure 5b. Sub-surface Settlements

Figure 5. Contract-B: Monitoring Zone 1 (Ground Loss = 0.46%)

The ground loss values predicted using Loganathan et al (2000) methodology at the respective
monitoring locations for both Contracts-A and Contract-B are 0.56% and 0.46% respectively. Though
the physical gap (125mm) is large for the TBM used in Contract-B, the face pressure was high
(340kPa) at the monitoring zone-1 location due to relatively softer soil (Alluvium). Similarly, the face
pressure used at Contract-A monitoring zone-1 was about 75kPa. Therefore, the ground loss predicted
for Contract-B is relatively smaller than Contract-A prediction.
Figure 4a shows that the measured settlement trough is relatively narrower than the empirical
predictions by Mair (1983), Clough & Schmidt (1981) and the analytical prediction by Loganathan
and Poulos (1998). Sub-surface settlements are near vertical showing a block type of ground
movement. Prediction using Mair (1993) equation over-predicted the sub-surface settlements and
analytical predictions by Loganathan & Poulos (1998) compares reasonably well with the field
measurements. Figure 4c shows the comparison of the predicted lateral ground movements and the
measurements by an inclinometer located about 6.6m away from the tunnel centreline. The prediction
by Loganathan & Poulos (1998) shows maximum lateral deformation at the tunnel centreline but
slightly under predicted the maximum deflection observed in the field.
Figure 5a shows the comparison of the measured and the predicted settlements. Settlements predicted
by Mair (1983) and Loganathan & Poulos (1998) compares well with the measured settlements. Figure
6b shows that the predictions by Loganathan & Poulos (1998) compares well with the measured
values.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Empirical methods may be used to assess the surface settlements with some measure of confidence but
they are subjected to some limitations in assessing subsurface settlements and the lateral deformations

112
at various depths. Site-specific geotechnical condition should be considered in selecting appropriate
empirical relationship. Finite element methods are complicated, require detailed soil parameters and
are time-consuming. An in-depth understanding of stress path during tunnel excavation is important to
obtain accurate predictions using FEM study. The analytical solutions (Loganathan and Poulos, 1998)
presented in this paper may be used to assess tunnelling-induced ground deformations, both surface
and subsurface. These equations allow rapid estimation of the ground deformations and require only an
estimate of the soil’s Poisson’s ratio.
Tunnelling-induced ground movements for two cases were predicted using the ground loss values
estimated based on design charts proposed by Loganathan et al (2000). Predicted ground movements
using proposed analytical method compare well with measured values. Predictions using proposed
closed-form solution (Loganathan & Poulos, 1998) and empirical relationship by Mair (1983) compare
well with measured surface settlements for both cases (Contract-A and Contract-B). Sub-surface
settlements predicted using proposed closed-form solution compares well with the measured values.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First author wishes to thank Prof. Harry Poulos for the valuable guidance during his PhD research
study at the University of Sydney, Australia.

8 REFERENCES

Addenbrooke.T. 1995, Meeting report, Ground Engineering, September 1995: 40-43.

Atkinson.J.H. & Potts.D.M. 1979,Subsidence above shallow tunnels in soft ground, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, GT4: 307-325.
Attewell.P.B. & Farmer.I.W. 1974, Ground deformations resulting from shield tunnelling in London clay,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 11: 380-325.
Clough.G.W. & Schmidt.B. 1981, Excavations and Tunnelling, Chapt. 8 in Soft Clay Engineering, Edited by
E.W. Brand and R.P. Brenner, Elsevier.
Cording.E.J. & Hansmire.W.H 1975, Displacement around soft ground tunnels, General report: Session IV,
Tunnels in Soils, 5th Panamerican Congress on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Bueno Aires,
Argentina, Nov. 1975.
Gunn.M.J. 1993, The prediction of surface settlement profiles due to tunnelling, Predictive Soil Mechanics,
Proc. Of the Wroth Memorial Symposium, Edited by G.T. Houlsby and A.N. Schofield, Oxford:304-316.
Lee.R.G., Turner.A.J & Whitworth.L.J. 1994, Deformations caused by tunnelling beneath a piled structure, Proc.
XIII Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, New Delhi, India, 873-878.
Loganathan.N., Poulos.H.G. & Stewart.D.P. 2000, Centrifuge model testing of tunnelling-induced ground and
pile deformations, Geotechnique 50, No.3, June 2000.
Loganathan.N., Poulos.H.G. & Bustos-Ramirez. 2000, Estimation of ground loss during tunnel excavation,
GeoEng2000, Melbourn, Australia.
Loganathan.N. & Poulos.H.G. 1998, Analytical prediction for tunnelling-induced ground movements in clays,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 9, September, 1998.
Mair.R.J., Taylor.R.N., & Bracegirdle.A. 1993, Subsurface settlement profiles above tunnels in clays,
Geotechnique 43, 315-320.
Mair.R.J., Gunn.M.J. & O’Reilly.M.P. 1983, Ground movements around shallow tunnels in soft clay, 10th Int.
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stolkhom, pp:323-328.
O’Reilly.M.P. & New.B.M. 1982, Settlements above tunnels in the U.K.-their magnitude and prediction,
Tunnelling’82: 173-181
Peck.R.B. 1969, Deep excavations and tunnelling in soft ground, Proc. of 7th Int. Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, pp: 225-290.
Rowe.R.K & Kack.G.J 1983, A theoretical examination of the settlements induced by tunnelling: Four case
histories, Canadian geotechnical Journal, Vol. 20:229-314.
Sagaseta.C. 1987, Analysis of undrained soil deformation due to ground loss, Geotechnique 37, 301-320.
Simpson.B., Atkinson.J.H. & Jovicic, 1996, The influence of anisotropy on calculations of ground settlements
above tunnels, proc. of Int. Symp. on Geotechnical aspects of the underground construction in soft ground,
London.
Verruijt. A. & Booker. J.R. 1996, Surface settlements due to deformation of a tunnel in an elastic half plane,
Geotechnique 46, No.4, 753-756.

113
 Underground Singapore 2001

Real Time Monitoring of Highway Viaducts close to a

Deep Excavation
P .Thurlow & S. Carayol,
Sol Data (Asia), Hong Kong

J. Gammon,
Atkins China Ltd, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: In Hong Kong a one-kilometre long section of a new underground railway is being
constructed on recently reclaimed land. The railway alignment runs parallel and in close proximity to
an elevated dual two-lane highway constructed 15 years ago. Cut-and-cover construction for the
railway station and approach tunnels involves excavations up to 40m in width and almost 20m in
depth that come within 20m of the highway viaduct. Ancillary works to divert major culverts involve
deep excavations between piers supporting the concrete box girder viaduct decks that have main spans
of 35m and 45m. Piers are founded on either large diameter bored piles or driven steel tubular piles
depending on their location.

Concern for the response of the viaduct to the railway construction activity resulted in the
implementation of an instrumentation system that continually monitors in real time the behavior of
the decks and piers. Based on automatic target-seeking theodolites, ‘CYCLOPS’ was initially
developed for the Jubilee Line Extension to London’s underground railway.

The Paper describes the data acquisition and interpretation process undertaken. In illustrating the
transverse, longitudinal and vertical movement of a major highway structure during the construction
of a neighboring underground railway, the paper will be of value to structural and highway engineers
as well as geotechnical engineers

1 INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN

Underground construction activity in urban areas has the potential to cause movement of sensitive
structures located close to the active area. For an elevated dual two-lane highway, the movement can
be classified into two main categories:

• lateral and longitudinal movements

• settlement

The consequences can range from insignificant, with little effect on the users, to catastrophic, with
large effects in terms of safety, cost and public confidence in construction works.

It is difficult to predict reliably the magnitude of movement of the structure in response to

neighbouring construction activity, especially when the structure is 15 years old and is located on
reclaimed land. When structural movements start, they can be very difficult to control and the
remedial works can be very expensive and result in delays to construction.

114
The programme of instrumentation and monitoring can play a major role in evaluating the response of
the dual two-lane highway to the excavation works. The following requirements are essential for the
successful implementation of an instrumentation scheme:

• Every instrument should be selected and placed to assist in answering a specific question
regarding the predicted movement of the structure.
• Phenomena to be monitored must be defined (e.g. structural and ground movements and changes
in the groundwater regime).
• The instrument type, purpose and location must be defined.

The site configuration and the nature of the underground works demanded a very tight schedule for
the installation of the instruments. Most of the instruments had to be installed prior to any
construction work in order to avoid any external disturbances that could interfere with the
determination of the base reading of each instrument. Diaphragm walling provides ground retention
and this activity has the potential cause ground movements in advance of bulk excavation for the
tunnel and underground station structures.

Other than on the viaduct itself, instruments were set up on axes between each viaduct pier and the
excavation areas. The idea was to track the movement caused by any major site activity from its
source across to the viaduct. There are various types of instruments installed:

• manual monitored instruments (inclinometers, extensometers, settlement points)

• automatically monitored instruments (piezometers, strain gauges, tiltmeters)

As the viaduct monitoring incorporated instruments with real time measurements this was termed the
“Automatic Deformation Monitoring System” (ADMS).

Manually monitored and automatic instruments were located near the excavation area to track the
source of any potential movement. Rows of ground settlement points (monuments) ran from the
excavation area across to the Bypass and allowed the movement to be monitored up to the edge of the
viaduct. Further clusters of manually monitored and automatic instruments were located next to the
viaduct’s piers so that conditions at the viaduct could be monitored directly.

An accurate and reliable real time monitoring system was chosen in order to provide data at any time
of the day.

2 REAL TIME INSTRUMENTATION

The ability to respond appropriately to the movement of the viaduct demanded a fast and accurate
system for detecting those movements.

With the system GEOSCOPE, it is possible to monitor, in real time, the movement of structures and
assemble the following in a specialised database:

• complete set of intelligent sensors linked by means of a field bus;

• acquisition software;
• extensive functions to trigger alarms and alert defined users (by automatically sending E-mails,
for example)
• real-time graphic display giving an instant view of the recorded movements
• specialised software with comprehensive tools to analyse data and produce reports
• communication tools in order to be able to connect remote data acquisition units

115
Advances in electronic and computer technologies have radically changed geotechnical
instrumentation and monitoring. Used in conjunction with computer networks and modem
communication, key personnel have continual (24 hours a day) remote access to the latest information
from any number of sites and are automatically alerted of any significant events by pager, voice mail,
or other media through the Internet.

A comprehensive and reliable system for surface monitoring is the CYCLic OPtical Survey
(CYCLOPS). It is a fully automated surveillance system comprising a motorised automatic theodolite
(also called a “total station”) with video target acquisition under computer control.

The system automatically records the position and movements of target prisms located on structures in
a predefined cycle. The position of each target is selected after taking into account problems such as
visibility, the radius of action of the theodolite and its location with regard to settlement from the area
of influence. Targets are also mounted on stable control stations so that movement of the total station
can be detected and quantified and data adjustments made accordingly.

Incorporating collective calculation sequences to compensate for self movement of the instrument as
well as changes in temperature and atmospheric conditions, the system provides continuous
measurement of movement in 3-dimensions for each monitoring point with a reading precision of +/-
1mm at a 120 metre distance; some automatic theodolites are capable of providing the same precision
at a 200metre distance.

Recorded data is stored in a database and processed to display, in real-time, graphics showing
movements versus time of each target prism.

Recent projects have placed greater emphasis on the use of instrumentation and monitoring to initiate
mitigation measures so as to minimize disturbance to existing structures. A high level of technology is
necessary to meet this requirement and allow the monitoring and reporting to be carried out efficiently
to coincide with activities in progress on construction sites.

3 DATA PRESENTATION

At the subject site, the system consisted of three motorised total stations under computer control to
measure the movement of the piers and the decks of the elevated highway. Over 250 prisms were
installed. The CYCLOPS total stations monitored deformation relative to fixed references placed on
nearby buildings (on piled foundations) or other relatively stable features. Movements of the viaduct,
for example due to traffic loading and thermal effects, were monitored before construction activities
commenced.

The total stations were themselves subject to daily movements but these were automatically corrected
by using the Helmert transformation method. This method calculates the movement of the total station
itself with respect to fixed reference points which, at the subject site, were provided by inverted
pendulum horizontal control stations installed in deep drillholes into bedrock.

On a daily basis 250 targets and over 600 other instruments were monitored during “active”
construction periods (i.e. when construction was in progress within 50m of an instrument). A large
amount of data was produced and it soon became necessary to reduce the time spent sorting through
this and reporting all the data while still allowing a comprehensive analysis to be achieved.
Monitoring data was related to a response level hierarchy of “Alert”, “Action”, and “Alarm” values.

The graphical output of the monitoring data was developed to show, it was possible for any user to
know which targets reached which response level, the time, and the sense and magnitude of the
movement. With the confirmation of these values, site actions could be decided. E-mail and fax could

116
also be sent to selected personnel to avoid the presence of the personnel for 24 hours a day on site.
The diagram printed on an A3 format identified the prisms installed on the viaduct. Each prism’s daily
movement was printed on axes representing longitudinal and transverse movements and settlement.
With a quick and easy comparison with previous diagrams, it was possible to determine the most-
recent movement of the decks and piers.

Figure 1.Graphical representation of the viaduct with the locations of prisms and the relative movement in three
dimensions.

117
 40
X axis - seaside
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
0

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40

25
Y axis - seaside
20
15
10
5
0 0

-5
-10
-15
Z axis - seaside
20
15
10
5
0 0

-5
-10
-15
-20
Pier 14

Pier 43 Pier 42 Pier 41 Pier 40 Pier 38 Pier 36 Pier 35 Pier 34 Pier 33 Pier 32
P ier 39 X axis - landside
Pier 28 Pier 27 Pier 26 Pier 25 Pier 24 Pier 23 Pier 22 Pier 21 Pier 20 Pier 19 Pier 18 Pier 17 Pier 16 Pier 15

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40

Y axis - landside
25
20
15
10
5
0 0

-5
-10
-15

Z axis - landside
20
15
10
5
0 0

-5
-10
-15
-20

Figure 2 Plots of three axes in relation to structure

118
Figure 2 clearly shows the magnitude of the movement of each target versus time and was printed
only for checking targets reaching response values. It was possible to identify the movement of the
targets over several days and to contrast this movement with other targets installed on the same
feature of the viaduct.

The ground conditions at the site comprise seawall construction and reclamation fill, placed in stages
over a period of more than 20 years and up to 15m thick, overlying marine and alluvial deposits –
absent at some locations due to dredging prior to reclamation but up to 5m thick at other locations –
which in turn overlie a predominantly granodiorite bedrock that has been weathered differentially
down to depths as much as 50m before fresh rock is encountered. Within the fill materials the
groundwater levels are strongly influenced by the tidal behaviour of the neighbouring area of sea but
this effect is less pronounced within the body of groundwater within the underlying bedrock.

4 INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The response value regime was based on the findings of a detailed structural analysis of the viaduct.
This analysis determined the magnitude of additional stresses which could be introduced to the
structure by external factors without causing distress to the structure or the bearings supporting the
decks on top of each pier. Movements capable of causing such stresses were quantified and these
movements, absolute and relative at pier locations, were used to define the response values to which
the actual movements were compared. The “Alarm” response level was established to ensure that the
bearings were not over-stressed and the “Alert” and “Action” levels represented intermediate levels of
stress.

Figure 2 clearly shows that the viaduct has responded to the construction activity. At the date
corresponding to the issue of this diagram, virtually all the diaphragm walling and bored piling was
complete. Excavation between the two rows of diaphragm walls had been taken down to track slab
level over the northern halves of the southern approach tunnel, the station, and the northern approach
tunnel. Excavation in other areas was at various intermediate levels. Excavations for major culvert
realignments that pass between viaduct piers and cross the site had almost been completely backfilled
by this time.

5 CONCLUSION

The instrumentation and monitoring system reliably tracked movements of the viaduct caused by the
construction works. The real time monitoring system brought to the data interpretation team the
critical amount of data required to understand the “routine”, long-term, movement of the elevated
highway and any movement caused by external factors.

It has been possible to adapt rapidly the standard software to incorporate the specific needs of the site.
Most of the data could be analysed, compared, and initially assessed automatically and this allowed
more time to be devoted to the detailed interpretation of the results and the implementation of changes
to the construction procedures if necessary.

119
The Jurong Formation, a Variable Ground Condition – Its
Tunnelling Characteristics
N.H. Osborne & W.B. Lim
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

O.I. Williams
British Airport Authority plc Ltd, UK

ABSTRACT: The Jurong formation is encountered at shallow depth in the South and South West of
Singapore. It is a predominantly sedimentary deposit of late Triassic to early Jurassic age, which has
been subjected to folding, faulting, metamorphism and weathering. The results of these processes have
created a highly variable stratum with a number of different facies and a large range of rock types,
often with steeply dipping beds. The subsequent deep tropical weathering, frequently along
preferential pathways of the bedding planes, has added to variability and complexity of the formation.
Tunnelling has been carried out in the Jurong on a number of Mass Rapid Transport (MRT) projects in
Singapore. A variety of approaches have been used, including NATM, open face shield, compressed
air and EPBM with each technique encountering problems due to the variability of the Jurong
Formation. The characteristics of the Jurong and its’ impact on tunnelling are discussed with particular
reference to ground water control, stability of the formation and wear to the tunnelling machines used.
The merits of the different approaches are considered and possible solutions for future projects
suggested.

1. INTRODUCTION

The successful completion of tunnelling projects is dependent on ensuring that the appropriate
tunnelling method and approach is adopted. Historically, many projects have faced serious difficulties
through underestimating the geotechnical conditions. Previous authors have documented the typical
problems that have been encountered such as excessive settlements at the surface, instability of the
face, excessive wear of the tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and slow progress.

About 50km of tunnelling has been carried out in Singapore since the early 1980’s, the majority being
for the development of the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system, this has been well
documented by Hulme and Burchell (1992 & 2000).

Although the Jurong Formation covers about a third of Singapore, occurring predominantly in the
South West of the island, as shown in Figure 1, historically tunnelling in this formation has been
limited, until the recent tunnelling works associated with the North East Line MRT Project. The main
reason being route selection based on passenger usage rather than any technical constraint. With the
recent development of the MRT with the North East Line, tunnelling in the Jurong Formation has
increased extensively and now contributes about 7.5 km of the 50 km built to date. This includes the
first phase MRT works from Tiong Bahru Station to Raffles Place Station and from Novena Station to
Toa Payoh Station, and the southern end of the Northeast Line MRT from Harbour Front Station to
Little India Station which has recently been completed (see Figure 1).

Considerable information exists on the properties of the Jurong Formation, mostly taken from depth
for future underground cavern development Zhao et al. (1999) and in general terms by Sharma et al.
(1999). However, information on the Formation related to shallow depth tunnelling is not as extensive
with the only documented history being for NATM works Williams et al. (1999) and EPB tunnel
Shirlaw et al. (2000).

123
Figure 1. Jurong Formation Outcropping on the Surface

124
With the planned future extensions to the MRT and the deep sewer network expanding Singapore’s
underground infrastructure, tunnelling in the Jurong Formation will rapidly increase. This paper
reviews the recent experiences of tunnelling in the Jurong Formation on the NEL project, where 5 km
of twin tunnels was constructed. During these drives invaluable information was gained as to the
behaviour of Jurong Formation and the associated difficulties experienced will add to the information
available for future tunnelling projects in this Formation.

2. JURONG FORMATION, ITS ORIGIN AND GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 Origin
The Jurong formation is a particularly complex strata when viewed geotechnically. This is a
consequence of its depositional environments and the geological changes it has experienced.
Therefore, to understand it and its impact upon engineering, its geological model must be understood.

The Jurong is predominantly a sedimentary strata comprising of six different facies, which were
deposited during the late Triassic to early Jurassic period. Deposition occurred within a basin formed
by the uplift of the Bukit Timah Granite to the North East and the Malayan Main Range Granite to the
South West. The depositional environment was dynamic and very varied, however, generally
associated with sea shelf and deltaic conditions. This very transitional nature of deposition resulted in
a wide range of rocks being deposited, from the shallow sea fine mudstones through to beach
deposited conglomerates. The depositional environment contributed heavily to the formation of a very
variable rock mass resulting in rapid changes in rock type both vertically and horizontally. Further
complexity is added by the presence of volcanics both airborne and lava flows, which can be
occasionally found interspersed with the sediments, most commonly as tuffs and spilite.

The basin experienced two periods of uplift, the first during late Triassic times and again during the
late Cretaceous. The Malayan Main Range Granite to the South West dominated the uplift having a
more rapid rate of uplift than the Bukit Timah Granite, causing tilting of the depositional basin and a
sliding of the recently deposited sediments of the Jurong towards the North East. This resulted in
steeply dipping beds, folding and minor faulting of the strata increasing the lateral variability. A
number of small North East trending, near vertical tear faults are the result of this uplift, however these
are rarely observed due to lack of surface exposure. During the Cretaceous uplift, additional folding of
the strata occurred combined with a period of regional compression introducing a low-grade
metamorphism and alteration to some of the facies.

The result of this deposition and subsequent deformation is the very complex and highly variable
Jurong Formation. To complete the picture the impact of latter day weathering and subsequent
deposition must be considered. The Jurong has experienced deep tropical chemical weathering
preferentially along the bedding planes, with the mudstones and siltstones being most affected, giving
rise to a highly fractured rock mass that can extend to depths greater than 30 metres. More recent
periods of erosion and deposition have led to a series of buried channels and river valleys that contain
deposits from the Kallang and Tekong Formations that overlie the Jurong. These deposits are
characterised by soft marine, estuarine, fluvial clays and fluvial sands. These locations tend to coincide
with the weaker mudstones and siltstones and the Jurong tends to be more weathered due to the stress
relief caused by the formation of the buried valleys. This weathering has further added to the
complexity and variability of the strata.

Large areas of central Singapore are underlain by large boulders, most commonly quartzite, supported
within a stiff clay matrix and this is commonly called the “boulder bed.” This strata has previously
been described as part of the Jurong Formation. The authors agree with the views put forward by
Shirlaw et al. (1990) that this strata is a colluvial deposit with the origin of the boulders in the Jurong
Formation, and that the strata should not technically be regarded as part of the formation. As such, it
has not been directly included in the study of tunnelling characteristics. However, as the boulder bed’s
origin is the Jurong by inference, some of the characteristics, particularly that of the quartzite, can be
applied to the boulder bed.

125
2.2 Geotechnical Characteristics
As a result of its geological history, the Jurong Formation is highly variable and this variability
presents a number of geotechnical challenges to tunnelling, as the Formation’s geotechnical
parameters can fall across such a wide range and change very quickly. Three interlinked characteristics
have the greatest impact upon tunnelling, those of strength, hardness, and permeability.

A very wide range of rock strengths can be observed with the strengths depending primarily on rock
type and the degree of weathering. These have been usefully summarised by Shirlaw et al. (2000), as
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Rock strength of different rock types and degree of weathering

Rock Type UCS Range (MPa)

Sandstone and Quartzite 35 –185
Limestone and low grade marl 45-162
Conglomerate and meta-conglomerate 32-102
Siltstone and meta-siltstone 21-53
Mudstone and meta-mudstone 2-36

Strengths from as low as 2 MPa in the completely weathered mudstones have been recorded. Here, the
rock has been heavily fractured through folding and the strength further reduced through the processes
of weathering. Serious concerns over stand up times and surface settlements arise upon encountering
ground with such low strengths. Problems have also been experienced with the very weak ground in
the small fault zones. Although not tested, strengths are believed to be less than 2 MPa.

At the other extreme are the slightly weathered and fresh sandstones and quartzites. These strata are
generally found in areas associated with higher ground due to their ability to resist weathering. These
materials are very strong rock with strengths on average in excess of 100 MPa and on occasions
exceeding 150MPa. They present completely different problems as the strength and hardness poses
problems of excavation and wear to tunnel equipment.

The quartzite tends to be more problematic than the sandstone due to the alteration caused by the low-
grade metamorphorism. On average, the make up of the rock is 75% quartz with the majority of the
remainder of the rock being made up of felsites. It is however the quartz that dominates the rock in
terms of both strength and abrasion. As a result of quartz recrystallisation the quartz grains have
become welded together forming a stronger bond hence a stronger rock. This combined with the inert
nature of siliceous cementing of the quartz grains making them immune to the chemical weathering,
has resulted in a significantly stronger rock than the rest of the formation, these rocks being most
prevalent in the Rimau facies. In addition, quartz overgrowths, also caused by the metamorphism, have
increased the angularity of the crystals within the rock leading to a more abrasive rock mass.
Normally, quartz has a Mohs’ hardness of 7. However, tests carried out on samples taken from the
NEL tunnel drive from Clarke Quay (CQY) to Dhoby Ghaut (DBG) station have given values in
excess of grade 9. This is in excess of the of the normal Mohs’ hardness for quartz and can only be
attributed to the effects of metamorphism. As is evident (Figure 2) there is a correlation between the
strength of the rock and its Mohs’ hardness, emphasising the importance of the role played by
metamorphism.

The permeability of the rock mass is a major factor in determining its behaviour during tunnelling as
the range of permeabilities are large and flow rates can be sufficient to compromise the stability of the
exposed rock face. Due to the increased permeability, water is a potential problem at the face,
particularly in the weaker, highly weathered material. The water flows through the steeply dipping
joints and fractures lubricating them and increasing the likelihood of failure of the weathered matrix of
the rock mass. It is these fractures that dominate the water flow paths. The permeability of the rock
falls within 1x10-6 to 1x10-7m/s. However, the localised permeability around an excavation increases
to 1x10-5 m/s due stress relief and the opening of fractures, Chen et al. (2000). Water flows also tend to
be higher around the small near vertical tear faults.

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 UCS v Mohs' Hardness

10

7
Mohs Hardness

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

UCS (MPa)
test results form Tunnel Drive CQY to DBG

Figure 2. Correlation between Mohs Hardness and UCS

3. JURONG FORMATION – ITS IMPACT ON TUNNELLING OR TUNNELLING BEHAVIOUR

The highly variable Jurong Formation with its rapidly changing ground conditions results in a
constantly changing, dynamic interaction of geotechnical characteristics which present a number of
geotechnical challenges to the tunneller. The major issues, which are posed, are discussed below.

3.1 Stand-up Time & Stability, And The Phenomena of ‘Ravelling’

The discontinuities, the lithology and the rockmass strength of the material control the stand-up.
Unsurprisingly, it is the extremes of these parameters that present a problem with stand-up times in the
weaker rocks being low. Due to the variability, mixed face conditions are not uncommon, with a more
competent sandstone/quartzite interbedded with a weathered mudstone/siltstone. These present serious
challenges in terms of stability and settlement. It was identified in the earlier MRT projects that the
Jurong Formation had the potential to ravel, Hulme and Burchell (1992), and these conditions were
again experienced in several occasions during tunnelling for the NEL, Shirlaw et al. (2001). The
highly weathered mudstones and siltstones being particularly prone to the ravelling condition. For the
tunnel drive from CQY to DBG, completely weathered sandstone was encountered within the tunnel
horizon and this proved very difficult to control as the cementation had been destroyed by the
weathering. In this weathered state and due to the presence of water, the ground could potentially
run/flow into the tunnel.

3.2 Tunnelling Equipment Wear

Of the nine TBMs used for the three NELP MRT contracts constructed through the Jurong Formation,
seven have been full face TBM, whereas the other two were open faced shield type TBMs. For the
purpose of this discussion, only the full face TBMs will be discussed.

Identified wear is not restricted to the cutterhead excavation tools but also to the cutterhead itself and
other major components. Generally wear related to these close-face TBMs can be subdivided into
three groups; the excavation tools, the cutterhead itself, and the archimedian or screw conveyor. In

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summary, all components that come into contact with the material being excavated showed significant
wear.

3.2.1 Excavation tools

With regard to the excavation tools, the disk wear consisted of chips, radial cracking, sharpening and
the most predominant wear characteristic for each TBM was that of disk flattening, Figures 3 & 4.
There are a number of causes of disk flattening with the ground being a major driving force, but the
machine operation and design also playing significant roles. The major causes that lead to tool wear
and in particular disk flattening are: -

• Interbedded sequences, giving rise to mixed face conditions of competent and none competent
strata with contrasting geotechnical characteristics i.e. strength and lithology which result in the
tools penetrating or cutting through continually changing material in the same cutterhead
revolution
• Abrasiveness of the strata
• Varying strength of the intact rock and rockmass, again presenting non-uniform conditions in the
same cutterhead revolution.
• Non rotation of the discs through clogging of the machine face leading to uneven wear
• Design of the machine face not optimized for the ground conditions.

The combination of these characteristics resulted in the disks acting as scrapers in the weaker material
i.e. non-rolling of the disks which caused localised wear on the disk. This then leads to development of
disk flattening as shown in Figures 3 & 4.

Figure 3 & 4. Examples of flattening of the roller disk cutters

It is not easy to quantify or proportion the impact of the geotechnical and non-geotechnical
contributory factors which affect disk wear, as the relationship between the ground and the machine is
very complex and dependant upon each other. Inappropriate pre-stressing of the disk bearing which
would limit the rotation of the disk, and disk bearing damage due to dynamic loading caused by
intermittent penetration resistance in the strong and weak bands is one example. Other factors such as
the relationship of disk radius of travel or kerf is particularly relevant to the disk at or near the centre
of the cutterheads. If the kerf is too tight, the disk skids across the contact face rather than rotating
thus resulting in commencement of disk flattening. Similar observations were described by Mckelvey
(1999) for a project in South Africa in interbedded sequence of sandstones and siltstones.

The likely cause of chipping and radial cracks was by the dynamic loading of the disk when travelling
intermittently through strong and weaker bands. With respect to the scrappers or teeth excavation
tools, chipping and abrasion was common.

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3.2.2 Cutterhead wear
Inspection of the cutterhead wear of the Contract 706, 708 and 710 TBMs at the end of the drives
showed that the C706 TBMs had significantly less wear, despite the machines experiencing similar
abrasive conditions. It must be stressed that the C710 drive length was approximately 1400m and
1700m longer than the respective C706 and C708 drives which will be a major factor related to wear.
The C710 cutterhead all showed a concentration of wear in the centre of the cutterhead, see Figure 5 &
6, which is consistent with material being rotated in the central area causing abrasion. With respect to
the characteristic of wear, tunnel length appears insignificant. Although the opening ratio of all three
TBMs was similar, see Figures 7 to 9, it is opinion of the authors that less wear was observed for the
C706 TBM cutterhead. This is attributed to the greater area of ‘openness in the central area’ of the
cutterhead, the ratio of cutterhead opening width to depth being closer to unity and the angle of the
openings were such that they formed a funnel shape into the plenum chamber. These differences
resulted in a more efficient transportation of the spoil from the face into the plenum chamber thus
reducing the opportunity of the abrasive material to cause wear. It is felt that an additional contributing
factor to the cutterhead wear of the C710 TBMs was the loss of centre disks probably caused by the
flat spot phenomena described earlier. Once the cutting action was lost, so was the facility to cut the
rockmass.

Figure 5. Wear observed on cutterhead of C710 TBM

Figure 6. Close up of the wear observed at the centre of the cutterhead of C710 TBM

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Figure 7. Opening ratio for C706 TBM

Figure 8. Opening ratio for C708 TBM

Figure 9. Opening ratio for C710 TBM

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3.2.3 Screw conveyor
Major wear was observed to the screw conveyor, see Figure 10. This again can be attributed to
abrasion of the flights caused by the transportation of the abrasive rock fragments and fines along the
screw. Not surprisingly, increased wear was observed with increased tunnel drive length.

Figure 10. Wear observed on screw conveyor of C710 TBM

3.3 Conditioning
Generally when the NELP TBMs were operated in non-pressurised or open mode the performance of
the TBMs was excellent with average penetration rates of 22 mm/minute being achieved with
relatively low cutterhead torque and thrust forces. However, when conditions required operation in
EPB mode, difficulty with material flow was identified with cutterhead apertures and the plenum
chamber becoming clogged. Considerable heat generation was being experienced in the cutterhead
area caused by friction. Generally, the conditioning agent used was water, or water with polymer, with
foam used over very limited lengths of tunnel. Although only limited experience exists with using
foam, Shirlaw et al. (2000) noted dramatic improvements in the TBM performance when foam was
introduced for the last 10m of the C708 northbound drive under the Singapore River. These
improvements consisted of reducing cutterhead torque and thrust force and increase in penetration rate
all as a consequence of smoother flow of excavated material away from the machine face. A
secondary benefit, but related benefit, of the use of foam can be seen in the reduction of machine wear
at C706 where foam was used and the cutterhead wear was reduced.

3.4 Ground Movement Associated with Tunnelling

Over 90% of measured settlements from the NELP tunnelling in the Jurong were less than 2% volume
loss, Shirlaw et al. (2001). Of these settlements that can be attributed directly to ground conditions,
two causes can be identified; that of direct volume loss through the excavated face and secondary
consolidation settlements of overlying soft deposits.

For the direct settlements through the excavated face, two different scenarios, both involving mixed
face conditions, have been identified. First when the tunnelling strata comprised of soft deposits of
Kallang in the crown and Jurong in the invert, resulting in over excavation through the crown. The
second scenario occurring when the strength of the Jurong changed rapidly and unexpectedly from a
competent rock to highly fractured and weathered rock or indeed a small fault zone, again resulting in
over excavation, through ravelling and chimney effects.

Consolidation settlements occurred in the locations where the buried valleys of the Kallang Formation
overlie the Jurong. A reduction in pore water pressure in the Jurong, due to tunnelling, led to
underdrainage of the soft marine and estuarine clays or fluvial sands, causing consolidation
settlements. These settlements extended outside of the traditional gaussian trough associated with
tunnel settlements, having a greater potential impact.

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4. DISCUSSION AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE TUNNELLING

The Jurong has already posed a number of different problems to tunnelling through it. With the
expansion of various underground networks in Singapore, these problems and new challenges will
continue. However, some lessons can be learnt from the knowledge and experience gained to date.

The complexity and variable nature of the Formation must be appreciated and understood at the onset
of any project and carefully considered in the approach to tunnelling and the equipment chosen. To
enable this to happen, a carefully planned and thorough site investigation is important. However, it
must be realised that due to the rapidly changing strata and its steeply dipping beds, a traditional site
investigation of a number of vertical boreholes will not necessarily represent all the conditions
encountered during the tunnelling. Such an investigation would pick up the buried valleys of soft clay,
but it is very likely that the narrow steeply dipping beds of very weak rock, or fault zones, and the
narrow steep bands of very strong quartzite may not be located. It is these beds that have a great
impact on the tunnelling in terms of settlement for the weaker rocks, and equipment wear and progress
for the stronger rocks. There are various techniques that can be considered to improve the information
concerning the ground conditions. These include inclined boreholes, horizontal drilling either in the
form of probing or as part of the site investigation or geophysics again as part of the site investigation
or from the face of the machine. The various merits of these approaches must be considered on project
by project basis.

Of the different tunnelling techniques available, some are more suited to the Jurong than others. On
the NELP a sprayed shotcrete lining approach, Williams et al. (1999), proved successful, albeit on a
limited extent of tunnel where ground conditions were well investigated and the risk associated with
rapid changes in stratum low. With this approach there is the advantage of seeing the ground and being
able to react to the conditions to ensure that suitable support is applied and the right equipment is used.
Essential to this approach is a skilled and quality workforce and carefully planned contingencies that
will cover all the expected ground conditions. A further advantage is that in uncertain ground
conditions, a pilot tunnel is relatively easy to advance and can act as a large probe to determine if any
problems lie ahead.

For longer tunnel drives, it is probable that the full variability of the Jurong will be experienced and
this combined with economic considerations makes the choice of machine tunnelling more appealing.
In both phase one and for part of C708 of the NELP open face shields were used. These performed
well in competent ground but experienced problems when ravelling conditions existed. For the
majority of the NELP, EPBM or dual mode machines were chosen and can generally be regarded as
successful. Two major problems were experienced, that of wear of the machines and how to efficiently
deal with rapid changes in ground conditions. Wear on machines is inevitable in what is an abrasive
ground; this can be minimised in the design stage of the machine and through regular and appropriate
maintenance. Consideration should be given to minimising excavated material and machine contact,
and to wear protection on the cutterhead and screw conveyor. The effective use of conditioning is
important in reducing wear and torque leading to a more efficient tunnelling machine as well as
helping to maintain an effective plug in the screw conveyor. To combat the changing ground
conditions, a more effective site investigation is required, as has already been discussed. Where these
conditions are known, face pressure at least equivalent to the piezometric pressure is imperative to
keep settlement to acceptable levels.

5. CONCLUSION

The Jurong Formation is a very difficult formation in which to tunnel. This is a result of its huge
variability and unpredictable changes in strata. To successfully tunnel within the formation, its
geotechnical characteristics must be understood, the geology along the route investigated thoroughly
and the tunnelling method and equipment tailored to suit the conditions. However, unexpected events
must not be forgotten and a careful risk management approach should be adopted to minimise and
control events that are a consequence of the grounds’ unpredictability.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Land Transport Authority for its permission to
publish this paper and also to Mr Terry Hulme for his support, direction and consultation in preparing
the paper.

REFERENCES

Chen, D., C., Osborne, N., Shim, J., D., & Hong, E., 2000. An Observational Approach to the Monitoring of the
Excavation at Harbour Front Station, Singapore. Proceedings, International Conference on Tunnelling and
Underground Structures. Singapore: Balkema
Hulme, T., & Burchell, A.J., 1992. Bored tunnelling for Singapore Metro. Journal of Construction Engineering
and Management
Hulme, T., & Burchell, A.J., 1999. Tunnelling Projects in Singapore: an Overview. Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology, Special Publication. pp409-419.
McKelvey, J., G., 1999. Predicted and Actual TBM Performance in two Hard Rock Tunnels in South Africa.
Proceedings Underground Works Ambitions & Realities, France pp 259-266.
Sharma, J., S., Chu, J., & Zhao J., 1999. Geological and Geotechnical Features in Singapore: An Overview.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Special Publication. pp419-43.2.
Shirlaw, J.N., Hencher S., R., & Zhao J., 2000. Design and Construction Issues for Excavation and tunnelling in
some Tropically Weathered Rock and Soil. Proceedings, GeoEng 2000. Melbourne.
Shirlaw, J., N., Poh, K., B., & Hwang, R., N., 1990. Properties and Origins of The Singapore Boulder Bed.
Proceedings of the Tenth South EastAsian Geotechnical conference, Taipei.
Shirlaw, J.N., Ong, J., Rosser, H., Osborne N., Tan, C., G., & Heslop P., 2001 Immediate Settlements due to
Tunnelling for the North East Line. Proceedings, Underground Singapore 2001.
Williams, I., Osborne N., & Thai, E., W., 1999. Recent Large Diameter Tunnel Construction in Singapore Using
Sprayed Concrete Linings. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Special Publication. pp 527-538.
Zhao, J., Liu, Q., Lee, K. W., Choa, V., & Teh, C., I., 1999. Underground Cavern Development in the Jurong
Sedimentary Rock Formation. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Special Publication. pp449-
461.

133
 Underground Singapore 2001

International & Domestic Practices and Experience with

Alkali-free, Non Caustic Liquid Accelerators for Sprayed
Concrete
Ola Woldmo
BU Asia Pacific Underground Construction, MBT Singapore

ABSTRACT: Over the years since the start of sprayed concrete application, one fact cannot be
denied: There has been a rapid development within all aspects of the method, from concrete
technology and equipment to working environment and capacity. It is also clear that the development
continues at a rapid pace and that Singapore projects are among the front-runners in Asia.

Sprayed concrete is but one of several ways to cast concrete. As with traditional methods of casting,
sprayed concrete also makes its special demands on the characteristics of the concrete during the
application. At the same time, all normal concrete technological demands, such as water/cement
ratio, cement content, correct consistency and curing must be complied with and followed. The paper
will deal with some of these requirements and gives an update on alkali-free accelerators which are
among the most recent developments in the field of special admixture systems for sprayed concrete,
and a key component of modern sprayed concrete mix design.

The enormous advantages of sprayed concrete both in construction and rock support, as well as the
improvements of materials, equipment and application know-how have made it a very important and
necessary tool for modern underground construction works.

Singapore projects have in the past a tradition of using “dry sprayed” concrete with caustic set
accelerator. This method has its limitations in terms of strength durability and environmental aspects.
Dry sprayed shotcrete is considered used only for temporary concrete works.

With the introduction of “wet sprayed” concrete utilizing alkali-free, non caustic set accelerator a few
years back, the practice has been changed. These days sprayed concrete is utilized as temporary and
permanent tunnel support in various projects. The paper will include references from projects such as
MRT North East Line, DTSS and Bukit Timah Caverns.

International tunnel design rapidly changes to increase utilization of sprayed concrete for permanent
tunnel linings. The return to clients and developers is considerable program and cost savings.

1 SET ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE

The wet-mix method requires the addition at the nozzle of accelerating admixtures for fast setting.
The primary effect of these products is to reduce the slump (consistency) at the moment of spraying
from liquid to paste while the concrete is still in the air, so that it will adhere to the surface as the
layer thickness increases.

With the use of set accelerating admixtures, effective spraying on vertical and overhead surfaces
becomes possible. The setting effect allows the application of sprayed concrete for initial support –
an important function in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM). Water inflow (e.g. from the
rock substrate) usually calls for a higher proportion of admixtures to accelerate the setting of sprayed
concrete.

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Accelerators are added in liquid form via a special dosing pump (piston or worm pump). The
accelerator dosage may vary, depending on the operator’s skill, the surface and the water/cement ratio
(high w/c ratios will increase the need for accelerators in order to reduce consistency).

Every coin has two sides. A secondary effect of the accelerators is the reduction in final (28-day)
strength compared to non-accelerated concrete. Therefore, the accelerator consumption should be
kept at a minimum at all times (lower consumption on walls than in the roof).
The types of accelerators and when they were introduced.
• Waterglass – 1975
• Modified silicate – 1980
• Consistency activators (MEYCO TCC) – 1985
• Aluminates (sodium or potassium or a mix) - 1990
• Alkali-free and non caustic - 1993

2 ALKALI-FREE SPRAYED CONCRETE ACCELERATORS

Of late, safety and ecological concerns have become dominant in the sprayed concrete accelerator
market and applicators have started to be reluctant to apply aggressive products. In France,
Switzerland, Hong Kong, Singapore and Austria, e.g., it is no longer common practice to use caustic
aluminates accelerators due to the health risk to personnel. According to information given in the ITA
Working Group on Sprayed Concrete in Washington, 1996, one important reason for the large wet-
mix market in Brazil is the health problems caused by dust in dry-mix spraying.

In addition, requirements for reliability and durability of concrete structures are increasing. Strength
loss or leaching effects suspected to be caused by strong alkaline accelerators has forced our industry
to provide answers and to develop products with better performances. Traditionally, sprayed concrete
operators have been exposed to excessive dust and health problems: skin burns, risk of loss of
eyesight and even risk of injury due to falling rock (especially in the case of dry-mix manual spraying,
with caustic aluminates accelerators and mesh reinforcement on unsupported ground). It is an
international trend that these negative conditions are no longer accepted (with large local variations).

During the last decade the construction industry has been <<crying-out>> for safer sprayed concrete
accelerators with better performance. Today, well functioning liquid alkali-free and non caustic
products are available, providing safe, high quality and cost effective sprayed concrete applications.
There is no longer an excuse for using dangerous products, such as the traditional caustic aluminates
and caustic industrial waterglass. The author is in favour of totally forbidding these types of products.
MBT is still selling caustic aluminates, but on direct request only, and no promotion activities are
carried out any longer. As a consequence, the volume of aluminates has been dramatically reduced
and has been replaced by liquid alkali-free and non caustic accelerators.

The responsibility to improve the sprayed concrete application as well as the environmental and
working safety now lies with the owners, the specifiers and the contractors.

Due to their complex chemistry, alkali-free accelerators are legitimately more expensive than
traditional accelerators. However, accelerator prices have very little influence on the total cost of in-
place sprayed concrete. Of much larger consequence are the time and rebound savings achieved, the
enhancement of the quality and the safe working environment.

3 HEALTH AND SAFETY

Health and safety concerns require increasing attention in modern tunnelling.

3.1 Exposure to dust and rebound

The maximum allowable dust concentrations lie in the order of <15 mg/m3 of total dust, <6 mg/m3 for
fine dust and <4 mg/m3 for dust containing quartz particles (Austrian Guidelines). These values
constitute the limits for long-term and repeated exposure (usually 8-hour shifts). A new Japanese
guideline has a maximum dust level at 3 mg/m3 measured 50m behind the face.

135
The actual measurements differ greatly (Testor and Kusterle, 1997). According to these authors the
dust concentrations vary between 6.6 and 18.9 for the dry-mix process and between 2.8 and 3.9 for the
wet-mix process. Since the nozzle is usually hand-held in the dry-mix process and the distance to the
dust source is therefore small, the difference in actual exposure of the labour to dust is even bigger
compared to the wet-mix system where the application is generally done via manipulators.

The choice of the wet-mix method as well as the replacement of caustic aluminates accelerators by
liquid non caustic and alkali-free products are important steps toward an improved working
environment. Dust and rebound are dramatically reduced and skin burns can be made a matter of the
past.

Dust measurements from the North Cape Tunnel in Norway (see Figure 1) where high performance
wet-mix sprayed concrete with the liquid non caustic alkali-free accelerator is used, show a total dust
content of less than 3.7 mg/m3 of air in the immediate environment of the operator. This value is two
times lower than those of measurements obtained with liquid modified silicate accelerators, under the
same conditions, see also Figure 1.

Direct comparisons by dust measurements under equal conditions in the same tunnel are difficult to
find. One example is the report by Dipl. Ing. Markus Testor from the Irlahüll Tunnel in Germany.
The dust development was measured for three application systems:

1. Dry-mix process with oven dried aggregates mixed with Schwenk quick cement CEM132.5 R/SE,
using a Rombold Spraymobile.
2. Dry-mix process with naturally humid aggregate and Heidelberg Cronolith S quick cement, using
a Heidelberg Trixer with a SBS Type B1 spraying machine.
3. Wet-mix process with Karstadt CEM I 42.5 cement, liquid alkali-free accelerator MEYCO
SA140 and a MEYCO Roadrunner Spraymobile.

Ulla Førre. Output ~5 m3/hour

Stockholm. Output ~5 m3/hour

Lillestrøm. Output ~8 m3/hour

North Cape Modified silicate based accelerator, output ~5 m3/hour

North Cape MEYCO® SA 160 liquid alkali-free and

non caustic accelerator, output ~5 m3/hour

Dry-mix process
Total dust [ mg/m3 of air ]
Wet-mix process
Figure 1: Comparison of dust development dry-mix and wet-mix sprayed concrete, with different types of
accelerators.

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The measurements were carried out with an optical fine dust instrument – hund TM DATA. The
relative dust intensities measured in the immediate environment of the spraying operator were:

Spraying system Rel. dust intensity Spraying capacity Nozzles

1. Dry 12.6 13.5m3/h 2
2. Dry 6.6 6.8 m3/h 1
3. Wet 3.3 15.5 m3/h 1

Another example is dust measurements carried out in Scandinavia between 1979 and 1998, see figure 1.

3.2 Aspects of work hygiene and safety

Sprayed concrete is often claimed to be a problematic process regarding work hygiene, safety and
environmental aspects. The use of caustic aluminates and silicate accelerators is clearly worse than
non caustic liquid alkali-free accelerator.

In the case of traditional accelerators, most people will feel them on their skin and as an irritation in
their throat after only a few minutes. With the use of non caustic liquid alkali-free accelerators there
is no such negative effect. The worst immediate danger with aluminates is the accidental spray from
broken hoses or couplings. One spray is enough to immediately destroy the eyes, while MBT’s alkali-
free accelerators can simply be washed away with water, without any permanent negative effect.
MBT’s alkali-free accelerators contain no harmful components and are non-toxic.

3.3 Environmental impact

A lot of papers have been published on the topic of an “environmentally neutral sprayed concrete”.
Unfortunately, their assessments are limited to the avoidance of caustic accelerators, their effects on
the health of personnel and the elution behaviour of the different components. However, in our
opinion it is more appropriate to look at the environmental issue from a broader perspective and to
consider for example:
• A total energy balance, including oven-drying of aggregates for the dry-mix process, transport of
aggregates, cements or mixes, consumption of compressed air and electricity etc. Further
evaluations are required to shed light on this issue.
• The elution of alkaline particles not only from the hardened concrete, but also from the rebound.
The latter is important, because the rebound is dumped within few hours after spraying and
probably exposed to rain water immediately.
For reference, the eluate content from hardened sprayed concrete produced with alkali-free
acceleration (either with accelerators or quick-cement) is given in the first line of Table 1. The
data are from Huber and Pichler (1998).
Kusterle and Eichler (1997) reported about elution tests on 7 days old rebound, which are listed
from, line 2 onwards.

Compared with the elution of hardened-sprayed concrete the values from rebound are very high.
Also, it has to be considered that the data come from seven days old rebound. Fresh rebound will
most probably have a different behaviour. On the other hand, the rebound is normally mixed with
excavation material in a ratio of between 1:20 and 1:100.

Following this concern, the “Institut für Baustofflehre und Materialprüfung” in Innsbruck has tested
the elution behaviour of dumped excavation material (unpublished), which showed that the
concentration of eluted chemicals was well below the relevant Austrian standards. However, the
thorough mixing of the rebound is not ensured, and it would be better to eliminate the problem at the
source, i.e. by minimizing the rebound.

Table 1: Elution data from hardened sprayed concrete and rebound from Huber and Pichler (1998) and Kusterle
and Eichler (1997)

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Sprayed concrete mix pH Conductivity Ca K Na Al
mS/cm mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l

Hardened sprayed concrete 11-18 8-18 3.5-5 0.7-1.1

Rebound with normal concrete 12.6 5.12 640 53 4.9 0.52

Rebound with quick-cement 12.62 5.54 610 59 5.0 0.56

Rebound from sprayed concrete

with aluminates based accelerators 12.65 4.97 530 134 5.6 1.6

Rebound from sprayed concrete

Alkali-free accelerators 12.74 5.32 590 65 4.8 0.65

Drinking water 6.5-8.5 20-200 10

4 CONFUSING CHEMISTRY: NON CAUSTIC / ALKALI-FREE

In the context of sprayed concrete accelerators, the actual meaning of the terms non caustic and alkali-
free are frequently mixed up. The reason for this is the dual meaning of alkaline in English
professional language. The term alkaline can be understood as:

1. A basic liquid (with a pH value in the range of 7 to 14). As an example, calcium oxide dissolved
in water produces a high concentration of OH ions and a pH value of about 13. This solution is
strongly basic (= alkaline), but it contains no alkali cations.
2. A solution containing alkali cations such as Na+, K+, Li+. An example is common salt dissolved in
water (sodium chloride solution). This solution contains alkali cations; its pH value, however, is
approx. 7, and it is therefore neutral.

Alkalinity and alkali content are two independent properties! For sprayed concrete accelerators the
term alkali-free should have only one meaning: The accelerator contains no (or below 1%) alkali
cations (see above, 2).

The reason to aim for this is that this will reduce the risk of alkali cations reacting with sensitive
minerals (dissolvable silica, SiO2) that are sometimes in the concrete aggregates. If such a reaction
takes place, aggregate grains will fracture due to expansion. This may have a detrimental effect on the
sprayed concrete matrix.

Most accelerators are strongly basic (pH value 12-14). This can be expressed as caustic, basic
aggressive or in some cases corrosive, however, the term alkaline should be avoided. There are also
examples of accelerators that are strong acids (pH value 0-2). This can be expressed as acidic,
aggressive or corrosive. The background for the importance of this property is working safety and
working environment.

Strong acids as well as strong bases can be dangerous to personnel because of their aggressive
behaviour upon contact with eyes, skin and the respiratory organs. The general terms to be used in
this relation are therefore near neutral (pH value 5-9) and aggressive (pH value 0-4 and 10-14).

Table 2: Corrosiveness: The pH scale

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0 < ------------------------------------------------------- 7 ---------------------------------------------------- > 14
acidic neutral basic (alkaline)

Aggressive/corrosive to: Not corrosive Aggressive/corrosive to:

Steel and Aluminium
Concrete not Eyes and skin
Eyes and skin aggressive Respiratory organs
Respiratory organs

Examples of pH values:
1 4 7 10 12 14
sulphuric acid, acetic acid water soda, cement sodium
hydrochloric ammonia milk hydroxide
acid Coca-Cola 2.5-3 (caustic soda)

5 NON CAUSTIC ALKALI-FREE ACCELERATORS IN LIQUID FORM

The increasing demand for accelerators for sprayed concrete termed alkali-free always contains one or
more of the following issues:

1. Reduction of risk of alkali-aggregate reaction, by removing the alkali content arising from the use
of the common caustic aluminates based accelerators.
2. Improvement of working safety by reduced aggressiveness of the accelerator in order to avoid
skin burns, loss of eyesight and respiratory health problems.
3. Environmental protection by reducing the amount of released aggressive and other harmful
components to ground water, from sprayed concrete and its rebound.
4. Reduced loss of sprayed concrete final strength, normally in the range of 15 to 50% with older
accelerator products.

The focus within different markets, regarding the above points, is variable. Where most sprayed
concrete is used for primary lining (in design considered temporary and not permanent), points 2 and
3 are the most important. When sprayed concrete is used for permanent structures, items 1 and 4
become equally important.

5.1 Requirements in different countries, examples

In some countries almost all sprayed concrete in tunnelling is defined as temporary and is disregarded
in the design of the permanent lining. The possible durability problems created by an alkali aggregate
reaction in the sprayed concrete are therefore not an issue. There is, however, a growing demand for
<< alkali-free >> accelerators, as legislation is being established, to improve working safety. In other
words, the real requirement is for non-aggressive accelerators.

In other countries the same use of sprayed concrete prevails, but there exist so far no regulation which
prohibit aggressive accelerators. Out of concerns for environmental protection (=ground water) the
authorities are, however, now requiring <<alkali-free>> accelerators. No additional high pH leaching
components other than cement shall be used. The real requirement is in this case for a non-aggressive
(highly irritant) accelerator.

There are also countries where most sprayed concrete in tunnelling is temporary from a design point
of view, but where, however, it is normal to require an <<alkali-free>> accelerator, i.e. non caustic
and containing no alkali cations to void aggressive leaching components and, frequently, to obtain a
limited allowed final strength reduction. Regarding personnel safety there exist so far no regulations
against aggressive products.

Sprayed concrete turning from temporary to final support. The practical situation in the above cases
is that of application directly at the tunnel face, mostly spraying on or through mesh reinforcement

139
and lattice girders or steel beams, working on small areas at a time and quickly applying layer
thickness of >150mm. A high early strength is often mandatory for safety reasons.

In the London subway tunnelling the normal procedure when using sprayed concrete lining is to first
apply a primary, temporary lining. So far there exist no regulations requiring the use of alkali-free
accelerators for this. However, because of the very good results with temporary wet-mix sprayed
concrete, the use of sprayed concrete also for the permanent lining is getting increased interest, as
described by Annett and Varley. To produce a high quality, durable concrete with marginal final
strength reduction, an <<alkali-free>> accelerator was required. In this case (Jubilee Line, contract
104), the primary purpose of an alkali-free accelerator was that of durability and hence no alkali
cations. Also at Heathrow Express tunnel the first section of permanent sprayed concrete lining with
alkali-free accelerator has been carried out. Especially in Scandinavia, but also more and more in
other areas, permanent sprayed concrete linings are being applied in a separate construction phase,
well behind the face area.

In Scandinavia the standard support solution can be termed as single-shell sprayed concrete lining or
one-pass sprayed concrete lining. This approach is clearly getting increased attention also in other
parts of the world. Basically, it means that the application of sprayed concrete at the face is carried
out under quality requirements allowing it to be considered as part of the final and permanent sprayed
concrete lining. <<Single shell>> means a single structure, which may well be produced in a number
of steps (at the face and behind). Road tunnels, railway tunnels, sub sea road and pipe tunnels, hydro
power tunnels, the Gjøvik Olympic ice hockey rink etc. are examples of this approach in Norway.

In Asia permanent sprayed concrete linings is accepted and utilized by designers since mid nineties.
Introduction of alkali-free accelerator and “state of the art” sprayed machine has gained confidence by
contractors, designers and clients.

In Hong Kong permanent sprayed concrete linings is a part of the design at the latest MTR and KCRC
tunnel projects.

In Singapore the method is getting acceptance. In the on-going and planned underground cavern
excavation projects, SFRS linings are an important part of the design and the key to cost effective
projects.

In the case of single-shell permanent sprayed concrete linings both of the two typical situations
described above apply. The basic difference is that the quality requirements are the same throughout
the construction. With alkali-free accelerator this requirement is met by using one type of accelerator.

5.2 MBT’s non caustic liquid alkali-free accelerators

MBT has made an important technology breakthrough with the launch of a range of liquid alkali-free
and non caustic accelerators for both wet-mix and dry-mix sprayed concrete.

MEYCO SA160 MEYCO SA161 MEYCO SA170

Physical form dispersion dispersion colloidal solution
Alkali cations <0.5% <0.5% <0.5%
pH value 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 3.0-3.5
Layer thickness 300mm 300-500mm 300-700mm
Dosage 4-10% 3-8% 3-7%
Early strength good very good extremely good
Equipment stainless stainless standard
Effect on skin not classified not classified not classified
Handling simple simple simple
Cement sensitive no no no

Test of cement reactivity of alkali-free set accelerators (according to “Sprayed Concrete for Rock
Support” Tom Melbye, August 8, 2000).

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Unlike most traditional accelerators, the alkali free and non caustic products from MBT cause no or
only minimal decrease in final strength. Requirements as demanded for HPS (durable sprayed
concrete), e.g. for single shell permanent sprayed concrete linings, can be met more easily. But the
most important innovation presented by the alkali-free accelerators launched by MBT is the safe
working environment. No more danger of skin burns for the operators.

5.2.1 In a cement paste

Equipment: mixing pot with rounded spatula, manual Vicat needle, stop-watch, testing cups)

1. 26-35 g of water
2. 1 g of Glenium T801 or similar superplasticizer
3. 100 g of cement
4. Mix very intensively until a homogeneous paste is obtained
5. Add 3-10 g of accelerator and mix of max. 5 sec
6. Immediately after mixing: fill up a test cup, place it under the manual Vicat needle and start
measuring the penetration
7. Record initial set (needle stops 1-2mm from the bottom of the cement mouse)
8. Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement mouse)

Interpretation of results:
Initial set <2 min <4 min >4 min
Final set <5 min <8 min >8min
Rating good acceptable not acceptable

5.2.2 In a mortar (according to EN-196-1):

Equipment: Hobbart mixer, manual Vicat needle, mortar prism forms

1. Pour 195 g of water into the mixer, add 2-6 g of plasticizer (Glenium T801 or similar) and 450g
of cement and stir for 30 sec
2. Add 1350 g of norm sand and mix for 30 sec
3. Mix at medium speed for 30 sec
4. Stop for 90 sec
5. Mix again for 30 sec
6. Check the flow of the mortar (according to EN 196-1). Required flow: 15-18cm. Adjust by
adding water, if necessary
7. Add 3-10% of accelerator and mix for max. 15 sec
8. Immediately after mixing: prepare the test prism
9. Fill the prism form on a vibration table to avoid bad compaction
10. Place it under the manual Vicat needle and start measure the penetration
11. Record initial set (needle stops 1-2mm from the bottom of the cement mouse)
12. Record final set (needle cannot penetrate into the cement mouse)
13. Measure the compressive strength at 6 hours and at 24 hours

Interpretation of results:
Initial set <2 min <2-5 min >5 min
Final set <6 min <8-13 min >13 min
6-hour strength 2.5-4 MPa 1-2.5 MPa <1 MPa
24-hour strength 18-25 MPa 10-18 MPa <10 MPa
Rating good acceptable not acceptable

6 EARLY STRENGTH

Early strength of sprayed concrete for rock support can be understood as the strength development
within the first 24 hours after its application. This time period will under most tunnelling conditions
cover the critical activities of drilling, blasting, mucking out and covering the next round with fairly

141
fresh-sprayed concrete in the roof. Furthermore, the initial seconds after application may be more or
less critical, if ground water is a problem, in rock bursting or squeezing conditions, or when the stand-
up time in the face area is extremely short.

From an application capacity point of view the immediate strength and the strength development
during the first hour determine if a high concrete output and the available application area will allow
continuous spraying, or not.

Safety, capacity and economy are key works in relation to the drive for high early strength.
Traditionally, the tools have been caustic aluminates or silicate based accelerator. Very high dosages
of the first type or extreme dosages of the last have solved a number of difficult situations. The
negative side has been a substantial loss in final strength and the hazardous working environment.
Especially the aluminates are very aggressive and dangerous for the personnel.

Alkali-free accelerators are now available that can give the required early strength, without the
disadvantages mentioned above. The typical strength development for MEYCO SA alkali-free
accelerators is 1 MPa strength increase per hour after the application.

7 FINAL STRENGTH

When using alkali-free accelerators, the final strength will normally be well above what is normally
necessary from a design point of view. When a high early strength is targeted along with good
pumpability, low rebound and disturbance free application, the required mix design will typically
produce a compressive strength of more than 40 MPa.

Rather than a typical strength loss at 28 days of 20 to 30% compared to concrete without accelerator
(as is obtained with the use of aluminate), the typical result with alkali-free accelerators would be a 5-
10% strength reduction on in situ concrete compared to reference concrete without accelerator.

Tests at the Melbourne City Link project gave 28-days strengths out of the mixer of 77 MPa, while
after spraying with a 8% dosage of MEYCO SA160, the strength was 75.4 MPa. This represents a
strength loss of only 2.1%.

Beyond 28 days the traditional technology may well show a further strength loss. With alkali-free
accelerators we have examples of substantial increase. From the Heathrow Express Tunnel the
increase was 12% from 28 to 120 days, and 18/5% from 28 to 90 days at tests for the Alp Transit
project in Switzerland.

With traditional aluminates based accelerators, the dosing rates would have a dramatic effect on final
strength. With a dosage of 3-5% the reduction could be limited to 20-30%. But with increasing the
dosage to 5-10% the strength would drop more than 50%.

With alkali-free accelerator the final strength will be maintained even with a high dosage. This gives
the operators the freedom to increase the dosage to be able to spray on water or were overbrake
require massive layers.

On the other hand the client can be sure that the actual in-situ strength and durability is not relying on
the operator skills.

In Hong Kong a trial series was carried out with dosing 4-6-8-12% of MBT alkali-free accelerator.
The difference in strength at 28 days using 4% and 12% alkali-free accelerator was approximately
15% with all cores well above the required strength, see figure 2.

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Dosage 8hrs Density 24hrs Density 3days Density 7days Density 28days
MEYCO strength strength strength strength strength
SA 160
MPa Kg/m3 MPa Kg/m3 MPa Kg/m3 MPa Kg/m3 MPa
4% 9 NA 21.7 2290 29.30 2320 37.5 2290 56.3
6% 13.1 NA 23.8 2260 30.2 2290 35.3 2290 52.5
9% 12.5 NA 25 2270 34.3 2280 51
12% 12.6 NA 21.3 2270 31.5 2270 47
Cube 38.5 2350 51.5 2360 69
strength
Plain
concrete

Basic mix design

OPC PFA MB-SF 10mm CRF Water W/C ratio Rheobuild
aggregate 561
400kg 60kg 40kg 500kg 1090kg 200 litre 0.40 8.3 litre

Accelerator Dosage vs Compressive Strength

60
Compressive

50 4%
Strength

40 6%
30
20 9%
10 12%
0
8hrs 3 days 7 days 28 days
Age

Figure 2: Panel trials with various dosage of alkali-free accelerator MEYCO SA160 (MBT & Redland Shotcrete
(HK)-not published)

The concrete density is a good indication of quality and durability. The typical values using alkali-
free products will be in the range of 2.25 to 2.45. Accelerators on aluminates or silicate basis will
typically produce lower densities.

8 EQUIPMENT: DOSING SYSTEMS

In sprayed concrete application poor equipment may ruin all the efforts made in composing a good
concrete mix design and other action taken to produce a high quality concrete. Poor equipment is one
of the reasons why designers hesitate to acknowledge sprayed concrete as an alternative for permanent
and durable tunnel linings. On the other hand, the same designers and specifiers are holding the keys
to a change in this situation. By specifying the required performance criteria for the equipment, worn-
out and outdated systems can be eliminated.

8.1 The wet-mix sprayed concrete pump

Tailor-made piston pumps for the wet-mix sprayed concrete application are gaining over conventional
concrete pumps. Today, the capacity of a wet-mix pump must be up to about 20 m3/h, but it must also
function well down to 25% of this capacity. The concrete flow must be pulsation-free as far as

143
possible. This means that the normal stop in the concrete flow as the pump switches between the
cylinders is not acceptable. In sprayed concrete application this will cause local overdosing of the
accelerator (layering effects), which leads to extra cost and poor quality.

The MEYCO Suprema pump has a very quick changeover between the cylinders. Electronic control
moves the cylinders asynchronously, so that the new delivery cylinder starts moving before the end of
the stroke of the active one. As a combined effect no interruption of concrete flow occurs at the
nozzle.

Sprayed concrete quality requirements are getting stricter, and to be able to control the quality it is
necessary to control the dosage of the accelerator. Integrated dosing systems, which are linked to the
concrete pump capacity, are more and more required. The most advanced current technology includes
accurate flow measurement and computer controlled dosing, see Figure 3. Under development is a
similar system where also the actual concrete flow will be continuously checked by a flow-metering
device.

Figure 3: Computer controlled accelerator dosage

8.1 Type of dosing system for alkali-free accelerators

Alkali-free accelerators are usually suspensions and therefore not all types of dosing pumps will work
properly. In order to achieve a good result, it is of the utmost importance to secure a constant and
adequate dosage. We recommend mono-screw type pumps and peristaltic pumps. Mono pumps are
standard in the TDC (Total Dosing Control) system of the MEYCO Suprema.

9 ECONOMY

The total cost of in-place applied wet-mix sprayed concrete consists of many parameters.
The mains cost factors are given in figure 4.

144
 9% 3%
4% 3%
3%
1%
7%

4%
26%

14%

11%
15%
C e m e n t (1 5 % ) S a n d /a g g re g a te (1 1 % )
Fib re s (2 6 % ) Ad m ixtu re s (4 % )
Acce le ra to rs (9 % ) C u rin g (3 % )
L a b o u r (3 % ) E q u ip m e n t (3 % )
W e a r co s ts e q u ip m e n t 1 % ) B a tch in g p la n t/b a tch in g co s ts (7 % )
R e b o u n d (4 % ) Tim e re la te d p ro je ct o ve rh e a d co s ts (1 4 % )

Figure 4: Costs factors

It is wrong as many claim that the costs for admixtures, and especially for alkali-free accelerators, are
the most expensive part of the sprayed concrete job and therefore cannot be used. This puts the wrong
focus on the process. People have no knowledge of the sprayed concrete process or how to control
project costs. Alkali-free accelerators account for less than 10% of the total applied steel fibre
reinforced wet-mix sprayed concrete costs. Of much more influence are rebound and capacity
(<<Time is money>>) in order to reduce application time and standstill of the excavation. In today’s
tunnelling industry money is saved by the speed of excavation.

The investment in the right mix design and the use of modern non caustic alkali-free accelerators can
be one of the most cost effective measures a contractor can take in order to reduce rebound, increase
capacity through ease of application, avoid health and safety risks and provide a durable solution for
the owner.

10 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES WITH SUCCESSFUL USE OF LIQUID NON CAUSTIC ALKALI-

FREE ACCELERATOR. CASE HISTORIES FROM INTERNATIONAL AND SINGAPORE
PROJECTS.

In Scandinavia hard rock tunneling has traditions since two centuries back. The first hydropower
tunnel was excavated in the 1880’s. Since the 1900 more than 2500 km of tunnels has been excavated
mainly by D&B method, mines excluded.

Robotic applied wet sprayed concrete was introduced in the late 70’s. The method allowed high
capacity rock support with required strength and durability. Steel Fiber Reinforced Sprayed Concrete
replaced steel sets, lagging and concrete linings as the final tunnel support system. Construction of
Hydro Powerhouses, oil & storage caverns and sport arena caverns would not have be feasible without
SFRSC as the final support system

The subsea tunnel that connects mainland Norway to the island of Mageroya the North CapeTunnel, is
a typical example were liquid alkali free accelerator replaced massive concrete linings as rock

145
support. The tunnel length is 4.5 km and the depth is 200 m below the Barents Sea. The rock
condition was in parts of the tunnel very poor with Q- values in the range of 0.001 to 0.1 (rock class G
and F).

The original design was temporary sprayed concrete and concrete linings in these areas. But short
advance rates and time-consuming insitu casting caused major program delays. Alkali-free
accelerators with high early strength and improved final strength and durability were introduced to the
project. This replaced the insitu concrete lining as the final support. The advance rates increased from
15 m week to 45 m week. The SFRSC had a typical early strength of 2 MPa at 1 hr, 30 MPa at 24 hr
and > 40 MPa at 28 days. The excavation was completed safe and without accidents in under extreme
difficult conditions on schedule and within budget.

In Hong Kong, with mountains covering more then half of the SAR, dense populated urban areas and
good quality rockmass HK has “ gone underground” with it’s infrastructure since the early 70’s.
Highways tunnels, rail tunnels, metro tunnels, cable tunnels, utility and storage caverns, altogether
more than 100 Km. Traditionally dry shotcrete was dominating the market. Stabilator/SKANSKA
introduced the wet spray method from Sweden in the late 80’s at the Shing Mun tunnel. Introduction
of SFRSC in replacement for wire-mesh reinforcement reduced the excavation cycle time from 14 to
6.5 hours. But on this stage sprayed concrete was only considered as temporary rock support.

Since introduction of the liquid alkali-free accelerators in the late 90’s the tunnel design are rapidly
changing. The first tunnel project to utilize SFRC, as final lining in certain sections was the MTR line
Airport express. In the ongoing KCRS and MTRC projects SFRSC has become an alternative to in-
situ concrete linings in areas with complex geometry. In this areas the final lining consist of sprayed
concrete as temporary support and smoothing layer, geotextile and PVC waterproofing membrane and
SFRSC linings at required thickness of 250 mm sprayed straight on the membrane. With modern
Spraymobiles and skilled operators this is no longer a practical problem. This method allows flexible
design and considerable program and cost savings for the client.

In Singapore, Singapore underground projects have in the past a tradition of using “dry sprayed”
concrete with caustic accelerator for temporary ground supports. This method sets obvious limitations
in terms of using sprayed concrete as a part of the final design.
1. MRT North East Line
Alkali-free accelerator was first used in Singapore in the MRT NEL project. Both dry –mix and
wet-mix sprayed concrete were used for temporary support in station works, tunnel eyes, shafts
etc. The environmental advantages and working safety was of great importance but also the high
early strength and improved final strength achieved made the alkali-free accelerator the preferred
system. The advance tunnel for the DTSS tunnel used dry-mix sprayed concrete and alkali-free
accelerator.

2. Bukit Timah Caverns

The first project to use alkali-free accelerator for final lining in Singapore is the Bukit Timah
Caverns. To meet the specification 35 MPa strength at 28 days, a mix design with the Glenium
technology and alkali-free accelerator was chosen. Glenium is the latest polycarboxylate <<
hyperplastisizer >> developed for high strength and durable concrete in bridges and
superstructures. Benefits with Glenium are good workability, extended open-time, low w/c ratio
and good durability. This property is important for sprayed concrete used in final linings.
Together with alkali-free accelerator the waste concrete and rebound is kept at a minimum level.
This combination proves to be a very cost-effective solution measured by total cost per m3
sprayed concrete. Improved durability is “added value” to the final lining.

3. Deep Tunnel Sewage System

All contracts in the ongoing DTSS project is using alkali-free accelerator. Two projects are
using wet-mix and the others are dry-mix. The requirement for the wet-mix is 35 MPa at cores
taken from the construction after 28 days. One contractor has also used this wet-mix design for
spraying on frozen ground. With references from several European projects concrete is applied
direct on the frozen soil at –300C. By using alkali-free accelerator the hydration heat will
develop rapidly and strength and durability will develop is per normal concrete.

146
4. Senoko-Gambas Cable Tunnel
The contractor for the first cable tunnel has decided to use alkali-free accelerator and wet-mix
sprayed concrete both for temporary and final lining.

Table 3: Typical mix designs using Sprayed Concrete in final design

Unit Scandinavia Hong Kong Singapore

Cement Kg/m3 520 400 470
Fly ash Kg/m3 - 60 -
Micro silica Kg/m3 20 40 20
Aggregates 0 – 10 mm Kg/m3 1700 1640 1550
Superplastiziser Kg/m3 7.0 10.0 -
Hyperplastiziser Kg/m3 - - 3.0
Hydration control Kg/m3 2.0 2.0 2.0
Internal curing Kg/m3 5.0 - -
Steel fibre Kg/m3 50 45 55
W/C + binder ratio 0.45 0.40 0.42
Slump Mm 200 – 220 200 180
Accelerator alkali-free MEYCO SA 160 % 8% 6% 5–7%
Rebound % <5% 5–7% < 5%
Strength: (actual on in-situ cores)
1 hr MPa 2 1 1
4 hrs MPa 7 6 5
24 hrs MPa 30 23 18
3 days MPa 35 30 25
7 days MPa 40 35 30
28 days MPa 50 50 45

11 CONCLUSIONS

With the introduction of liquid alkali-free accelerator, sprayed concrete is accepted and used in final
construction. With designing sprayed concrete similar normal concrete all the way from the mix
design to application, structural durability is not a concern for designers and clients.

Sprayed concrete will play an important role in developing underground facilities in Singapore. Large
span caverns are only reasonable ultilising the properties of sprayed concrete as rock support.

With the technology available and acceptance of the method by designers the possibilities for
underground excavation is almost unlimited.

REFERENCES

Tom Melbye, 8th Edition August 2000, “Sprayed Concrete for Rock Support”.
Annett, M. and Varley, N.J., “High performance sprayed concrete in London clay”. Proceedings
Second International Symposium on sprayed concrete for underground support, Gol, Norway,
September 1996.
Huber and Pichler, 1998, Kusterle and Eitchler 1997, Elution data from hardened sprayed concrete
and rebound
Report by Dipl. Ing. Markus Testor from the Irlahull Tunnel, 1979 and 1998, “dust measurements
were carried out in Scandinavia”

147
Effects of ground conditions on performance of
pressurised soft-ground tunnel boring machines
T.P. Seah, P.G. Ranjith, J. Zhao and A.M. Henfy
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

I.O. Williams
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Geological conditions play an important role during design and construction of
underground cavities and tunnels. In this paper, the performance of the tunnel boring machines
(TBMs) was evaluated for different geological conditions. An extensive literature review on over 100
case histories of tunnelling projects around the world was conducted. TBMs such as Earth Pressure
Balance Machine (EPBM), Slurry Shield Machine, Hard Rock TBM and Mixshield were considered
in this study. Results indicated that the applicability of the TBMs were closely related to the grain size
in soft ground tunnelling.
A comprehensive analysis of EPBM based on advance rate, thrust, torque and earth pressure of the
machine was studied for mixed ground conditions in Singapore. The study showed that when EPBM
approached mixed ground conditions, the thrust, torque and earth pressure requiring to balance the
excavation face increased significantly. The thrust reached a value which was 90% of its maximum
capacity and the EPBM was performing beyond its intended torque capacity.

1 INTRODUCTION

Geological factors essentially influence the choice of a particular tunnelling method and in some cases
govern the entire project. It follows that each tunnelling site calls for high orders of investigation,
evaluation and appreciation of the geological aspects of relevance to the tunnelling project. The
geological problems usually differ at each individual site and the type of difficulties experienced may
not necessarily be anticipated. It is almost impossible to predict in advance with certainty the ground
conditions that will be encountered along the line of the tunnel. Successful mechanised tunnelling
requires that the configuration of the machine be optimised to suit the ground conditions. If the
ground conditions that will be encountered are highly variable, machine design parameters cannot be
optimised in all conditions and compromises must often be struck to allow an acceptable performance
to be achieved in all ground conditions.

The aim of this paper is to discuss the effects of geological conditions on the selection of tunnel
boring machines and to evaluate their performance. For this case study, geological conditions and
tunnel boring techniques of over 100 tunnels around the world were investigated. The length and
diameter of selected tunnels varies from 0.5 to 10.0 km and 3.0 to 14.0 m, respectively.

From an extensive literature review on machine tunnelling, the advance rates achieved by Earth
Pressure Balance Machine (EPBM) and Slurry Shield Machine for various ground conditions are
summarised in Tables 1 and 2.

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Table 1. Advance rates achieved by EPBM
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Geological Features Performance References
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
clay average advance rate of 21m/day Estefania & Fernandez, 1996
clay average advance rate of 6m/day Fu, 1998
(best advance rate of 18m/day)
clay average advance rate of 240m/month Doran & Athenoux, 1998
sand average advance rate of 7m/day Mizuno, 1993
silty clay, fine sand average advance rate of 7.3m/day Yamamoto et al, 1995
silty clay, fine sand average advance rate of 10.6m/day Dietz, 1994
silty clay, clayey silt average advance rate of 15m/day Bretz, 1998
(best advance rate of 47m/day)
silty sand, silty clay average advance rate of 8.8m/day Rieker, 1992
(best advance rate of 19m/day)
sand, gravel average advance rate of 0.7m/hr Chiorboli et al, 1996
clay, silt, sand best advance rate of 112m/week Ow et al, 1998
clay, silt, sand best advance rate of 45m/week Chan et al, 1998
sandstone, siltstone, best advance rate of 49m/week Khong & Lim, 1998
mudstone
limestone, chalk, clay, best advance rate of 225 m/month Haack, 2000
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Table 2. Advance rates achieved by slurry shield machine

____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Geological Features Performance References
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
gravel, sand average advance rate of 140m/month Amet et al, 1996
clay, sand average advance rate of 10m/day Haack, 2000
clay, sand average advance rate of 12m/day Haack, 2000
sand best advance rate of 321m/month Morimoto & Kato, 1998
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2 SELECTION OF TUNNEL BORING MACHINES FOR SOFT GOUND

Through analysing over 100 case studies, the applicability of various soft ground machines in relation
to the grain size distribution is shown in Figure 1.

0.075 0.425 2.0 4.7 19 75 300 mm

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
Clay Silt Cobbles Boulders
Sand Gravel

Stone crusher required

Slurry Shield Machine

Disc cutter required

Earth Pressure Balance Machine (conditioners required with larger grain size)

MixShield

Figure 1. Applicability of TBM for various grain sizes

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The Earth Pressure Balance Machine operates well especially in fine-grained soil but requires the use
of conditioners in sandy and gravelly ground condition as shown in Figure 1. EPB machines are
usually fitted with disc cutters to break cobbles, boulders and soft rock. The slurry shield machine
performs better in sandy and gravelly soil but requiring the aid of stone crusher to break cobbles. The
MixShield is a recent development patented by Herrenknecht of Germany capable of excavation in
slurry, earth pressure balance, compressed air and open face mode by altering the equipment
configuration. It could be the instant solution for many tunnelling projects with mixed ground.
However, the use of Mixshield is still remote due to its high initial cost and is relatively newer to the
tunnelling world.

3 SELECTED CASE STUDIES

In this section, performance of EPBM for various tunnel projects including Storebaelt Eastern
Railway tunnel in Denmark, Passante Ferroviario Tunnel of Italy and North East Line of Singapore
are discussed.

3.1 Performance of EPBM in clay and silt (Storebaelt Eastern Railway Tunnel, Denmark)

Part of the Storebaelt Eastern Railway tunnel is discussed here. The section consists of a length of
7410 m with an excavated diameter of 7.7 m. The geology encountered during tunnelling is the Upper
Till and Lower Till of the quaternary age and consist of predominantly silts and clayey silts with
typical clay content of 5 % to 18 %. The Upper Till consists of very uniform silt and is also known as
"clay till" with 13 % to 18 % of clay content. The Lower Till has less clay content and is known as
"sand tills" and occurrence of clean medium sand could be found. In addition, fresh massive granitic
cobbles and boulders of up to 250 MPa compressive strength are present and these may exceed 3 m in
diameter.

During excavation in the Upper Till, the clay content present was sufficient for the EPBM to operate
in the open mode. The excavating face was stable enough to allow the machine to operate in the open
mode. In this mode, the chamber was maintained only at approximately 70 % full. Water was added
into the chamber to slurry the spoil and to minimise the cutter head torque. The EPBM experienced
more difficulties in the Lower Till ("sand till") region. The machine encountered water charged sand
bodies interbedded within the clay till. This resulted in ground lost into the cutterhead. The EPBM
was required to operate in closed mode, with the earth pressure in the chamber greater than the pore
water pressure in the sand bodies. At this stage, the hydrostatic pressure in the sand bodies was about
2.2 bar and earth pressure in the chamber was kept at 2.3 bar to 2.5 bar. In order reduce the cutter
torque which frequently exceeded the design limit, conditioners in the form of polymers were added
to stabilise the tunnel face. The EPBM was slowed down with a penetration rate of 5 mm/min.

The EPBM machine in this project was designed to break boulders which exceeded the capacity of a
normal slurry machine crusher system. However, it was found that because of the low shear strength
zone (less than 200 kPa) where the boulders were encountered, the boulders could not be easily
supported by the surrounding ground and became loose when cutting was in progress. Eventually,
hydraulic splitter had to be used to break the boulders.

This case study shows that the applicability of the EPBM in clay in which cohesion provides a
relatively stable excavation face as compared to the highly permeable sand layer.

3.2 Performance of EPBM in diluvial sand and gravel layer (Passante Ferroviario of Milano, Italy)

The total length of the tunnel to be excavated by the EPBM is approximately 4000 m and the
overburden varies from 4 m to 16 m. The excavation diameter is 8.0 m. Milano subsoil is made up of
fluvioglacial sandy and gravely alluvial deposits with dense to very dense sand deposits and gravel.
The grain size distribution is shown in Table 3.

150
Table 3. Grain size distribution of Milano subsoil
_________________________________________________
Diameter (mm) Percentage (%)
_________________________________________________
less than 0.074 20
more than 2.0 76
more than 10.0 20
_________________________________________________

The unit weight of the soil is 18 kN/m3 and the porosity varies from 33 % to 38 %. The presence of
quartzes also makes the soil abrasive. Results from the triaxial test indicated that the friction angle
was between 35 and 40°.

Given the low overburden to only 4 m and the poor characteristic of the soil, handling the problem of
settlement was deemed to be crucial. The EPBM was driven through the ground with the aid of
injection conditioning agents at the front, together with the continuous filling of the void between the
segment ring lining. The use of earth pressure was also required to provide stability and to control
settlement. In order to minimise risk of settlement, appropriate stabilisation pressure was applied to
balance the excavation face. However, if the applied pressure was kept too large, the machine
productivity would go down and a surface uplift might occur.

For the entire drive, the settlement was contained in the range of 1.1 to 14.8 mm. The average value is
7.02 mm. Depending on the amount of overburden, an average of 12 rings could be erected in a day.
Considering the type of soil and the small overburden, the achieved results were considered
satisfactory.

4 PERFORMANCE OF EPBM IN MIXED GROUND

4.1 Introduction

The North East Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Line is designed to be an effective form of public
transport to serve the needs of the North East sector of Singapore. The 20 km North East Line (NEL)
is predominantly underground, comprising of 16 stations and a depot. Civil construction of the NEL is
divided into 12 contracts. The focus of this discussion is confined to Contract 710 (C710). This
contract includes the construction of four bored tunnels. The 2.1 km twin bored tunnels from Outram
Park Station to World Trade Centre Station are the longest tunnel drives on NEL. The other section of
the tunnel that runs from Outram Park Station to Chinatown (CNT) Station measures 400 m long. The
selected machine used in this drive is an Earth Pressure Balance Machine (EPBM) manufactured by
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (I.H.I). This length of the tunnel consists of mixed ground
condition and the performance of the machine through the varied ground will be discussed below.

4.2 Geotechnical Profile along the tunnel route

Geology of the tunnel route from Outram to CNT Station comprises of the Jurong Formation which
are mainly moderately weathered and highly weathered zone of sandstones, siltstones and mudstone.
Figure 2 shows part of the geological profile where mixed ground conditions are encountered towards
the end of the drive. Inflow of water varies from a completely dry face to flow of 1.5 litres/min.

The engineering properties of the Jurong Formation and the residual soil are listed in Table 4.

151
Figure 2. Geological Profile showing mixed ground conditions

Table 4. Properties of residual soils of Jurong Formation

__________________________________________________________________________________
Properties Range
__________________________________________________________________________________
Natural water content (%) 15 - 45
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.8 - 2.2
Specific density 2.6 - 2.8
Liquid limit (%) 28 - 60
Plastic limit (%) 14 - 36
Permeability (m/s) 10-6 - 10-9
Compression index 0.1 - 0.6
Cohesion (kPa) 0 - 40
Angle of internal friction (°) 24 - 40
__________________________________________________________________________________

The residual soils formed from the Jurong Formation are mainly cohesive and their consistency is
generally stiff to hard. They consist of interbedded layers of clayey silt and sandy clay of medium
plasticity and clayey to silty sand.

The marine clay at the tunnel alignment has permeability in the range of 10-10 to 10-9 m/s. The
unconfined compressive strength is 0.02 MPa with an Over-Consolidated Ratio (OCR) of
approximately 1.7 (Zhao et al, 1999). In general, the unconfined compression strength of the ground
along the tunnel route has been summarised as given in Table 5 (Khong and Lim, 1999).

Table 5. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) along tunnel route

__________________________________________________________________________________
Geological Type UCS (MPa)
__________________________________________________________________________________
Marine clay 0.02
Completely weathered zone 2.94
Highly weathered zone 9.8
Moderately weathered zone 59.8
__________________________________________________________________________________

152
For preventing the ingress of water through the segment joints, Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
(EPDM) gaskets are installed near the external edge of the segment joint with hydrophilic sealing
strips nearer to the internal edge. The EPDM gasket and the hydrophilic strip are designed to
withstand up to 4 bars of water pressure. Precast concrete tunnel lining is used in this project.

4.3 Performance of EPBM

The discussion here is limited to on the portion of the tunnel where the EPBM drives from the
moderately weathered zone of Jurong Formation to the mixed geological condition consisting of
marine clay, highly weathered and residual soil of the Jurong Formation. This portion covers a range
from ring no. 220 to ring no. 320, which is about 120m in length. The EPBM drove through
approximately 40 m of mixed ground condition before reaching the end of the drive at the Chinatown
Station. Figure 3 shows the performance chart of the EPBM. The average results are summarised
below in Table 6.

Table 6. Performance of EPBM at different ground conditions

Ground Conditions Marine clay / Residual
Moderately weathered Moderately weathered/
soil / Highly
Parameters Zone Highly weathered zone
weathered zone
1000 1500 2500
Torque (kNm)
(1750) (2750) (3500)
1000 1250 2000
Thrust (Ton)
(1250) (1500) (2500)
0.02 0.07 0.225
Earth Pressure (MPa)
(0.025) (0.125) (0.325)
Penetration Rate 25 20 15
(mm/min) (45) (40) (20)
80 90 110
Cutterhead Current (Amp)
(90) (125) (150)
Note:
(i) Figures in brackets indicate average peak values attained by the machine.
(ii) Cutterhead has an average RPM value of 2.

153
 CNT North Bound - Thrust Values CNT North Bound - Torque Values
Thrust(Ave)
Torque(Ave)
3000 Thrust(Max) 4500 Torque(max)
4000
2500
3500

Torque(KNm)
2000 3000
Thrust(Ton)

2500
1500
2000

1000 1500
1000
500
500

0 0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Ring No. Ring No.

CNT North Bound - Earth Pressure Values CNT North Bound - Penetration Rate
Pressure(Ave)
0.45 Pressure(Max) 120 Penetration Rate(Ave)
0.4 Penetration Rate(Max)
100
0.35
Earth Pressure(MPa)

Penetration Rate(mm/min)

0.3 80

0.25 60
0.2
40
0.15
0.1 20
0.05
0
0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340
220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Ring No.
Ring No.

CNT North Bound - Cutterhead Current Values CNT North Bound - Soil Conditioner

50
Current(Ave)
180 Current(Max) 45

160
Cutterhead Current (Amp)

40
Soil Conditioner Vol(m3)

140 35

120 30

100 25

80 20

60 15

40 10

20 5

0 0
220 240 260 280 300 320 340
220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Ring No.
Ring No.

Figure 3. Performance chart of EPBM

It was observed that the torque, thrust and earth pressure, increased significantly as the machine
approached the mixed ground condition. The lowest thrust was applied in the moderately weathered
zone with an average of 1000 ton. This was about 35% of the design maximum capacity. As the
EPBM drove through the moderately weathered/highly weathered zone, the thrust applied by the
EPBM increased to 1250 ton. In the marine clay region, the thrust reached an average value of 2000
ton, which was almost 90% of the maximum capacity at this stage. The cutter torque also indicated an
increasing trend from average values of 1000 kNm to 2500 kNm, with a maximum average value of
3500 kNm at the marine clay region. This implies that the EPBM is performing beyond its intended
torque capacity of 2930 kNm.

154
The face earth pressure is observed using earth pressure gauges located on the bulkhead of the
cutterhead chamber. At moderately weathered zone, the earth pressure in the bulkhead was kept at
0.02 MPa. This value is lower than the actual pressure required to balance the excavating face. This is
because the machine is driven through a more stable and competent ground condition and it is not
necessary to balance the full face pressure. As a result, the EPBM can achieve a greater advance rate.
However, it was observed that earth pressure increased significantly to 0.225 MPa while the machine
was driven through the mixed ground region. The machine at this point maintained a full face pressure
with the ground. The penetration rate decreased from 25 mm/min to 15 mm/min.

The volume of conditioner increased from an average of 10 m3 to 25 m3 at the mixed face region. The
increase in usage of conditioner is because of the more stringent control required to balance the
pressure of the mixed face. The conditioner injected through the bulkhead into the chamber creates a
slurry material. The slurry formed is pressurised by the thrust of the machine and this pressure is
distributed over the excavation face to oppose the pressure of earth and water in the ground. The
increase usage of conditioner is also due to the injection of conditioner into the ground through the
cutterhead ports. This acts to reduce the cutter torque which was already reaching its maximum.

CNT North Bound - Daily Rings Built Progress

10

8
Ring No. 221

7
Mixed Ground Region
6
No.of Rings

Completion:
5 Ring No. 329

0
2-Dec-99
7-Nov-99

12-Nov-99

17-Nov-99

22-Nov-99

27-Nov-99

Time (Dates)

Figure 4. Daily ring built progress

155
 CNT NB Cycle Time Per Completed Ring CNT NB Cycle Time Per Completed Ring
Week No: 10, 08/11/99 - 14/11/99
Average time taken for each ring completion: 227 min Week No: 11, 15/11/99 - 21/11/99
Total ring built for the week: 38 Average time taken for each ring completion: 234 min
Total ring built for the week: 43
Direct Direct
Interuption Shove Time Interuption Shove Time
17% 57% 14% 58%
(38 min) (131 min) (33 min) (135 min)

Ring Build Time

Ring Build Time
28%
26%
(66 min)
(58 min)

CNT NB Cycle Time Per Completed Ring CNT NB Cycle Time Per Completed Ring

Week No: 12, 22/11/99 - 28/11/99 Week No: 13, 29/11/99 - 01/12/99
Average time taken for each ring completion: 585 min Average time taken for each ring completion: 393 min
Total ring built for the week: 16 Total ring built for the week: 11
Shove Time Direct
34% Interuption
16% Shove Time
(197 min)
(63 min) 70%
(274 min)

Direct
Interuption Ring Build Time
53% 13% Ring Build Time
(315 min) (73 min) 14%
(56 min)

Figure 5. Cycle time per completed ring for weeks 10 - 13

The daily ring built progress decreased from an average of 6 rings to zero ring built when the EPBM
first encountered the mixed ground. Following that, the EPBM achieved an average of only 3 rings
built daily. The average time and motion analysis for a ring completion of the EPBM for weeks 10 to
13 is given in Figure 5. At week no. 12 where the EPBM was in mixed ground, there was a significant
increased in weekly direct interruption to 53% as compare to the previous average of 35%. The
average time taken for each ring built also increased to 585 mins.

4.4 Discussion

The significant decrease in the performance of EPBM in mixed ground condition was clearly seen in
this case study. The performance of the EPBM decreases significantly when a mixed face geological
condition was encountered. Balancing the full face pressure of the excavating face was not required in
the moderately weathered zone of the Jurong Formation. However as the EPBM approached the
mixed face, the earth pressure in the chamber was increased to that of the excavating face in order to
stabilised the excavating face.

A slower advance rate and longer ring building time was observed at the mixed ground region. The
average ring built time decreased from an average of 6 rings per day to 3 rings per day. The machine
was pushed to its design maximum with the cutter torque exceeding the specification. The use of more
conditioning was required in order to form slurry in the chamber to balance the face and to reduce the
cutter torque.

156
It was shown in this case example that the EPBM was pushed to its maximum limit when tunnelling
through the mixed ground region. Prudent operation of the machine was deemed crucial especially in
such ground conditions.

5 CONCLUSION

The use of EPBM operation is limited by specific soil properties. The soil grain distribution,
uniformity, plasticity, water content and permeability are parameters of decisive influence on the
properties of the support medium. Operation of an EPBM is normally unsuitable in sandy and gravelly
ground condition where the water permeability is high and inflow to the machine is large. To
overcome this problem, conditioners in the form of polymers could be added through injection ports
on the cutterhead to stabilise the tunnel face.

The slurry shield machine is better at excavating in sandy ground. The reason being that the machine
makes use of bentonite slurry to support the face. The bentonite slurry is constantly circulated
between the chamber and the separation plant. The main disadvantage of using a slurry shield is the
relatively complex procedure for the circulation of the slurry and the need for a separation plant at the
ground surface. In slurry shield tunnelling, excavated material is transported hydraulically through a
transport pipe to the slurry separation plant where screening of the excavated material takes place. It is
technically difficult to separate fine grain clay from the slurry, the use of slurry shield machine is very
often limited to larger grain size soil. The disposal of slurry is a difficult problem that has to be dealt
with as well.

Findings of the study show that for the slurry shield machines, in zones with predominantly fine
grains and non-cohesive soils, separation of the soil from the bentonite slurry were of major concerns.
For EPBM in coarse grain gravel with high permeability, the major issue was maintaining face
stability.

REFERENCES

Amet, J. C., Guibert, G. & Schwenzfeier, A. 1996. Shield-experience on line D Lyon metro. Ozdemir (ed.), North
American Tunneling'96: 27-33.
Biligin, N., Balci, C., Tuncdemir, H., Eskikaya, S., Akgul, M. & Algan, M 1999. Performance prediction of a
TBM in difficult ground condition. JOURNESS D'ETUDES INTERNATIONALES DE PARIS: 115-121.
Bretz, H. 1998. Challenges in Tunnel Engineering in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the 5th International
Symposium on Tunnel, Tunnel Construction: 73-82.
Chan, B.B., Chan, K.M., Chan, K,S. & Song, T,W. 1998. Prediction of ground settlement caused by tunnelling
through old alluvium and the initial measurement. International Conference for Tunnels and Underground
Structures.
Chiorboli, M. A. & Marcheselli, P. P. 1996. Analysis and control of subsidence due to Earth Pressure Shield
tunnelling in Passante Ferroviario of Milano. Ozdemir (ed.), North American Tunneling'96: 97-106.
Dietz, W. 1994. EPB-shield tunnelling for Taipei Metro, contract 201A. TUNNELLING'94.
Dolcini, G., Fuoco, S. & Ribacchi, R. 1996. Performance of TBMs in complex rock mass. Ozdemir (ed.), North
American Tunneling'96: 145-154.
Doran, S, R. & Athenoux, J. 1998. Storebaelt tunnel-Geotechnical aspect of TBM selection and operation. Jr.
Negro, & Ferreira (eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 761-768.
Drake, J. & Johansen, E, D. 1993. Hard rock boring at the Svartisen hydroelectric project. H. Burger (ed.),
Options for Tunnelling 1993: 561-573.
Estefania, S. & Fernandez, A. 1996. The Pasillo Verde Ferroviario at Madrid. Ozdemir (ed.), North American
Tunneling'96: 165-171.
Finnsson, S. 1994. Two tunnel-boring machines for Lesotho: a design and case history. TUNNELLING'94: 163-
177.
Fu, D. 1998. The construction technique and the control of ground settlement of EPB shield in Shanghai. Negro,
Jr. & Ferreira (eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 799-804.
Haack, A. 2000. Tunnelling Technologies for the 3rd Millennium.

157
Herrenknecht, M. 1998. New developments in large-diameter tunnel design, manufacture and utilisation for
world-wide projects. Jr. Negro, & Ferreira (eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 869-875.
Innaurato, N., Mancini, R., Rondena, E. & Zaninetti, A. 1993. Hydraulic tunnel excavation by TBM in schist: the
effect of rock variabilty, as monitored by the machine instruments. H. Burger (ed.), Options for Tunnelling
1993:539-546.
Khong, V.P. & Lim, B.H. 1998. Bored Tuunnel Design and Construction World Trade Centre to Chinatown.
International Conference for Tunnels and Underground Structures.
Mizuno, K. 1993. Large cross section tunnel excavation by chemical foam injection EPM shield. H. Burger (ed.),
Options for Tunnelling 1993: 401-410.
Morimoto, M. & Kato, I. 1998. Bore through the 2335 meter railway shield tunnel without a change of cutter bit-
Recording the advance of 321 meter per month. Jr. Negro, & Ferreira (eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 775-
780.
Nishioka, K. & Aoki, K. 1998. Rapid tunnel excavation by hard rock TBM in urban areas. Jr. Negro, & Ferreira
(eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 655-661.
Ow, C.N., Sigil, O., Moussy, P. & Rieker, K. 1998. MRT NEL C706, Jet-Grouting below Race Course Road.
International Conference for Tunnels and Underground Structures.
Rieker, K. 1992. Inner city soft ground EPB-tunnelling MRT C201A and CP264, Taipei, Taiwan. C, V, J. Varma
& A, R, G. Rao (eds), Tunnelling Asia'97: 223-232.
Smith, I, M & Ichikawa, H, H. 1993. Construction of Hong Kong's First TBM driven tunnels. H. Burger (ed.),
Options for Tunnelling 1993: 509-518.
Tseng, Y, Y., Tsai, H, C., Tseng, C, T. & Chu, B. 1998. The Pinglin eastbound mechanised tunnelling. Jr. Negro,
& Ferreira (eds), Tunnels and Metropolises: 787-792.
Yamamoto, A., Saito, K. & Chang, M, H. 1995. Shield tunnelling in soft ground excavated under existing
buildings with EPB machine in Taiwan. South East Asian Symposium on Tunnelling and Underground Space
Development, Japan Tunnelling Association: 223-232.

158
TBM selection for control of water ingress and face
stability for tunnelling in the widest range of geological
conditions
I McFeat-Smith
IMS Tunnel Consultancy Ltd, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the selection of TBMs for hard rock, mixed face and soft ground
conditions with potentially high water inflows, often within a single tunnel drive. TBM types
discussed are open type hard rock with advance probing and grouting; the new range of sophisticated
double shielded TBM; and dual mode EBPMs.
Field performance data in extreme mixed face conditions and for sub-aqueous crossings are presented
in terms of advance rates, utilization rates and relative costs achieved on a range of projects throughout
Asia. The prediction, site management and effect on productivity of machines encountering major
water inflows is highlighted.
Issues of maintaining acceptable levels of settlement and avoiding collapses to street level in urban
areas are discussed together with the advantages and limitations of using earth pressure in comparison
with slurry systems. A new, empirical method of selecting face control systems that can also be used
for risk analysis is presented.

1 INTRODUCTION

The recent introduction and widespread use of TBM tunnelling into Asian Markets, most evident in
Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines and China has given rise to a dramatic fall in the cost of bored
tunnelling. This has led to the undertaking of a series of highly ambitious projects where TBMs are
employed to excavate through soft ground, extreme mixed face conditions and hard rock often with
potentially high water inflows in mountainous, sub-aqueous and intensely developed urban areas.

Results being achieved from such installations vary from being highly successful to disastrous,
sometimes on adjacent sites, highlighting the need for improved site investigation, planning and better
methods of selecting machines for the specific ground conditions encountered.

Experience and data is drawn in this paper from a very wide range of projects, geological conditions
and TBM types as identified in Table 1. In order to maintain confidentiality these projects are not
necessarily referred to in the text.

2 TBMs FOR HARD ROCK TUNNELLING

2.1 Selection of TBMs based on advance rates and costs

A series of case histories of successful applications of open type and double shielded TBMs types in
hard rock of UCS strengths up to 460 MPa have been presented by McFeat-Smith (1998); and McFeat-
Smith, Grandori and Concillia, (1999).

159
Table 1. TBM Project List
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Project Location Geology TBM

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Strategic Sewage Hong Kong Sub-aqueous & Urban; Open Type
Disposal Scheme Volcanic Tuffs, Granites 3 – 5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tai Po to Butterfly Hong Kong Mountainous Open Type

Valley Aqueducts Tuffs, Granitic 3 – 5 m diam
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tolo Effluent Hong Kong Mountainous Double Shielded

Export Scheme Granitic 3 – 5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Silvermine Bay Hong Kong Mountainous Double Shielded

Aqueduct Tuffs, Granitic 3 – 5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

KCRC DB320 Hong Kong Urban Dual Mode

West Rail Granitic, Mixed, Soft 8.75 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Kai Tak Sewage Hong Kong Urban Dual Mode Slurry

Transfer Scheme Granite, Mixed, Soft 5.6 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MRT NEL Singapore Urban EPBM

Contract 704 Granite, Mixed , Soft 6.5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MRT NEL Singapore Urban EPBM

Contract 705 Old Alluvium, Marine 6.5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MRT NEL Singapore Urban EPBM

Contract 710 Soft, Mixed, Sedimentary 6.5 m diam
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Powergrid Singapore Sub-aqueous, Karst Dual Mode

Cable Tunnel Soft, Mixed, Sedimentary 6.0 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Deep Tunnel Singapore Urban EPBM

Sewage Scheme Old Alluvium 6-7 m diam
T-01 to 4
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

DTSS Singapore Urban EPBM

T-5 to 6 Soft, Mixed, Granites 4-6 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Casecnan Power Philippines Mountainous Double Shield

Tunnel Sedimentary, Volcanic 5.0 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Umiray-Angat Philippines Mountainous Double Shield

Power Tunnels Sedimentary, Volcanic 5.0 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Guangzhou Metro, China Urban EPBM

Line 2 Soft, Mixed, Sedimentary 6.5 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

New Wu Chieh Power Taiwan Mountainous Open Type

Slates 6.0 m diam
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Melen Aqueduct Turkey Subaqueous & Urban Shielded

Bosphorous Crossing Sedimentary, Karst 6.0 m diam
_______________________________________________________________________________________

160
From this database and other projects, Figure 1 has been drawn up to highlight typical advance rates
achieved against the full range of IMS ground classes (McFeat-Smith, 1998) for open type, double
shielded and dual mode hard rock TBMs.

In simplified terms the conditions represented by IMS ground classes are listed below:-
IMS Ground Class Geological Condition
1 Massive, few joints
2 Favourable rock
3 Moderately fractured or weathered
4 Highly fractured or weathered
5 Fault zones or completely weathered rock
6 Soil conditions

The pattern of peak performance of open type TBMs in IMS classes 1 and 2 is logical, this falling off
rapidly as the ground condition deteriorates and heavier support measures are required. Double
shielded TBMs, in comparison, achieve their peak performance in more fractured rock masses (class
3) and give better performance in poorer rock mass conditions due to the use of the TBM shield and
segment erecting facility.

The pattern of advance rates against ground conditions for the dual mode hard rock TBM is similar to
that of the double shielded TBM. Advance rates are subdued by access constraints, particularly for
interventions for cutter changes but are very high in favourable soil conditions where no mixed face or
boulder conditions are experienced.

The pattern of relative costs / m of tunnel for excavation and support costs for different IMS classes
shown below this (for the double shielded TBM only) varies unsympathetically when plotted against
the advance rates, this after residual set-up costs have been accounted for. This pattern is similar for
most tunnelling methods.

From the data provided in Figure 1 it is evident that the selection of TBM type for a particular rock
tunnel can be based upon establishing the expected ground conditions (rock hardness to assess
instantaneous penetration rates and IMS ground class to predict utilization) and predicting TBM
advance rates and costs.

A notably more advanced approach to TBM selection was adopted by GLF/SELI for the 13.2 km long,
4.88 m diameter water tunnel driven from a single portal using a purpose designed, double shielded
Robbins TBM including:-
• high cutterhead power (1890 kw)
• high torque (2,367 knm)
• variable frequency drive
• shield diameters progressively reduced from front to rear to cope with converging ground
• a telescopic shield design allowing opening up of the shield to access rock close to the tunnel face
• a back up system designed to be compatible with the TBMs capabilities
• use of honeycomb precast segments to allow simultaneous excavating and lining installation.

As described by McFeat-Smith (2000) and (Grandori) 2001 the tunnel was driven through a series of
poorly investigated, water bearing, volcanic / sedimentary terrain with over 1000 m cover, high insitu
stresses and major fault zones.

For the first 5 km the TBM was serviced by helicopter for transportation of parts and construction
materials.

Several major fault / collapse zones were encountered requiring special support measures facilitated by
a layout allowing direct access through the TBM cutterhead.

161
 30

20
TYPICAL Open
ADVANCE Type
RATES Hard
M / DAY 10 Advance Rock
Ground
Treatment Treatment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

30

20
TYPICAL Double
ADVANCE Shielded
RATES Hard
M / DAY 10 Rock

Treatment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

30

Open Mode Closed Mode

20
TYPICAL Dual
ADVANCE Mode
RATES Hard Rock
M / DAY 10 EPBM

Treatment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

30

20
RELATIVE Double
COSTS / M Shielded
OF TUNNEL Hard
(for excavation 10 Rock
& support only)
Treatment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

I M S GROUND CLASSIFICATION

Figure 1. Typical advance rates and relative costs for 5 – 6 m diameter open type, double shielded and dual
mode TBMs

162
Severe convergence also occurred, in competent rock, requiring excavation by hand through the
telescopic shield to free the cutterhead in several locations.
High inflows of up to 200 lt / sec with cumulative inflows of over 850 lt / sec had to be managed on
site by means of diverting inflows.

The hard rock tunnel was excavated in 24 months at an average of advance (including all events) of
528 m / month. This was achieved by:-
• use of an advanced, specifically designed double shielded TBM and back up system, and
• using a well organised and motivated management and labour force.

3 WATER INFLOW ISSUES

3.1 Prediction

Prediction of water inflows into rock tunnels depends upon the local topography and geology, and
from work by McFeat-Smith, McKean and Waldmo (1998) depends upon:-
• The size of the water source (including catchment zones within adjacent hillsides)
• The head of water above the tunnel
• The horizontal separation between the water source and tunnel
• The recharge to the water source
• The degree of joint openness

Patterns of water inflow in individual tunnels have been found to be relatively consistent against IMS
rock classes as illustrated on Figure 2. The inflow data in each class have been averaged over some 5
kms of tunnel. The general trend is logical in that water inflows increase with the degree of fracturing
in rock masses and, in the case of IMS rock class 5 fault zones may be filled with relatively
impermeable gouge materials or in weathered rock zones with clayey materials. Hence from a
combination of assessed IMS classes, permeability testing, and the hydro-geological factors mentioned
above it is often possible for an experienced engineering geologist to build up a reasonably accurate
estimate of water inflows into rock tunnels. Clients should nevertheless appreciate that this is an
imprecise art and that anomalies may occur.

3.2 Management of Water Inflows

Whenever possible, rock tunnels in potentially wet conditions (particularly sub-aqueous) should be
driven up-gradient, as the cost of transfer using pipelines, pumping, emergency back-up facilities and
maintenance of rolling stock can be considerable for down-gradient drives.

On the Hong Kong SSDS project extensive advance probing and grouting was undertaken in
extremely strong granites and tuffs at 10 – 11 bar water pressure to meet strict water-tightness
specifications (Grandori, Concillia and Nardone, 2001). For example an increase in total inflow rate
from about 3 to 10 lt / min / m resulted in more than 70% reduction in TBM utilization as illustrated in
Figure 3, which again has been averaged from data averaged over some 5 kms of tunnel.. Overall, a
utilization of 33% was achieved in non-sensitive tunnel sections on Contract DC / 96 / 17 compared
with 14% in sensitive urban areas. Nevertheless high settlements (up to 800 mm) were recorded on
site.

Experience gained also demonstrated that post-excavation grouting was of little value until the tunnel
lining could be installed in that no containment system existed to prevent water inflows transferring to
other parts of the tunnel. Conclusions to be drawn from this are-
• the use of EPB or slurry machines would not have been practical for this project as full hydrostatic
pressures were realised on site.
• advance grouting ahead of advancing hard rock TBM drives has a major impact on performance
and achieves uncertain or detrimental results
• post excavation grouting prior to lining installation is likely to be ineffective

163
 50
SUBAQUEOUS TUNNEL
DRIVEN IN VOLCANIC TUFFS

40
WATER
INFLOW
RATE
(lt / min / m)
30

20

LAND-BASED TUNNEL
DRIVEN IN
10 TUFFS AND GRANITES

0 1 2 3 4 5
I M S ROCK CLASS

Figure 2. Water inflow pattern in massive igneous rocks

20
TBM
UTILIZATION
%

15

10

0 20 40 60 80 100
Total Water Inflow Rate (lt/min/m)

164
• the high settlements monitored were related as much to the total water inflows into the tunnel as
the thickness and sensitivity of the overlying soils.
• the early installation of a watertight lining, albeit from a non-watertight shielded TBM, would
have greatly reduced the overall water inflows and hence the high settlements encountered.

4. TBM FACE PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Whilst many pipejacking slurry applications have been undertaken, with major applications of slurry
machines in Japan and for the Sydney Airport Link, experience to date in S.E.Asia has been mainly
with EPB systems. This being largely due to concerns about cost and the lack of space for soil
separation facilities.

4.1 Mixed Face Conditions

EPBM applications in extreme mixed face conditions have taken place in Hong Kong and Singapore in
extremely strong granitic type rocks overlying completely weathered granite and other soils as
illustrated previously in Table 1.

Table 2 provides a rationalisation of this experience in a range of IMS ground classes and mixed
granite face conditions for a 7.5 m diameter hard rock EPBM operating in a closed mode using
compressed air or even grouting to facilitate disk cutter interventions. The very high downtime
necessary to achieve cutter changes at 2 – 3 bar compressed air pressures are evident as are the löwer
rates of advance in mixed face conditions.

Table 2. Typical Tunnel Advance Rates for 7.5 m Diameter EPBm Operating in Closed Mode
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

IMS Ground Classes Mixed

TBM Activity 1–2 3 4 5 6 Faces
Competent (Fractured) (Faults) (Favourable >30% Rock
granite Soils)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Delays for Segments % 6 8 10 12 14 8

Cutter Interventions % 45.9 43.1 43.3 34.8 32 40.6
Downtime for Soil Disposal % 8 9 10 11 12 13
TBM % Maintenance / Probing 8 9 10 11 12 13
Survey / Water / Ventilation % 3 4 5 5 6 7
TBM Utilization % 29.1 26.9 19.7 26.2 24.0 18.4
Instantaneous Penetration Rate (m/hr) 1.5 2.0 2.3 1.9 4.0 2.0
Advance Rate (m/week – 120 hr/week) 52.4 64.6 54.4 59.7 115.2 44.3
____________________________________________________________________________________________________

High rates of advance are however achieved in soils without boulders. In sedimentary terrain higher
rates of advance is achieved using EPBMs with similar power and torque, and would also be expected
using slurry systems due to reduced delays for cutter interventions.

4.2 Ground movement and control issues

Settlement is an inevitable consequence of tunnelling works and could be in the order of 100 - 120 mm
in close vicinity of deep cut and cover tunnels. For the Hong Kong MTR compressed air tunnels
ground settlement measured directly above the tunnel line in the order of 50 mm was not uncommon.
Settlements recorded above EPB tunnels driven in Singapore and Hong Kong are listed below.

165
Table 3. Maximum ground settlements recorded directly above 6.5 -9m diam EPB tunnels
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Strata Settlement in mm
Range Average
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Old Alluvium -6 to 18 8
Mixed Marine / Old Alluvium 25 to 67 44
S2 & S4 Sedimentary 10 to 28 20
Mixed faces S2 / S4 14 to 42 30
Completely weathered granite (CWG) 15 to 25 17
Granitic rock types 0 to 2 1
Mixed CWG / granite 10 to 33* 20*
___________________________________________________________________________________
*Also see comments below with respect to collapses

In comparison, movement on building structures have been very low, often in the order of 1 to 2 mm.

Figure 4 shows maximum settlements monitored above an EPBM drive in Singapore's Old Alluvium
together with corresponding face pressures. In this case, as the EPBM progressed to Ring No. 131
mixed faces of this partially cemented sandy silt and overlying soft marine clays were encountered and
the face pressure was lost. This gave rise to a steady increase in settlement from 11 to 25 mm and
eventually to 67 mm. The Contractor stepped up the face pressure from 50 kPa as shown to 350 kPa
before the ground movement was eventually arrested and reduced to normal.

This near incident demonstrates the risks of operating EPBMs at low pressures in the vicinity of such
mixed face conditions. Factors found to enhance the maximum settlements in EPBM drives include:-
• mixed face conditions
• old stream courses
• thicknesses and properties of soil troughs
• slow progress, e.g. during learning periods and to negotiate site constraints such as breakthroughs
into station boxes.

In more extreme mixed face conditions the risk of loss of the EPB plug becomes very high, demanding
constant vigilance by experienced operatives. Such conditions may be created by large competent
boulders as well as partial faces of competent hard rock and soils. Also water inflows can be high at
such interfaces. Della Valle (2001) describes problems experienced in Singapore, which can lead to
excessive cutter and cutterhead wear, progressive collapse of the upper soil strata and chimneying of
the voids up to street level. In such extreme conditions the extensive use of bentonite and foaming
agents is not always sufficient to arrest collapses, which can be in the order of 30 – 100 m³ at a
frequency of about 1 / 200 m in such mixed face tunnelling.

The alternatives appear to be the use of ground treatment, preferably in advance of tunnelling from the
surface and / or the use of slurry systems despite the higher overall cost and difficulties of separation.
The latter is highly desirable for subaqueous drives and cutter changes can be both lower and more
easily facilitated as less time is needed to clear the cutterhead chamber of spoil.

4.3 Selection of Face Control System

Figure 5 shows the IMS method of selecting face control systems for soft ground TBMs from particle
size and SPT N values. This has been drawn up by the writer from a series of case histories such as
that shown in Figure 4, from discussions and data from leading contractors and manufacturers and
hence is based upon collective experience from the industry. It is presented as a general guide rather
than an alternative to knowledge of the local geological conditions. Users are also advised to consider
the local hydro-geological conditions as existing or potential new aquifer zones may require a higher
level of control.

166
 Figure 4. EPBM Face Pressure vs. Ground Settlement

Clearly the amount of fines and degree of soil stiffness are considered key factors for selection and use
of open and low EPB pressure and grey areas exist where both EPB and slurry systems can be
employed. For extreme mixed face conditions, such as those described previously, the writer
recommends that slurry is considered first and alternatives selected only if adequate site investigations
(or preventative measures) are available to justify the use of EPB systems.

5 CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents performance data and information from a series of TBM installations that are
fundamental for understanding how ground conditions affect, and are affected by different types of
modern TBM types in Asia, often operating in extreme geological conditions.

Empirical patterns of TBM advance rates, costs, water inflows and face control requirements for the
full range of IMS ground classes have been developed and are being applied for tender and risk
assessment purposes. This approach is essential for selection of appropriate TBM types and ground
control systems given the very risky nature of the installations now being undertaken throughout Asia.

The advantages and limitations of the TBM types and systems available for tunnelling in such extreme
conditions as mixed faces of competent granites and soft soils have been frankly discussed and the
case history from the Umiray Angat tunnel in the Philippines clearly demonstrates the benefits that can
be gained by specialist TBM contractors using specifically designed, modern TBMs for such projects.

It is hoped that with continuing feedback data and specific methodology of the type illustrated in this
paper, coupled with improved tender planning, TBM options and their control systems can be selected
to achieve less risky, more improved performance on site.

REFERENCES

Della Valle, N. 2001, Boring through a rock-soil interface in Singapore. RETC Proceedings, San Diego. SME
Inc. 633-645
Grandori R. 2001, Manila Aqueduct (Philippines) – The Construction of the Umiray-Angat Tunnel Project.
RETC Proceedings, San Diego. SME Inc. 777-790

167
Grandori R., Concillia M. and Nardone P. 2001, Hong Kong Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme (SSDS) TBM
Tunnelling Beneath Seabed and Urban Areas. RETC, San Diego. SME Inc. 743-754
McFeat-Smith I. 1998, Mechanised Tunnelling in Asia. Published IMS Tunnel Consultancy Ltd. Hong Kong
1998 www.imstunnel.com
McFeat-Smith I. 2000, Breakthrough in the Philippines, Part 1 June, Part 2 July Issues, Tunnels and Tunnelling
McFeat-Smith I., Grandori R. and Concillia M., 1999 Construction of Hong Kong Governments First Two Land-
Based TBM Projects, Proc. of 3rd Asian Tunnelling Summit, IBC. Hong Kong.
McFeat-Smith I., MacKean R. and Waldmo O.,1998 Water inflows in bored rock tunnels in Hong Kong:
Prediction, construction issues and control measures. ICE Conference on Urban Ground Engineering, Hong
Kong.

Figure 5. I M S Method of Selecting Face Control for Soft Ground TBMs

168
Design issues for rock caverns at Mandai
K.H. Tan, H.L. Ong & S.G. Chen
ST Architects & Engineers, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Design issues on tunnels/caverns and rock support for Phase One of the Mandai project
is presented. The geological condition in the project is firstly described based on the two-stage site
investigation before the construction as well as the rock mapping during the construction. The design
is then presented with main concerns including safe separation distance between two tunnels, arch size
and rock support design. The rock support design is finally evaluated using the convergence-
confinement method.

1 INTRODUCTION

In August 1999, it was announced that Singapore’s Defense Ministry (MINDEF) would be
commissioning the construction of Singapore’s first Underground Ammunition Facilities at a disused
granite quarry in Mandai (Nathan 1999). Among other advantages, by building the depot underground
instead of on surface, more than 300 Ha of land will be made available for other use, which is
equivalent to 400 basketball courts or half a Pasir Ris New Town. This is very beneficial to the land-
scarce Singapore. Lasting for about two years, the final explosive blast on 27/07/2001 marked the end
of excavation stage of Phase One of the project. The facilities are expected to open in 2004 (Chan
2001).

The project consists of many rock tunnels and caverns with various sections. The tunnels/caverns are
built in granite that belongs to Triassic period and is about 220 million years old. It is heavily
fractured by three major rock joint sets, in which one is horizontal and two are vertical. A few weak
zones are also encountered in the area. The granite has a high horizontal in situ stress that is favorable
to the stability of caverns with wide span especially when the vertical joints are dominant. One of the
concerns in the design is to assure the safe separate distance among them under static and dynamic
loads. Rock support design is based on the recommendation of Q-chart and rockbolt/shotcrete is the
main rock support to the tunnels/caverns.

The design issues on the tunnels/caverns and rock support for Phase One of the Mandai project is
presented. The geological condition in the project is described based on the two-stage site
investigation before the construction as well as the rock mapping during the construction. The design
is then presented with main concerns including safe separation distance between two tunnels, arch
shape and rock support design. The rock support design is finally evaluated using the convergence-
confinement method.

2 GEOLOGY AND ROCK CONDITION

The basic geology and rock condition is obtained from site investigation done before the construction
(Wu et al. 2000). More information is updated from the rock mapping during the construction. Site
investigation was carried out in the specific site before the construction commenced. It includes two

169
phases, the primary site investigation (Soil foundation 1996) and the detailed geological site
characterization (ECON 1999). The purpose of the primary site investigation is to study the feasibility
of the project and the conceptual design. The detailed geological site characterization, however, is to
refine the geological information in detail for the design and construction purpose. The scope and
objective of the geological investigation are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Scope and objective of geological investigations.

Item Investigation objectives
Drilling exploration Overburden, rock mass, ground water
Geophysical logging Temperature and wave velocity (P & S)
Video logging, Acoustic imaging, Rock joints and macroscopic scale discontinuities
Impression packer testing
Cross-hole tomography Rock mass quality between boreholes
Resistivity imaging & seismic reflection Overburden, weathering and macroscopic scale
discontinuities
Seismic reflection/refraction Soil thickness, macroscopic scale discontinuities
Borehole radar Macroscopic scale discontinuities
Hydraulic fracturing In-situ stress
Laboratory tests Rock and joint properties
Lugeon test, Raising/falling head test, Permeability of rock mass, and ground water
Ground water monitoring
Geological modelling Soil and bedrock contour map, 3-D geological model
Quarry wall study Evaluate the quarry wall stability
Geotechnical information system (GIS) Geotechnical database

Downward from the ground surface, the formation is generally composed of three layers of residual
soil, weathered granite and fresh granite. Residual soil (heavy sandy loam) widely overlays on the
Bukit Timah Granite with thickness varying from 0 to 70m with the average of 29.8m. The top rock
mass is slightly or heavily weathered. The thickness of weathering layer varies from zero to 27.7 m,
which is normally related to the bedrock elevation. The surface profile of the bedrock is generally flat
except at soil trenches. The rock varies as granite, adamellite and granodiorite. The granite is medium
(coarse) grained biotite adamellite or quasi-porphyritic adamellite. The principal materials of the
granite are quartz (29%), alkali-feldspar (29%), plagioclase (36%), biotite (5%) and hornblende. Six
weak zones were detected as listed in Table 2 and two of them (WZ3 and WZ5) were observed during
the construction, which caused water inflow 20~200 l/min and considerable volume of cement were
grouted.

Site investigation showed a P-wave velocity of the granite ranging from 4545 m/s to 6100 m/s with a
mean value of 5446 m/s and a S-wave velocity ranging from 2906 m/s to 3472 m/s with a mean value
of 3235 m/s. Laboratory tests on rock material provided the rock material properties as listed in
Table 3. Three dominant joint sets were observed during the construction including two sub-vertical
joint sets with same dip angle of 70-90o and dip direction towards ENE-NE and WNW-NW,
respectively, and one sub-horizontal joint set. The joints are generally slightly rough, undulating with
occasionally thin layers of clay and have a typical joint spacing of 1~3 m. Laboratory tests on rock
joints provided average rock joint properties as listed in Table 3. During the construction, site tests
were conducted and properties of rock joints were re-evaluated as listed in Table 4 for numerical
modeling using BB model. Q-values were estimated based on site investigation as shown in Figure 1.
It can be observed that good and very good rock occupies 75%. Q-values were collected from the rock
mapping during the construction and also shown in the same figure for a comparison. It indicates a
good consistence between the estimation (75%) and the site collection (68.6%) for sum of good and
very good rock. However, the estimation shows a very higher percentage of 23.2% for very good rock
relative to the site collection of 2.0%. This might be caused by the fact that dominant rock joints are
vertical and could not be fully detected by vertical boreholes.

170
Favorable stresses have been discovered in the concerned area. The magnitude ratio between the
maximum, minimum horizontal stresses and the vertical stress is about 3:2:1. The stress field is
favorable for the stability of underground opening but rock spalling was observed in site during the
construction in a few spots.

70 66.6 Estimation based on site

investigation
60 Collection in Phase one during
51.8 the construction
PERCENTAGE(%)

50

40

30
23.2 23.5
20 13.6
8.0
10 5.8 5.6
2.0 0.0
0
V. good Good Fair Poor V. poor
Q>40 Q=11~40 Q=5~10 Q=1~4 Q<1
ROCK CLASS

Figure 1. Comparison on Q-value between estimation and site collection.

Table 2. Six weak zones detected.

No. Strike Width Table 4 Properties of rock joints.
1 NNE-SSW 2.0 m Properties Joint I Joint II Joint III
2 NNE-SSW 2.5 m
MC model
3 NE-SW >2.0 m
4 NE-SW 1.0 m Cohesion (KPa) 175
5 NE-SW >5.0m Friction angle ( )o
35
6 NE-SW >8.0~13.0
Roughness 11
BB model
Table 3. Rock material properties. Normal stiffness, GPa/m 1E3 5.1E2 1E4
Properties Value Shear stiffness, GPa/m 4.25 3.92 6.3
Rock Material Aperture at zero load, mm 0.308 0.472 0.240
Density (kg/m3) 2650
UCS (MPa) 163.8 Roughness coefficient, JRC 8 8 12
Young’s modulus (GPa) 65.9 Wall compres. strength, MPa 103 76 150
Poisson’s ratio 0.24 Friction angle, degree 28 26 31
Point load index (MPa) 8.7
Tensile strength (MPa) 11.7 Length in laboratory scale, m 0.1 0.1 0.1
19.9 NOTES:
Rock Joints Joint set I = vertical joint set with dip direction towards ENE-NE.
Cohesion (KPa) 175 Joint set II = vertical joint set with dip towards WNW-NW.
Friction angle ( o) 35 Joint set III = horizontal joint set.
Roughness 11

3 SEPARATION DISTANCE BETWEEN TUNNELS/CAVERNS

Optimal design on the rock separation distance between tunnels/caverns is very important in
minimizing the land area required. No such data on rock tunnels is documented and thus numerical

171
modeling using UDEC (Itasca 2000) is carried out to check the safety of the rock separation at
construction stage and when there is a potential explosion in one of the tunnels.

3.1 Stability of rock separation during excavation stage

A typical case is to model two tunnels, one directly beneath the another as shown in Figure 2a. The
separation distance is one of main concerns in the rock support design. The UDEC modeling
simulating actual construction sequence is carried out to examine the possibility of constructing these
two tunnels at such close separation distance. Actual construction sequence starts with excavating the
upper tunnel and applying the rock support (rockbolt and shotcrete). The lower tunnel is then
excavated and supported. Finally the expected traffic load during the operation of the tunnels is taken
into account in the modeling. Much effort was put in the numerical modeling to reflect actual
situations of the current project. For example, partial deformation having occurred before the
installation of rock support is considered in the modeling by developing programs in FISH language.
Figure 2b shows the displacement distribution after the completion of the two tunnels and the expected
traffic loads. The modeling result suggests that the two tunnels are stable with the rock support
design.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. UDEC modeling on safety of a rock separation between two tunnels in excavation stage.

3.2 Safety check of rock separation due to a potential explosion

A typical case is to examine the safety of the rock separation between two tunnels where one is beside
the another as shown in Figure 3a, due to a potential explosion. The main concern is the safety of the
rock separation once an explosion happens in the left tunnel. Figure 3b shows the expected explosion
load due to the potential explosion.

The modeling methodology comprises of two stages: (1) the excavation of the two tunnels and (2) the
explosion wave travelling between the two tunnels. The in situ stress exists before the excavation and
due to the excavation of the two tunnels, the stress will be redistributed. The stage of excavating two
tunnels calculates the stress distribution in the rock mass and forms the basis of the second stage.
Fixed boundary is applied to the four sides of the model not to allow deformation in this stage. The
rock support including rockbolt and shotcrete is then applied to the two tunnels. The second stage
simulates the explosion wave propagating in the rock mass starting from the left tunnel. Viscous
boundary is applied to the four sides of the model to allow the wave to go through with no disturbance.
Due to the existence of the rock joints and tunnels, wave transmission and reflection will be
multiplied. Ten measurement points between the two tunnels and three measurement points at the

172
right sidewall of the right tunnel are set in the rock mass to monitor historical velocity during the
second stage of the modeling. The peak particle velocity (PPV) is then used to assess the rock failure
and the stability of the rock separation.

At the thirteen measurement points in the modeling, the PPVs are recorded as shown in Figure 4.
Comparing the modeling results with safe level of 230 mm/s, it can be seen that 15 m of rock mass (or
more than half the total separation distance) is within the safe level. It suggests that the separation
distance between the two tunnels is adequate to avoid damage at the right tunnel when there is a
potential explosion in the left tunnel.

10.0

8.0

Pressure (MPa)
6.0

Left
tunnel 4.0
Right
tunnel
Measurement points 2.0

0.0
0 200 400 600

Time (milisecond)

(a) (b)

Figure 3. A rock separation between two tunnels and explosion load generated in the right tunnel.

500
P e a k p a rticle ve lo city (m m /se c)

400

300
230 m m /s ec

200

100

0
-3 5 -3 0 -2 5 -2 0 -1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10

D ista n ce (m )

Figure 4. Modeling results showing PPVs versus distance.

4 TUNNEL SECTION DESIGN

Ensuring the stability of a rock tunnel with the most efficient support is a major objective in the design
and construction of the tunnel. An excavation of a rock tunnel results in stress redistribution and

173
deformation in the surrounding rock mass (Brady 1992, Brady & Brown 1993). A typical rock tunnel
section consists of an arch and a rectangle with two straight walls. Generally the tunnel arch is the
most critical part in the tunnel stability. The optimal design of the rock tunnel arch is to ensure the
stress distribution be as uniform as possible in rock mass so that minimum support is required to
maintain the rock tunnel stability. The geometry coefficient (or curvity) of the arch, defined as ratio of
the height divided by the width, dominants the stress distribution and thus is a very important
parameter. It is governed by many factors including horizontal pressure ratio, k, defined as ratio of
horizontal in situ stress divided by vertical in situ stress, in situ stress changing with depth, wall height
and the presence of rock joints, etc.

The tunnel section design is optimized theoretically and numerically. Firstly, the geometry coefficient
(arch curvity) of the arch is optimized theoretically for a rock tunnel with an ellipse shape in an
uniform in situ stress situation. The theoretical solution is then correlated with the numerical modeling
by using UDEC. Other influential factors on optimal geometry coefficient are also examined
including non-uniform in situ stress, wall height and the presence of rock joints. Finally, UDEC
modeling is carried out to optimize the height of rock tunnel.

4.1 A theoretical solution

Considering an elliptical excavation in a rock mass with uniform in situ stress in both horizontal and
vertical directions, Poulos and Davis (1974) and Jaeger and Cook (1979) derived a set of theoretical
solution for this case based on the elastic theory. The optimal geometry coefficient, qo, can be
obtained from as q0=b/a=0.5/k, where a is the tunnel width and b is the arch height (Ong et al. 2001).
It indicates that the optimal geometry coefficient q0 is inversely proportional to the horizontal pressure
ratio k.

It should be noted that the theoretical solution above is exactly applicable only when the tunnel is in an
elliptical shape, and the in situ stress is uniform in both vertical and horizontal directions, and the rock
mass is a homogeneous elastic medium. However, actual rock tunnels may hardly satisfy these
assumptions and thus the theoretical solution above can only give an approximate guidance to the
design. More accurate solution would be obtained from numerical modeling.

4.2 Other influential factors

The effect of other factors on optimal geometry coefficient is examined by performing a parametric
study using UDEC including the in situ stress changing with the depth, and the height of the tunnel
wall as well as the existence of rock joints (Ong et al. 2001). It is observed that due to the in situ
stress changing with depth and increasing the height of tunnel walls, the optimal geometry coefficient
is reduced. On the other hand, the effect of rock joints depends on the spacing ratio, defined as the
ratio of vertical joint spacing divided by horizontal joint spacing. The study showed that the optimal
geometry coefficient increases with increasing spacing ratio.

4.3. A case study

A typical rock tunnel is required to have a rectangular space with a width of 16.0 m and height of
7.0 m and the height of the tunnel arch is to be determined. The rock mass is heavily fractured by
mainly three joint sets including two vertical joint sets and one horizontal joint with dip/dip angle of
130/70 (J1), 220/70 (J2) and 10/10 (J3), respectively. The horizontal pressure ratio range from 2.0 to
3.0 with an average value of 2.5. Assuming the arch as a half ellipse and applying the theoretical
solution (Eq. 6), the geometry coefficient of the camber is optimized as 0.20 for k = 2.5. The height of
the tunnel arch is thus 3.2 m.

To determine accurate optimal geometry coefficient, UDEC modeling is carried out by taking account
of actual conditions including the existence of rock joints and the height of the tunnel wall as well as
the in situ stress changing with the depth. By conducting a parametric study varying geometry
coefficient as 0.1, 0.2, 0.22, 0.25, 0.3 and 0.4, it is found the optimal geometry coefficient is 0.22 as
shown in Figure 5. Therefore, the height of the arch is designed as 3.52 m. Figure 6 shows a typical
excavation-completed cavern that can accommodate six basketball courts side by side.

174
 0.5

0.4
D eviation

0.3

0.2

0.1
O ptim al point
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Geom etry c oeffic ient

Figure 5. Determination of optimal geometry Figure 6. A typical digging-completed rock

coefficient. cavern (Fang 2001).

5 ROCK SUPPORT DESIGN

The rock support design in the project is based on the recommendation of the Q-chart proposed by
Barton and his co-workers (Barton et al. 1974, Barton 1976; Barton 1983) on the basis of an analysis
of some 200 tunnel case histories from Scandinavia. Grimstad and Barton (1993) updated it based on
studies of 1,050 case records and successfully utilized in Gjovik Olympic Cavern (Barton et al. 1994).
In practice, geologists carry out rock mapping on site after every blasting, assess the rock quality, and
determine the Q-value which is calculated using the empirical formula by Barton (1983):

RQD J r J w
Q= ⋅ ⋅ (1)
J n J a SRF

where: RQD is the rock quality designation, Jn is the number of joint sets, Jr is the joint roughness, Ja
is the degree of alteration or filling along the weakest joint, Jw is the joint water reduction factor and
SRF is the stress reduction factor.

Once the Q-value is calculated, the rock support can be determined from the Q-chart as shown in
Figure 7. The y-axis represents the equivalent dimension of the underground opening that is obtained
by dividing the span, diameter or wall height of the excavation by the excavation support ratio (ESR).
The ESR depends on the type or use of the underground opening. It should be noted that the Q-value
in the Q-chart is related to the total amount of support (temporary and permanent) in the roof. Wall
support can also be found using the same figure by applying the wall height and the following
adjustments to Q. For, Q > 10, Qwall = 5Q. For 0.1 < Q < 10, Qwall = 2.5Q. For Q < 0.1, Qwall = Q.

The Q chart on determining rock support is based on experience from numerous underground projects.
Being statistically based, a support chart can never replace or accurately represent the ground
conditions at site. A main reason is that all the actual geometrical features of rock joints can not be
included in a support chart. Therefore, having a good characterization of the rock mass and the ground
conditions and having a good understanding of the geological conditions at site is of utmost important
to employ Q-chart for rock support design. During the rock support design on site, efforts were put to
further optimize the rock support and some adjustments were made according to the rock condition in
the current project. One of the areas of optimization is to change the rock supports on the walls, as
dominant rock joints are vertical and the walls are not so high. Only one or two rows of rockbolts are
applied to the upper walls and no rockbolt on the rest of the wall unless at locations where spot
rockbolt is required due to the rock condition. The another is to apply shotcrete only for the arch upto
2 m below the arch base for rock mass with Q-value larger than 10. As the tunnels/caverns in the

175
project have several different section sizes, rock support is classified for each section size to make rock
support design and installation more efficient and effective.

ROCK CLA SSES

G F E D C B A
E xce ptiona lly E x trem ely Ve ry Ve ry E x t. E x c.
po or P o or F a ir G o od
poo r po or go od go od go od
10 0 20
2.5 m
2.3 m

B olt length in m for E SR = 1

te d area 2.1 m

sh o tc r e 1.7 m
50 in g in 1.5 m 11
o lt spac
B 1.3 m
7
1.0 m
Span or height in m

20 5
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CCA RRS S fr S fr S fr B(+ S) B sb
10 4.0 m 3
ES R

3.0 m
cm

cm cm

m
cm

cm

4c
25 15 as
12

5
5 re 2.4
2.0 m te da
ot c re
1.6 m sh
un
in
2 c in g
1.3 m pa 1.5
lt s
1.0 m
Bo

1
0.0 01 0.0 04 0.0 1 0.0 4 0.1 0.4 1 4 10 40 10 0 40 0 10 00

RQ D Jr Jw
Rock m ass quality Q = x x
Jn Ja SRF

R EIN FO RC EM E NT C ATEG O R IES: 5) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 5 - 9 cm , Sfr + B

1) U nsupported 6) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 9- 12 cm , Sfr + B
2) Spot bolting, sb 7) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 12 - 15 cm , Sfr + B
3) S ystem atic bolting, B 8) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, > 15 cm ,
4) S ystem atic bolting, reinforced ribs of shotcrete and bolting, Sfr , R RS +B
(and unreinforced shotcrete, 4 - 10 cm ), B (+S) 9) C ast concrete lining, C CA

Figure 7. Q-chart developed by Barton and his co-workers and is used world-wide for estimation of
rock support (Grimstad & Barton 1993).

6 EVALUATION BY USING CONVERGENCE-CONFINEMENT METHOD

As mentioned earlier, Q-system is basically an empirical method coming from statistic analyses of
numerous underground projects. For verification of the rock support design recommended, evaluation
was done using convergence–confinement method.

6.1 Theoretical background of convergence-confinement method

The convergence-confinement method was formerly suggested in May 1977 in France during a
meeting devoted to tunnel calculations by the AFTES (L’Association Francaise de Travaux en
Souterrain – French Association for Underground Works). It is an attempt to evaluate tunnel stability
conditions by means of a mathematical model (Gesta et al. 1980; Kerisel 1980; Duddeck 1980). The
convergence-confinement method is based on the assumption that the rock mass is an equivalent
continuous homogeneous medium and the tunnels are circular. It also assumes constant in situ stress
and uniform support pressure. It involves calculating the ground reaction curve and the support
reaction curve, and determining their intersection as shown in Figure 8. The ground reaction curve
describes the relationship between radial convergence and radial pressure. The support reaction curve
expresses the relationship of support displacement versus support pressure. The intersection (Point A)
implies the balanced state with a radial displacement of the tunnel ua and a support pressure to the
tunnel pa. Point B presents an ultimate state of tunnel stability which implies that pb is the minimum

176
support pressure required for maintaining the tunnel stability and ub is the maximum allowable
convergence of the tunnel.
6.1.1 Determination of ground reaction curve
Considering a circular tunnel subjected to a constant in situ stress σ0 and a uniform support pressure
pa, the rock mass surrounding the tunnel will deform and the stress in the rock mass will be
redistributed due to the excavation of the tunnel. When the stress exceeds the strength, the rock mass
will be yielded subjected to Mohr-Coulomb criteria and a plastic zone occurs with radius of
1
 2 σ 0 (ξ − 1) + σ c  ξ −1
r0 = a  • 
ξ + 1 pa (ξ − 1) + σ c  (2)
1 + sin φ 2c • cos φ
ξ= σc =
1 − sin φ 1 − sin φ
where a is the radium of tunnel, σc is the uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass, σ0 is the in situ
stress, pa is the support pressure, c is the cohesion and φ is the friction angle.

The radial stress at the interface between elastic zone and plastic zone can be calculated by

σ c  r0    r0 ξ −1
ξ −1

σ r0 =   − 1 +   • pa (3)
ξ − 1  a    a 
Finally the convergence (displacement) of the tunnel is obtained from

1
uae = (σ 0 − pa ) ⋅ a If no plastic zone is induced (4)
2G

u ap =
1
2G
( )r2
σ y − σ r0 • 0
a
If plastic zone is induced (5)

where G is the shear modulus.

P, pressure

σ0

Ground reaction curve

r0
σ0 a pa σ0

Support reaction curve

pa
σ0
A
pb
B

ua ub u
u0

Figure 8. Description of convergence-confinement method

177
Varying the support pressure pa, a series of points (ua and pa) can be calculated by using above
formulas and the ground reaction curve can then be obtained.

6.1.2 Determination of support reaction curve

The support reaction curve is subjected to not only the support stiffness and strength (maximum
supporting pressure) but also the rock support installation time. A good design should just mobilize
the maximum support capacity by adjusting the installation time so that the support reaction curve
intersects with the ground reaction curve at minimum supporting pressure.

The maximum support pressure of rockbolts can be calculated by

F
pb = (6)
sa × s p
where F is the ultimate capacity of rockbolts, sa and sp are rockbolt spacing, respectively, in
longitudinal and transverse directions.

The maximum support pressure of shotcrete can be calculated by

 a2 
ps = 0.5 βσ c 1 − 2
(7)
 (a + t ) 
where β is the reduction coefficient subjected to actual tunnel profile and t is shotcrete thickness. The
total maximum support pressure, pa, is sum of that of rockbolts and shotcrete as

pa = pb + ps (8)

6.2 Application in the current project

The convergence-confinement method is applied to check the effectiveness of the support design in
Phase One of the Mandai project (STAE 2000). The caverns are not circular and neither the in situ
stress is uniform in the current project. However, with closer evaluation, the case in the current project
could be considered as equivalent to a circular tunnel, with a diameter of the span subjected to a
constant in situ stress that is the same as the vertical in situ stress. This is because that the principal of
optimal design is to ensure the displacement distribution along the roof be as uniform as possible. On
the other hand, it was observed on site that the actual excavation profile is rough due to the presence of
rock joints so that the shotcrete failure is governed by tension. Therefore, tensile strength is used in
calculating the shotcrete support capacity.

6.2.1 Determination of parameters

To apply the convergence-confinement method, parameters including Young’s modulus, rock mass
cohesion and friction angle must be determined which can be derived from the Q-value. The RMR
(rock mass rating) and Yong’s modulus are then calculated from Bieniawski (1984)
RMR −10

RMR = 9 ln Q + 44 , E (GPa) = 10 40 (9)

The cohesion and friction angle of rock mass can be obtained from

c( MPa) = 0.005 ⋅ ( RMR − 1.0) , φ ( o ) = 0.5 ⋅ RMR + 4.5 (10)

6.2.2. Assessment of the support design

The support design for pattern rockbolt and shotcrete is assessed by the factor of safety (FOS). The
factor of safety is defined as ratio of the allowable maximum convergence divided by the actual
convergence (FOS=ub/ua, ub and ua refer to Figure 8). The actual convergence ua is determined by the
intersection of ground reaction curve and support reaction curve. The allowable maximum
convergence ub is related to the rock cavern damage criteria. Bieniawski (1984) discussed the criteria
for evaluation of the rock cavern stability based on cavern deformation monitoring. He pointed out
that the instability of the rock cavern may be caused by the failure of the rock joints, shotcrete and
rock bolts. He found that joint movement and loosening occurs when the displacement is more than
three times the elastic displacement. Thus, in this study, an allowable convergence of three times the
elastic displacement is adopted.

178
Figure 9 shows the factor of safety versus Q-value for various tunnel types. It can be seen that the
FOS ranges from 1.25 to 2.66 and it is increasing with increasing Q-value. By comparing with the
normally adopted FOS of 1.5 ~ 2.0 used in engineering practices, it can be seen that the support design
for Class low D (Q=1) has slightly lower FOS of 1.25~1.29. On the other hand, the support design for
Class high B (Q = 40) has slightly higher FOS of 2.65~2.66. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the
support design for the project is, in general, reasonable since there are many uncertainties in rock
tunneling.

3.0
2.64

2.5
2.25

1.92
2.0
Factor of safety

Tunnel type I

1.5 1.27 Tunnel type II

Tunnel type III

1.0 Trendline

0.5

0.0
1 4 10 40

Q-value

Figure 9. Factor of safety versus Q-value

7 REMARKS

The cavern and rock support design for Phase One of Mandai project is presented. The cavern shape
support is optimized based on theoretical and numerical analyses. The rock support design is based on
the recommendation of the Q-chart and some adjustments are made according to judgement of actual
rock condition. The theoretical evaluation by using the convergence-confinement method shows that
the rock support design is, in general, reasonable.

REFERENCES

Barton N., Lien R. & Lunde J. (1974) Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel support.
Rock Mechanics, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 183-236.
Barton N., (1976) Recent experiences with the Q-system of tunnel support design. Proceedings of the
Symposium on Exploration for rock engineering, Johannesburg, November, Vol. 1, pp. 107-117.
Barton N. (1983) Application of Q-system and index tests to estimate shear strength and deformability of rock
masses. Proc. Int. Symp. Eng. Geol. Underground Const., Lisboa, Vol. 1, pp. 51-70.
Barton, N., By, T.L., Chryssanthakis, P., Tunbridge, L, Kristiansen, J., Loset, F., Bhasin, R.K., Westerdahl, H. &
Vik, G. (1994) Predicted and Measured Performance of the 62m Span Norwegian Olympic Ice Hockey
Cavern at Gjovik Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 31, pp. 617-641.
Bieniawski Z.T. (1984) Rock mechanics design in mining and tunneling. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 272.
Brady B.H.G. (1992) Stress analysis for rock masses. Engineering in Rock Masses (ed. Bell F.G.), Chapter 6,
pp. 117-133.

179
Brady, B.H.G. & Brown, E.T. (1993) Rock Mechanics for underground mining, 2nd edition, Chapman & Hall,
London.
Chan Kay Min (2001) Blast-off for underground ammo dump. The Straits Times, Satueday, July 28, 2001.
Duddeck H. (1980) On the basis requirements for applying the convergence-confinement method. Underground
Space, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 241-247.
ECON Geotech Pte Ltd (1999) Site characterisation for a site at MANDAI. Final report submitted to LEO,
Mindef, report no. ECGP 1338, Vols. I, II & III.
Fang Joyce (2001) Blast off. The Straits Times, Satueday, July 28, 2001.
Gesta P, Kerisel J., Londe P. Louis C. & Panet M. (1980) General report: Tunnel stability by the convergence-
confinement method. Underground Space, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 225-232.
Grimstad E. & Barton N. (1993) Updating of the Q-System for NMT. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Sprayed Concrete – Modern Use of Wet Mix Sprayed Concrete for Underground support,
Norwegian Concrete Association, Oslo.
Itasca Consulting Group Inc. (2000) UDEC user manual. Special Features, Chapter 3.
Jaeger, J.C. & Cook, N.G.W. (1979) Fundamentals of rock mechanics. 3rd edn, Chapman & Hall, London.
Kerisel J. (1980) Commentary on the general report on the convergence-confinement method. Underground
Space, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 233-240.
Nathan D. (1999) MinDef Goes Underground. The strait Times, August 13.
Ong H.L., Chen S.G., Tan K.H. & Tan C.E. (2001) Optimal design of rock tunnel arch. Frontiers of Rock
Mechanics and Sustainable Development in the 21st Century (eds Wang S., Fu B. & Li Z.), Balkema, pp. 547-
551.
Poulos, H.G. & Davis, E.H. (1974) Elastic solutions for soil and rock mechanics. Wiley, New York.
Soil & Foundation (1996) Seismic survey and site investigation works at Mandai. Final report submitted to
Lands & Estates Organisation, Ministry of Defense, June.
ST Architects & Engineers (2000) Theoretical investigation on optimal design of camber shape in Mandai
project. A technical note submitted to DSTA, June.
Wu Y. K., Teo T.Y., Zhou Y.X. & Seah C.C. (2000) Geological site characterisation and geotechnical
information system. DTG Technology Seminar 2000 – Building & Infrastructure, Singapore.

180
 Underground Singapore 2001

Excavation of New Dhoby Ghaut Station for MRT North-

East Line
K Orihara & M L Chan
Kiso-Jiban Consultants Co Ltd, Singapore

K Chabayashi & S Okamoto

Obayashi Corporation, Singapore

Phillip P T Teo & C G Tan

Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the temporary retaining system and the ground behavior during the
excavation of new Dhoby Ghaut MRT station. Various types of temporary retaining walls and
supporting systems were designed and adopted to retain the 10m to 40m deep excavation. The ground
conditions were carefully considered in order to limit movement of surrounding ground and structures
and to ensure safe construction. Monitoring of the ground was carried out and the readings compared
with design. Recharge wells were installed to reduce ground settlement and additional struts were
provided when strut load higher than design was recorded. It was a challenging task to control
movement of existing MRT north-south line tunnels that were located only 3m from the excavation.

1 PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT

The proposed new Dhoby Ghaut Station consists of two office building blocks and five basements for
MRT North-East Line underground station with a provision for future Marina Line station. The new
station connects to the existing Dhoby Ghaut Station and Plaza Singapura through underground
linkways. A deep excavation, 10m to 30m in depth, was generally required for basement construction
in the immediate vicinity of existing MRT tunnels and station to the south, Plaza Singapura to the
west and MacDonald House to the east. Figure 1 shows a site plan. Excavation at the north end
reached 40m to retain the high ground of Mount Sophia.

2 GROUND CONDITIONS AT THE SITE

The site is underlain by fill, Kallang Formation and Jurong Formation. The Kallang Formation
consists of soft marine clay (M), estuarine clay (E) and loose sand (F1) based on LTA’s Soil and Rock
Classification System. The Jurong Formation is a series of sedimentary rocks such as mudstone,
siltstone and sandstone. Based on weathering degree, the Jurong Formation is further classified into
residual soil (S4VI), completely weathered rock (S4V), highly weathered rock (S2IV) and moderately
weathered rock (S2III). The Kallang Formation, which has a maximum thickness of 11m, overlies the
Jurong Formation at the southern part of the site. Figure 2 shows the soil profile in the north-south
direction. The rocks of the Jurong Formation are soft mudstone and siltstone with local appearance of
medium strong sandstone. Unconfined compression strengths of mudstone/siltstone range from 4MPa
to 20MPa with an average value of 12MPa. Table 1 summarizes the soil and rock parameters used in
the design of the temporary retaining system. The design rock mass strengths of S2 were determined
using the method suggested by Hoek and Brown (1997). The groundwater level is very close to the
ground level.

183
 SOLDIER PILE
AND ROCK BOLT

SHEET PILE AND

GROUND ANCHOR
A

A
SOLDIER PILE AND
SHEET PILE
LEGEND
Automatic Inclinometer
Pneumatic Piezometer
SECANT PILE C Settlement Markers

GROUND
ANCHOR
C

LINKWAY TO
PLAZA SINGAPURA
SOLDIER PILE
AND SHEET PILE

RECHARGING
WELLS

B STRUT
P-B
SECANT
PILE I-A SM-A
P-A D
B P-C
SM-B

SECANT
PILE
D

0 5 10 25 Metres
S l 1 125
Fig. 1. Site Plan and Temporary Retaining System.

184
 RL (m) RL (m)
120 120

115 115

110 110

105 105
I)
Organic Clay (E) Fill 0) (S4V
100 Silty Sand (F1) yey Silt (N<5 100
Silty Clay Organic Clay (E) Cla
Clayey Silt (N<50) (S4VI) (F2)
95 95
)
e (S2IV
90
Clayey Silt (N>50) (S4V)
tone/Sandston 90
ne/Silts
Clayey Silt Mudsto
85 (N>50) (S4V) 85

80 80

75 75
Horizontal Scale
0 25 m
70 70
Fig. 2. Soil Profile.

Table 1. Design Soil/Rock Parameters.

S4-VI S4-V S2-IV S2-III

Parameter Fill E M F1 F2 N< N> RQD < 25% RQD > 25%
50 50
Mudstone Sandstone Mudstone Sandstone
Bulk Density, γt
1.8 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
(Mg/m3)
Cu 65 -
Undrained 0 20 20 0 20 200 200 200 200 200
(kPa) 180
Shear
Strength Øu
30 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(°)
C’
Effective 0 0 0 0 0 (0) 20 40 40 40 120
(kPa)
Shear
Strength Ø’
30 22 22 30 28 33 34 30 45 35 45
(°)
Coefficient of
Earth Pressure at 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Rest, Ko
Elastic Modulus,
8 6 6 8 6 30 100 300 300 600 600
E (MPa)
Coefficient of
Permeability, k 1x10-5 1x10-6 1x10-9 1x10-5 1x10-8 1x10-7 1x10-7 1x10-6 1x10-6 1x10-6 1x10-6
(m/sec)

3 TEMPORARY RETAINING SYSTEM

The excavation was supported by the following retaining walls :

i. Secant pile consisting of 1000mm diameter male piles and 800mm diameter female piles spaced
at 1.4m in the south. Secant piles adjacent to MRT structures were debonded as required by the
Code of Practice for Railway Protection (1996).
ii. Soldier pile consisting of steel H piles with a size of 588mm x 300mm x 151 kg/m spaced at
1.2m, 1.6m and 2.0m in the north. The excavated face between the soldier piles was retained by
sheet piles in soft clay area and by shotcrete in the rock area.

The retaining walls were supported by struts, removable ground anchors and rock bolts. Figure 1
shows the distribution of each type of retaining wall, while figures 3 to 6 show the details of the walls.

185
These walls were designed in accordance with BS8002:1994 using one-dimensional computer
program WALLAP, Rankine’s earth pressures and effective stress analyses. The behavior of the
ground and adjacent structures during excavation was simulated using CRISP, a two-dimensional
FEM program, while seepage was simulated using two-dimensional FEM seepage program, SOIL2F.
The results of the seepage analyses were then merged into CRISP analyses. The loads for struts and
ground anchors were determined using Peck’s diagram and WALLAP, the higher load given by the
two methods was adopted for the design.

RL 103.00m (1ST. LEVEL)

RL 98.50m (2ND. LEVEL)

RL 97.00m
RL 95.30m RL 95.00m (3RD. LEVEL)

RL 92.40m RL 92.50m (Additional Strut)

RL 90.00m (4TH. LEVEL)

RL 85.50m (5TH. LEVEL)

RL 83.60m (Additional Strut)

Fig. 3. Retaining System at Section A-A.

Fig. 4. Retaining System at Section B-B.

186
Fig. 5. Retaining System at Section C-C.

Fig. 6. Retaining System at Section D-D.

4 GROUND BEHAVIOR DURING EXCAVATION

4.1 Wall Deflection

Wall deflection of retaining wall by inclinometers ranges from 40mm to 110mm during excavation.

4.2 Settlement of the Surrounding Ground

Table 2 summarizes the settlement of the ground surrounding excavation. The ground settlement
ranges from 25% to 60% of wall deflection at locations where no or thin soft clay was present and

187
ranges from 110% to 140% where soft clay was thicker. However, this percentage reduces to 50% at
locations where recharge wells were provided.

Table 2. Settlement of Surrounding Ground

Section Excavation Main Range of Wall Ground Settlement x 100 Approx.
Depth (m) Ground Settlement Deflection Wall Deflection Thickness of
(mm) (mm) (%) Marine Clay
(m)
A 29.00 10 to 15 40 25 to 40 0
B 29.40 30 50 60 1
B* 29.40 90 to 150 110 80 to 140 8
C 17.60 20 to 30 50 40 to 60 2
D 10.60 90 85 110 8
D* 10.60 40 85 50 8
B* in front of Plaza Singapura
D* settlement till decommissioning of recharge well

4.3 Groundwater Lowering

Piezometers installed both inside and outside the excavation in Section B registered progressive
reduction of pore water pressure with excavation. This reduction occurred even in the secant pile wall
sections as shown in Figure 7 and the groundwater level was lowered close to the excavation level
almost immediately with excavation. As little seepage was observed from the face of the secant pile
wall, the lowering of the groundwater level behind the wall possibly occurred through seepage below
the toe of wall which was 5m below the final excavation level. The seepage suggests that the
permeability of S2 rock was fairly high, the coefficient of permeability obtained from back analysis of
seepage is approximately 10-6 m/sec. The same seepage analysis shows that, even if the retaining wall
penetrates deeper, say 10m to 15m below final excavation, it does not help much to reduce the
lowering of the groundwater level. The reduction of the porewater pressure in S2 rock led to
downward flow of groundwater from the overlying soft clay layer and causes consolidation
settlement.

4.4 Recharge Well

The function of the recharge wells was to minimize consolidation settlement of the soft clay due to
seepage flow into the excavation. Before the recharge wells were installed around MacDonald House
as shown in Section D of Figure 6, recharge tests were conducted in Sections B and D, and readings
were taken from two observation wells and surrounding piezometers. At Section B, water was injected
into S2 rock layer. At Section D, water was injected into F1 layer which was sandwiched between soft
clay layer on top and S2 layer below. Based on the recharge tests, it was decided that recharge wells
be installed only at Section D where water was injected into F1 layer. No recharge wells were
installed at Section B as the amount of water that could be injected into S2 rock layer was negligible.
The recharge wells had a diameter of 250mm and a depth of 15m and they were installed at a spacing
of 4m. Water, provided by a tank at 3m above ground level, was injected into the ground through the
recharge wells at a pressure of 30kPa. As shown in Figure 8, the porewater pressure in F1 layer was
kept higher than initial during excavation. Figure 8 also compares the ground settlement near
MacDonald House as measured by settlement marker, SM-A, which was located near recharge wells
and settlement marker, SM-B, which was located away from recharge wells. SM-A and SM-B were
7m and 9m away from the excavation, respectively. The settlement at SM-A was 40mm while the
settlement at SM-B exceeded 90mm. Therefore, it is concluded that the recharge wells had reduced
the consolidation settlement drastically.

188
 Release of 4th layer strut

Release of 1st layer strut

Step 1 to RL 102.0m

Final to RL 74.125m
Step 4 to RL 89.0m

Open Water Valve

C708 Tunnel
in Base Slab
Pipe Roof

10
Vertical Tunnel Movement
0
dz (mm)

-10

-20

-30

30
Horizontal Tunnel Movement
20
Towards Excavation
dx (mm)

10

-10

80
Inclinometer, I-A
60
Max Def (mm)

40

20

110
Piezometers, P-A& P-B
Piezometric Level (RL m)

100

90

80

P-A P-B
70

Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01

Date

Fig. 7. Monitoring Results near MRT Tunnels in Section B.

189
 Decommission Recharging Well
Commission Recharging Well

Backfilling Completed and

Release of 3rd layer strut

Release of 1st layer strut

Step 1 to RL 102.0m

Step 2 to RL 98.5m
Final to RL 92.9m
20
Settlement <<< >>> Heaving (mm)

0 Settlement Marker, SM-A

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

20
Settlement <<< >>> Heaving (mm)

0 Settlement Marker, SM-B

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

105

Piezometers at MacDonald
Piezometric Level (RL m)

103 House, P-Ca & P-Cb

101

99

97
P-Ca P-Cb

95

Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01

Date

Fig. 8. Monitoring Results near MacDonald House in Section D.

4.5 Strut Load

The diagonal struts near the existing MRT tunnels, to the south of the excavation, were preloaded to
70% of design loads, while the rest were preloaded to 30%. The design strut loads were based on
0.25γH of Peck’s diagram. The strut loads, which were measured using vibrating wire strain gauges
and load cells, are summarized in Peck’s diagrams in Figure 9. The measured pressure envelope is
0.3γH at Section B and smaller than 0.25γH at the other areas except at Section A, at the northern end.
Here the pressure envelope is as high as 0.65γH, which is even higher than 0.50γH reported earlier as
an exceptional case for excavation in Jurong Formation (Hwang, et al 1987). The high pressure was
measured only in the struts running in east-west direction; no unusual high loads were measured in the
diagonal struts at the farthest northern end. The high strut loads were recorded in the 2nd and 3rd level
struts right from the early stage when the excavation depth was only 10 to 20m. As the loads
continued to increase, additional struts had to be installed to resist the high loads. Interestingly, the

190
wall deflection was only 40mm and 0.14% of excavation depth. It is hypothesized that the high lateral
pressure could be due to high initial horizontal stress in Jurong formation, sliding block failure or load
from adjacent buildings.

0 100 200 300 400 (kPa) 0 100 200 300 400 (kPa)
RL105.0 RL103.5
RL103.0
RL103.0
0.65 ( H )
RL99.5

RL98.5

RL95.0
RL95.0

RL90.0
RL90.0

RL85.5
RL85.5

RL80.5

RL77.5

RL74.0
RL74.0

SECTION A SECTION B

Fig. 9. Peck’s Diagrams of Measured Strut Loads.

4.6 Movement of Surrounding Structure

4.6.1 MRT Tunnel
The southbound bored tunnel of the existing MRT is only 3m from the outer face of retaining wall at
Section B as shown in Figure 4. Located within S2 rock, the southbound bored tunnel was monitored
using a total station and prisms. The maximum movements in the tunnel recorded at the end of the
excavation were 9mm towards the excavation and 10mm downwards. Both the horizontal and vertical
movements increased by about 8mm during the removal stages of struts and construction of basement.
The tunnel settled another 10mm when the new NEL tunnel was constructed at a clear distance of
10m below it. The maximum deflection of the retaining wall at the same depth as the tunnel was
50mm.

4.6.2 MRT Station

The existing Dhoby Ghaut MRT station is founded on a raft on S2 rock layer with tension micropiles.
The movement of the station due to excavation was negligible as monitored by settlement markers and
EL beam sensors. The settlement recorded during excavation was 2mm to 3mm and the lateral
movement was negligible.

4.6.3 MacDonald House

MacDonald House is an old 9-storey building founded on RC piles. Non-structural cracks were found
everywhere in the building before the present construction started. As protecting MacDonald House
from further movement was an important success requirement of this project, recharge wells were
installed to reduce ground settlement. As stated earlier, the recharge wells worked so well that no
significant new cracks were discovered in the walls of MacDonald House during the excavation.

191
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Excavation of new Dhoby Ghaut station was successfully completed without causing problems to the
surrounding structures. The successful completion was due to close monitoring of the excavation by
means of extensive geotechnical instrumentation. Timely reporting of the monitoring results allowed
the excavation plan to be modified immediately when necessary to ensure a safe construction.

Our observations during the excavation are summarized as follows:

i. S2 rock was fairly permeable and groundwater level behind retaining wall was lowered almost
to the excavation level instantly. Increasing the penetration of the retaining wall below
excavation and recharging through S2 rock are not effective in reducing the lowering of
groundwater level.
ii. Monitored strut loads in Jurong Formation were generally 0.3γH or less. Locally, high strut
loads, as high as 0.65γH, were recorded. Extensive strut monitoring system allows an effective
response to unexpected high strut loads.
iii. Settlements of surrounding ground were 25% to 60% of wall deflection at locations where there
was little or no soft clay and they were 110% to 140% where there was thick soft clay. The
large settlement in soft clay was due to downward seepage of groundwater from soft clay into
the excavation, passing below the toe of retaining wall.
iv. Recharging water into F1 layer below the soft clay layer is effective in maintaining the
porewater pressure in the soft clay layer so as to reduce the consolidation settlement of the soft
clay layer.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are grateful to Land Transport Authority for permission to publish this paper and
especially thank Mr. Hiraoka, project manager of Obayashi Corporation for his suggestions and
assistance in preparing this paper.

REFERENCE
Code of Practice for Railway Protection. 1996. Land Transport Authority.
Hoek, E. & Brown, E. T. 1997. Practical Estimates of Rock Mass Strength. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics: 1-21.
Hwang, R., Quah, H. P. & Buttling, S. 1987. Measurements of Strut Forces in Braced Excavation. Singapore
Mass Rapid Transit Conference.
Lim, H. T. & Glanville, M. 1999. Systems to Monitor The Existing Station and Tunnels & Surrounding Buildings
During The Construction of NEL Dhoby Ghaut Station. International Conference on Rail Transit, 11-13
March 1999, Session 5.
Orihara, K., Tse, D. T. K. & Makino, M. 1999. Excavation for Construction of the New Dhoby Ghaut MRT
Station. Proceedings of the International Conference on Rail Transit, 11-13 March 1999, Session 5.

192
 Underground Singapore 2001

Performance of a Double Wall Cantilevered Earth

Retaining System
Kevin C.N. Quan, B. Chandrasekaran, S.K. Tang & T.L. Lim
PWD Consultants Pte Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT : In the development of a new building complex in the eastern part of Singapore, the
platform level for the new building complex had to be lowered to depths of about 9m to 11m below
the level of the existing structures. The existing structures consisting of single and double storey
residential buildings were located very close to the deep excavation at about 5m away and were
founded on shallow foundations. Due to site constraints, the retaining wall had to be designed as a
freestanding wall without any form of bracing and had to be designed as a permanent structure. In
order to minimize the ground movement and distress to the existing structures, a double wall
cantilevered earth retaining system was proposed. During and after the construction of the proposed
earth retaining system, there was no distress caused to the adjacent existing structures. In this paper
the design, construction and performance of this particular type of earth retaining system are
discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION

In Singapore due to limited land availability, many of the development works are carried out close to
existing developments may it be private housing developments or commercial developments. It is also
necessary at times to develop a site with their platform levels adjusted to suit the nature of the
development for access and other considerations.

For this project, it was required to carry out excavation to depths of about 11m to lower the platform
level of the development. With residential properties very close to the development site, it became
necessary to design a retaining system, which would be able to stand vertically with minimal lateral
displacement so as not to cause any damage to the adjacent structures. The adjacent structures are
mainly founded on shallow foundations and are very sensitive to ground movements. It became
necessary to carry out predictions before hand to ensure that the retaining system designed is able to
control the ground deformations to tolerable levels before implementation and close monitoring was
required. Inclinometers, ground settlement markers and tiltmeters were used in this project to monitor
the safety of the structures adjacent to the retaining wall. A double wall cantilevered earth retaining
system comprising of two rows of contiguous bored piles spaced at about 2.5m centre to centre with
interconnecting strut beams spaced at 2.3m centre to centre was adopted in order to minimise ground
movements to tolerable levels. Capping beams were constructed for both the front and rear rows of
contiguous bored pile wall to tie all the individual piles together.

During construction, it was necessary to ensure that proper techniques were adopted to install the
bored piles in order to minimise the damage caused to adjacent buildings. Figure No. 1 shows the
layout of the installed cantilevered bored pile wall and it can be seen how close the adjacent existing
structures are to the retaining wall.

193
In this paper, the existing site and soil conditions, the proposed retaining system and its construction
and an analysis on the performance of the retaining system will be discussed. One of the objectives of
this study is to understand the correlation between the soil stiffness and the SPT ‘N’ which will be
useful for accurate prediction of ground movements in advance and to optimise design of such nature
for future projects in similar ground conditions.

Figure 1. View of the Double Wall Cantilevered Earth Retaining System

2 EXISTING SITE AND SOIL CONDITIONS

Figure No. 1 shows the layout of the site and the proximity of the existing buildings to the retaining
wall. The detail of the proposed double wall retaining system is shown in Figure No. 2. It can be seen
that the edge of the bored pile is very close to the existing boundary wall of the existing building (less
than 1m away). The residential dwelling units were located at about 5m away from the rear row of
contiguous bored piles. The ground level of the site varies from about EL. 119.5m at the location of
the houses and retaining wall and to about EL. 108.0m, at the opposite end of the site about 60m
away.

Boundary Wall
Residential
Units EL. 118.5m

Loose Silty Sand, N ≈ 6 4.5m

EL. 112.0m
500mm x 1600mm Deep Strut
Dense Silty Sand, N ≈ 45 Beam Spaced at 2.3m c/c
EL. 109.5m
EL. 108.5m

Very Dense Silty Sand, N > 100

1m Dia. Bored Pile Spaced

1m Dia. Bored Pile Spaced at 1.15m c/c (Front Wall)
at 1.15m c/c (Rear Wall)
EL. 98.0m

EL. 92.0m

Figure 2. Layout Detail of Double Wall Cantilevered Earth Retaining System at IP 4 Location.

194
The generalised soil condition at the location where the excavation depth is about 10m is shown in
Figure No. 2. Generally, the soil conditions at this site comprise of the Old Alluvium Formation. The
Old Alluvium consists mainly of lightly cemented to cemented fine to coarse sand and is yellowish
brown and light grey in colour. Loose Old Alluvium with SPT N-value less than 10 blows is
encountered at the site and the depth from the ground level ranges from about 4m to 7m. A relatively
thin layer of weathered Old Alluvium with SPT N-values of about 40 blows to 70 blows and thickness
of about 4m is encountered below the loose Old Alluvium. Below the weathered Old Alluvium is the
very dense Old Alluvium with SPT N-value greater than 100 blows. The ground water level as
monitored from water standpipes is at about EL. 110.0m.

3 CONSTRUCTION OF THE DOUBLE WALL CANTILEVERED RETAINING SYSTEM

The double wall cantilevered retaining system, consist of two rows of contiguous bored piles, capping
beams and the strut beams. The installation of the contiguous bored pile is an important stage in the
construction of the whole retaining system. Conventionally, contiguous bored piles are installed using
temporary steel casing, which extend quite deep into the ground. The temporary steel casings are
normally inserted into the ground using vibrators. However, in this area where the structures are
founded on shallow foundation and very close to the location of the bored piles, installation of long
steel casing using vibrators would cause damage to the structure. Therefore, in such conditions, it is
necessary that the ground vibration is limited so that the damage to the adjacent structure can be
minimised.

At this site, the level of the ground water table is quite low and is below the loose Old Alluvium layer.
The dense to very dense Old Alluvium, which is present below the loose layer, is self-supporting.
Therefore, only a short length of casing extending through the loose Old Alluvium layer was required
to stabilise the borehole. The short length casing of about 6m in length was installed using it's self-
weight and with the aid of an excavator to apply some force to push it into the ground. Before the
insertion of the casing a borehole was drilled to short depth to allow the casing to be placed. This
method of installation due to the favourable ground conditions helped to considerably reduce the cost
in the installation of the contiguous bored piles. Otherwise expensive equipment such as oscillators
would have been required for installing steel casings into the ground without causing vibrations to the
ground.

The two rows of contiguous bored piles were installed from the existing ground level. After the
installation of the contiguous bored piles, the capping beam for the rear row of contiguous bored piles
were constructed. Following the construction of the capping beam, the ground in-front of the rear row
contiguous bored pile was excavated down to a depth of about 6.0m to construct the capping beam
and the struts beams to connect the rear and front row contiguous bored piles. In the final stage, after
the construction of the strut beams, the ground level in front of the front row of contiguous bored piles
was then excavated to the final formation level at EL. 108.5m.

To monitor the ground movement, inclinometers and ground settlement markers were placed at
strategic locations. The inclinometers were installed in the bored pile during the installation of the
bored pile. For the present study, the result obtained from two inclinometers, namely IP 2 and IP 4
were used. These inclinometers were located at areas where the excavation was very deep. The
excavation depth at IP 4 location as shown in Figure 2 is about 10m. At IP 2 location, the excavation
depth is about 8.5m. Tiltmeters were installed on the boundary walls as well as on the external wall of
the buildings.

4 PERFORMANCE AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF RETAINING SYSTEM

The double wall cantilevered retaining wall system was designed with the main objective of limiting
ground movements so as not to cause damage to the adjacent structures. The results obtained from the
monitoring instruments indicates that the wall has indeed performed very well and there were hardly

195
any problems caused during and after the construction of the retaining system, for the adjacent
structures as well as to the residents.

The lateral wall deflection as measured from inclinometers installed within the bored piles, are shown
in Figure 3 for inclinometers IP 2 and IP 4. From Figure 3, it can be seen that the inclinometer casing
has been disturbed down to a depth of 2m from the top. This could be due to the disturbance caused
during the construction of the capping beam. Generally, the maximum lateral displacement measured
is less than 25mm close to the top of the retaining wall. The lateral displacement decreases with depth,
typical of cantilever retaining wall system behaviour. The ground settlement markers did not measure
any significant ground settlements. The ground settlement measured was about 3mm. The tiltmeters
installed on the boundary walls also did not measure any significant tilts. The tilts measured were less
than 0.1o. Such tilt for a very short wall of about 2m in height is insignificant.

Bending moment induced in the bored piles were back-analysed using the measured deflection profile
of the wall. The bending moments induced in the bored pile can be determined from the measured pile
deflection profile using the Macaulay’s method:

M = Χ Ec (α Ig) (1)

Where, M = bending moment induced in the pile; Χ = curvature along the pile depth; Ec = modulus of
elasticity of pile (concrete); Ig = gross moment of inertia of pile section; α = reduction factor for the
reduction in the gross moment of inertia of the pile section. The details for determining the bending
moments can be obtained from the studies carried out by Poh et al. (1997 & 1998) and
Chandrasekaran et al (2000). For the back calculation, the value of the modulus of elasticity for
concrete strength of fcu = 35 N/mm2, has been adopted as 28 kN/mm2 and the reduction factor, α equal
to 0.75. The gross moment of inertia of the pile was based on a 1m diameter bored pile spaced at
1.15m c/c. The 1m diameter bored piles spaced at 1.15m c/c were reinforced with 17 nos. of T32
reinforcement bars. The maximum bending moment computed for the wall at IP 2 location was about
200 kNm/m, at a depth of about 8m below the top of the wall. The excavation depth in front of the
wall was about 8.5m. At IP 4 location, the maximum bending moment computed was about 320
kNm/m, at a depth of about 8m below the top of the wall. The excavation depth in front of the wall
was about 10m. By observing the curvature of the deflection profiles shown in Figure 3, it can be seen
that the maximum bending moment is also at about 8m depth from the top of the retaining wall.

In order, to better understand the predictability of the displacement of the retaining wall system,
numerical back-analysis was carried out using a two-dimensional finite element method. In the
analysis, the soil was modeled using the Mohr-Coulomb soil model and drained analysis was
considered. The wall and beam elements were modeled using beam elements. Interface elements were
used to model the interface between the structural element and the soil. The construction sequence as
described in Section 3 was considered in the modeling of the retaining wall.

As mentioned in Section 1, the main parameter that affects the accurate predictability of ground
movements is the soil stiffness. It is quite difficult to obtain accurate soil stiffness value for analysis
and is normally correlated to field tests such as SPT and CPT tests. The drained soil stiffness adopted
for the analysis was related to the SPT N-value. Based on pressuremeter test results obtained at
various sites underlain by the Old Alluvium formation, the drained soil stiffness, E’ is about 2 times
the SPT N-value in MPa.

For the present study, the soil stiffness E = 1.5N and E=2N were used in the analysis to better
understand the correlation factor, as in most routine analysis the soil stiffness required is related to the
SPT N-value as above mentioned. The soil parameters adopted in the analysis are given in Table 1.

The Ko-value for the Old Alluvium soil was assumed to 0.85 for layers 2 to 4 and for the loose Old
Alluvium layer no. 1, a value of 0.5 was assumed. The structural parameters for the beam elements
were assumed to be the same as mentioned in Section 3.

196
 CBP Wall Deflection with Depth CBP Wall Deflection with Depth
(IP 2 - Location) (IP 4 - Location)

Deflection (m) Deflection (m)

-0,04 -0,02 0,00 0,02 0,04 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
0,0 0

2,0 2

4,0 4

6,0 6

8,0 8
Depth (m)

Depth (m)
10,0 10

12,0 12

14,0 14 Measured
Measured Deflection
16,0 16
Defelction
18,0 18

20,0 20

Figure 3. Lateral displacement of the retaining wall at IP 2 and IP 4 locations.

Table 1. Soil parameters for Old Alluvium soils

Layer SPT Bulk Effective Eff. Friction Poisson Eff. Young’s Modulus,
No. N-value Density Cohesion Angle Ratio (kN/m2)

(kN/m3) (kN/m2) (degree) E = 1.5N E = 2N

1 < 10 18 0 28 0.33 9000 12000
2 10<N<20 19 0 30 0.33 22500 30000
3 40<N<50 19 10 30 0.33 67500 90000
4 N>100 20 35 35 0.33 150000 200000

5 DISCUSSION ON RESULTS OBTAINED

The numerical analysis results obtained are shown in Figures 4 and 5. From the comparison between
the computed wall displacement profile and the field measurements as shown in Figure 4, it can be
seen that the analysis results are in reasonably good agreement with the measured displacement
profile. In general, there is better agreement between the computed wall displacement adopting soil
stiffness, E = 2N as compared to that computed adopting E = 1.5N. The computed results show a
relatively larger toe displacement as compared to the measured displacement. The embedment of the
rear row of the contiguous bored pile wall into the very dense Old Alluvium with SPT N-value > 100
is about 11m. With such deep penetration of the piles into the very dense Old Alluvium layer, it is
unlikely that there would be any significant toe movement. The relatively large toe displacement
computed could be likely due to the soil stiffness close to the toe used in the analysis being much
lower than the actual value, as the strain mobilised is actually quite small at the wall toe. This has
been pointed out in the study conducted by Chee et. al. (1998) on numerical modeling of deep
excavations. The ground settlement computed from the FEM analysis behind the retaining wall is in
the order of about 5mm.

Figure 5 shows the comparison of the bending moment distribution along the depth of the pile. The
bending moment distribution back calculated from the measured deflection profile at the top section
of the pile does not seem to be correct. This could be due to disturbance to the inclinometer casing
caused during the construction of the capping beam as can be seen from the measured deflection at the

197
top section of the pile shown in Figure 3. In the present study, the back calculated bending moment
from the measured deflection profile along the top section is ignored. The bending moment computed
from the FEM in general is greater than the computed bending moment, using the measured deflection
profile. This larger bending moment computed from FEM could be due to the relatively large toe
movement computed in the case of FEM analysis as can be seen in Figure 4. With the relatively large
toe movement, the resulting curvature would be greater, giving rise to a larger bending moment.
However, the location of the maximum bending moment computed from the FEM analysis agrees
well with that back computed using the measured deflection profile.

CBP Wall Deflection with Depth CBP Wall Deflection with Depth
(IP 2 - Location) (IP 4 - Location)

Deflection (m) Deflection (m)

-0,04 -0,02 0,00 0,02 0,04 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
0 0

2 2

4 4

6 6

8 8
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

10 10

12 12
Measured
14 Measured 14
E = 2N
16 E = 2N 16
E = 1.5N
18 E = 1.5N 18

20 20

Figure 4. Comparison of Computed Displacement with Measured Displacement

6 CONCLUSION

The double wall cantilevered retaining system has performed satisfactorily in controlling the ground
movements to tolerable levels and the construction technique adopted for the installation of the bored
piles has been successful in minimising vibration to control damage to the adjacent structures.

The accurate prediction of ground movement is largely dependent on the soil stiffness assumed in the
analysis. Other parameters, such as the structural stiffness are fairly accurately determined. From the
study carried out it can be seen that the effective Young's Modulus of the soil is greater than 1.5N and
it is closer to E=2N. The numerical study carried out has shown that the analytical model assumed is
capable of predicting ground movements accurately and the results obtained would be useful in
designing cost effective retaining wall system in similar ground conditions in the future.

As for the forces generated in the retaining wall, the findings indicate that the forces generated are
generally larger than the expected forces. Further studies are required to establish the soil stiffness at
small strain soil close to the wall toe, which would have an influence on the forces generated along
the retaining wall.

198
 Bending Moment Along Pile Depth Bending Moment Along Pile Depth
(IP2 - Location) (IP 4 - Location)
Bending Moment (kNm) Bending Moment (kNm)
-500 -200 100 400 -500 -300 -100 100
0 0

4 4

Depth (m)
8
Depth (m)

12 12

16 16

20 20

BackCalculated from Meas. Defl Back Calculated from Meas. Defl

E = 2N
E = 2N
E = 1.5N
E = 1.5N

Figure 5. Comparison of Bending Moment Computed from FEM to Measured Deflection Profile

REFERENCES

Chandrasekaran, B., Tang, S.K. & Lim, T.L. 2000. Effect of deep excavation on piled foundation. Proc.of the
Int.Conf on Tunnels and Underground Structures, Singapore, pp. 197-200.

Chee, K.H., Tan, T.S. and Yong, K.Y. (1998). Some Considerations in Two-Dimensional FE Analysis of Deep
Excavation. Proc. 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conf., Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 467 – 472.

Poh, T.Y., Goh, A.T.C., Wong, I.H. & Wong, K.S. 1998. Behaviour of Diaphragm Walls for the Esplanade Car
Park. Nanyang Technological University - NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre. Geotechnical Research
Report NTU/GT/98-3.

Poh, T.Y., Wong, I.H. & Chandrasekaran, B. 1997. Performance of Two Propped Diaphragm Walls in Stiff
Residual Soils. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities: Vol. 11, No. 4, 190 – 199.

199
 Underground Singapore 2001

Design and construction of HarbourFront Station, North

East Line, Contract C711
S.T. Poh, D.C.Chen, C.H. Lee, C.F.Ng
Land Transport Authority

ABSTRACT: HarbourFront Station (Contract C711) is the southern most station of the 21.5
kilometre(km) long North East Line (NEL) MRT System, currently under construction and soon to be
opened in 2002. This Design and Build contract includes the construction of the main station
structure, cross-over box and sidings tunnels. It also consisted of pile installation for part of the
proposed widening and upgrading of Telok Blangah Road into a semi-expressway and underpinning
of the World Trade Centre pedestrian overhead bridge. HarbourFront Station will serve as a gateway
to Sentosa Island and as a focal point for the future HarbourFront commercial and residential
developments. Part of the station, cross-over box and sidings tunnels were designed to provide
support for these future developments. Design changes were made during the later part of the design
development of HarbourFront Station so that a future MRT line could be integrated with the station.
This paper describes the design and construction of HarbourFront Station, including the cross-over
box and sidings tunnels. The paper will also highlight the geotechnical aspects and discuss the impact
of the late design changes.

1 INTRODUCTION

HarbourFront Station is a two level station with a platform and track level approximately 16
metres(m) below ground and a concourse level approximately 9m below ground. The roof slab is
generally about 3m below ground and supports a future development above. The structure is
approximately 250m long and 20m wide at the platform level. At the concourse level, it widens to the
south side to about 40m.

The structure is designed as a Civil Defense shelter and for peacetime use. The former requirement
generally governs section sizes, and the latter governs the reinforcement quantities.

The project is a design and built contract that was awarded to Hyundai Engineering & Construction in
September 1997 and the civil and structural consultant is Ove Arup & Partners International Limited.
Accredited checking was by Mott MacDonald.

The general layout of the station and tunnels is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 shows an aerial view
of the project site.

200
Figure 1. HarbourFront Station and Tunnel Site Plan

Figure 2. Aerial View of Project Site

2 GROUND CONDITIONS

The site is immediately underlain by made-up ground (Fill) consisting of loose clayey sand to firm
sandy clay. The depth of the Fill layer varies from between 2m - 5m below the ground level.
Underlying the Fill material is a deposit of soft grey sandy clay with decomposed wood and peat. This
layer is classified as the Estuarine deposit that extends to 5.5m – 6m. Underlying the soft peaty clay is
the Jurong Formation. The Jurong Formation is a sedimentary rock formation with steeply dipping
beds and highly variable weathering with depth. The upper levels of this formation at this site consist
mainly of completely weathered mudstones, siltstones and sandstones. Recorded SPT in this material
varies from 25 to more than 100 blows. The depth at which this completely weathered mudstone
occurs varies from 8.5m – 14.0m. The groundwater level is approximately 2.0m-2.5m below ground
level.

3 RETAINING WALL DESIGN

The depth of the excavation is approximately 18.5m. Temporary support for the excavation consists of
the soldier pile wall scheme with sheetpile lagging in the upper soils and shotcrete lagging in the

201
weathered rock formation. The working design had 5 levels of struts for station and tunnels. The
analysis and design of the retaining wall involved the following computational steps:

a) Determine the minimum toe embedment required for base stability

b) Determine appropriate wall section to ` enters` deflection of retaining wall and to resist the
induced bending moment and shear force
c) Design strutting system for the retaining wall
d) Check for overall stability.

The design soil parameters used in the analysis is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Summary of soil parameters

Stratum Cu qu Eu E’
2 2 2 2
(kN/m ) (MN/m ) (MN/m ) (MN/m )
__________________________________________________________________________________
Cohesive soils 5N - 500Cu -
Granular soils - - - 300√qu
Sedimentary rock - 2.0 - -
(Note: Cu is undrained shear strength; N is SPT N-value; qu is unconfined compressive strength; Eu is undrained
modulus; E’ is drained modulus)

The soldier piles consisted of 356×368×202 kg/m universal columns spaced at 1.6m ` enters and
penetrated 2m into the Jurong Formation rock. FSP-III sheetpiles were driven through the clay layer as
a secondary wall while shotcrete was used as lagging for the weathered rock below the sheetpiles. At
utility crossings, timber lagging was used instead. The struts consisted of compound struts (double I-
beams) spaced at 9m horizontally. The design of the retaining wall together with the required strutting
system was carried out using the Oasis/GEO program FREW. Preloading of 50kN/m was carried out
to remove any slack in the strutting system.

The retaining wall design was carried out based on undrained condition considering hydrostatic water
pressure. However, due to the fractured nature of the Jurong Formation the drained condition using
the Hoek & Brown approach for fractured rock was also checked. The design review adopting
c’=40kPa and φ’=30° for fractured rock was carried out, in particular to check the stability of 2m toe-
in.

4 STATION DESIGN

The structure is designed as a Civil Defense shelter, and this resulted in significant constraints on the
structural form, size and reinforcement detailing method. The outermost structure, the “external hull”
which includes the roof slabs, external walls and baseslab that is less than 15 m deep are designed to
provide protection from direct and indirect weapons effects.

The roof slab is designed as a continuous two way spanning flat slab of 1950mm thick over the Zone
of Gas and Blast Protection and a minimum of 900mm over the other zones. It is supported vertically
on the perimeter walls, internal columns and selected internal load bearing walls.

In addition to gravity loads, the roof slab is required to support a future development building and
surcharge for areas outside the building perimeter. The station is also designed for “Debris load”
which is additional load due to the effect of a collapsed building adjacent to it. This applies to the
whole station area including the below ground entrance structure which are designated as a zone of
moderate debris hazard.

All vertical loads are designed to carry through the structure to the base slab, and from there into the
underlying ground in direct bearing. The structural analysis is based on the elastic method assuming
that the soil behaves like an infinite number of individual elastic springs. Spring stiffnesses are
determined by analysing the soil-structure interaction to determine the deflection due to load. As the
underlying material has a high allowable bearing pressure and low settlement characteristics this is
not considered to pose any significant structure problems for founding or due to differential
movements. Lateral loading on the structure is resisted by passive pressure on the walls from the
surrounding soils.

202
Uplift due to water pressure is resisted by a combination of the self-weight of the structure, the weight
of the fill above the box and by extension of the baseslab with a toe to mobilise the weight of the soil
surrounding the box. As the structure is fairly shallow, buoyancy is a critical condition for the design
of the box.

Figure 3 shows the typical cross section of the station indicating the platform, concourse and roof
levels.

5 SIDINGS AND CROSSOVER TUNNELS DESIGN

The Sidings Tunnels is situated at the geographical west of the station. As this contract forms the
southern end of the NEL, this section of the track provides crossover and temporary stabling facilities
of the trains. It consists of three parallel running tunnels approximately 250m in length, 6.5m wide by
5.6m high and the tunnel invert is approximately 16m below ground. The structure is a ground
bearing, reinforced concrete box constructed from the bottom up within a braced excavation. The
structure also supports a future building to be constructed above the tunnels.

The Crossover Tunnels are located to the geographical east of the station. This potion of the work
allows for a rail crossover, after which the tracks are continued through the bored tunnels of contract
C710 connecting to the Outram Park Station. The Crossover tunnels consist of two combined runnings
tunnels approximately 100m in length, 8m wide and 5.6m high. The structure is similar to the Sidings
tunnel and is also constructed by bottom up method. The tunnel supports a future building that is the
same development above the station.

As the tunnels are found mostly on stiff rock, the longitudinal action of the tunnels is not critical to
the design of the tunnels. The lateral analysis therefore governs the member thickness and they are
sized to accommodate the loads imposed by earth water and future developments above.

Flotation is a critical condition for the tunnels and additional weight of structure above that required
for the design force is required. This additional concrete is distributed between the roof slab and base
to minimise the amount of reinforcement in them. No distribution was made to the walls in order to
keep the excavation to the minimum.

6 STATION AND TUNNELS CONSTRUCTION

The station and tunnels were constructed with the “Bottom Up” approach. As part of the station and
tunnel is sited below the heavily traveled Telok Blangah Road, diversion of services and the road were
carried out in order that the construction work can proceed. There is also a linkway below the road
linking Entrance 1 and 4 to the station, as shown in Figure 1. Entrance 1 serves an existing bus
interchange that will be re-developed in the future. Entrance 4 serves a taxi stand along west bound
Telok Blangah Road. It was important that the road was kept opened at all. Many container trucks use
this road to transport containers between Tanjong Pagar and Pasir Panjang. The area around World
Trade Centre also serves as the drop off point for tourists and passengers visiting Sentosa and as a
embarking and disembarking point for cruises. As these activities were considered to be vital to the
economy of Singapore, disruption to both vehicular and pedestrian the traffic was kept to a minimum.

6.1 Station and Tunnel Excavation

The soldier piles were installed by pre-boring along the perimeter of the station and tunnel and the
average depth is about 18 metres. Temporary struts and walers were installed as the excavation
progresses. The surrounding structures and areas were monitored with various geotechnical
instruments for tilting, settlement and ground water monitoring. Temporary road decking with anti-
skid paint was also constructed for diversion of road. Road diversions were carried out in a total of
five stages over the period of construction of the station and tunnels. Each stage of the road diversion
was carried out according to the progress of the station and tunnels.

The soil excavated consists of suitable and unsuitable spoil. Spoils were transported to two different
dumping sites administered by the authorities. Table 2 shows the actual volume of both suitable and
unsuitable soil excavated.

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Table 2. Volume of Spoil Excavated
Suitable Spoil (m3) Unsuitable Spoil (m3) Total (m3)
Station 151,336 41,920 193,256
Siding Tunnel 123,368 14,736 138,104
Cross-Over Tunnel 25,456 13,144 38,600
Total (m3): 300,160 69,800 369,960

6.2 Station and Tunnel Construction Work

Generally the station and tunnel were constructed in a similar manner. The base slab is first cast
followed by the external wall and finally the roof slab. Waterproofing was provided for the station
and tunnel at the base slab, external wall and roof slab. However cavity drains are provided along the
perimeter of the external wall for drainage of seepage water to be pumped out of the station. Tables 3,
4, and 5 show the amount of steel reinforcement, concrete, formwork, construction bays and member
sizes used for the construction of HBF station. To shorten the duration of the station and tunnel
construction, system forms were used as it increased the efficiency compared to the convention
formwork. The casting of the station and tunnel are divided into bays or zones.

Table 3. Summary of work duration and materials used

Station Siding Tunnel Cross-Over Tunnel
Duration (Days) 985 282 241
Concrete (m3) 69,189 28,418 7,542
Steel Reinforcement (m3) 21,195 5,522 2,583
Formwork (m3) 64,500 22,600 11,500

Table 4. Summary of construction bays

Bays/ Zones

Station 26
Siding Tunnel 13
Cross Over Tunnel 6

Table 5. Section sizes of main structural elements

Elements Thickness (mm)
Station
- Roof Slab 900 to 2250
- Base Slab 1950 to 3380
- Platform Slab 200 to 300
- Concourse Base Slab 1050 to 2740
- Concourse Suspended Slab 900 to 1000
- External Wall 900 1950
- Intermediate Wall (Load Bearing) 300 to 1500
- Intermediate Wall (Non-Load Bearing) 200

Siding Tunnel
- Roof Slab 1900 to 2500
- Base Slab 1500 to 3200
- External Wall 1000
- Intermediate Wall 800

Cross Over Tunnel

- Roof Slab 1200
- Base Slab 1200 to1500
- External Wall 1000
- Intermediate Wall 800

Construction joints were provided by means of Hyrib or convention timber strips. Hydrotite
Hydrophilic strips were used for all vertical and horizontal joints to serve as a water bar. The special

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function of this Hydrotite is that it will expand upon contact with water from the subsequent pour of
the concrete, thus sealing any joint gaps.

Voltex GL was used as a waterproofing barrier for the base slab for the station and tunnel. It is an
8mm thick composite of high swelling contaminant resistant Volclay sodium bentonite encapsulated
between 2 high strength woven and non-woven polypropylene geotextiles. Elasphalt 3170 is a
bituminous membrane used for the external wall and roof. Protection to the membrane is by means of
hollow blocks before backfilling.

Figure 3. Typical cross section of the station

6.3 Construction Sequence for Cut and Cover Station and Tunnels

The following are the typical sequence of construction of work for the station and tunnels:

a) Casting of lean concrete followed by laying of the waterproofing membrane;

b) Base slab reinforcement are laid and cast;
c) Removal of 5th strut;
d) Casting of external and intermediate concrete walls up to the second construction joint.
e) Removal of 4th strut;
f) Casting of roof slab and remaining external and intermediate concrete wall;
g) Waterproofing works and water test are carried out on the roof slab before backfilling;
h) Progressive removal of 3rd, 2nd and 1st strut as backfilling was carried out;
i) Removal of soldier and sheet piles, and
j) Reinstatement of road and surrounding area.

One of the biggest volume of concrete casting was for part of the roof slab. The total volume cast was
2086 m3. A total of 4 pump cars with a capacity of 30 m3 per hour were used and completion of the
concreting was achieved in 26 hours. Most of the large volume casting was carried out in the night
taking into consideration that high day-time temperature would influence the quality of the concrete.
Concrete temperature was constantly monitored to control the risk of thermal cracking. Another
important consideration is ensuring that the supply of concrete remained uninterrupted during the
concreting process to prevent cold joints from forming. This was achieved by procuring the concrete
from two different suppliers with an additional backup source.

7 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

7.1 Provision for future developments over the stations and tunnels

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Two future developments were catered for in the design of the station and tunnels. In the absence of
detailed information at the start of the contract, the developments have been notionally named as
“Development One” and “Development Two” with the intention that these will be renamed when their
design are advanced.

Development One is located in front of the existing Expo Gateway and occupied part of the area of
the Exhibition halls that were demolished. The building will be partly supported on the station and
Crossover tunnels and partly supported on the foundations to be built in the future when the building
is constructed.

For the areas of the development building above the railway structure, the loads would be transferred
via the stub columns into the walls and columns of the stations and tunnels, as shown in Figure 4. The
loads would then be transferred directly onto the bedrock on which the station and tunnels are found.
No piles are being provided beneath the station and tunnels structures. The column loads of the
building have been positioned, where possible, to be directly above the vertical elements of the
railway structures to avoid the need for transfer structures. Where this cannot be done such as over
part of the Crossover tunnels, upstand beams are provided to transfers the column loads to the tunnel
walls.

The future developer will be required to breakout the part of the stub columns and provide lapping of
the reinforcement to create the physical connections.

The design of the station also allowed future connection to adjacent development by means of
knockout panels at the Concourse level. These knockout panels are situated at Grid D7-8 and E15-16
and dimensions are 8.7 metres long by 4.05 meters high. The structures are designed to facilitate
future breakout. This is done by ensuring that the structure can span across the breakout and by
detailing the reinforcement to facilitate future breakout without compromising the integrity of the
existing structure. A physical joint is not preferred in this case as it may lead to durability problems
in the station. The future developer will need to adopt non-percussive method of breakout such as
saw cutting and diamond drilling.

Figure 4. Future development column stubs above station roof slab

Development Two is located to the West of World Trade Centre adjacent to Telok Blangah Road, in
the area currently occupied by Car Park B. The entire building is assumed to be supported on the
Sidings Tunnels. The columns have been positioned and aligned to be directly above the tunnel walls
to avoid the need for transfer structure. The loads are similarly transferred via the stub columns onto
the tunnel walls down to the beadrock on which the tunnels are founded.

7.2 Provision for future MRT line

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The contractor was required to make provision in the later stage of the design phase of Contract C711
to cater for a future MRT line. The intention was to make minimum changes to the NEL structures
but allow sufficient flexibility for the future MRT line to be integrated with the NEL structures. Thus
no changes were made to the station design and provisions were incorporated only at the Siding and
Crossover tunnel box to minimise the impacts to the live C711 contract.

The provision was made assuming a future station extension to the south of the NEL station. To
facilitate the future integration of the tunnels, knockout panels and provisions to change or extend the
spans of NEL tunnels slabs are required. Member sizes of the structural elements are maintained with
additional structural capacity provided by increased reinforcement. In addition, one of the columns
for the future Telok Blangah Semi-Expressway (TBSE) Viaduct is supported on a transfer pilecap
which spans across the envelope of the future bored tunnel and allows future MRT tunnels to pass
through. For this particular viaduct column, the pile capacity is required to be developed below the
invert of the future tunnel.

At the Crossover tunnel box, provision was made to cater for future knockout of part of the wall to the
North, and the slabs and upstand beams were designed to span to the future tunnel wall. A similar
provision was made at the South. Figure 5 shows the typical construction sequence for the integration
at the tunnel box.

Provide Provide
couplers couplers
for future for future
connection connection

Step 1: Current C711 arrangement

Existing tunnel walls to be

demolished

Build Additional Build

future wall built future
wall before wall
breakout

Step 2a: Build future walls

Step 2b: Demolish existing walls

Step 3: Final configuration

Figure 5. Typical construction sequence for future integration at the tunnels

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The contractor for the future MRT structures will be required to study in more detail the impact to the
existing NEL station and tunnels and for effects of floatation, stability, lateral loads, dewatering and
settlement.

8 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING CONSTRUCTION

8.1 Soft spot at Sidings tunnel

The sidings tunnels are located to the geographical west of the station. It consists of three parallel
running tunnels approximately 250m in length, 6.5m wide and 5.6m high, with the tunnel invert
approximately 16m below ground level.

During the additional site investigation carried out by the Contractor, it was discovered that an area of
the sidings tunnels on the southern side was underlain by a deeper zone of residual soil (S4) than
initially anticipated. This ‘soft spot’ consisted of silt clay/clayey silt with SPT N values of less than
10. As this zone of ‘soft spot’ extended to below the formation level of the Sidings Tunnels, ground
treatment was required in order to strengthen this area.

The ‘soft spot’ was treated with chemical grouting using the Tube-a-Manchete (TAM) method to
minimise the ingress of groundwater into the excavation. The grouting scheme was carried out in two
phases, with 26 holes at phase 1. Subsequently, at phase 2, re-grouting was carried out using the phase
1 holes and a further 24 grouting holes to close the gaps.

It was believed that the ‘soft spot’ is a fault zone that runs across the sidings tunnel at this locations.
In fact, observations made during the excavation showed that the zone of soft residual soil also
extended to the north side of the sidings tunnels.

8.2 Congestion of Reinforcement at External Concrete Wall and Base Slab

Congestion of reinforcement at the external concrete wall of 900 to 1000mm thickness occurred
mostly at the location of the lapping of reinforcement bars. The reinforcement used ranged from T32
to T25 bars. To increase productivity in the placement of reinforcement and the concern of casting
and compaction of the wall, reinforcement couplers were used to overcome these difficulties, as
shown in Figure 6.

Congestion of reinforcement also occurred in the track level base, concourse base and roof slab. The
slab thickness range from 1200 to 3380mm. The huge thickness of the slab due to the fact that the
slabs are designed to satisfy Civil Defense requirements and also against to counteract uplift exerted
by the ground water pressure. Because of the two consideration, thickness of the slab and
reinforcement are increased. Most of the congestion is due to the longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement at the top and bottom of the slab meeting at the corner and lapping areas, at and the
anchorage into the external wall. These had resulted the same problem encountered for the external
wall. However, the site team managed to control the quality of works within acceptance.

The site team worked closely with the contractor to identify the areas where congestion of
reinforcement were encountered. The areas were marked on plan and focused during casting and
compaction to ensure good quality works were achieved. Smaller diameter vibrators were used in
these areas and casting was extremely slow to ensure that the concrete reached the congestion areas.

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Figure 6. Example of coupler connectors for reinforcement at external concrete wall

8.3 Casting Difficulties of the Blast Valves

There are altogether three stretches of blast valves in the station along the perimeter of the blast walls.
The problem was the vast number of valves along the whole of the wall. Together with the large
volume and diameter of the reinforcement and shear links and the valves, that left very little space for
the concrete. The main concern here was ensuring proper compaction of the concrete at the bottom of
the wall.

A typical section of wall with blast valves is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. One of the three internal blast valves walls in the station

A special mix design of chipping concrete of Grade 45 with high slump was used, as the normal
20mm aggregates would cause honeycombing and segregation. Placing of the concrete was by means
of a flexible hose that would allow it to be inserted between valves and the reinforcement. Small
diameter vibrators were used for compaction. Due to the difficulty of placing and compacting the

209
concrete around there tight spaces, the concreting process took twice the usual time to cast a
conventional reinforced concrete wall. Overall, the result was satisfactory and the integrity of the
walls were not compromised, as can be seen from the photograph of the completed wall in Figure 8.

Figure 8. After stripping of formwork, there are no adverse honeycombed

9 CONCLUSIONS

It is not unusual for a project of this magnitude such as the NEL C711 to face changes and problems
during the design and construction process. Forward planning of the design and construction work in
terms of constructability is of utmost importance to avoid undesirable site constraints during the
construction phase. NEL C711 had progressed well ahead in terms of construction programme
despite late changes made to the design and the quality of construction has been good. These were
due to the dedication of the contractor, designers and the Authority to deliver a project that meets
World Class Standards.

REFERENCE

Chen, D.C., Osborne, N., Shim.J.D. & Hong,E., 2000. An observational approach to the monitoring of the
excavation at HarbourFront Station, Singapore. Proceedings, International Conference on Tunnelling and
Underground Structures. Singapore: Balkema.
Hoek, E. & Brown, E.T., 1980. Underground Excavation in Rock. London: Institute of Mining and Metallaurgy.

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Modelling of Non-Horizontal Soil Profiles in Deep

Excavation Analysis
F.H. Lee, A.S.M. Nasim and K.Y. Yong
The National University of Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT: In numerical analysis of deep excavations, it is often assumed that the soil layers are of
uniform thickness. This is usually done to facilitate easier generation of the finite element mesh and
prescription of initial stress states of the soil. In many commercially available numerical codes, the
initial stress states can be specified as a function of the depth in horizontally layered soil profiles. In
non-horizontally layered soil profiles, initial states must be prescribed element-by-element, which is a
much more tedious affair. The amount of data entry work involved is particularly voluminous for
three-dimensional analyses. For this reason, the attraction of idealizing a soil profile into a horizontally
layered system is evident. In reality, soil profiles are generally non-horizontal. If the initial stress
prescription for such profiles can be automated and thereby made less tedious, it will overcome one of
the difficulties associated with using a more realistic non-horizontal profile. In this paper, an
algorithm, which was incorporated into the CRISP90 program for specifying initial vertical and
horizontal stress states as well as over-consolidation ratios is described. This algorithm allows
different material zones at the same depth to assume different initial stresses and over-consolidation
ratios. To equilibrate imbalance forces at the boundaries of different material zones, an equilibration
stage is added to the start of the analysis to allow equilibration of stresses. The algorithm is
demonstrated on a case study of an excavation, which also illustrates the significance of proper
geometry modeling of soil profiles.

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, finite element (FE) analysis has become a popular tool for analyzing ground settlement
around an excavation. The prediction of a FE model depends upon many factors, including the
geometric idealization applied, model for soil behaviour, initial conditions and states, as well as
modeling of construction sequence. Many studies have been conducted into the effect of constitutive
model on the behaviour of geotechnical systems (e.g. Jardine et al. 1986). Some geometric aspects
have also been investigated, such as the strengthening effects of corners in deep excavations (e.g. Liu
et al. 1996, Lee et al. 1998, Ou and Chiou 1993). However, ground profiles and conditions also
introduce geometric complexities into the boundary value problem. Natural soil profiles are often
neither horizontal nor uniform and soil strata may be inclined and variable in thickness. Yet, in FE
analysis, soil layers are often modeled as horizontal layers of uniform thickness (e.g. Lee et al. 1993a,
Lee et al. 1993b). This probably arises because most FE codes are particularly suited to dealing with
horizontally stratified soil profiles, especially when it comes to specification of initial conditions. For
instance, initial conditions for horizontally stratified soil profiles are conveniently prescribed in SAGE
CRISP as functions of the elevation (SAGE Engineering 1996). For non-horizontal soil layers, this
option cannot be used and initial conditions must be specified for each element and integration point,
thereby resulting in a huge increase in data input workload. In any case, initial conditions are not
readily defined in cases where the soil profile is non-horizontal. SIGMA/W and PLAXIS allow two
methods of initial state specification (GEO-SLOPE 1995, PLAXIS BV 1998). The first method
consists of calculating the vertical stress assuming horizontal soil profile and allowing the user to
specify the K0-value for each material zone. This method will hereafter be referred to as “material-
specific K0 prescription” and is only strictly correct if the soil profile is horizontal. Moreover, the over-

211
consolidation ratio (OCR), and thus K0, can vary within a thick soil layer; this cannot be dealt with by
material-specific K0 prescription. The second method consists of allowing the stresses to come into
equilibrium in a gravity turn-on process. This “gravity turn-on” method is better at ensuring
equilibrium of the initial stresses but does not readily handle stratified soil conditions, especially
where the OCR differs substantially from one layer to another. Moreover, many simple soil models
such as linear elastic model, Mohr-Coulomb model and Cam Clay models do not produce realistic K0-
values under one-dimensional consolidation. Hence, the K0-values generated by the “gravity turn-on”
method are unlikely to be realistic. Whilst K0-values may not have a significant effect on failure loads
and bearing capacity, they are likely to have a more significant effect in problems of displacement
under working load conditions.

It is thus not surprising that a majority of geotechnical analyses tend to assume an idealized horizontal
soil profile. And yet, although we know that real soil profiles are often neither horizontal nor uniform,
the effect of assuming horizontal soil profiles has not been well-studied. In this paper, the effects of
assuming horizontal soil profiles are studied by comparing three-dimensional FE predictions using
various idealized soil profiles to field data from a deep excavation in marine clay overlying Old
Alluvium. The study was conducted using the FE code CRISP. The changes which were made to
CRISP to allow a rationale prescription of the initial states of sloping soil profiles are first described.
This is followed by a description of the construction details and ground conditions of the instrumented
deep excavation site. A comparison of the predictions resulting from various idealizations then
follows, using the measured field data as reference.

2 PRESCRIPTION OF INITIAL STATES

As shown in Figure 1, when a sloping soil profile is present, both the over consolidation ratio (OCR)
and the horizontal effective stresses, on either side of the sloping layer are not the same. However,
horizontal equilibrium will require that there be continuity of stresses across the sloping interface
between the two soil layers. In this study, the first requirement of differences in horizontal stresses at
the same depth was met by generalizing the mode of prescription of initial conditions in the program
CRISP. As mentioned earlier, in CRISP, initial conditions are prescribed as a function of depth. This
has the flexibility of allowing the K0-value to vary within a thick soil layer. However, it has the
limitation that the K0-value cannot be prescribed to reflect differences in soil types at a given depth, as
illustrated in Figure 1. In order to overcome this limitation, the mode of prescription of initial
conditions in CRISP was generalized to allow both depth and material-specific K0 prescription. This is
achieved by scaling up the depth-specific horizontal stresses and the OCR values by material-specific
scaling factors.

The calculations are carried out using the following equations

σ' x1 = σ' x R 'σx ο + m ox ( y ox − y) (1)

σ' z1 = σ' z R ' σz ο + m oy ( y oy − y) (2)

where σ’x and σ’z are depth-specific horizontal effective stresses in the lateral X- and Z-directions,
respectively, corresponding to a selected reference soil type, and are set within the initial conditions
table of the CRISP input (.mpd) file. R’σxo and R’σyo are material-specific scaling factors which allow
the depth-specific horizontal effective stresses σ’x and σ’z to be adjusted for different material types,
mox and moy are material-specific parameters which controls the rate of increase of horizontal effective
stresses with depth, within a single soil layer, yox and yoy are material-specific reference depths
corresponding to mox and moy, respectively, and y is the depth of the point to be set.

Certain soil models also require prescription of the isotropic pre-consolidation pressure p’c in order to
define the in-situ yield surface. In CRISP, p’c is prescribed as a depth-specific parameter; which does
not allow differences in p’c to be reflected for different soil layers at the same depth. To overcome this
limitation, p’c is scaled using the relation

212
Figure 1. Stress states across a sloping interface between two soil strata.

p’c1 = {R0 + fO(yO – y)}p’c0 (3)

in which
p’c1 is the isotropic preconsolidation stress for a given soil layer,
p’c0 is the depth-specific isotropic preconsolidation stress for the reference soil layer,
R0 is the material-specific scaling factor at a chosen reference depth yO, and
fO is a material-specific parameter which controls the rate of increase in R0 with depth.

As indicated in Equations 1 to 3, nine additional material parameters, namely R’σxo, R’σyo, mox,, moy,
yox, yoy, p’c0, R0 and fO, are required in the material parameter table of the main program input data.
These data are inputted in a continuation line of Record D of the main program input data (.mpd) file.

The above method of prescribing initial stresses does not automatically ensure that the resulting stress
state is in equilibrium. In order to achieve initial equilibrium, a correction is done at the beginning of
the analysis using a stage in which no activity occurs or loading applied, to eliminate unbalanced
forces. This method of prescribing and equilibrating initial stresses in no way represents the build-up
of in-situ stresses during the formation of the soil profile, which, in any case, is likely to be uncertain.
However, it does have the advantage of readily and easily generating complex initial states that may be
required to represent real ground conditions, while at the same time satisfying the basic requirement of
equilibrium.

3 CASE STUDY

The project chosen for case study is the deep excavation for basement construction at the Traffic
Police Headquarter at Jalan Ubi, Singapore. The project comprises of a five-storey superstructure and
three levels of basement. As shown in Figure 2, the excavation is roughly rectangular in plan, and
measured 98 m x 58 m. The depth of the excavation was 11.2 meters. The retaining system consisted
of sheet pile wall with three levels of struts

Figure 3 shows the sheet pile types and configurations used in this excavation. On the western side of
the excavation, which is in close proximity to the existing facilities, the retaining wall consisted of
double FSP IV sheet piles, welded back-to-back into box sections, socketed at a depth of 25 m below
ground surface. On the other three sides, the retaining wall consisted of double FSP IIIA sheet piles,
welded back-to-back into box sections, socketed at a depth of 18 m below ground surface. The
stiffness of these sheet piles was enhanced by H 200x200x65 kg/m soldier piles driven into alternate
sheet pile boxes to a depth of 25 m. The sheet pile wall was internally braced with three levels of

213
Figure 2. Plan view of deep excavation for Traffic Police Headquarters.

Figure 3. Plan view of sheet pile wall connection.

preloaded steel struts. Figure 2 shows the layout of the strutting system whilst Table 1 shows the strut
sizes and loads.

The soil profile of the excavation site is show in Figure 4. The soil profile consisted essentially of
three formations. The topmost formation is a layer of fill that comprises of loose pebbly sand with rock
fragments. This is underlain by a marine clay formation with thickness ranging from 4 m to 10 m. The
marine clay formation is interleaved with soft peaty clay at certain locations e.g. BH4, BH7 and BH8.
In-situ shear strength measurements indicate an undrained shear strength ranging from about 22 kPa at
the top of the formation to about 35 kPa at the bottom. Underlying the marine clay formation is the
Old Alluvium formation, which consisted of three soil layers at this site. The topmost layer is a loose,
clayey, coarse-grained sand with SPT-values less than or equal to 8. This is underlain by a layer of
medium dense silty sand with SPT-value up to 30. Below this lies dense to very dense silty sand with
SPT values generally exceeding 50.

Bored piles of 900mm diameter for the foundation were installed concurrently with the sheet pile wall.
Following this, excavation was carried out in four levels. The excavation area was divided equally into
four cells, as shown in Fig.3.8. Excavation and strutting of each layer was continued from cell to cell
in a routine manner. Thus on completion of the excavation of Cell I down to the first level at a depth of
1.5m below the ground surface, strutting and preloading for that Cell began. At the same time

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Figure 4. Soil profile at Traffic Police Headquarters excavation site.

excavation in neighboring Cells continued to the first level of excavation depth. This cycle was
continued until one level of excavation is completed, after that next level of excavation had been
carried out in the same process. The sequence of excavation and strutting of the modeled quadrant,
which is located in Cell I, is shown I Table 3.3 It can be easily inferred from Table 3.3 that within each
cell, there is very little overlapping of activities. Hence, analysis of ground movements does not
require separating overlapping activities as far as cause of movement is concerned.

After completion of the final level of excavation and reaching to the formation level at 9.8m, the
upward construction of the basement began. The raft foundation was cast and construction of the
sidewalls commenced. On reaching the specific height, third levels of struts were dismantled. This
process of casting the floor slab followed by dismantling of temporary struts continued until all the
levels of struts were dismantled and the ground floor slab was completed.

4 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Figure 5 shows the location of the modeled quadrant of the excavation. In Figure 5, the soil profile
within the modeled quadrant is reflected in boreholes BH2, BH3 and BH6. As can be seen, the
thickness of the marine clay layer varies from about 9 m at BH2 to about 4 m at BH3 and BH6.

As shown in Figure 6, the modeled quadrant of the excavation was simulated as a block with
dimensions of 90 m x 25 m x 70 m in the X-, Y- and Z- directions, respectively. The size of the block
was selected to ensure that the mesh boundaries were located sufficiently far from the corner of the
excavation; this being determined from mesh sensitivity analyses. It should be noted that the model
quadrant dimensions were not chosen on the basis of quadrant symmetry; which, in any case, does not
exist on account of the varying thickness of the soil layers. The idealized geometry of the modeled
quadrant was adopted to avoid complicated distorted elements and to allow the whole excavation to be
modeled using brick elements. For this reason, the shape of the excavation was idealized to be
perfectly rectangular, even though the actual excavation was actually slightly non-rectangular.

Another idealization was made in modelling the retaining system of the excavation. As mentioned
earlier, the sheet piles were driven down to a depth of 25 m along the western boundaries. Along the
other three boundaries, the penetration depth was 18 m. However, soldier piles (H-sections) were
driven into alternate boxes of the double sheet piles as toe pins, down to a depth of 25 m. The small
centre-to-centre distance of 400 mm between adjacent toe pins, being two times the width of the toe
pin, is likely to be able to inhibit soil flow in between the toe pins. For this reason, the retaining wall
was idealized as having an embedment depth of 25m throughout, but possessing a non-uniform

215
Figure 5. Plan view of modeled quadrant.

Figure 6. Finite element mesh of modeled quadrant.

flexural rigidity along different boundaries and at different depths to reflect the different sheet pile
sections used at the different boundaries as well as the sole presence of toe pins below 18 m depth
along the southern boundary. The sheet pile sections are assumed to be impermeable.

The lower boundary of the FE mesh was set at the very dense and stiff sand layer. The bottom
boundary was fully fixed since deformation at the stiff sand layer is likely to be negligible compared to
that at the marine clay layer. The four vertical sides of the mesh are constrained to move in-plane.
Since the effect of pore water pressure dissipation on the behaviour of an excavation is significant,
consolidation analyses were performed. The sides and bottom of the mesh were prescribed as
impermeable boundaries. The mesh boundary locations were set far enough to ensure that the
dissipation of pore pressure within elements is unlikely to be affected by the pore pressure boundary
conditions. The assumption of impermeable boundaries at the sides precludes the development of
steady state seepage conditions into the excavation after very long time. This does not significantly
affect the results of the analyses since steady state seepage conditions are unlikely to developed within
the relatively short time scale of the excavation anyway. The bottom of the excavation was modelled
as a drained boundary since it is exposed to the atmosphere.

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 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 7. Wall deflection at sections ss, xx, zz, bb and ee after second level of excavation.

The Modified Cam Clay (MCC) model (Roscoe and Burland, 1968) was used to describe the
behaviour of the soils in this study. Chua (1990) showed that the triaxial compression behaviour of
remoulded, reconsolidated Singapore marine clay is reasonably well-represented by MCC. However,
there is greater divergence between the behaviour of the ‘undisturbed’ Singapore marine clay and that
described by MCC; the main differences being attributable to small strain non-linearity, anisotropy and
destructuration (e.g. Chong 1999, Nasim 1999, Ng 2001). More advanced models (e.g. Nasim 1999,
Wong et al. 2001, Ng 2001), which are based on generalization of the MCC, now exist which appear
to be able to reflect the behaviour of in-situ marine clay better than MCC. However, most require a
significantly larger number of soil parameters than MCC. Most of these soil parameters cannot be
deduced from the soil tests conducted for this site. Furthermore, a satisfactory database of soil
parameters for MCC is available for marine clay (e.g. Quan 1994, Chee 1995), whereas such a
database is still unavailable for the additional parameters required for the more general models. Thus,
the available information at this site is insufficiently detailed to justify the use of more advanced
models than MCC. Finally, previous work by Quan (1994), Liu (1995), Chee (1995) and Lee et al.
(1998) indicate that reasonable prediction of excavation behaviour may be achieved using MCC. Table
2 shows the soil properties used in the analysis.

217
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 8. Wall deflection at sections ss, xx, zz, bb and ee after third level of excavation.

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The wall and ground response was analysed using three different FE meshes. The first mesh assumes a
uniform marine clay layer thickness of 9.8m, which corresponds to the thickest marine clay layer
within the modeled quadrant; this will hereafter be termed as the ‘maximum thickness model’. The
second assumes a uniform marine clay layer thickness of 7.3m, which corresponds to an “average”
value of the marine clay thickness within the modeled quadrant, obtained by considering the marine
clay layer thickness at BH2, BH3, BH5 and BH6; this will hereafter be termed as the ‘average
thickness model’. The third analysis assumes a marine clay layer thickness which varies according to
the interpreted soil profile from the site investigation; this will hereafter be termed as the ‘variable
thickness model’. Since brick elements are used in the analysis, the sloping profile of the marine clay
layer was represented approximately in a stepwise fashion. Figure 2 shows the sections at which the
predicted and measured wall deflection profiles will be compared. The five sections bb, ee, ss, xx and
zz are located at distances of 8m, 18m, 5m, 37m and 48m, respectively from the corner of the
excavation.

218
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 9. Wall deflection at sections ss, xx, zz, bb and ee after final level of excavation

Figures 7 to 9 show the predicted and measured deflection profiles at five sections, viz. bb, ee, ss, xx
and zz, after the second, third and final level of excavation. As is to be expected, the maximum
thickness model leads to gross over-prediction of wall deflection at all stages of excavation, in some
cases by as much as three times the measured deflection. The average thickness model leads to much
more realistic levels of wall deflection. However, wall deflection remains consistently over-predicted.
This may be attributed to the fact that the ‘average’ marine clay thickness was arrived at taking into
account the thickness of the marine clay layer at BH5, which is located well inside the excavation,
whereas the other boreholes are located nearly adjacent to the wall. Thus, if wall deflection is to be
predicted using a code which does not have facilities to model sloping soil profiles, care may need to
be taken to ensure that greater weight is given to those boreholes which are located nearer to the wall
in estimating the ‘average’ thickness. In general, the variable thickness model appears to yield closer
agreement with field measurement than the ‘average’ thickness model, and has no consistent trend of
over- or under-prediction. Little or no adjustment of soil parameters was undertaken in the analysis, so
that a systematic bias towards any of the analyses can be ruled out. However, the possibility that a
fortuitous choice of soil parameters favouring the variable thickness model, cannot be eliminated.
What is significant is that the average thickness model leads to a substantially larger predicted wall
deflection that incorporating the sloping soil profile. This is particularly evident at sections bb, ee and
ss, where the actual marine clay thickness is less than the ‘average’ value of 7.3m. Furthermore, even

219
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 10. Computed and measured final ground settlement profiles at a section located (a) 48m (b) 20m and
(c) 5m from the corner.

at Section zz, where the marine clay thickness is 9.8m, the variable thickness model does not result in
significantly larger wall deflection than that average thickness model. This suggests that there is a
“spillover” effect from the other sections where the actual clay thickness is less than the ‘average’.

220
This ‘spillover’ effect is more evident in the ground settlement profiles after the final excavation level,
shown in Figure 10a – c. As can be seen, the average thickness model consistently predicts a larger
ground settlement than the variable thickness model, even at a section relatively far away from the
corner (distance from corner ≈ 4.5 times the depth of excavation) and where the actual soft clay
thickness is greater than the ‘average’ thickness of 7.3m (Figure 10a). Where field measurements of
settlement are available, these show that the prediction of the variable thickness model is consistently
closer to the field measurements than the average thickness model. However, the possibility that this
might have been due to a fortuitous choice of soil parameters again cannot be ruled out.

The magnitude of the ‘spillover’ effect may be understood from the interaction between the corner
effect and the thickness of the soft clay layer, which decreases towards the corner. Both these factors,
i.e. the corner and the decreasing thickness of the soft clay layer, tend to inhibit ground movement wall
deflection. In other words, the strengthening effect of the corner noted by Lee et al. (1998) is
accentuated by the variation in the thickness of the soft clay layer, to the point that even a section
relatively far away from a corner still experience a ‘corner’ effect.

6 CONCLUSIONS

The above study is significant from an engineering as well as research perspective. From a research
perspective, this study calls attention to the possibility that urban soil-structure interaction problems
are not affected merely by the geometry of the construction and the elemental features of constitutive
model. It is also significantly affected by the larger scale geological features of the site. The interaction
between the geological features of the site and the elemental constitutive behaviour of a soil is
reflected in the in-situ states of the soil, where there is currently a dearth of knowledge. From an
engineering perspective, it is quite likely that, at least for the present, geotechnical design will not have
the benefit of three-dimensional FE analyses with facilities to model non-uniform soil stratification.
Instead, two-dimensional plane strain analyses are much more likely to be conducted. In doing such
two-dimensional plane section analyses, it is a common practice to utilize the soil profile and
properties which are specific to that section. The findings of this study show that, in certain
circumstances, there may be significant ‘spillover’ effects from nearby sections, which the engineer
may do well to consider, even if only a qualitative level.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Authors wish to acknowledge, with gratitude, the assistance of the Public Works Department in
providing the field data needed for this study. The research scholarship from NUS, which enabled the
second Author to undertake this study, is also gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, J.H., Richardson, D. and Stallebrass, S.E. 1990. Effect of recent stress history on the stiffness of
overconsolidated soils. Geotechnique 40(4): 531-540.
Burland, J.B., Simpson, B. and St John, H. D. 1979. Movements around excavations in London Clay.
th
Proc.7 European Conf. on Soil Mechanics, Brighton Vol. 1: 13-19.
Chee, K.T. 1995. Three-dimensional finite element analysis of deep excavations in soft clay. B.Eng. dissertation,
National University of Singapore.
Chua, T.S. 1990. Some considerations in undrained triaxial testing of very soft clay. M.Eng. dissertation,
National University of Singapore.
GEO-SLOPE 1995. User’s Guide: SIGMA/W for finite element stress/deformation analysis V.3, GEO-SLOPE
International Pte. Ltd., Alberta, Canada.
Jardine, R. J., Potts, D. M., Fourie, A. B., and Burland, J. B. 1986. Studies of the influence of non-linear stress-
strain characteristics in soil-structure interaction. Geotechnique, London, UK, 36(3): 377-396.
Lee, F.H., Tan, T.S. and Yong, K.Y. 1993a. Excavation in residual soils with high permeability. Proc. 11th
Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Singapore: 739-744.
Lee, F.H., Yong, K.Y. and Tan, T.S. 1993b. Deep excavations in Singapore – some case studies. Proc.
KIGFORUM’93 – Excavation in urban areas, Kobe: 143-154.

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Lee, F.H., Yong, K.Y., Quan, K.C.N. and Chee, K.T. 1998. Effects of corners in strutted excavations: field
monitoring and case histories. Journal of Geotechnicaland Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE 124(4):
339-349.
Liu, K.X., Yong, K.Y. and Lee, F.H. 1996. A numerical study on 3-D behaviour of excavation support system.
Proc. 2nd International Conf. On Soft Soil Engineering, Nanjing, vol. 1: 501-506.
Nasim, A.S.M. 1999. Numerical Modelling of Soil Profile and Behaviour in Deep Excavation Analyses. M. Eng.
Thesis, National University of Singapore.
Ng, P.T. 2001. A model for kinematic hardening and destructuration of soft clay. M.Eng. dissertation, National
University of Singapore (submitted).
th
Ou, C.Y. and Chiou, D.C. 1993. Three dimensional finite element analysis of deep excavation. 11 Southeast
Asian Geotechnical Conference, Singapore, 769-774.
PLAXIS BV 1998. Reference Manual PLAXIS V. 7. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Quan, K.C.N. 1994. Behaviour of a deep excavation in marine clay supported by diaphragm wall and internal
struts. B.Eng. dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Roscoe, K.H. and Burland, J.B. 1968. On the generalized stress-strain behaviour of ‘wet clay’. Proc. Symp.
Engrg. Plasticity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
SAGE Engineering 1996. SAGE CRISP – User guide and technical reference guide. SAGE Engineering.
Whittle, A.J., Hashash, Y.M.A. and Whitman, R.V. 1993. Analysis of deep excavation in Boston. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE 119(10): 69-90.
Wong, K.Y., Tan, T.S. and Lee, F.H. 2001. Non-linear elasticity effect on ground movements prediction around
deep excavation. Submitted for publication in Proc. Underground Singapore 2001.

222
 Underground Singapore 2001

Old Alluvium: Engineering Properties and Braced

Excavation Performance
K.S. Wong & W. Li
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

J.N. Shirlaw, J.C.W. Ong, D.Wen, & J.C.W. Hsu

Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Old Alluvium (OA) is one of the main geological formations in Singapore. The
construction of the North-East Line (NEL) of Singapore Mass Rapid Transit System provides
many opportunities to study the behaviour of deep excavations in this material. Extensive site
investigations had been carried out to characterise the OA and to determine the engineering
properties. The stations and cut-and-cover tunnels were instrumented to monitor the performance
of the temporary support systems. In this paper, the engineering properties and useful correlations
of the OA soils were summarised. The performance of soldier piles, sheetpile and diaphragm walls
in OA is presented in terms of the lateral wall deflections, ground settlements, strut loads and
ground water table changes.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Old Alluvium is one of the main geological formations in Singapore. According to Tan et al.
(1980), the Old Alluvium (OA) is a soil that possesses excellent shearing strength, low compressibility
and good workability as a construction material. Dames and Moore (1983) summarized the
geotechnical properties of OA based on test data from the North-South and East-West MRT Lines.
The ranges of some of the soil parameters were given but no correlation was presented. It was noted
that this soil was highly variable. Poh et al. (1987) reported that the particle size distribution of OA
covered a quite wide range. Orihara and Khoo (1998) reported some correlations based on limit data
from three sites. The construction of the North-East MRT Line provided an excellent opportunity to
study the physical and engineering properties of OA soils as well as the behaviour and performance of
deep excavations in this material.

2 PROJECT BACKGROUND OF NORTH-EAST LINE

The construction of the NEL stations and tunnels in the Old Alluvium (OA) involved deep excavations
to formation levels of up to 22 m below ground surface. The conventional bottom-up method is used at
most stations. The top-down method was adopted at Potong Pasir and Boon Keng stations. Open cut,
cut-and-cover and bored tunnelling methods are adopted in the sections between stations.

Diaphragm walls, sheetpile walls and soldier piles with timber lagging were used as retaining walls for
stations and cut-and-cover tunnels. At locations with thick soft marine clay (MC) overlying OA,
diaphragm walls were used. Where the Old Alluvium is encountered at shallow depth, soldier piles
with timber lagging and sheetpile walls were used. The walls typically were embedded 2 m into the
hard layer of OA where SPT N-value is greater than 100. Struts were used as support in all excavations
except those with top-down construction and open excavations. Table 1 summarised the geological
conditions, excavation dimensions and support system in excavations studied in this project. It should
be noted that for Cases 1, 2 and 3, retaining walls were used in limited sections; open cut was
generally used.

223
Table 1. Summary of soil conditions and temporary works of excavations in this study.
Case Site Soil Excavation Excavation Retaining Wall Penetratn. Strut
Condition Depth (m) Width (m) Depth (m)

1 Punggol – Sengkang OA 10~10.6 16~18 Soldier Pile Wall 5~6.5 3 layers @

Section 8.0 m c/c

2 Sengkang – OA 12 20 Sheetpile Wall 8 4 layers @

Buangkok Section 8.0 m c/c

3 Buangkok – OA 13.3~16.3 16.5 Sheetpile Wall 4.7~7.2 4 layers @

Hougang Section 7.5 m c/c

4 Hougang Station OA 17.9 22~55 Diaphragm Wall 12.1 5 layers @

6.5 m c/c

5 Kovan Station OA 18.85 22~52 Diaphragm Wall 8.15 5 layers @

6.5 m c/c

6 Woodleigh Station OA 21.65 42~60 Soldier Piles Wall 9.9~11.4 5~6 layers @
6~8 m c/c

The North-East Line (NEL) crosses four geological formations, namely Bukit Timah Granite, Jurong
Formation, Old Alluvium and Kallang Formation. The Old Alluvium was encountered just over half of
the 20 km line. At the southern part, the Kallang Formation with the estuarine, fluvial and marine
members infill the buried valleys in the Old Alluvium. The marine clay is up to 25 m thick in places
and represents a marine transgression. At the northern part, the Old Alluvium was located at or near
the ground surface with shallow infill of estuarine and fluvial deposits of the Kallang Formation. The
estuarine deposits in this area contain peat and very soft organic silts and clays.

3 GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF THE OLD ALLUVIUM

The Old Alluvium was encountered in over 400 boreholes along the North East Line (NEL).
Numerous laboratory and in-situ tests were conducted on this material. The characterisation of this
material and the development of useful correlations with index properties have been presented by Li
(2001) and Li et al. (2001). A brief summary is given below. These typical values and correlations can
be used in a preliminary design. However, site-specific information should be used in the evaluation of
soil properties in the final design because the OA soils are highly variable.

3.1 Soil Profile and Zoning

The Old Alluvium can be subdivided into three zones according to the weathering degree and SPT
blowcounts. They are the residual soil zone (OAI), weathered zone (OAII), and cemented zone
(OAIII). The soils encountered in residual soil zone (OAI) are mainly clayey sand, silty sand, silty clay
and locally some gravel. The colour varies from yellowish, reddish, greyish to purplish brown. The
consistency of the soil ranges from loose to medium dense for sand and gravel, medium stiff to very
stiff for silt and clay. The sand component is fine to medium in size. The gravels are mostly quartz and
sometimes weathered feldspar. The SPT N-values vary from 5 to 25.

The soils in weathered zone (OAII) are predominantly clayey sand and silty sand. The colour ranges
from yellowish brown to light grey or greenish grey. The sand component is fine to coarse. The
consistency is medium dense to very dense or very stiff to hard. The SPT N-values vary from 26 to 99.
The soils encountered in the cemented zone (OAIII) are mainly clayey sand and silty sand. The colour
is light grey to greenish grey. The consistency is very dense or hard. The soil is slightly cemented but
the bond is fragile and can be easily broken. The sand size is fine to coarse with quartz gravel
occasionally. The gravels are flat, angular to sub-angular in shape and white, milky in colour. The SPT
N-values are more than 100.

3.2 Soil Composition and Classification

Based on the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), OA encompasses many soil types including
CH, CL, SM, SC, SP and SW. Figure 1 shows the distributions of different soil types of OA. A total of

224
774 soil samples along NEL were used in this analysis. Due to the lack of information on Atterberg
Limits on many of the sand samples, the SC and SM soils are combined into one group. The sandy
soils with fines content less than 12% are also combined as one group.

Table 2 displays the soil type distributions of OAI, OAII, and OAIII. SC and SM soils have the largest
portion, about 70% in all three zones of OA. Sandy soils with fines<12% is only 2% in OAI but it
increases to 21% in OAIII, which means that the soil becomes more sandy with depth. CH soil was not
encountered in OAIII. A decrease in clay content with depth reflects a decrease in the degree of
weathering. As a whole, the SC and SM soils make up 70% of OA. CL and CH soils cover 20% and
sandy soils with fines<12% make up the remaining 10%.

Table 2 Soil type distribution of OAI, OAII and OAIII

Soil Classification OAI OAII OAIII
SM and SC soils 74% 68% 75%
CL soil 15% 17% 4%
CH soil 9% 10% -
Sandy soils with fines < 12% 2% 5% 21%

The average fines content for CH, CL, SM&SC, sandy soils with fines<12% are 84%, 67%, 24%, and
8.3% respectively. There is a slight reduction in fines content with OAI, OAII, and OAIII with the
mean values varying from 29%, 24% to 22%. Figure 1 shows the fines content of SM&SC soil in OAI,
OAII, and OAIII. The fines content is typically between 20 ~ 30%. This suggests that the SM&SC soil
would behave more like clay even though it is classified as sand. In fact, with more than 95% of the
soils in OAI and OAII are SM&SC, CL and CH, the engineering behaviour of OA soils in these two
zones is more like an over-consolidated clay except for the relatively clean sand in isolated pockets.

3.3 Index Properties

The bulk unit weight (γ) does not vary much. The average value for OAI, OAII and OAIII is 20.3
kN/m3. The water content (w) of OA is usually within the range of 10 to 40%. OAI has an average
water content of 22%, while OAII and OAIII are 18.2 and 16.3% respectively. This indicates a trend of
decreasing water content with depth. The variations of water content with depth are shown in Figure 2.

The liquid limits (LL) vary from 20 to 140 but the plastic limits stay close to 20. Results are plotted on
the plasticity chart as shown in Figure 3. Nearly all the points stay above the A-line. Therefore the
soils are more clayey than silty. In general, the liquid limit and plasticity index decrease with depth.
The average liquidity indices of OAI, OAII, and OAIII are 0.05, -0.04 and –0.3 respectively The
average specific gravity (G) is 2.65. Results of the index properties are summarised in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of index properties of OA soils.

Index OAI OAII OAIII
Properties Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave.
wn (%) 12.6 43.5 22 8 41 18.2 10 26 16.3
γ (kN/m3) 17.9 22.7 20.3 16.2 22.7 20.7 17.5 22 20.3
γd (kN/m3) 12.5 20.1 16.6 12.8 21.4 17.6 15.5 20.9 17.7
G 2.58 2.75 2.66 2.57 2.72 2.64 2.57 2.72 2.64
LL 25 137 55 20 118 49 25 78 38
PL 9 42 23 9 41 20 9 32 19
PI 5 95 32 5 88 28 7 50 19
LI -0.67 0.53 0.05 -0.75 0.4 -0.04 -1.2 0.39 -0.3

225
 (a )
(a )
W ater Conte nt (%)
Fines Content (%)
0 15 30 45 60
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
0
5
10 10
15

De pth (m )
20 20
Depth (m )

25
30 30
Mean=29 35
40 Standard Dev iation=8 40
45
50
(b)
(b)
W ater Conte nt (%)
Fines Content (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 15 30 45 60
0 0
5
10 10
15
20
De pth (m )
Depth (m )

20
25
30
30
Mean=24 35
40
Standard Dev iation=7 40

50 45

(c) (c)
Fines Content (%) W ater Conte nt (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 15 30 45 60
0 0

10 10

20
20
Depth (m )

De pth (m )

30
30
40
Mean=22
40 50
Standard Dev iation=6

50 60

Figure 1 Fines content of SC& SM soils in OA Figure 2 Water content of the Old Alluvium soils

226
3.4 Shear Strength
Undisturbed samples of cohesive soils were obtained by pushing a 76 mm diameter and 700 mm long
thin-walled sampling tube into the bottom of the borehole. Where the soils were too stiff for thin-
walled sampler, Mazier sampling was used. The soil samples were obtained by rotary core drilling
with water flushing. Soil samples were collected in PVC linings placed inside the core barrel.
Laboratory tests were then conducted by trimming these undisturbed samples to the required sizes.

The undrained shear strength (su) was determined from Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial
Compression Tests on standard 38 mm diameter and 76 mm height specimens. There were altogether
766 UU tests conducted on OA samples. After a careful review of the test results, only 174 tests were
adopted for further study. Results of UU tests are correlated with the SPT N-values as shown in Figure
4. This result is in good agreement with the findings by Stroud (1974) who proposed a correlation of
su = 4 to 6 N for insensitive clays and soft rocks and by Orihara and Khoo (1998) who proposed su =
6N based on data from the three sites in OA.

su = 5.4 N (kPa) (1)

100 700

600
80 s u = 5.4N
Plasticity Index (PI)

500 R2 = 0.8005

60 A-Line
su (kPa)

400

40 300

OAI 200
20 OAII
OAIII 100

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid Limit (LL) N

Figure 3 Old Alluvium soils in plasticity chart. Figure 4 Correlation between su (UU) and SPT-N

The effective strength parameters ( c ' and φ ' ) were determined from isotropically consolidated
undrained triaxial (ICU) tests with pore pressure measurement. Results of a total of 150 ICU tests on
OA soils are shown in Figure 5. The friction angle varies within a narrow range of 35° ~ 36.5° among
the different soil zones in OA. However, c′ varies with the different soil zones. OAI has a very low
cohesion, near 0 kPa. The high cohesion (c′=30.3 kPa) of OAIII is obviously attributed to the
cementation between the sand particles. Results from isotropically consolidated drained triaxial (ICD)
tests yielded a slightly lower friction angle and no cohesion. Results as well as the recommended
effective shear strength parameters are summarised in Table 4.

Table 4. Effective shear strength parameters for OA soils

OAI OAII OAIII
c' (kPa) φ' (°) c' (kPa) φ' (°) c' (kPa) φ' (°)
CU test 1.9 36.1 8.3 35.9 30.3 35.1
CD test 0 34 0 34.8 Insufficient data
Recommended 0 35 5 35 25 35

3.5 Deformation Properties

The deformation parameters are the compression index (cc) and recompression index (cr). They were
determined from results of conventional oedometer (OED) tests. There were altogether 99 tests on OA
soils. Unfortunately, some of them were highly disturbed or some had not been loaded past the
preconsolidation pressure. Only 16 tests were adopted for further study. Figures 6 and 7 shows the

227
variations of compression index (cc) and recompression index (cr) with natural water content (wn)
respectively. The correlations are expressed in Eqns.(2) and (3).

(a) OAI
600

500 y = 0.582x + 3.5324

(σ 1'-σ 3')/2 (kPa)

400
c'=1.9kPa
300 φ'=36.1°

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
σ 1'+σ
(σ σ 3')/2 (kPa)

(b) OAII
1400
1200
(σ 1'-σ 3')/2 (kPa)

1000 y = 0.5863x + 6.6945

800 c'=8.3kPa
φ'=35.9°
600
400
200
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

σ 1'+σ
(σ σ 3')/2 (kPa)

(c) OAIII
1200

1000
(σ 1'-σ 3')/2 (kPa)

y = 0.5745x + 24.841
800

600 c'=30.3kPa
φ'=35.1°
400

200

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
σ 1'+σ
(σ σ 3')/2 (kPa)

Figure 5 Modified Mohr diagrams of CU test results: (a) OAI, (b) OAII, (c) OAIII.

228
 0.35 0.1

0.3 cc = 0.0093w n - 0.028

c r = 0 .0 0 3 w n - 0 .0 2 3 2
R2 = 0.811 0.08
R 2 = 0 .7 4 6 4
0.25

0.06
0.2
cc

cr
0.15
0.04

0.1
0.02
0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
w n (%) w n (%)

Figure 6 Correlation between Cc and water content. Figure 7 Correlation between Cr and water content.

Cc = 0.0093 wn – 0.028 (2)

Cc = 0.003 wn – 0.023 (3)

Figure 8 shows the correlation between OCR and c/p ratio. The OCR values were determined from
oedometer tests. The undrained shear strength in c/p was determined using Eqn. (1) with su =5.4 N.

(c/p) = 0.25 OCR 0.8 (4)

This correlation implies that the c/p ratio at normally consolidated state is 0.25 for OA soils. The
correlations between N-value and OCR can be obtained as follows:

OCR = 47 ( N / σ′vo )1.25 (5)

where σ′vo is the insitu effective overburden pressure. By substituting (1) into (5),

OCR = 5.67 ( cu / σ′vo )1.25 (6)

3.6 Permeability
The coefficient of permeability (k) was determined from both oedometer tests and insitu falling-head
permeability tests. The permeability from oedometer tests gives a k-value in the vertical direction
whereas the in-situ tests may reflect permeability predominantly in the horizontal direction. The
variation of permeability with fines content are shown in Figure 9. The permeability generally
decreases with increasing fines content but no meaningful correlation can be obtained. The
permeability obtained from oedometer tests varies from 1x10-10 to 1x10-8 m/s whereas the field
permeability ranges from 1x10-9 to 1x10-6 m/s, which is about 100 times of those obtained from
laboratory tests.

4 EXCAVATION PERFORMANCE IN OLD ALLUVIUM

The MRT stations and tunnels along the North-East Line (NEL) were instrumented to monitor the
performance of the earth retention systems. These instruments included inclinometers, settlement
points, vibrating strain gauges, load cells, piezometers, water standpipes, and tilt gauges. The
temporary works reviewed in this study include soldier pile wall with timber lagging, sheetpile wall
and diaphragm wall. The performance of these earth retention systems with respect to wall deflection,
ground settlement, strut load, and change in water table is discussed and evaluated in the sections
below.

229
 4

3.5

3 (c /p ) O C = 0 .2 5 O C R 0.8
R 2 = 0 .8 7 9 5
2.5
(c/p)O C

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
OCR

Figure 8 Correlation of c/p ratio with OCR

1.0E -04

O e d o me te r Te s t
1.0E -05
In s itu Te s t

1.0E -06

1.0E -07
k (m /s)

1.0E -08

1.0E -09

1.0E -10

1.0E -11
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fine s Con te n t (%)

Figure 9 Variation of permeability with fines content

230
4.1 Wall Deflections
Figure 10 shows the variations of maximum wall lateral deflection (δH,max) with excavation depth (H)
for the stiff soil condition. In general, the maximum lateral deflection increases with increasing
excavation depth with an upper limit of 0.2%H except for a few points with large movements. The
wall deflection is not affected by the different wall types. The average δH,max is about 0.11%H.

The data points that are close to the 0.5%H line are all from one site where soldier pile walls were
used. The large movements were caused by the formation of local cavities behind wall as a result of
delayed placement of the timber laggings. This suggests that a proper construction procedure is very
important in controlling excavation-induced movements.

140
Diaphragm Wall
120 Sheetpile Wall
(δH,max/H)=0.5%
Soldier Pile Wall
100
LC: Local Cavity
δ H,max (mm)

80 LC
LC
60
(δH,max/H)=0.2%

40
LC LC

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Depth of Excavation, H (m)

Figure 10 Variation of δH max with excavation depth

.
4.2 Ground Settlements
The variations of maximum ground settlement (δV,max) with excavation depth (H) are shown Figure 11.
Except for the local cavity cases, all points fall below the 0.1%H line. The different wall types have
little effect on ground settlement. The average δV,max is about 0.06%H. The maximum ground
settlement is related to maximum wall deflection. For the stiff soil condition, δV,max is around 1/3 to 2/3
of δH,max.

140
Diaphragm Wall
LC
120 Sheetpile Wall
Soldier Pile Wall
LC
LC: Local Cavity
100
δ v,max (mm)

80 (δv,max/H)=0.5%
LC

60
LC
40
LC (δv,max/H)=0.1%
LC
20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Depth of Excavation, H (m)

Figure 11 Variation of δV,max with excavation depth.

231
4.3 Apparent Pressure Diagram for Strut Loads
The measured strut loads in the stiff soil condition have been converted into equivalent earth pressures
as shown in Figure 12. The apparent pressure envelopes suggested by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) for
stiff clay are also plotted. An apparent pressure of 0.3γH seems to work well for the stiff soil condition
in OA. There is no significant difference among results from the different wall types.

Apparent Earth Pressure (γ H)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0
Soldier Pile Wall
Sheetpile Wall
Percent of Excavation Height

20 Diaphragm Wall

40

0.4γ H
0.2γ H
60

80

100

Figure 12 Variation of apparent earth pressure with H.

4.4 Changes in Ground Water Table

Figure 13 shows the changes in ground water table (∆Hw) with the distance ratio (d/Hmax) where d is
the distance away from the wall. For diaphragm walls and sheetpile walls, the dropping in water table
is small and is within 0.2Hmax. Diaphragm walls and sheetpile walls appear to be more effective in
limiting the water table drawdown. However, for soldier pile walls, the maximum drop can be as large
as 16 m or 0.74 Hmax. The water flew freely through the gaps between timber laggings. The data in this
figure are very limited. They can only serve as a rough indication of the magnitude of water drawdown
for excavations in OA for the various wall types.

d/Hmax
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.1

-0.1

-0.2
∆ Hw/Hmax

-0.3
Case 4(DW)
-0.4 Case 5(DW)
Case 9(DW)
-0.5
Case 3(SHP)
-0.6 Case 6(SP)

-0.7

-0.8

Figure 13 Changes in ground water table (∆Hw/ Hmax) with the distance (d/Hmax)

232
5 CONCLUSIONS

The Old Alluvium can be subdivided into three zones according to the weathering degree and SPT
blowcounts: residual soil zone (OAI) with N≤25, weathered zone (OAII) with N between 26 and 99,
and cemented zone (OAIII) with N≥100. The Old Alluvium encompasses many soil types. About 70%
of the Old Alluvium soils are classified as SC and SM soils. With the fines content exceeding 20%, the
OA soils would behave more like an over-consolidated clay than sand.

The undrained shear strength of the Old Alluvium generally increases with depth and is approximately
equal to 5.4N in kPa. The effective friction angle of all OA soils is about 35°. The effective cohesion
intercept generally increases with depth up to about 30 kPa. The compression index (cc) can be related
to the natural water content where Cc = 0.0093 wn – 0.028. The OCR can be estimated from the cu/σ′v
ratio where OCR=5.67 (cu/σ′v)1.25. The insitu permeability of OA is generally in the range of 1E-6 to
1E-9 m/s.

Based on the limited data, it appears that for excavations in the OA soils regardless of wall types, the
maximum wall movement is likely to be less than 0.2%H with an average of 0.11%H. The maximum
ground settlement is likely to be less than 0.2%H with an average of 0.06%H. The maximum ground
settlement is about 60% of the maximum wall deflection. The upper bound of the apparent earth
pressure diagram is 0.3γH. The maximum drop in water table associated with sheetpile and diaphragm
walls is much smaller than that associated with soldier pile walls.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writers would like to express their gratitude to the Land Transport Authority of Singapore for
permission to publish data reported here, as well as their cooperation and support.

REFERENCES

Dames & Moore. 1983. Mass Rapid Transit System, Singapore: Detailed Geotechnical Study – Interpretative
Report, Provisional Mass Rapid Transit Authority, Singapore, pp85-98.
Li, W. 2001. Deep Excavations in Old Alluvium, PhD Thesis, Nanyang Technological University, School of
Civil & Structural Engineering, Singapore.
Li, W. & Wong, K.S. 2001. Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium, Journal of Institution of Engi-neers,
Singapore, accepted for publication in 2001.
Mana, A. I., & Clough, G. W. 1981. Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay, J. Geotech. Eng. Div.,
ASCE, 107, No. GT6, pp759-777.
Orihara, K. & Khoo, K. S. 1998. Engineering Properties of Old Alluvium in Singapore and Its Parameters for
Bored Pile and Excavation Design, Proc. 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taiwan, 545-550.
Poh, K. B., Buttling, S. & Hwang, R. 1987. Some MRT experiences of the soils and geology of Singapore,
Singapore Mass Rapid Transit Conference, Singapore, pp177-191.
Stroud, M. A. 1974. The standard penetration test – its application and interpretation, Proc. European Symp. On
Penetration Testing, Stockholm, Vol. 2.2, pp367-375.
Tan, S. B., Loy, W. C. & Lee, K. W. 1980. Engineering geology of the Old Alluvium in Singapore, Proc., 11th
S. E. Asian Conf. On Soil Engrg., Taipei, Vol. 1, pp673-783.
Terzaghi, K and Peck, R. B. 1967. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

233
 Underground Singapore 2001

Non-linear elasticity effect on ground movements prediction

around deep excavation
K.Y. Wong, T.S. Tan & F.H. Lee
The National University of Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The ground movements induced by nearby deep excavation activities are critical for the
serviceability and stability of adjacent structures and utilities. This paper discusses the influence of
non-linear stress-strain behaviour at small strains on the ground movements estimated for deep
excavations in thick soft clay deposit. To capture the pre-failure behaviour of soft clays at small
strains, a constitutive model, known as hyperbolic small-strain stiffness Cam-clay (HSS) model, was
developed and implemented into a finite element program, CRISP. This model uses a hyperbolic
relationship to simulate the variation of shear modulus in pre-yield regime within the framework of
modified Cam-clay (MCC). The hyperbolic curve can be defined by the initial shear modulus, Go and
reference shear modulus, Gr, at a reference strain, εr. Two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
(3-D) FE back-analyses were conducted on a case history in Singapore to compare the predictions by
HSS and MCC models. The numerical results, show that the HSS model can improve the predictions
in both 2-D and 3-D analyses, when compared to the actual movement measured. The improvement is
more significant for analyses under plane strain condition. This study highlights the importance of
modelling non-linear elasticity in estimating ground movements around deep excavations.

1 INTRODUCTION

For excavation sites that are located in close proximity to surrounding buildings or utilities, any
substantial ground movements may jeopardise the serviceability or even the stability of these
structures. Therefore, reasonably accurate prediction of ground movements around excavation is
essential to ensure a proper design for the excavation. Predicting the magnitude and distributions of
ground movements around excavation accurately using FEM involves many interacting factors such as
soil modelling with appropriate properties, soil profiles, construction sequence, time effect, geometry
effects, ground water table, numerical inaccuracies and so on. Constitutive soil model is one of the
key factors that affect significantly the output of a FEM analysis. Many constitutive models have been
developed over the years ranging from simple elastic to elasto-plastic models to capture salient soil
behaviours. A realistic analysis will include considerations on modelling soil behaviours such as
elastic non-linearity, yielding, soil stiffness, anisotropy, softening and de-structuring and stress history.
However, none of the available soil models can capture all the features of real soils. Therefore, the
choice of soil model should depend on the recognition of governing soil behaviour to the problem.
The soil model in a FE analysis should not only able to capture the governing soil feature but also used
with consistent and representative parameters. Appropriate selection of input parameters is crucial to
obtain reliable results by FE analysis. Generally, the more comprehensive the soil model is, the more

237
parameters it requires. For these highly comprehensive soil models, often requires special soil testing
procedures to derive its parameters. Unfortunately, these tests are still not commonly practised in the
geotechnical engineering industry because some of them are costly and time-consuming. This study
was therefore aimed to develop a simple model but with the ability to model small strain stiffness and
yet with minimal effort to derive its parameters.

For deep excavation problems, Simpson et al. (1979), Jardine et al. (1986), Whittle (1994) and Ou et
al. (2000) showed that the strain level experienced by most of the adjacent soil around excavation is
lower than 0.5% even though most of these cases were analysed under plane strains condition. The
strain level of soils is likely to be even lower if 3-D effects are taken into consideration. Thus,
modelling of small strain stiffness correctly is important and critical in the prediction of ground
movements around excavations and retaining walls. When a soil experiences small strains or small
changes of stress from its initial state, highly non-linear stress-strain response is observed (Jardine et
al. 1986, Stallebrass, 1990, Viggiani, 1992 and Dasari, 1996). Chong (1998) also showed this non-
linear constitutive relationship for the Singapore Marine Clay. As all excavations are 3-D in nature
and mostly conducted in urban areas, the retaining system is sufficiently stiff that significant areas are
essentially experiencing small amount of strains. Intuitively, 3-D analysis will mean lower strain level
in surrounding soils compared to analysis under plain strain condition. Thus, the non-linear soil
stiffness behaviour at small strain level coupled with a 3-D analysis may show even stiffer behaviour.
Consequently, it is important to model small-strain stiffness of these soils more accurately so that the
non-linear behaviour of soil can be captured and thus render the prediction of ground movements more
realistic. Thus, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of non-linear elasticity on
estimating the ground movements around deep excavations. Since the available constitutive models to
simulate small strain stiffness are usually with complicated formulations and input parameters, the
parameters required for these sophisticated models usually could only be obtained from specific soil
tests. It is therefore necessary to develop a simple model but with the ability to model small-strain
stiffness and yet with minimal effort to derive its parameters.

The soil model in a FE analysis should not only able to capture the governing soil feature but also used
with consistent and representative parameters. Appropriate selection of input parameters is crucial to
obtain reliable results by FE analysis. Generally, the more comprehensive the soil model is, the more
parameters it requires. For these highly comprehensive soil models, often requires special soil testing
procedures to derive its parameters. Unfortunately, these tests are still not commonly practised in the
geotechnical engineering industry because some of them are costly and time-consuming. This study
was therefore aimed to develop a simple model but with the ability to model small strain stiffness and
yet with minimal effort to derive its parameters.

This paper describes the formulation of a simple soil model known as the hyperbolic small-strain
stiffness Cam-clay model (HSS). The derivation of the proposed model’s parameters is shown from a
set of standard triaxial tests. Its evaluation is by simulating undrained triaxial tests under
axisymmetric condition using CRISP. The proposed parameters can be derived from undrained
traixial tests data using curve-fitting method. The main purpose of the model is to develop a simple
model capable of simulating the essential features of non-linear stiffness of clay at small strain level.
Small strains, in the context of this model, are referred to strains that occur due to any stress changes
within the yield locus defined by modified Cam-clay (MCC) (Roscoe & Burland, 1968) as below:

p' M2
= (1)
p'0 M 2 + η 2

where p’ = (εx + εy + εz)/3 ; η = q/p’, p’0 is the pre-consolidation pressure; M is the gradient of critical
state line (CSL) in q-p’ space. The associated plastic flow rule of the model will be similar to the
MCC’s isotropic volumetric hardening/softening patterns. Within the yield locus, a strain-dependent
hyperbolic relationship was incorporated to simulate the variation of soil stiffness. This idea is similar
to the strain dependent modified Cam-clay model (SDMCC) proposed by Dasari (1996) except that
SDMCC uses power function instead of hyperbolic function within the yield locus. The advantage of

238
Figure 1. S-shaped stiffness-strain curve.

using this framework is that the yielding of soil can be clearly determined in order to monitor the
extent of failure zone in the soil mass. The objective of developing this model is to study the effect of
small-strain stiffness around excavation by looking into the predicted movements from analysis with
and without small-strain stiffness taken into account. Other possible features of this marine clay
include anisotropy, softening and recent stress history effects. However, insufficient test data exist
presently with respect to these features and the use of such model does not seen justified. Therefore, it
is sufficient to develop a simple model for investigating the small-strain stiffness effect on ground
movements. Other observed soil behaviours such as degradation of soil structures, anisotropy and
recent stress history effect were not being modelled in this study. Results from FE analysis are shown
in this paper to compare the predicted deformations by MCC and HSS model for a measured field
data.

2 MODEL DESCRIPTIONS

Basically, the model is derived from fitting a numerical expression to appropriate stress-strain data. In
this case, shear modulus, G, is defined as a hyperbolic function (the shape of the stiffness-strain curve)
as shown in Figure 1. This S-shaped curve is a typical observed stiffness-strain curve for a sheared
compression stress path (Viggiani, 1992, Simpson, 1992, Dasari, 1996 and Jardine et al., 1986). After
the shear modulus has been determined, the effective bulk modulus, K’, is calculated using the
relationship between G and K’ assuming the soil is isotropically elastic where Poisson’s ratio, ν, is
constant. Thus,

 2(1 + ν )  (2)
K'=   ⋅G
 3(1 − 2ν ) 

The hyperbolic relationship (Eqn. 3) between deviatoric stress, q, and deviatoric strain, εs, based on a
non-linear stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 2.

( S 0 − S y )ε s (3)
q= + S yε s
(S 0 − S y ) | ε s |
1+
qy

for 0 < εs < ε y

where εs is deviatoric strain, εy is the deviatoric strain at yielding point; S0 and Sy is the tangential
shear stiffness at εs=0 and εs at yielding respectively for q-εs curve (Fig. 2) and qy is defined as
deviatoric stress at yielding.

239
 pre-yielding portion
governed by hyperbolic relationship
q
Yield point (based on MCC yield locus)

qy
Sy

Post-yielding portion governed by MCC

εy εs
Figure 2. Skeleton stress-strain curve showing the governing constitutive relationship.

where εy is the deviatoric strain at yielding point; Sy is the gradient at the point of yielding for q-εs
curve (Fig.3.3).

From Figure 2, assuming uncoupled volumetric and shearing effects of the soil,

dq (4)
S= = 3G
dε s

By differentiating Equation 3 w.r.t. εs and applying Equation 4 yields the shear modulus as a function
of deviatoric strain, εs:

G0 − G y (5)
G= 2
+ Gy
 |ε |  G0 − G y  
1 + s − 1 
 |εr 

|  Gr − G y  

where Go=initial shear modulus; Gr=shear modulus at reference strain εr; Gy=shear modulus at
yielding. The effective bulk stiffness, K’, can then be calculated from Equation 2 using the above G.
It should be noted that G approaches zero at large strains. This will in turn influence the value of K’ to
reduce to an unrealistic low K’. Tests data (Stallebrass, 1990) showed that K’ will ultimately
converge to a minimum value for swelling or if loaded in a constant q stress path (Fig. 3) starting from
a relatively high K’ value. Therefore, the variation of K’ should be limited to a minimum value. The
lower bound of K’ was assumed as:

υp ' (8)
K 'min =
κ

assuming the linearity represented in [υ-ln p’]compression plane in Figure 4.

There are 3 primary parameters that need to be derived from laboratory tests in this model, namely,
initial shear modulus, G0; pre-yield referenced shear modulus, Gr, and its corresponding shear strain,
εr. These parameters can be determined from standard undrained compression triaxial tests by a
curve-fitting technique.

Firstly, the stress-strain curves are assumed to follow a hyperbolic curve as below:

240
Figure 3. A lower bound for K’ is observed from Figure 4. v-lnp’ compression plane
constant q tests. (after Stellabrass, 1990).

( A − C )ε s (9)
q= + Cε s
( A − C) | ε s |
1+
B

where A, B and C are constants. These constants can be found by fitting the corresponding stress-
strain curve. This equation is used because the required parameters can be obtained directly from its
first derivative (Eqn. 10):

dq A−C (10)
= +C
dε s  ( A − C ) | ε s |  2
1 + 
 B 

Comparing with Equation 3, A=3G0 and dq/dεs = 3G. For a chosen strain level, εr, by substituting
value of A, B and C into Equation 6, Gr can be obtained as described below. These parameters, Go
and Gr, should be applicable and valid for all stress states at small strains. Therefore, they should be
state dependent. The stiffeness was derived in such a way that it varies with OCR and p’. Since
Equation 9 can fit a stress-strain curve for an undrained triaxial test, the corresponding shear modulus,
as shown in Equation 10, can be calculated. From a series of undrained tests with different OCR and
p’, best-fit curves of G/p’y and G/p’ for all these data were obtained. The unique best-fit equations can
be written as:

(a) for G/p’y,

G  α−χ (11)
  = 2
+χ
 y  fit 
p ' (α − χ ) | ε s |
1 + 
 β 

(b) for G/p’,

G  α '− χ ' (12)

 p'  = 2
+ χ'
  fit  (α '− χ ' ) | ε s |
1 + 
 β' 

However, it is necessary to couple the effects of these two factors. A ratio of (G/p’)fit to (G/py’)fit is
calculated and a fix ratio is obtained below a limiting strain level, ε2r, as shown in Equation 13.

241
 G 
 
 p'  fit for 0<|εs|<ε2r (13)
=R
G 
 
 p y '  fit

The limiting strain, ε2r, is usually small and can be assumed to be in pre-yield regime. Thus, it can be
used for estimating the reference strain, εr, as εr = 0.5ε2r. From Equation 11 and 12, these fitted curves
are strain dependent. Therefore, εs in these equations should be replaced by εr to determine the
corresponding Gr. If εr is small (pre-yield) then the corresponding yield loci at this state does not
change, or p’y is a constant from the initial stage. Hence, it is reasonable to assume G/p’y is a constant
for 0≤|εs|≤εr. Then, Gr can be obtained from Equation 14 as shown below:

G r  G  (14)
= R
p '  p ' y 
ε =ε r

where  G  α−χ from Equation (11)

= +χ
 p' y   (α − χ ) | ε r
2
 ε =ε r |
1 + 
 β 

Similarly, the initial shear modulus, Go, can be derived follows the above procedure. For this case,

Go  G  (15)
= R
p'  p' y  = 0
ε

where  G  = α , as εs = 0 for Equation 11

 p' 
 y  ε =0

A set of isotropically consolidated undrained (CIU) triaxial compression tests from Chong (1998) was
used to compare the FE modelling on the triaxial tests. Table 1 shows the initial stress conditions for
all these tests. The Singapore Marine Clay samples were taken from the depth of 14.4m to 26.4m
below ground level.

The parameters used in the FE analyses were λ=0.3; κ=0.15; M=1.0; ecs=2.5; ν’=0.3; α=32.5; β=0.23;
χ=-0.05; ε2r=0.01 and R=1.75. These parameters were derived from the CIU tests of lower Singapore
Marine clay by Chong (1998). The variation of shear stiffness normalised with mean effective
pressure, p’, is presented in Figure 5 for comparison between the FE analyses and experiments. The
normalised curve shows the ability of the proposed model to capture the decay of shear stiffness
successfully. In addition, the normalised stiffness-strain curve is unique at small-strain region
reflecting that the effects of stress state have been taken into account.

Table 1 Standard undrained compression triaxial tests conditions after isotropic consolidation (CIU). (after
Chong, 1998)
Test UDP1 UDP4 UDP5 UDP7 UDP8 UDP9
Preconsolidation pressure, p’c
280.0 218.0 239.0 266.0 280.0 298.0
(kPa)
Initial mean effective pressure, p’i
132.8 138.2 145.2 159.6 152.4 173.9
(kPa)
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR =
2.11 1.58 1.65 1.67 1.84 1.71
p’c/p’i

242
 70

60

50

40
Gsec /p'

30

20

10 FE analysis by Proposed model

CIU Tests (after Chong, 1998)

1E-4 1E-3 1E-2 1E-1

deviatoric strain
Figure 5. Comparison of normalized secant stiffness
between FE analysis and undrained triaxial tests data.

3 FE ANALYSIS ON DEEP EXCAVATION

3.1 Case study

The case chosen for FE modelling on multi-strutted deep excavation is the project of the Singapore
Immigration Building (IMM) project. It comprises a 4-level basement and 12-storey superstructure.
The excavation was supported by a 1m thick diaphragm wall with internal props of 5 levels preloaded
steel struts that in turn held by king posts. The total depth of excavation is 17.3m. The excavation site
plan including the quadrant used for this study is shown in Figure 6. The soil profile along the
northeast and northwest edges of the excavation perimeter is plotted in Figure 7. As can be seen, the
site is underlain by soils of the Kallang formation with a layer of marine clay ranging from 12m to
15m thick. The ground water was found at the depth of 0.5m to 1.5m. More detailed descriptions
about the project have been reported by Lee et al. (1998).

Figure 6. Excavation site plan for Singapore Immigration Building.

243
Figure 7. Soil profile for Singapore Immigration Building project.

3.2 FE modelling

The northern quadrant of the site was modelled in this study. The soil conditions were simplified to 4
layers of horizontal profile as shown in Figure 7. The finite element analysis was carried out in both
2-D plane strain and 3-D conditions. Figure 8 shows the 3-D mesh with 75m × 75m × 50m height
while for 2-D plane strain analysis, the mesh is made identical with a vertical cross-section of the 3-D
mesh (Fig. 9). The 3-D analysis used 20-noded brick elements for simulating both soils and walls
while 3-D beam elements were used for simulating struts. The 3-D beam element incorporated into
the program CRISP was developed in-house by Hong (1999). The 2-D analysis used 8-noded brick
elements for soils and wall while 1-D beam elements were used for struts. Nodes on all the vertical
sides of the mesh are fixed at the out-of-plane direction but free to move in-plane. The base of the
mesh was fixed in all directions. Only the second layer of soil, i.e. the soft marine clay, is modelled
using the HSS model because the required soil parameters for the HSS model is available only for this
layer of soil. Another set of analysis with all the soil layers modelled using MCC was used to contrast
with the HSS one. The diaphragm wall was modelled using an elastic-perfectly plastic model with
Mohr-Coulomb yielding criterion. Tan (1983) reported that lower and upper Singapore Marine Clay
do not differ too much for normalised undrained shear strength, su/po’, the parameters for HSS model
are taken to be same with the triaxial modelling tests in the previous section. The other soil properties
are shown in Table 2. The diaphragm wall was installed to the depth of 30 m from ground surface. In
this analysis, neither the wall installation process nor slipping between soil and wall was modelled; the
wall being “wished” into place.

Table 2 Soil properties for the FE analysis.

κ λ ecs M ν' φ' γbulk Permeability,k Ko OCR

2
(degree) (kN/m ) (m/s)
Fill 0.03 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.25 30 18 1× 10-7 1 4
Marine clay 0.15 0.45 2.5 1.0 0.3 25.4 16 1× 10-9 0.65 1.6
Loose to medium dense clayey sand 0.003 0.03 2.5 1.2 0.25 30 18 1× 10-7 0.75 2.5
-8
Stiff silty clay 0.0015 0.015 2.5 1.42 0.25 35 20 1× 10 0.66 3.5

The analysis is a consolidation analysis using Biot’s coupled consolidation theory. The water table
was assumed to be at 1m below ground level. The dissipation of the pore water pressure is calculated
in accordance with the seepage boundary conditions. Free drainage surface was assumed at the
bottom of excavation for each level.

244
Figure 8. 3-D mesh for the FE analysis.

Figure 9. 2-D mesh for the FE analysis.

3.3 Results and discussions

Four sets of analysis were carried out that include two soil models, the HSS and the MCC, under
plane-strain and 3-D conditions. The comparisons in lateral wall deflections for 2-D and 3-D analyses
with HSS model and MCC model are shown in Figure 10. Figure 10a shows the lateral wall
deflections at middle stage of excavation at depth of 7.3m below ground level while Figure 10b shows
the deflection at the end of excavation. For 3-D analysis, the deflections were taken at the mid-span.
The figures show that for both 2-D and 3-D analyses, the marine clay layer modelled with the HSS
model consistently gave a better prediction compared to those modelled with the MCC model. As
noticed, the MCC model over-estimated the lateral wall movements by more than 100% from the
measured deflection. From Figure 11 that shows the deviatoric strain contours clearly indicate that
more than 80% of the soil elements are still within the elastic region even at the final stage of the
excavation for both 2-D and 3-D analysis. In other words, most of the soils should have higher
stiffness than what MCC model predicts since MCC model is incapable to capture the non-linearity of
soil stiffness at elastic region. This may explain why the MCC model over-predicts the wall
deformation by that far. As can be seen, 2-D analysis estimations were close to 3-D results when HSS

245
model was used. These results suggest the importance of modelling adequately the soil stiffness at
small-strain levels.

However, the HSS model with 3-D analysis seems to under-estimate the lateral wall deformation
profile by a little. This can be attributed to unavailability of undrained triaxial tests data for the upper
marine clay of this site to derive the model’s parameters. Furthermore, in the FE analysis, the struts
were installed at the same level of excavation base for every stage. In actual case, the struts were
installed when the excavation level was 0.5m to 1.0m below the strutting level. Thus, more deflection
is expected for the actual case. Wall installation effects, that has not been modelled in current
analysis, can also induce more movement as noted by Gourvenec & Powrie (1999) and De Moor

0 0

-10 -10
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

-20 Excavation Level = -7.3m

-20
MCC-2D Excavation Level 6 = -17.3m

HSS-2D MCC-2D
MCC-3D HSS-2D
HSS-3D MCC-3D
Field Data HSS-3D

Field Data
-30
-30
-0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
-0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Lateral wall deflection (m)
Lateral wall deflection (m)
(1994).
Figure 10a. Lateral wall deflections at Figure 10b. Lateral wall displacement
excavation depth 7.3m. at excavation depth 17.3m.

246
 0.01
0.01

0.00

0.00
-0.01

-0.01 -0.02

Settlem ent (m )
Settlem ent (m )

-0.03

-0.02
-0.04
Excavation Level 3 (-7.3m)
Excavation Level 6 (-17.3m)
-0.03 -0.05
MCC-2D
MCC-2D
HSS-2D HSS-2D
-0.06
MCC-3D MCC-3D
-0.04
HSS-3D -0.07 HSS-3D

Field Data Field Data

-0.05 -0.08

0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from wall (m) Distance from wall edge (m)

Figure 11. Deviatoric strain contours for all 4 cases of analysis.

Figure 12a. Surface settlement at Figure 12b. Surface settlement at

excavation depth 7.3m. excavation depth 17.3m.

The comparisons for settlement profiles at excavation depth of 7.3m stage and final stage are shown in
Figure 12a, b respectively. It is noticed that the observed maximum settlement is large compared to
the analysis results. However, for the far field area (over 20m) the settlement was better predicted by
the analysis with HSS model. The discrepancies of settlement between predicted and measured values
can be due to first, the assumption of perfect contact between soils and wall, second, the neglect of the

40 40

30 30
Depth (m)

struts
s
20 20

1 m thi c k di ap h r a g m w a ll
10 10

MC C -2 D H S S -2D

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

40 40

30 30
Depth (m)
Depth (m)

20 20

10 10

H S S -3D
MC C -3 D

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

D e via to r ic s tra in co n tou r fo r m u lti- p ro p p e d e xca va tio n a t e n d o f c on stru ctio n (-1 7 .3 m d e ep )

wall installation effects and third, disturbance and surcharge from construction activities.

247
4 CONCLUSIONS

A simple constitutive model yet sufficient to model non-linearity of soft soil at pre-yielding region has
been developed and incorporated into a FE code. The HSS model and the MCC model have been used
in both 2-D plane strain and 3-D FE modelling for a case study. The predictions with HSS model
showed a better agreement with the measured deformation. The foregoing FE analysis showed that,
even with an elasto-plastic soil model, the elastic regime can play a major role in the prediction of
displacements. This is particularly apparent when the movements are restricted by stiff support
system. The results showed a better prediction from 2-D analysis with HSS model than from 3-D
analysis with MCC model. Although this might not always be true for other deep excavation
problems, but modelling small-strain stiffness may significantly improve the prediction of ground
movements around deep excavation even though 2-D plane strain condition is assumed which is still a
common practice in engineering field.

REFERENCES

Chong, P.T. (1998) Characterization of Singapore soils. Ph.D. upgrading report. National Univ. of Singapore.
Dasari, G. R. (1996). Modelling of the variation of soil stiffness during sequential construction. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Cambridge.
De Moor, E.K. (1994). An Analysis of Bored Pile/Diaphragm Wall Installation Effects. Geotechnique Vol. 44,
No. 2, pp. 341-347.
Gourvenec, S. M. and Powrie, W. (1999). Three-dimensional Finite-element Analysis of Diaphragm Wall
Installation. Geotechnique, Vol. 49, No. 6, pp. 801-823.
Hong, S.H. (1999) Behaviour of soldier piles and timber-lagging support system, Ph.D. Upgrading Report,
National Univ. of Singapore
Houlsby, G.T. & Wroth, C.P. (1991). The variation of shear modulus of a clay with pressure and
overconsolidation ratio. Soils Fdns., Vol. 18, No.3, pp. 138-143.
Jardine, R.J., Potts, D.M., Fourie, A.B. and Burland, J.B. (1986). Studies of the Influence of Non-linear Stress-
strain Characteristics in Soil-structure Interaction. Geotechnique, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 377-396.
Lee, F.H., Yong, K.Y., Quan, K.C.N. & Chee, K.T. (1998). Effect of corners in strutted excavations – field
monitoring and case histories. ASCE Jnr. Geotech. & Geoenv. Engrg. Vol. 124, No.4, pp. 339-349 APR 1998.
Nasim, A. S. M. (1999). Numerical Modelling of Soil Profile and Behaviour in Deep Excavation Analyses. M.
Eng. Thesis, National University of Singapore.
Ou, C.Y., Liao, J.T. and Cheng, W.L. (2000) Building response and ground movements induced by a deep
excavation. Geotechnique, Vol. 50, No. 3, pp.209-220.
Roscoe, K.H. and Burland, J.B. (1968). On the generalized stress-strain behaviour of ‘wet clay’. Proc. Symp.
Engrg. Plasticity, Cambridge Univ. Press.
Simpson, B. (1992). Retaining Structures: Displacement and Design. Geotechnique, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 541-576.
Simpson, B., O’Riordan, N.J. and Croft, D.D. (1979). A computer model for the analysis of ground movements
in London Clay. Geotechnique, Vol. 29, No.2, pp. 149-175.
Stallebrass, S.E. (1990). Modelling the Effect of Recent Stress History on the Deformation of Overconsolidated
soils. PhD. Thesis, City Univ.
Tan, S.L. (1983), Geotechnical properties and laboratory testing of soft soils in Singapore, Proc. of Int. Seminar
on construction problems in soft soils, Nanyang Tech. Institute, Singapore, tsl. 1-47
Viggiani, G. (1992). Small strain stiffness of fine grained soils. PhD. Thesis, The City Univ.
Whittle, A.J., Hashash, Y.M.A., (1994) Soil Modelling and prediction of deep excavation behaviour, Proc. of the
Int. Symp. on pre-failure deformation characteristics of geo-materials (IS-Hokkaido 1994), Sapporo, 1994.

248
 Underground Singapore 2001

Groundwater effects in soldier-piled excavations in

residual soils
F.H. Lee & T.S. Tan
National University of Singapore, Singapore

X.N. Wang
Tritech Engineering & Testing, Singapore

ABSTRACT: In the Northeast MRT line Contract 704, soldier-piled excavation was used to construct
the Woodleigh and Serangoon Stations. The maximum excavation depth of this project reaches 25m
below the existing grade and 4 to 5 layers of strutting system were used for the excavation.
Comprehensive instrumentation work has been done through out the whole construction period. In this
paper, field data on ground movement arising from these two excavations will be presented and
discussed. In both stations, groundwater problems were experienced at localized zones. Examination
of the field instrumentation data suggests that groundwater effects have an important effect on the wall
deflection, that is consistent with a significant reduction in the undrained shear strength of the soil.
Such effects were much less evident on the ground settlement.

1 INTRODUCTION

The deleterious effect of groundwater flow on tunnels, slopes and excavations are well known. In view
of this, it seems reasonable to expect that groundwater problems will also affect the construction
control parameters of an underground construction project. Indeed, in tunnelling works, the ground
loss has been correlated to the presence or absence of groundwater problems. The situation is rather
different for strutted excavations, where, in spite of the current awareness, there exists little literature
on the quantitative effects of groundwater ingress on construction control parameters. Most existing
literature on empirical wall deflection, ground settlement and apparent earth pressure envelopes do not
take into account the presence, or otherwise, of groundwater problems, or, indeed, even the level of the
groundwater table (e.g. Peck 1969, O’ Rourke 1981).

While groundwater effects may be safely ignored in regions where the groundwater table lies deep
underground, this is definitely not true in Singapore where the groundwater table often lies within
several metres of the ground surface. For this reason, existing empirical guidelines (e.g. Peck 1969, O’
Rourke 1981) and design softwares, such as WALLAP, FREW and SAFE, which take no account of
groundwater conditions should be applied with caution. Furthermore, there are probably benefits to be
gained by taking a closer look at the effects of groundwater conditions on underground construction
such as deep excavation. On the surface, it would appear that there is a prima facie case for
approaching groundwater problems using an analytical approach since seepage and consolidation finite
element softwares are now readily available. However, the reliability of groundwater analysis is
heavily dependent upon geological conditions. Where geological conditions are variable, groundwater
flow is often three- rather than two-dimensional. Secondly, recharge conditions can greatly influence
the results of groundwater analysis and these conditions are often difficult to ascertain; setting the
recharge boundaries far from the site does not necessary lead to the correct solution. Indeed, the
solution may not even converge as recharge boundaries are pushed progressively away from the site.
Thirdly, groundwater flow tends to converge towards highly permeable zones which may be very
localised and not detected in site investigation works. For these reasons, groundwater analyses often
do not shed light on groundwater problems if the latter is of a localised extent.

249
250
Figure 1 Layout of instruments around Serangoon S\station
This paper examines the effects of groundwater conditions on strutted soldier-piled excavations in two
different soil formations in Singapore, using field instrumentation data from two strutted soldier-piled
excavations constructed in relation to the Northeast Line (NEL) of the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit
system. The first excavation is the Serangoon Station excavation which was constructed in granitic
sapprolites derived from the weathering of the Bukit Timah Granite. The second is the Woodleigh
Station excavation which was constructed in the Old Alluvium formation. Both excavations come
under contract 704 of the Northeast Line project. The soil condition at both sites ranges from firm to
stiff. In both cases, soldier-piled wall with horizontal strutting was employed as the support system.
Both excavations were constructed partly above and partly below groundwater table. Finally
groundwater problems were encountered in localised zones in both excavations. The presence of these
groundwater problems provides allow the effects of such groundwater problems to be studied.

2 GROUND CONDITIONS

2.1 Serangoon Station

The Bukit Timah Granite Formation refers to an entire suite of igneous rocks, principally granite,
adamellite and granodiorite (PWD, 1976). Dames and Moore (1983) classified the Bukit Timah
formation into four sublayers, namely G1 to G4 in order of increasing degree of weathering. The most
highly weathered sub-layer is the G4 layer which comprises of completely weathered granitic
sapprolites in the form of residual soil (Weathering Grades V and VI). The Serangoon Station site is
underlain by G4 soil up to the depth of 60m below existing ground level. The geological formation at
Serangoon Station can be further divided into the following five sub-units on the basis of the SPT blow
counts/300mm penetration, N. These sub-units are G4a (0≤N≤15), G4b (15≤N≤30), G4c (30≤N≤50),
G4d (50≤N≤100) and G4e (N≥100). Figure 1 shows the plan view of the Serangoon Station excavation
and Figure 2 shows the sub-soil profile along gridline A.

As shown in Figure 3, the particle size distribution varies over a broad band, from predominantly
sandy soils to predominantly silty soils. Moreover, as shown in Figure 4, the plasticity index tends to
decrease with depth, indicating increasingly sandy soils as the depth increases. Finally, as shown in
Figure 5, firm to stiff soil lies below a depth of about 6m from the ground surface. Thus, from the
perspective of shear strength, the ground conditions should not pose problems to excavation.

Figure 2 Geological profile along gridline A at Serangoon Station

251
Figure 3 Grain size distribution of G4 soil at Serangoon station.

Depth(m)

Figure 4 Variation of physical properties versus depth at Serangoon station.

252
 Depth(m)

Figure 5 Variation of undrained and drained shear strength versus depth at Serangoon station

2.2 Woodleigh Station

The Old Alluvium (OA) soils may be described as clayey, coarse, angular, quartzo-feldspathic sand
with some layers of quartz pebbles. The feldspar is completely weathered to a residual soil within the
upper section of the member. Tan et al. (1980) classified the Old Alluvium into three basic members
on the basis of weathering grade and cementation processes. The upper part of Old Alluvium is the
residual soil which consists of light greyish to grey loose medium dense silty angular quartz sand,
clayey silt and quartz gravel. This layer usually has a thickness of less than 8m. The second member is
completely weathered Old Alluvium, which consists of light grey to grey, very dense silty and clayey
angular quartz sand, with local weathered and uncemented quartz gravel. This layer is normally below
the residual soil, and has a thickness of more than 10m. The third layer is Old Alluvium consisting of
light grey to greenish grey, very dense silty angular, lightly cemented sands. For this study, four
subunits are defined according to SPT blow counts N. These sub-units are OAa (0≤N≤15), OAb
(15≤N≤30), OAc (30≤N≤100) and OAd (N≥100). Figure 6 shows the plan view of the Woodleigh
Station. As shown in Figure 7, the Woodleigh Station site is underlain by all three weathering grades.
Furthermore, two zones can be clearly discerned, a deeply weathered Zone 1 from gridline 5 to 15 and
a less deeply weathered Zone 2 from gridline 1 to 5. Comparison of Figures 3 and 8 shows that the OA
soils have a significant larger fraction of sand than the granitic sapprolites.

3 CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

3.1 Support system

Soldier piles and timbers with horizontal struts were used as support systems in both stations. The
soldier piles used are 610x305x149kg/m steel H-sections. Soldier piles were pre-driven to depths
ranging from 22m to 40m and spaced at between 2m and 1.3m depending upon the depth of
excavation for that section. Figures 1 and 6 show the strutted locations in both excavations. Struts used
vary in sizes and number depending largely on the level of the strut. Single H400x400x168kg/m
sections were used for the first layer of struts. For the subsequent layers, twin H610x305x149kg/m
sections were used, except for the second layer of the Woodleigh site, where twin
H300x300x84.5kg/m were used. Horizontal strut spacing ranged from 3.5m to 7.5m depending upon
the location. Six layers of struts were used for the Serangoon Station; the vertical spacing being 3m
down to the 6th layer which was located 3.5m above final excavation level. For the Woodleigh Station,
five layers of struts, at vertical spacings of approximately 3m, were used. At both sites, the thickness
of timber lagging used was 75mm.

253
254
Figure 6 Layout of instruments around Woodleigh station
 R.L.(m)

Figure 7 Geological profile along gridline A at Woodleigh Station.

% finer

Figure 8 Grain size distribution of OA soil at Woodleigh station

255
 Depth (m)

Figure 9 Variation of physical properties versus depth at Woodleigh station (zone 2)

Depth (m)

Figure 10 Variation of undrained and drained strengths versus depth at Woodleigh station (zone 1)

3.2 Construction Sequence

The excavation depths for the Serangoon Station were 15m at the concourse and approximately 25m at
the platform. For the Woodleigh Stations, the respective depths are 14m and 24m. Station
construction followed a “bottom-up” type sequence with strutted soldiers providing temporary support
as excavation proceeded downwards. As the station structures were casted from the bottom upward the
temporary props were removed sequentially, with the floor slabs being used as permanent props to the
permanent walls.

The soldier piles were firstly driven to the designed level. Upon completion of the soldier piles
installation, excavation commenced cell by cell (zone by zone). In both sites, excavation and strutting
proceeded in staggered fashion from two ends of the station toward the center. Struts were not
preloaded. Timber lagging was installed after every 1 to 1.5m of excavation depth. No back-filling of
voids or dewatering was conducted in the retained ground behind the soldier piles with the exception
of Zone 1 in Serangoon Station site and Zone 5 in Woodleigh Station site, where problems of water
ingress and local collapse of soil were encountered.

256
3.3 Construction Problems
Groundwater problems were encountered at localized zones in both sites. At Serangoon Station, water
from a nearby wash bay leaked into the ground from a defective surface drainage system at Zone 1,
causing softening of the soil. This led to a localized collapse of soil during excavation and timber
lagging installation, with consequent large increase in wall deflection, as indicated by inclinometer
I205. To remedy this, the wash bay was relocated, the surface drainage repaired and voids formed by
the collapse backfilled with lean concrete to forestall further collapse. A similar problem was
encountered in Zone 5 of Woodleigh Station. Dewatering was additionally implemented in Zone 5 of
Woodleigh Station site as the rate of water ingress into the excavation was relatively high, owing to
the sandier soil conditions.

4 FIELD DATA

4.1 Wall deflection

Figures 11a to d show the wall deflection profiles from selected inclinometers at various stages of
excavation. As can be seen, the deflection profile changes with depth from an initial cantilever profile
to one in which the maximum deflection occurred at a depth of 0.5 to 0.7 times the excavation depth
from the ground surface. In all cases, the maximum deflection is reached above final excavation level,
which is consistent with the typical wall deflection profile for cases where competent soil exists below
excavation level (e.g. Bjerrum et al. 1972). Comparison of Figures 11a and b as well as Figures 11c
and d shows that much larger deflection are recorded in zones where groundwater problems exist than
the other zones, especially during the later stages of excavation. As shown in Figures 12a and b, the
maximum deflection of soldier piles retaining wall varies from about 0.2% to about 0.4% of the depth
of excavation in most zones, with the exception of Zone 1 of Serangoon Station and Zone 5 of
Woodleigh Station, where significant water ingress has been noted earlier.

The undrained shear strength of the soil at final excavation level is about 150kPa for the Serangoon
Station and about 120kPa for the Woodleigh Station sites. This leads to a stability number of about 2.9
for Serangoon Station and about 3 for Woodleigh Station. Treating the base failure problem as a
bearing capacity leads to a “failure” value of Nb of 5.14. Based on this failure value of Nb, the factor of
safety against basal heave is just over 1.7 for both sites. Comparison of these values with Clough et
al.’s (1979) data limits indicates that the results fall on the lower limit of Clough et al.’s data band. At
the two locations significant water ingress into the ground was noted, the maximum deflection rises to
about 0.5% to 0.8% of excavation depth. Comparison with Clough et al.’s (1979) data band shows that
this can be explained by a drop in the factor of safety to about 1.2, or an increase in Nb to about 4.3. If
this is indeed true, then it would suggest a ~30% reduction in the undrained shear strength at both
sites. This is not implausible since accessibility to groundwater, together with a relief in total stress,
can lead to a rapid softening of the soil. In addition, Take and Bolton (2001) showed that transient
infiltration of surface water through the ground can also lead to a progressive breakdown of the soil
mass in an otherwise stable slope of over-consolidated clay.

4.2 Ground settlement

Figures 11a and b show the settlement profiles at various zones behind the two stations. As can be
seen, the maximum settlement at Zone 1 of Serangoon Station site is not significantly larger than those
of the other zones, thereby suggesting that the effect of water ingress and local soil collapse on ground
settlement is not significant. On the other hand, at Woodleigh Station, the maximum settlement at
Zone 5, where the local soil problems were encountered, is much larger than the other zones. This
difference in ground response may be attributed to the dewatering measures which were implemented
at Zone 5 of Woodleigh to reduce the ingress of water. At Serangoon Station, dewatering was not
implemented as the rate of water ingress was relatively low. Apart from Zone 5 of Woodleigh, all
other zones registered a maximum settlement equal to about 0.15% of the depth of excavation or less.
Comparison with Clough and Denby’s (1977) data would suggest that Nb is no higher than 3.5, which
is fairly well correlated with the Nb values derived from the wall deflection data. On the other hand,
Zone 5 of Woodleigh registered a maximum settlement equal to about 1% of the excavation depth
(Figure 11b), which would suggest a value of Nb of about 7.5, which would, in turn, imply a strength

257
 reduction of about 60% in both stations. This is much larger than the implied strength reduction from
wall deflection. However, a large part of that settlement is likely to have been due to the further
drawdown caused by the dewatering process, whereas the above back-analysis assumes that the
settlement is caused entirely by ground loss due to wall deflection.

(a) Inclinometer I203 Serangoon station (b) Inclinometer I205 Serangoon station

(c) Inclinometer I104 Woodleigh station (d) Inclinometer I103A Woodleigh station
Figure 11 Wall deflection profiles

258
.

Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

(a) Serangoon station (b) Woodleigh station
Figure 12 Maximum wall deflection at Serangoon and Woodleigh stations.

5.000
Distance from wall (m)

0.000
Vertical displacement (mm)

0.000 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000 60.000

-5.000 Zone 1

-10.000 Zone 2
Zone 3
-15.000
Zone 4
-20.000 Zone 5

-25.000

-30.000
Distance from wall (m)

Figure 13a. Settlement at various zones at Serangoon Station site.

Distance from wall (m)
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Vertical displacement (mm)

-50.0
Zone 1
-100.0 Zone 2
Zone 3
-150.0 Zone 4
Zone 5
-200.0

-250.0
Distance from wall (m)

Figure 13b. Settlement at various zones at Woodleigh Station site.

259
5 CONCLUSION

The above results appear to suggest that the effects of groundwater ingress into an excavation may be
more consistently manifested through wall deflection than ground settlement. Back-analysis appears to
suggest also that the increase in wall deflection is consistent with a significant reduction in the
undrained shear strength of the soil. While this notion seems plausible, it will need confirmation from
further study involving measurement of the strength of the soil during construction. If this is indeed
true, then it suggests that the use of beam-on-spring type analysis or undrained and drained finite
element analysis, without due consideration of groundwater flow and modelling of the softening or
break-up of the soil mass, may not accurately predict wall deflection. In other words, it should not be
automatically assumed that finite element analyses will be able to predict all ground process affecting
wall deflection and ground deformation.

REFERENCES

Bjerrum, L., Clausen, C.J.F. & Duncan, J.M. 1972. Earth pressures on flexible structures – a state-of-the-art
report. Proc. 5th European Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng., vol. 2, Madrid: 169-196.
Clough, G.W. & Denby, G.M. 1977. Stabilizing berm design for temporary walls in clay. Jrn. Geotech. Eng.,
ASCE, vol. 103, 75-90.
Clough, G.W., Hansen, L.A. & Mana, A.I. 1979. Prediction of supported excavation movements under marginal
stability conditions in clay. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Num. Meth. Geomech., vol. 4, Aachen: 1485-1502.
O’ Rourke, T.D. 1981. Ground movements caused by braced excavations. Jrn. Geotech. Eng., ASCE, vol. 107,
1159-1178.
Peck, R.B. 1969. Deep excavation and tunnelling in soft ground. Proc. 7th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found. Eng.,
State-of-the-Art Volume, Mexico City: 225-290.
Take, W.A. & Bolton, M.D. 2001. The use of centrifuge modelling to investigate progressive failure of
overconsolidated clay embankments. Proceedings of Workshop on Constitutive and Centrifuge Modelling:
Two extremes, Zurich, Switzerland (in press).

260
 Underground Singapore 2001

The monitoring of cut and cover tunnel construction at

Race Course Road next to Foochow Methodist Church
Dazhi Wen & Chun Nam Ow
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

S. I. Yoon
Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The construction of the cut and cover tunnels at Race Course Road within Contract 706
of the North East MRT Line implemented a detailed instrumentation program to monitor the
performance of the diaphragm walls and the buildings to the east of Race Course Road. The
instrumentation included two major monitoring sections, one of which was at the Foochow Methodist
Church. Extensive monitoring of the Church was carried out due to the severe damage the building
experienced during the construction. This paper describes in detail the monitoring program.
Monitoring results, in particular those taken at the major monitoring section at Foochow Methodist
Church will be presented. Discussions will be focused on the ground and building settlements, tilt of
the Church structure, diaphragm wall deflections and pore water pressure changes.

1 INTRODUCTION

The North East MRT Line in Singapore is a 20 km underground transit railway. It starts from
HarbourFront station in the south of the island, passes through the Central Business District and ends
at Punggol station in the north-east. Twelve civil contracts were awarded for the construction.
Contract 706 included the construction of bored tunnels, two stations (Farrer Park and Little India)
and connecting tunnels built by cut-and-cover method to include a siding tunnel. The cut-and-cover
tunnels were constructed adjacent to Race Course Road, which is in the old Little India area of
Singapore. Race Course Road is lined on the east side of the tunnels by 3 to 4 storey shophouses,
many of which date from the early part of the 20th century, see Figure 1.

Little India Station Cut & cover tunnel Farrer Park Station

Rotan Lane Race Course Road

N
Kerbau Road Foochow Methodist Race Course Kinta Road Robert Lane
Church Lane

Figure 1. Cut and cover tunnel at Race Course Road.

261
1.1 Geological condition

At the cut & cover tunnels the ground consists of man-made fill, fluvial sands / clays and the Marine
clay of the Kallang formation underlain by the Old Alluvium, see Figure 2. The thickness of the fill is
typically 2 to 4 meters. Underlain the fill is a layer of fluvial sands overlain the very soft to soft
Marine clay. The thickness of the sand layer is 3 to 7m. The depth of the Marine clay varies from 15m
to 31m below ground level. Locally the Marine clay is separated by a layer of fluvial deposits.

Bored Tunnel Little India Station Cut & Cover Tunnel Farrer Park Station Bored Tunnel

100.0
Kallang Formation
90.00

80.00
Jurong Formation Old Alluvium
70.00

Figure 2. Generalized geological profile along Race Course Road.

The fluvial sands found at Race Course Road are typically described as loose to medium dense gray
sands or silty sands. The properties of the fluvial sands are described by Chu, et al (2000).

The properties of the Singapore Marine clay and problems associated with it in tunnelling and deep
excavations have been well established, see Tan (1972), Shirlaw & Copsey (1987), Chang (1991),
Shirlaw et al (1999). The Marine clay is normally consolidated or slightly over-consolidated. The
compression index is typically in the range of 0.6 to 1.0 and the permeability is low in the order of
10-9 to 10-10 m/s.

The Old Alluvium is typically described as sandy silt or clayey silt. At depth the material is generally
found to have some cementation. However much of the cementation has been lost due to weathering
at shallow depth. The permeability of the Old Alluvium depends on weathering and grain size
distribution. It typically ranges between 10-6 to 10-9 m/s.

1.2 Construction

The cut & cover tunnels were constructed using 800mm thick diaphragm walls supported by 6 levels
of H-section steel struts. The excavation depth varied from 17 to 17.5m below the ground level. A
typical cross section is shown in Figure 3.

To ensure the stability of the excavation, the design & build contractor installed the diaphragm walls
into the underlying Old Alluvium. The criterion for terminating the diaphragm walls was 2m into the
Old Alluvium of SPT > 100 or as determined by load bearing requirement, whichever is deeper. In
order to limit the wall deflections along Race Course road, jet grouted slabs of 1.5m to 3m thick were
constructed at the base of the excavation in areas where there was a significant depth of marine clay
below the base of the excavation. The jet grouted slab was installed before excavation commenced
and was designed to provide effective support to the diaphragm wall to reduce the wall deflection and
ground settlement.

Pressure relief holes were installed to address the concern over hydraulic uplift related to the water
pressure in the weathered surface of the Old Alluvium. As the weathered Old Alluvium is typically
one to two orders of magnitude more permeable than the marine clay, there was a potential risk that
excessive water pressure could lift both the marine clay and the jet grout slab where the marine clay
was relatively thin. It was found that the pressure in the Old Alluvium reduced sufficiently during
excavation to avoid this problem.

262
Figure 3. Typical cut & cover tunnel cross-section at Race Course Road

2 INSTRUMENTATION

A wide range of instruments was used to monitor the excavation and the building responses. Table 1
shows a summary of the instruments installed.

Table 1. Summary of instruments for cut & cover tunnels at Race Course Road
Type of Instruments Number
Level Points 207
Inclinometers 8 in soil and 12 in diaphragm wall
Water standpipes 6
Piezometers 7 (Casagrande type) and 20 (pneumatic type)
Magnent extensometers 12
Strain gauges 36
Pressure cells 20
Tiltmeters 26
Crackmeters 44 (Avonguard), 42 (Demec) and 4 (wire extensometers)
Tape extensometers 6

The total number of instruments installed on site generally exceeded the design as more instruments
were added during construction. Most of the instruments were installed along the tunnels to monitor
the performance of the diaphragm wall and the response to the excavation of the ground, adjacent
buildings and underground services. Two comprehensive monitoring sections were set up along
Roberts Lane and Rotan Lane. The comprehensive monitoring sections included level points,
inclinometers, extensometers and piezometers. Figure 4 shows the monitoring section along Rotan
Lane next to the Foochow Methodist church. The two comprehensive monitoring sections were
installed to serve a few purposes, i.e. to ensure the project safety, to monitor closely the buildings

263
with high predicted risk and to provide information for better understanding of the responses of the
ground and the buildings to the cut & cover construction along Race Course Road.

Figure 4. Comprehensive monitoring section along Rotan Lane (GWP305 was renamed as GWP3051)

3 MONITORING RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Settlement due to diaphragm wall installation

A total of 145 panels of diaphragm walls were installed for the cut & cover tunnels. The thickness of
the diaphragm wall was 800mm. The panel length was typically 7m and the depth varied from 24m to
44m below the ground. Bentonite slurry was used to stabilize the trench excavation.
Ground settlement due to installation of the wall varied from 5mm to 15mm at the time of concreting.
The settlement continued for another 5 to 10mm after the panels were cast, see Figure 5. The
settlement appears to be localized to an area close to the wall, see Figure 6.
08 /98
15 /98
22 /98
29 /98
05 /98
12 /98
19 /98
26 /98
03 /98
10 /98
17 /98
24 /98
31 /98
07 /98
14 /98
21 /98
28 /98
05 /98
12 /98
19 /98
26 /98
98
2/
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
01

0
5
Settlement (mm)

10
Casting date: 16/10/98 (L323)
15 Casting date:
20 14/08/98 (L626)
25
Casting date: 14/09/98 (L661)
30
L323 L661 L626

Figure 5. Settlement due to installation of diaphragm walls.

264
 Distance from the wall (m)
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
Settlement (mm)

L400 L401 L402

5

10
L661
15

Figure 6. Ground settlements vs. distance to diaphragm wall panel after concreting.

3.2 Diaphragm wall deflection and ground settlement due to excavation

Diaphragm wall deflection was monitored by inclinometers installed in the wall panels. The
maximum wall deflection was typically within the contractor’s prediction of 40 to 90mm, using the
software FREW, see Figure 7.

Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
105
Reduced Level

100
95
Reduced Level

85 90

75

80
65

55 70
Predicted Predicted
Measured Measured
Formation Level Formation Level
Figure 7. Measured deflection vs. predicted deflection at Ch. 31 993 (left) and Ch. 31 890 (right).

The maximum measured ground settlement along Rotan Lane was 110mm, of which 55% was due to
the consolidation of the Marine clay, see Figure 8. At the final excavation level, the maximum
settlement and the maximum wall deflection were 55mm and 40mm, respectively. The excavation was
stopped for about three months when the excavation was at the third strut level. This was to allow the
underpinning works for the Old Sanctuary of the Foochow Methodist Church to be completed.
Consolidation of the clay took place during this period. This is clearly shown by the straight line in
the time (log scale) – settlement curve in Figure 9 for level point L641 which was 5.5m from the
diaphragm wall. The consolidation settlement was about 10mm. This means that the maximum
settlement at the final excavation level due to the wall deflection alone was 45mm, which agrees well
with the maximum wall deflection. This agreement has been demonstrated elsewhere, Tan et al (1985)
and Nicholson (1987).

265
 0 0
1st strut
2nd strut
5 3rd strut
50
4th strut
10 100
5th strut (mm)
15 6th strut
Consolidation settlement

20 Settlement at final excavation level

Total settlement 21 months after casting base slab
25

30
Wall deflection at final excavation level

35
(m)
40 20 0 (mm)

Figure 8. Settlement along Rotan Lane.

1 10 100 Days 1000

0

20

Excavation at 3rd strut level

40
Settlement (mm)

Excavation resumed from

3rd to 4th struts
60
Excavation at final formation
80

100

120

Figure 9. Settlement measured at L641.

3.3 Pore water pressure changes and consolidation settlement

Pore water pressures were measured by water standpipes, casagrande piezometer and pneumatic
piezometers. Some piezometers had a few sensors installed in different levels, for example
GWP3051–1 at RL 82.566m, GWP3051-2 at RL75.566m and GWP3051-3 at RL66.566m. All
piezometers installed along Rotan Lane experienced a large drop in the piezometric head in the range
of 6 to 8m when the excavation reached the final formation level, see Figure 10. It took two years
after the base slab was cast for the piezometric head to be restored to its original levels.

266
 10-May-99

04-May-00
11-Nov-98

06-Nov-99

27-Aug-01
11-Mar-99

05-Mar-00

30-Dec-00

29-Apr-01
12-Sep-98

07-Sep-99

01-Sep-00

28-Feb-01
31-Oct-00

28-Jun-01
10-Jan-99

05-Jan-00
09-Jul-99

03-Jul-00
-2
Excavation completed and base slab cast
0
Drawdown (m)

10
GWP3071 GWP3081 GWP3051-1 GWP3051-2 GWP3051-3

Figure 10. Drawdown of piezometric head along Rotan Lane.

The piezometers shown in Figure 10 were all installed outside the excavation. Piezometer GWP3041
was installed inside the excavation. There were two sensors in GWP3041 at 3m (GWP3041-1) and
16m (GWP3041-2), respectively, below the formation level. The piezometric head drawdown
measured both within (GWP 3041) and outside (GWP 3051) the excavation is shown in Figure 11. As
the monitoring data for GWP 3041 are only available from March 1999 when the excavation was
below the 5th level of strut, i.e. 12.5m below the ground level, it is assumed that the original ground
water table was the same as that measured by GWP3051 at RL101m.

Excavation below Excavation below Excavation below Excavation below Excavation at

3rd strut (6.5m) 4th strut (9m) 5th strut (12.5m) 6th strut (15.5m) formation (17.5m)

30-May-99
01-Nov-98

01-Mar-99

31-Mar-99
01-Dec-98

31-Dec-98

30-Apr-99
02-Sep-98

02-Oct-98

30-Jan-99

-2

2
Drawdown (m)

10

12

14

GWP3051-1 GWP3051-2 GWP3051-3 GWP3041-1 GWP3041-2

Figure 11. Drawdown of piezometric head within and outside the excavation at Rotan Lane

The piezometric head drawdown in GWP3041-1(3m below the formation) followed closely with the
excavation. GWP3041-2 and GWP3051-3 showed about 7m of piezometric head loss when the
excavation reached the formation. Figure 12 shows the position of the two piezometers. Both were
installed 11 meters to the diaphragm wall at about the same level close to the toe of the diaphragm
wall, except that GWP3041 was inside the excavation and GWP3051 was outside the excavation.
Figure 12 also indicates the comparison of the measured water pressure with the hydrostatic pressure

267
and the theoretical water pressure at the steady state seepage at the diaphragm wall. The theoretical
pressure is based on the assumption that the hydraulic heads varies linearly along the wall suggested
by Burland, et al (1981).

Legend:
Water table at 2m below
Fill Hydrostatic pressure
ground level
Fluvial sands
Steady state seepage
pressure
Marine clay

Pressure measured by
Measured: 5.2m piezometer
Theory at wall: 6m

Measured: 13m Old Alluvium GWP3051 (outside

Theory at wall: 15m
Measured : 5.5 m excavation & GP3041
Theory at wall: 8m (inside excavation)

Measured: 7.2m Measured: 6.8m

Theory at wall: 10m Theory at wall: 10m

Figure 12. Comparison of measured and theoretical piezometric head loss.

The measured drawdown of the piezometric head indicates that the diaphragm wall was unable to
provide an effective cut-off. The Old Alluvium was permeable enough for the water pressure on both
side of the wall to reach almost the steady state seepage water pressure when the excavation reached
the formation. This implies that in designing the retaining system for deep excavation it is important
to check the case with the steady state seepage pressure on both sides of the wall.
On contrast the piezometric head measured by water standpipes showed little variation within the
seasonal changes of the surface water table, Figure 13. The standpipes were perforated PVC pipes and
installed in a pre-drilled hole. Due to the recharging from the top sand layer, they were unable to
detect the reduction in piezometric head, and are thus not suitable for the monitoring of changes of
piezometric head for deep excavations.
20-Apr-99

14-Apr-00

09-Apr-01
22-Oct-98

17-Oct-99

11-Oct-00
20-Jan-99

15-Jan-00

09-Jan-01
24-Jul-98

19-Jul-99

13-Jul-00

08-Jul-01

-1.5
-1
Drawdown (m)

-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
GWS3021 GWS322 GWS324
Figure 13. Changes of piezometric head by water standpipes.

268
3.4 Monitoring of Foochow Methodist Church

Foochow Methodist Church consists of three structures: the Sanctuary, the Kindergarten and the
Sunday School. They used to be independent structures belonging to different owners. The church
acquired the neighbouring two lots of land and major addition and alternation works were carried out
to the super-structures. Steel H-piles were installed for the addition to the Sanctuary and the
Kindergarten. The old structures were founded either on footings (the old Sanctuary) or bakau piles
(Sunday School), see Figure 14.

Struts for cut & cover

Race Course Road

N
17.6m 3-storey sanctuary on Addition to the sanctuary
pad footings on H-steel piles

Kindergarten on
H-steel piles

Rota
n

Sunday
School

Chander Lane
Figure 14. Layout of Foochow Methodist Church

Prior to the main excavation for the cut & cover tunnels, bored piling works using casings at the
neighbouring lot caused some differential settlement along north-south direction of the church and
cracks were observed within the building, mainly at the joint areas of the old structures and new
additions. Further settlement due to deep excavation of the cut & cover tunnels worsened the
situation. Figure 15 indicates that the same trend was followed by the differential settlement and the
crack width at different levels at the joints of the Sunday School and the Kindergarten. Figure 16
shows the rotation of the Sunday School, calculated as the differential settlement (L352 & L667)
divided by the distance of the two building settlement points and the tilt measured by the tiltmeter at
the end wall of the Sunday School. It is obvious that the Sunday School founded on bakau piles was
connected to the piled Kindergarten and it experienced a rigid rotation. The fact that few cracks were
observed within Sunday School also suggested that the building rotated as a rigid body as a result of
the differential settlement.

The observation on the behaviour of these structures clearly demonstrates that buildings connected
structurally, but founded on different foundation systems are susceptible to damage due to ground

269
settlements. As a guideline, new additions to old buildings should be made independent, unless
foundations for the old and new structures are made compatible.

05-May-99
05-Nov-98

05-Nov-99
05-Aug-99
05-Mar-99
05-Dec-98

05-Dec-99
05-Apr-99

05-Sep-99
05-Feb-99

05-Oct-99
05-Jun-99
05-Jan-99

05-Jul-99
Differential Settlement / Crackwidth (mm)

10

20

30

40

50

CM E404 CM E405 CM A3641 CM D3772 Differential Settlement

Second Floor Third Floor First Floor First Floor Between L351 / L381
Figure 15. Different settlement and crack width
9
8

9
9
9
8

9
9

9
9

9
9
9

-9
-9

-9
-9
-9

9
-9

-9
-9

-9
-9

-9
-9
-9

-9
ay
ov

ov
ug
ar
ec

ec
pr

ep
eb

ct
un
an

ul
-M

-M

-O
-D

-A

-D
-N

-N
-A

-S
-F
-J

-J

-J
05
05

05

05

05

05

05

05

05

05

05
05

05

05

0.00E+00
Rotation (Radiant)

5.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.50E-03

2.00E-03
Rotation (Radiant) TM3211

Figure 16. Rotation calculated from differential settlement and tiltmeter readings

4 CONCLUSIONS

The monitoring of the cut & cover tunnel excavation was described in the paper. The monitoring
results indicate that:

• Ground settlement due to diaphragm wall installation was in the order of 10 – 25mm. The
settlement was localized in an area close to the diaphragm wall panel.
• Ground settlement due to retaining wall deflection can be best estimated by correlating the
maximum settlement with the maximum wall deflection. As the wall deflection can be predicted
with reasonable accuracy, the use of this correlation is preferred to other sophisticated analytical
methods.
• Piezometric head drawdown of 6-8m was experienced in the OA. This caused large consolidation
settlement of the marine clay. Of the total measured settlement 55% was due to consolidation.
• Although the diaphragm wall was taken to the very hard soils of the Old Alluvium (SPT > 100), it
was not able to provide an effective cut-off.
• At the formation level the water pressure on both sides of the retaining wall was almost at the
water pressure at the steady state seepage.

270
• Water standpipes of perforated PVC pipes were unable to detect the reduction of piezometric
head due to recharging from other soil layers. They should not be used to monitor piezometric
head changes in deep excavations.
• Additions and alternations should be made independent of the existing structures unless the new
and old foundation systems are made compatible.

REFERENCES

Burland, J.B., Potts, D.M. & Walsh, N.M. 1981. The overall stability of free and propped embedded cantilever
retaining walls. Ground Engineering, 14(5).
Chang, M.F. 1991. The stress history of Singapore marine clay. J. Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 22, 1991.
Chu, J., Wen, D., Kay, R.E. & Tay, T.H. 2000. Engineering Properties of fluvial sands at Race Course Road.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Tunnels & Underground Structures, Singapore, 26 – 29
November 2000.
Nicholson, D.P. 1987. The design and performance of the retaining walls at Newton station, Proceedings of the
Singapore Mass Transit Conference, Singapore 6 – 9 April 1987.
Shirlaw, J. N. & Copsey, J.P. 1987. Settlement over tunnels in Singapore marine clay. Proceedings of the 5th
International Geotechnical Seminar “ Case Histories in Soft Clay”, NTI, Singapore, 2 – 4 December 1987.
Shirlaw, J.N., Wen, D., Ganeshan, V. & Hoe, C.S. 1999. A compensation grouting trial in Singapore marine clay.
In Kusakabe, Fujita & Miyazaki (eds.), Geotechnical aspects of underground construction in soft Ground;
Proceedings of the International Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, 19 – 21 July 1999.
Tan, S.B. 1972. Foundation problems in Singapore marine clay, Asian Building and Construction, November
1972.
Tan, S.B., Tan, S.L. & Chin, Y.K. 1985. A braced sheetpile excavation in soft Singapore marine clay.
Proceedings of 11th Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 1985, Vol.
3.

271
 Underground Singapore 2001

Global Positioning System (GPS) for the Monitoring of

Ground Movement?
Y.K Tor
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT: A test site was set up in Nanyang Technological University (NTU) to study the
feasibility of using the Global Positioning System (GPS) in monitoring surface movement. A GPS
Reference Station at the rooftop of Block N1 of NTU and four monitoring points each with a GPS
antenna was used for the GPS measurements. An independent measurement system using a Motorised
Electronic Total Station, also known as Surveying Robot, and three prism targets was also installed.
Two sets of GPS measurement of 2 days each and 18 days of surveying robot observations were
acquired. The comparison from the test showed that the surveying robot is able to provide
measurements responsive to the changes in the surface atmospheric environment. The results derived
from GPS measurements were marred by the multipath effect commonly encountered in built-up
environment. However, the GPS results is able to indicate the daily deformation trend.

1 INTRODUCTION

This paper presents and compares the results of monitoring measurement in a test site in Nanyang
Technological University using (a) Global Positioning System (GPS) and (b) Motorised Electronic
Total Station, also known as Surveying Robot. The objective of the comparison is to investigate the
feasibility of using GPS to monitor ground movement brought about by underground tunnelling
activities.

1.1 Global Positioning System (GPS)

Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite-based system developed and maintained by Department
of Defense of the United States, is capable of determining planimetric position to centimetre accuracy.
The accuracy of height measurement using GPS, however, is known to be two to three times less
accurate. As the GPS signal is continuously available (and is free), it had been used to monitor tall
structures and bridges to study the effect of wind and heat and even to monitor and predict the
occurrence of earth quake (Guo & Ge, 1997, Ashkenazi & Roberts, 1998). The satellites act as control
stations in such monitoring activity and theoretically are more superior than ground-based control
markers, which may be subjected to deformation. The GPS signals, however, are prone to multipath
effect and are adversely influenced by the ionospheric and tropospheric layers of the atmosphere.

1.2 Motorised Electronic Total Station or Surveying Robot

Surveying Robot, a servo-fitted electronic total station, is being used to monitor MRT tunnels in
Singapore. Its angular precision is 2" or better and can measure distance with precision of 1mm ± 2
ppm or better. Tor (1999) reported its application in surface monitoring works, which are significantly
influenced by the changes in surface atmospheric conditions.

2 NTU TEST SITE

2.1 Layout

The layout of the Test Site is depicted in Figure 1. The Surveying Robot Station (Fig. 2) and the GPS
Reference Station (Fig. 3) are situated at the rooftop of Block N1 (about 35 m above ground level) of
NTU. G2 to G5 in Figure 1 denote the monitoring points comprising the GPS antenna and the prism
target mounted on a customised bracket (Fig. 4). G2, G3, G4 and G5, all installed at the rooftop, are

272
about 120 m, 145 m, 110 m and 95 m, respectively, from the Surveying Robot Station and the GPS
Reference Station. G2 and G3 are about 5 m lower than the two reference stations whilst G4 and G5
are at the same height with the reference stations.

Blk N2
G4 G5

N G3

Blk N1 Survey Robot

Blk N1 Station
and GPS
Reference
G2 Station

Figure 1. Layout of the Surveying Robot Station, GPS Reference Station and monitoring points G2 to G5

Figure 2. Surveying Robot Station situated at the rooftop of Block N1, NTU

Figure 3 GPS Reference Station at the rooftop of Block N1, NTU

273
 Figure 4 Wall-mounted bracket with GPS antenna and prism target

2.2 GPS Reference Station

The dual-frequency GPS receiver at the reference station is powered from AC main and operates non-
stop collecting data from the GPS satellites at a sampling rate of 1 Hz. The data is transferred via
RS232/422 cable (about 100 m) to the computer in the Surveying and Mapping Laboratory. It is one
of the four continuous GPS Reference Stations of the Singapore Integrated Multiple Reference Station
Network (SIMRSN).

2.3 Surveying Robot Station

The Surveying Robot is also powered from AC main and performed observation to the prism targets at
G2 to G4 at hourly interval, i.e. 24 sets of readings per day. The data is also transferred via another
RS232/422 cable to the Surveying and Mapping Laboratory.

2.4 GPS Antenna and Prism Target

Dual-frequency GPS receivers were installed at monitoring points G2 and G3. Single-frequency
receivers were installed at G4 and G5. There were thus a total of 5 GPS receivers used in this test.
Only three prism targets were installed, as G5 is not visible from the Survey Robot Station. In this
initial test, the GPS receivers at G2 to G5 were powered using heavy-duty 12V wet cell batteries,
which can 'last' 3 to 5 days before re-charging.

274
3 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

3.1 GPS Observations and Results

Two sets of GPS observations were acquired, each with approximately 48 hours. The first began on
08.00h (GMT) 3rd August 2001 and ended on 07.15h (GMT) 5th August 2001. The second set began
on 06.00h (GMT) 13 August 2001 and ended on 08.00h (GMT) 15 August 2001. The sampling rate of
the GPS observations is fifteen seconds, i.e. one reading every 15 seconds.

The changes in northing, easting and height coordinates of the GPS antenna at the furthest monitoring
point G3 computed at hourly interval are shown in Figure 5. The height is ellipsoidal height, i.e. the
height above the WGS84 ellipsoid – the reference ellipsoid of the GPS. Due to the small extent of the
test site, the changes in the ellipsoidal height, for practical purpose, is the same as the changes in
height above mean sea level. The horizontal line in each graph indicates the mean of the changes in
the respective coordinate. The numerical value of the mean and the root mean square (RMS) of the
results are shown as well.

Figure 5 Changes in the northing, easting and ellipsoidal height of monitoring point G3 at Block N2 computed at
hourly interval with reference to the GPS reference station at Block N1.

275
3.2 Surveying Robot Observations and Results

The surveying robot observations began on 03.00h (GMT) 28th July 2001 and ended due to
malfunctioning on 22.00h (GMT) 14 August 2001. 428 sets of observations were acquired and taken
at hourly interval to the prism targets at the monitoring points G2 to G4 . Temperature and pressure
readings were also taken by the survey robot besides the horizontal directions, slope angles and slope
distances. Raw observations (shown in grey lines), time-series filtered observations (shown in darker
lines) and time-series predicted observations for G3 are depicted in Figure 6.
45.222

Filtered Predicted

45.220
North Coordinates (m)

45.218

45.216

45.214

45.212

45.210

N(m)
N-Filtered(m)
45.208
109
127
145
163
181
199
217
235
253
271
289
307
325
343
361
379
397
415
433
451
469
487
505
523
541
559
577
19
37
55
73
91
1

Epoch No
138.259

Filtered Predicted

138.258
East Coordinates (m)

138.257

138.256

138.255

138.254

E(m)
E-Filtered(m)
138.253
109
127
145
163
181
199
217
235
253
271
289
307
325
343
361
379
397
415
433
451
469
487
505
523
541
559
577
19
37
55
73
91
1

Epoch No
-5.165

Filtered Predicted
-5.170
Height Coordinates (m)

-5.175

-5.180

-5.185

-5.190

-5.195

H(m)
H-Filtered(m)
-5.200
1
18
35
52
69
86
103
120
137
154
171
188
205
222
239
256
273
290
307
324
341
358
375
392
409
426
443
460
477
494
511
528
545
562
579

Epoch No

Figure 6. Raw, time-series filtered and time-series predicted northing, easting and height coordinates of
monitoring point G3

276
The observations in Figure 6 were found to be a time series of the sophisticated ARIMA
(Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) model (also known as "Box-Jenkins" model) with both
1st order autoregressive and 1st order moving average with periodicity of 24 hours. The filtered results
fit well with the observations. The predicted results for 6 days exhibit well the cyclical (periodic)
nature of the time series.

It was found in this study that the means of the coordinates at each hour of the day of each monitoring
point agree well with the predicted hourly results from the time series. Figure 7 illustrates the mean
and the predicted north, east and height coordinates of monitoring point G3. As the means are within
the lower control limit (LCL) and the upper control limit (UCL) at 95% confidence interval, it is not
statistically different from that predicted from the time series using the sophisticated ARIMA
(Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) models (also known as "Box-Jenkins" models).

45.222

45.220
North Coordinates (m)

45.218

N(TimeSeries)
N(Mean)
45.216
N(LCL)
N(UCL)

45.214

45.212

45.210
0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

5:00

6:00

7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

17:00

18:00

19:00

20:00

21:00

22:00

23:00

Hour of the Day

138.259

138.258
East Coordinates (m)

138.257

E(TimeSeries)
E(Mean)
138.256
E(LCL)
E(UCL)

138.255

138.254

138.253
0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

5:00

6:00

7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

17:00

18:00

19:00

20:00

21:00

22:00

23:00

Hour of the Day

-5.176

-5.178
Height Coordinates (m)

-5.180

-5.182 H(TimeSeries)
H(Mean)
H(LCL)
-5.184 H(UCL)

-5.186

-5.188

-5.190
0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

5:00

6:00

7:00

8:00

9:00

10:00

11:00

12:00

13:00

14:00

15:00

16:00

17:00

18:00

19:00

20:00

21:00

22:00

23:00

Hour of the Day

Figure 7 Mean and the predicted north, east and height coordinates of monitoring point G3 at each hour of the
day.

277
The raw observations shown in Figure 6 are affected by the changes in the scale of the measured
distances (due to the changes in the pressure and temperature), changes in the zenith angles (due to the
changes in the vertical temperature gradient) and changes in horizontal directions (due to the
differential heating on the pillar supporting the instrument). Tor (1999) explained these systematic
errors.

The observations could be corrected for these systematic errors. A reference set of coordinates for the
monitoring points G2 to G4 was used to determine the scale error, refraction error and the orientation
correction for each epoch of observation. The reference set was obtained by calculating the grand
mean of the 24 means of the respective coordinates as shown in Figure 7.

The raw and the adjusted coordinates of G3 are depicted in Figure 8.

45.222

45.220
North Coordinates (m)

45.218

45.216
N(m)
NAdj(m)
45.214

45.212

45.210

45.208
1
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
105
118
131
144
157
170
183
196
209
222
235
248
261
274
287
300
313
326
339
352
365
378
391
404
417
138.259
Epoch No

138.258
East Coordinates (m)

138.257

E(m)
138.256
EAdj(m)

138.255

138.254

138.253
1
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
105
118
131
144
157
170
183
196
209
222
235
248
261
274
287
300
313
326
339
352
365
378
391
404
417

Epoch No
-5.165

-5.170
Height Coordinates (m)

-5.175

-5.180
H(m)
HAdj(m)
-5.185

-5.190

-5.195

-5.200
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
1

105
118
131
144
157
170
183
196
209
222
235
248
261
274
287
300
313
326
339
352
365
378
391
404
417

Epoch No

Figure 8 Raw and adjusted north, east and height coordinates of G3

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4 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

4.1 GPS Results

A daily pattern in the changes of the northing, easting and height coordinates is discernable in Figure
5. This is not surprising as the rise and set of the GPS satellites repeat every 23h 56 minutes. The
effect of multipath caused by reflective surfaces in the vicinity of the GPS anteannas will, thus, also
repeat everyday (23 h 56 minutes). The changing elevation and direction of the moving satellites will
attenuate or strengthen the effect of the multipath. The varying conditions in the ionosphere and
troposphere have a lesser effect since the differential processing of the data from the reference station
and the monitoring points effectively cancel them. The multipath conditions, however, may not be
identical at the reference and the monitoring points.

Assuming that the building is stable (judging from the constant level of the overall trend, this is a
reasonable assumption), the maximum fluctuations in the north, east and height coordinates are 7 mm,
5 mm and 20 mm, respectively, from the respective mean coordinates. This re-affirms the accepted
belief that GPS heights are two to three times less accurate than the planimetric position. Looking at
the daily trend, it is safe to say that the building is stable.

4.2 Surveying Robot Results

After eliminating the scale error, refraction error and orientation error, the maximum fluctuations in
the northing, easting and height coordinates are 2 mm, 1 mm and 10 mm, respectively, from the mean
coordinates. Again the height coordinate is the weakest. The refraction model used requires
refinement to improve the accuracy of the height. Surges in the height coordinates are also very
pronounced as compared to the planimetric position. The effect of wind on the instrument may have
caused the erratic readings of the zenith angles.

Vis-à-vis the satellite-based GPS result, the ground-based instrumental result could be interpreted
physical. The hourly changes in coordinates as shown in Figure 7 illustrate clearly the effect of the
cumulative heat on the concrete structure. At 3 p.m. the displacement reaches the peak and the
structure resumes the 'relaxed' state between 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. Such phenomena, however, is not
found in the GPS results.

The temperature recorded by the surveying robot between 28 July and 14 August 2001 (18 days) has a
strong correlation with the changes in the northing and easting coordinates. The sudden irregular dips
in the temperature curve represent showers.
36

34

32
Temperature (deg C)

30

28 T(degC)

26

24

22

20
1
14
27
40
53
66
79
92
105
118
131
144
157
170
183
196
209
222
235
248
261
274
287
300
313
326
339
352
365
378
391
404
417

Epoch No

Figure 9 Record of temperature between 28 July 2001 to 14 Aug 2001

279
5 COST CONSIDERATION

The cost of a surveying robot is less than S$50K and the cost of each prism target is less than S$200.
A pair of single-frequency GPS receivers cost around S$50K and about twice that amount for a pair of
dual-frequency GPS receivers. The cost of the GPS equipment used in this test, if all are single-
frequency receivers, still cost 3 times more than the surveying robot system. The GPS system tested
does not permit real-time processing. The cost of communication equipment, e.g. radio modems, and
accessories for real-time GPS surveying will further increase the cost of the GPS option. The
surveying robot system, which provides data in real-time, is thus cheaper and easier to implement.

Despite the price disadvantage, GPS could be used in cases where it is not feasible to locate a
instrument station for a surveying robot or the environment is too unstable to locate reference control
points such as in open-pit mining areas (Forward, 1999). Ashkenazi (1998) had successfully tested the
use of the real-time kinematic differential GPS (RTKDGPS) technique in monitoring the deformation
of the salient components of bridge. He was confident of obtaining accuracy of a few millimetres
(down from 2 to 4 cm), if the effect of wind and vibration could be isolated.

6 CONCLUSION

The precision of the surveying robot system in the planimetric and height coordinates as sampled in
the test is less than 2 mm and 10 mm, respectively. It is far superior to that of the corresponding GPS
results of 7 mm and 20 mm. The refraction model used requires refinement to improve the accuracy of
the height, hopefully to within 5 – 6 mm.

The results from the GPS test are marred by the multipath effect commonly encountered in built-up
environment. Though lacking physical correlation with the surface atmospheric condition, the results
could be used to indicate daily deformation trend (if any) of the structure under monitoring. GPS is a
relatively new tool in positioning, further study is required to understand the characteristics of the
multipath effect to improve the height measurement using GPS to around a cm accuracy.

REFERENCES

Ashkenazi, V. & Roberts, G.W. 1998. Experimental monitoring of the Humber bridge using GPS, Civil
Engineering International: 39-44.
Forward, T. 1999. Implementation issues of an integrated satellite-based monitoring system for open-pit mine
walls, Proceedings 6th South East Asian Surveyors Congress incorporating the 40th Australian Surveyors
Congress 1-6 November 1999, Perth, Western Australia :26-36.
Guo, J. & Ge, S. 1997. Research of displacement and frequency of tall building under wind loading using GPS,
Ion Conference, Kansas City, MO.
Tor, Y.K. 1999. Study of continuous monitoring using surveying robot with automatic target recognition,
Proceedings 6th South East Asian Surveyors Congress incorporating the 40th Australian Surveyors Congress 1-
6 November 1999, Perth, Western Australia :453-467

280
 Underground Singapore 2001

A Revised Interpretation of Old Alluvium Formation

Based On Ground Investigations for Changi Airport Line
M Peart, J Poh
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

C M Kho
PWD Consultants, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The Old Alluvium Formation has been variously defined as semi-consolidated, partially
cemented or compact soil that can range from sand through to clayey sand, fine gravel and clay. It has
also been described as a ‘lightly cemented sandstone’ but most geotechnical practitioners refer to it as
a soil. Ground investigations for the tunnels and associated structures of the Changi Airport Line of
the Mass Rapid Transit railway have revealed that the Old Alluvium is, for its greater part, sandstone
with strengths in the ‘very weak’ range. A requirement for high quality sampling and definition of
geological boundaries has allowed the Old Alluvium to be investigated to a greater degree than other
ground investigations in the areas which are usually for the purposes of foundation design. The
adoption of rotary coring, in-situ and laboratory testing together with petrographic analyses, seismic
refraction and an exploratory shaft and adit have allowed the Old Alluvium to be described as a
succession of weak sandstones with subordinate mudstones rather than a sequence of sands, gravels
and clays. The appropriate ground investigation techniques used has allowed the geotechnical
properties of the Old Alluvium to be more appropriately defined which can allow the material to be
exploited and utilised to the full.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ground investigations for the Changi Airport Line (CAL) project were carried out to determine the
ground conditions for the purposes of design and construction of this extension to the existing Mass
Rapid Transit (MRT) system. The CAL will be approximately 5.8km long and will comprise both
elevated and underground sections. The bored tunnel component of the project passes beneath the
western operational runway of Changi Airport.

The civil works for the project have been divided into three principal contracts. Contract 502 is for the
viaducts and Expo Station. Contract 503 comprises 3.5km of 5.4m internal diameter twin bored
tunnels and associated cut and cover tunnels, twin ventilation shafts and on-line sub-station. Contract
504 is for Changi Airport Station and associated crossover and overrun tunnels.

The ground investigations for all of the components for the CAL were carried out under a single
contract between April and July 1997. The investigations confirmed that soft deposits of the Kallang
Formation and the stronger deposits of the Old Alluvium underlie the area. However, the nature of the
Old Alluvium was found to be somewhat different to that described in previous work and existing
literature. As a result of the investigations a revised description of the Old Alluvium was made and is
described in this paper.

2. REGIONAL GEOLOGY & PREVIOUS WORK

The regional geology of Singapore is described in ‘The Geology of The Republic of Singapore’
(PWD, 1976). In the project area the geology is shown as being Kallang Formation overlying Old

283
Alluvium with an outcrop of Pulau Ubin granite to the north. The geological map of the project area is
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Geological Map of the Project Area (After PWD, 1975)

The Kallang Formation is of Quaternary age and is represented by four members. These are the
Transitional, Littoral, Alluvial and Marine Members in increasing order of age. In the project area the
Alluvial Member is shown on the geological map and it is described as:

‘A variable terrestrial sediment ranging from pebble beds through sand, muddy sand and clay to peat.
The member is usually unconsolidated but lightly consolidated beds do occur.’

The Old Alluvium is a Pleistocene age deposit and is described as: -

‘Terrestrial to deltaic loose coarse quartz-feldspar sand and gravel, and lightly cemented sandstone -
conglomerate. The top 8m is usually deeply weathered’

Several authors have described the Old Alluvium (PWD, 1976; Tan et al. 1980; Pitts, 1984 and Gupta
et al. 1987) and they refer to the Old Alluvium as semi-consolidated, partially cemented or compact
and describe the material as soil which includes sand, clayey sand, fine gravel, silt and clay. Reference
is also made to the abrasiveness of the material. PWD (1976) states that the deposit is ‘usually
uncemented’ while Tan et al. (1980) state that ‘test boreholes reveal a lightly cemented dense layer of
sand to a depth of 145m below mean sea level’. However Choa (1994), while not specifically referring
to Old Alluvium, describes the material beneath the reclamation deposits for Changi Airport as being
‘cemented sand’.

A reference to ‘unstable sand’ in Old Alluvium near the project area (Bedok) is made in Buttling &
Robinson (1987) but no such occurrences were encountered during the ground investigations or in
construction of the tunnels or foundations for CAL. However the occurrence of discrete lenses of
‘unstable’ or ‘running’ sands has been proven on the North East Line project albeit rare. Such deposits
are characterized by high permeabilities and have caused difficulties in bored piling works and the
excavation of shafts and cross passages.

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3. GROUND INVESTIGATION DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 Strategy and Approach

The aim of the ground investigations for CAL was to provide information on the stratigraphy of the
route; the spatial distribution and relationship of geological materials and the geotechnical properties
of those materials.

At the commencement of the CAL Project it was envisaged that a consultant under the management of
the Authority would carry out the design. In order to comply with such a strategy, and in consideration
of the time frame for the project, a phased ground investigation was planned. The first phase would
provide data on the stratigraphy, distribution and variability of material types and geotechnical
parameters for initial design while the second phase would cater for any specific requirements of the
consultant.

It was planned that on completion of the first phase there would be a break in the fieldwork component
of the investigative works during which the Authority, in co-operation with the consultant, would plan
the second phase works. However, the two phases were not actually carried as it was decided that the
Authority would undertake the design in-house. This led to a reduced time frame for the investigations
and allowed the site investigation to be optimized.

3.2 Site Investigation Design

The design of the site investigation was based on the results of a study of available literature on the
area and somewhat sparse earlier site investigation data. The design considered the original
topography, which was higher in the 1970’s before the airport was constructed, and the restricted
access within the airport, in particular areas adjacent to the operational runway.

The design also considered the geotechnical parameters that would be needed for foundation and
tunnel design, the appropriate laboratory and in-situ testing to obtain such parameters and the most
applicable investigative techniques. There was also an equally important requirement to obtain a full
understanding of the geology of the route as experience in tunnelling in Old Alluvium was somewhat
limited. In addition it was known that there would be buried valleys, an old coastline, reclamation
deposits and a possibility of underlying granite.

It was anticipated that the bulk of the route would comprise sand and gravel, hence an approach of
carrying out initial ‘profiling’ boreholes with Standard Penetration Tests (SPTs) and Cone Penetration
Tests (CPTs) was planned. The initial exploratory points would then be augmented using ‘secondary’
boreholes in which samples would be obtained for laboratory testing or in-situ tests would be carried
out. Hence there would be ‘clusters’ of exploratory points allowing correlation of the various test
methods linked by the ‘profiling’ boreholes.

The frequency of exploratory points was based on earlier work for the MRT system and a point at an
average spacing of every 40m was catered for. Seismic refraction spreads were designed to allow for
more widespread profiling and to obtain data on the ground between investigation points. Boreholes
and CPTs were positioned off-centre in a staggered fashion to allow contouring of buried valleys and
obviate the possibility of holes penetrating the tunnel line. All holes, except instrumented holes, were
grouted.

The tunnel alignment passes beneath the active western runway of Changi Airport. The planned
investigations for this critical area comprised seismic refraction, ground probing radar, CPTs on the
edge of the runway and a review of construction records and early aerial photography of the area.

The possible occurrence of the Pulau Ubin Granite underlying the alignment was considered a risk to
the project. In order to investigate such a risk the depth of some boreholes and penetration of the
seismic refraction survey was planned to 50m below ground level. It was considered that by

285
investigating the route to this depth, the ‘basement’ geology would be identified given that the deepest
level of the tunnel would only be less than 30m below ground level.

3.3 Planned & Adopted Techniques

The techniques planned for the ground investigation works are shown in Table 1. However, during the
initial stages of the investigation it became apparent that the nature of the Old Alluvium was somewhat
different to that which earlier workers had reported.

Table 1 - Ground Investigation Techniques

Technique Remarks
Boreholes Allowing SPTs, permeability testing, standpipe installation for water
sampling, pressuremeter testing, sampling, undisturbed sampling and
coring using triple tube barrels with polymer flush.
CPTs Static Cone Penetrometer equipment using 20 tonne thrust. Planned for
use in restricted areas due to time constraints.
Cone Pressuremeter Testing Allowing relatively innovative pressuremeter testing to be carried out
and providing in-situ test results for comparison with other tests.
Seismic Refraction Allowing profiling between boreholes to identify buried valleys. Also
for use in areas of restricted access.
Surface Penetrating Microwave Allowing profiling between boreholes to identify buried valleys. Also
(Ground Probing Radar). for use in areas of restricted access.
Laboratory Testing Index tests, triaxial tests, oedometer tests, small strain testing, chemical
tests.

The Old Alluvium was found to be entirely cemented and coring, which was a requirement of the
contract, was carried out. Consequently the requirement for sampling and testing holes adjacent to
selected profiling holes was reconsidered. In addition it was found that the CPTs and Cone
Pressuremeter could not penetrate the Old Alluvium except in its uppermost parts.

The number of exploratory points was reduced as a result of encountering cemented material that
provided stable conditions for in-situ testing. Boreholes in the Old Alluvium were finally spaced at
approximately 150m centres except in the vicinity of buried valleys where the spacings were reduced
to about 40m. CPTs were used as intermediate profiling points for ‘calibration’ purposes against the
sampled and tested holes in unconsolidated deposits.

The revised programme and better sampling reduced the number of investigation points but the
amount of coring was increased. There was also a requirement for increased amounts of Unconfined
Compression Strength testing. The amount of seismic refraction work was also increased as much of
the tunnel alignment could be characterized by a seismic velocity signature between cored boreholes.
It was also decided to retain the use of SPTs in the boreholes for profiling purposes and to correlate
with earlier ground investigation data. Petrographic analysis was carried out on selected samples of the
Old Alluvium as were a suite of tests to quantify the abrasiveness of the material.

As a consequence of the change in the ground investigation strategy the quantity of fieldwork was
reduced as shown in Table 2. The reduction in fieldwork meant that the investigations, which
commenced on 1 April 1997, were completed on 29 July 1997 rather than 2 December 1997 as
required under the contract. The early appreciation of the ground conditions, a flexible approach to the
ground investigation contract and timely issuing of variations together with the Authority taking
responsibility for the execution of the design allowed a significant time advantage to be gained.

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Table 2 - Summary of Field Work As Performed & As Planned
Item Actual Quantity Planned Quantity
Boreholes 72 No. 124 No.
Drilling 2176 m 4280 m
Coring 1229 m 199 m
Undisturbed sampling 674 No. 1694 No.
Permeability tests 224 No. 300 No.
Pressuremeter tests 42 No. 62 No.
Standard Penetration Tests 1380 No. 1420 No.
In-situ vane tests 23 No. 120 No.
Cone Pressuremeter tests 92 No. 155 No.
Cone Penetrometer Tests 96 No. 104 No.
CPT testing 838 m 3780m
Seismic Refraction Survey 3250 m 1100m
Surface Penetrating Microwave 412 m 1100m

As a result of finding that the Old Alluvium was cemented for its greater part. A trial shaft to prove
stand-up time and view the material below the water table was carried out. A 3m diameter 20m deep
trial shaft and 4m long nominal 2m x 2m exploratory adit were excavated under a separate contract to
that of the ground investigations. The work was timed so that potential contractors could inspect the
ground after they had received the reports on ground conditions and closer to the time of tendering for
the civil works. The findings from the shaft and adit are described in Poh & Hayward (1999).

4. RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS

The ground investigations for the CAL encountered the following ground conditions:

1) Fill
2) Reclamation
3) Kallang Formation
4) Old Alluvium

The spatial distribution of the latter is similar to that shown on the geological map of PWD (1976).
There are some minor discrepancies between the map and those encountered which may be attributed
to, inter alia, the lack of exposure during the original mapping, masking of boundaries by slope wash
and detritus and limited sub-surface information. Earthwork activity since the geological mapping by
PWD has tended to lower the overall topography in the Old Alluvium allowing a deeper examination
of the succession to be made.

The reclamation and fill materials encountered along the alignment have been derived predominantly
from the Old Alluvium. The Kallang Formation materials and their geotechnical properties were found
to be similar to those described in the literature. Any disparities may be attributed to a slightly higher
than average organic content as a result of the proximity of the deposits to land.

The nature of the Old Alluvium as encountered in the ground investigations was found to be somewhat
different to descriptions in earlier published works. The upper weathered profile was encountered.
However, below the weathered mantle the Old Alluvium was found to be typically cemented rather
than being either uncemented (PWD, 1976) or a clayey sand (Tan et al. 1980).

The strength of the Old Alluvium was determined from both laboratory and in-situ tests. A typical
unconfined compressive strength of 1MPa to 2MPa was found which is in keeping with a weak rock
according to the Geological Society of London (Anon, 1970) and Brown (1981). Material, with
strength in the range 0.5MPa to 25MPa, may be included in the ‘soft rock’ category (Johnston and
Novello, 1994).

The Old Alluvium complies with the geological definition of rock. The occurrence of authigenic clays
cementing quartz grains indicates that the Old Alluvium has undergone diagenesis and as such

287
warrants the use of the term ‘rock’. Hence the Old Alluvium has been classified as a weak rock for the
CAL project

4.1 Old Alluvium

The Old Alluvium Formation underlies the entire project area and, as a result of excavation, outcrops
at Expo Station for approximately one kilometre along the alignment and from the Pan Island
Expressway to the edge of the Airport. It also outcrops beneath the operational runway. The extent of
outcrop has been confirmed by surface inspection, trial pits, boreholes, CPTs and seismic refraction
traverses.

The Old Alluvium formation comprises a sequence of very weak to weak quartzo-feldspathic
sandstones with conglomeratic and mudstone horizons in which the upper parts have been weathered
to form a silty clay and gravelly sand.

On the basis of field descriptions, observations in the trial shaft and adit together with laboratory and
in-situ testing the Old Alluvium Formation has been categorized into the following:

1) Residual Soil
2) Completely Weathered Old Alluvium
3) Sandstones and Mudstones

The sandstones dominate the succession beneath the weathered mantle while the mudstones are both
subordinate and impersistent. The sandstones may be further differentiated into the ‘brown sandstones’
and the ‘blue sandstones’. The geotechnical properties of the materials encountered are also included
below together with the results of abrasion testing.

4.2 Residual Soil

The upper parts of the Old Alluvium have undergone sub-aerial weathering which has produced a
residual soil. The residual soil tends to be a sandy clay and clayey sand as a result of alteration of
feldspars to silty clay. It can be noted that the fines content of the residual soil tends to be slightly
higher in the upper parts of the weathered profile. The residual soil is typically red brown with yellow
mottling. In the buried valleys the residual soil thins and where present the colour is usually pale grey
blue and green.

The residual soil is typically 6m to 8m thick but can be thinner or even absent towards the base of
buried valleys. This reduction in thickness may be due to erosion as a result of river action during
downcutting of the valleys. Residual soil is absent in some instances due to present day earthwork
activity which has reduced the topography by up to 15m in some locations.
The residual soil usually overlies the weak sandstones and mudstones however, in the buried valleys, it
can overlay Completely Weathered Old Alluvium. Seismic refraction survey indicates that the seismic
velocity of the residual soil is about 800m/s to 900m/s but is not always identified which is probably
due to variation in its thickness.

The residual soil is typically firm to stiff and overconsolidated with a bulk unit weight of between 1.9
Mg/m3 and 2.0Mg/m3. SPT ‘N’ values for the residual soil range between around 10 to 30 which is
consistent with the shear strength values of 75kN/m2 and 150kN/m2 measured in laboratory tests and
shear strengths calculated from CPTs.

4.3 Completely Weathered Old Alluvium

The Completely Weathered Old Alluvium comprises pale brown and red, often mottled yellow, dense
to very dense silty well graded fine to coarse sand with fine gravel. There are also occurrences of stiff
to hard silty clays

The Completely Weathered Old Alluvium varies in thickness but has been proved to be up to 10m
thick but generally has a thickness of about 5m to 6m beneath buried valleys. The thicker deposits

288
occur towards the base and flanks of the buried valleys. In other parts it occurs as a thin veneer
beneath the residual soil but can be absent or so thin that it is not readily apparent.

The occurrence of Completely Weathered Old Alluvium is considered to be due to the effects of stress
relief as a result of valley formation. In some buried valleys the Completely Weathered Old Alluvium
is not overlain by residual soil, the latter having probably been removed by erosion as a result of
fluvial activity.
The material is in a dense to very dense condition and SPT ‘N’ values are typically greater than 50
with CPT tip resistances in the range between 8MN/m2 and 12MN/m2. In some instances the material
has been cored indicating that the remnants of cementation can still remain even in this completely
weathered state. Such data is also consistent with the results of seismic refraction which has identified
the Completely Weathered Old Alluvium as a discrete horizon with a velocity of between 1600m/s to
1800m/s. The bulk density of the material is typically around 2.0Mg/m3.

The moisture content of the material is low and is typically less than the plastic limit indicating that the
material is heavily overconsolidated. The deformability characteristics of the Completely Weathered
Old Alluvium, as obtained by Cone Pressuremeter tests, show that the Modulus of Shear Deformation,
G, ranges between 30MN/m2 and 90MN/m2 with the majority of the results being greater than
50MN/m2. The permeability of the Completely Weathered Old Alluvium as determined by field tests
and observations in the trial shaft indicate that a characteristic co-efficient of permeability is 4 x 10-6
m/s.

4.4 Sandstones and Mudstones

The Old Alluvium Formation comprises a sequence of very weak to weak quartzo-feldspathic
sandstones with impersistent conglomeratic and mudstone horizons. There are no observable
discontinuities between beds and jointing is rare. No joints or other discontinuities have been observed
in borehole core and, as a consequence the permeability of the material is very low. However,
impersistent and poorly developed joints have been observed in surface exposures and in some
underground excavations some minor blocky failures have occurred (Rosser, 2001).

A typical bed within the Old Alluvium is formed of a coarse grained sandstone or occasionally fine
grained conglomerate which fines upward into fine grained sandstones and occasionally mudstones
(Figure 2). There is evidence of cross cutting indicating deposition in a high energy environment
(piedmont, fluvial plain, braided channel system) as reported by earlier workers (Gupta et al. 1987).

“N orm alised” SPT

Gravels em beded
W eathered O A In M udstaone
D epthB elow G round Level (m )

M udstone

Fine G rained
Sandstone

M ed to C oarse
Sandstone
-11

-13 V ery C oarse

Sandstone

T ypical C om plete B edding U nit

Figure 2 Variation In SPT ‘N’ Value In Normalised With Respect To Full 300mm Penetration And A
Typical Old Alluvium Bedding Unit

289
Grains are typically sub-angular and the dominant mineral in hand specimen is quartz with sub-
ordinate feldspar. Generally the thickness of each graded unit varies between about 1m to 5m but
much thinner beds can occur.

The mineralogy of the Old Alluvium is predominated by quartz and feldspar. These minerals have
probably been derived from granitic and low-grade metamorphic rocks. Work by Gupta et al. (1987)
showed that the clay mineralogy of the fines of the Old Alluvium was predominantly kaolin (about
50%) with illite (about 25%) and smectite with mixed layer illite/smectite forming the remainder.
Chlorite has been recorded but as a trace only.

There is evidence of faulting in exposure and such faults have displaced beds by up to 0.5m. In
addition some faults are truncated by later beds indicating that faulting and deposition occurred
penecontemporaneously and may be ‘growth’ faults. Faults tend to have a sub-vertical attitude and
trend approximately north-south and contain an orange-red fissured silty clay gouge. It is noteworthy
that the features are sub-parallel to the original coastline and some of the buried valleys near Changi
Airport have a similar trend suggesting that the topography may have been influenced by geological
structure.

The seismic refraction survey indicates that the velocity of the sandstones, including the mudstones, is
around 2000m/s to 2200m/s.

4.4.1 Mudstones
The mudstones are typically pale greenish brown in colour and weak in strength. They occur as
impersistent horizons which vary in thickness from a few centimetres to some five metres in thickness.
The mudstones can show bioturbation effects and have clay cementation. It may be noted that the
majority of the mudstones encountered during the investigations occur within the elevation range 90m
to 95m.

The mudstones exhibit similar geomechanical properties to the sandstones with unconfined
compressive strengths of 1MPa to 2MPa with a modulus of elasticity some 75 to 100 times greater.
The bulk unit averages about 2.0Mg/m3 with an average moisture content of 18%. A single Atterberg
Limit determination on a sample showed that the mudstones have an intermediate to high plasticity.

4.4.2 Sandstones

Petrographic analysis of the Old Alluvium sandstones have shown that the sandstones are formed
principally of quartz which makes up between 45% and 50% of the rock with potassium feldspar
forming between 10% and 15% of the rock. There is evidence that dissolution of feldspar and chert has
occurred and there are authigenic clays. The remainder of the rock is formed of finer grained matrix,
chert (5% to 10%), opaque minerals and fragments of metamorphic rock (phyllites and quartzites) and
plutonic igneous rock (granite).

The mineralogy of the clay minerals was not investigated in detail. However, free swell tests were
carried out on sandstones with apparent higher clay contents but no swelling was observed. Work by
Gupta et al. (1987) would also suggest that the likelihood of swelling clay minerals is remote.

Two distinct sandstone horizons have been identified. The first is a ‘brown’ sandstone in which pale
browns yellows and reds predominate while the second is a ‘blue’ sandstone in which pale blues and
greens predominate. The brown horizon overlies the blue.

The bulk unit weights and moisture content of both sandstones lie between 1.9Mg/m3 to 2.1Mg/m3 and
10% and 20% respectively. However the brown sandstones are slightly stronger than the blue
sandstones with typical unconfined compressive strengths ranging between 1MPa and 6MPa although
the usual range based on in-situ results is 3.5MPa to 5MPa.

290
 SPT ‘N’ values are greater than 100 for brown sandstones but when ‘normalised’ to full 300mm
penetration values from 100 to 600 may be realised. The variation in ‘normalised’ SPT ‘N’ value
appears related to grain size and the bedding unit thickness (Figure 4).

The blue sandstones have SPT ‘N’ values of equal to or less than 100 with the norm being between 80
and 100. The associated unconfined compressive strengths based on laboratory and in-situ testing are
also lower and lie in the range 0.5MPa to 6MPa. The typical strength range is 0.5MPa to 2MPa. The
lower strengths and SPT values are considered to be a result of the higher clay content in some
sandstones.

The deformability of the sandstones was determined from pressuremeter tests and strain measurements
on UCS samples. By eliminating obviously disturbed samples and erroneous results the Elastic
Modulus is about 50 times the UCS. There is a wide range of results and this is probably attributable
to variability in grain size and clay content and sample disturbance as a result of the inherent weakness
in the material. Figure 3 shows the broad envelope of the result and the line of best fit.

E vs UCS
600

500 Brown Sandstone (Lab)

Brown Sandstone (In-situ)
Blue Sandstone (Lab)
Blue Sandstone (In-situ)
E = 120 UCS
400
E (MPa)

300

E = 60 UCS

200

100 E = 30 UCS

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
UCS (MPa)

Figure 3 Relationship Between Unconfined Compressive Strength And Elastic Modulus Based On Laboratory
and In-situ Tests

In addition to strength a distinctive feature of the sandstones is in terms of pH. The pH value of the
brown sandstone typically ranges between 4.5 and 6.9 indicating acidic conditions whereas that of the
blue sandstones ranges between 7.8 and 8.8 indicating alkaline conditions.

Based on colour it would seem that the upper parts of the succession have been influenced by
oxidising conditions while the deeper parts of the succession may have been subjected to reducing
conditions. The lower deposits are marked by a blue green coloration of the rock which may indicate
the presence of chlorite. These blue green horizons oxidise rapidly on exposure and can quickly
become pale greenish brown. In addition, there is a noticeable weakening of material which exhibits
this colour change.

The marked differences in colour, strength and acidity appear to be related to elevation and proximity
to the original coastline. It is hypothesised that the strength, colour and acidity change is a result of the
fresh water - saline water interface as shown schematically in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Hypothetical Relationship Between Fresh-Saline Water Interface And The Blue & Brown Sandstones
Of The Old Alluvium

Observation of excavations in Old Alluvium show that the material is weak but that ripping by
backhoe mounted tines has had to be employed to facilitate excavation by conventional construction
plant. However, despite its strength and compactness, when the material comes into contact with free
water there is a marked and often rapid breakdown into its constituent parts.

The geotechnical properties of the sandstones are summarised in Table 3.

Table 3 - Summary of Geotechnical Properties of the Old Alluvium

Material Type Residual Soil Completely Brown Sandstones Blue Sandstones Mudstones
Weathered OA
Unit Weight 18.8-21.5 19.5-20.6 14.8-22.7 18.5-21.8 18.8-21.5
(kN/m3) Typical 19 to Typical 20 Typical 19 to 21 Typical 19 to 21 Typical 20.5
20
Moisture Content wc = 25% N/A wc = 10%-20% wc = 15%-20% wc = 14%-26%
/ Plasticity LL = 40%-85% Average 15% Average 16% Average 18%
PI = 20%-60%
SPT N-Values <20 >50 to <90 > 100 >60 to < 100 >100
Undrained Shear (Lab) 69-119 (Lab) 250 N/A N/A N/A
Strength (kN/m2) (CPT)100-200 (CPT) 200-500
Unconfined N/A N/A 65-3165 90-1085 215-1630
Compression Typical 1500-2000 Typical 500-1000 Typical 500-1500
Tests (kN/m2 )
UCS(in-situ) 200-400 232-626 2000-6800 3000-7000 2000-3200
(kN/m2) (cu =100-200) (cu = 116-313)
Drained Shear c’ = 80 kN/m2 c’ = 0 kN/m2 * c’ = 100 kN/m2 ** c’ = 20 kN/m2 ** c’ = 120 kN/m2 *
Strength φ’ = 30 o φ’ = 31o * φ’ = 35o ** φ’ = 35o ** φ’ = 41o *
Consolidation mv =0.2 m2/MN mv=0.1 m2/MN mv=0.03 m2/MN mv=0.06 m2/MN mv=0.07 m2/MN
Properties cv=10 m2/yr cv =25 m2/yr cv =20 m2/yr cv=20 m2/yr cv=8.2 m2/yr
Modulus of CPPT CPPT Lab, E=30-600 Lab, E=28-400 Lab, E=37.5-300
Elasticity E=65-78 E=100 Field , E=70-585 Field, E=80-74 Field, E=260-490
(MN/m2)
Permeability 3 x 10-7 to 2x10- 4 x10-6 1x10-7 to 1x 10-8 1x10-7 to 5 x10-8 No higher than
9
(m/s) (4x10-6 to 2x10-9) for Sandstones

CPT - Cone penetration Test CPPT - Cone Pressuremeter test

* - Single sample only ** - Lower bound figure based on several tests

5. ABRASION

It has been recorded that the Old Alluvium is abrasive (PWD, 1976). During the investigations first
hand experience of its abrasivity was observed. The coring of the Old Alluvium resulted in abrasion of
surface set diamond ‘H’ size bits. The bits suffered rapid deterioration and in extreme circumstances
would be ineffective after 6m to 8m of coring. Observations of excavations in the area showed that
rippers had to be employed and that abrasion to ripper teeth was high with replacements being required

292
on a daily basis. During the excavation of the trial shaft, pneumatic picks had to be replaced after some
12m3 to 15m3 of excavation.

Abrasion testing has been carried out in order to quantify the observations the abrasivity of the Old
Alluvium. The types of tests used are briefly described in Table 4.

Table 4 - Abrasivity Tests carried out on Old Alluvium Sandstones

Goodrich Wear Number
Paddle Abrasiveness
Norwegian Abrasion Value
Abrasion Value Steel
CERCHAR Abrasivity Test
A test using a microbit whose wear is measured.
A test on fragmented rock measuring the weight loss on a steel paddle.
A test on rock powder < 1mm in diameter measuring the weight loss to a
steel disc
As the Norwegian Abrasion Value but using disc cutter steel.
Measurement of the wear on a steel needle with a 90 degree point

The Cerchar test is used test to measure abrasiveness of intact rock and gives the Cerchar Abrasivity
Index (CAI). The test tends to underestimate the abrasiveness of soft rocks as a result of grains being
'plucked' out of the rock rather than being worn away. Relationships have been established between the
CAI and other tests for sandstones, sedimentary rocks and other rock types in order to evaluate the
abrasivity of the material.

Based on the results (Table 5) it can be seen that the measured CAI varies from about 1.0 to 1.5 which
is indicative of slightly to medium abrasive material. However tests on material in a broken down
condition show a much higher range of ‘predicted’ CAI values ranging from about 1.5 to almost 5.0
with an average between around 2.0 to 2.5 which is in the ‘very abrasive’ category.

Table 5 - Results of Abrasivity Tests on Old Alluvium Sandstones

CERCHAR Paddle Norwegian Goodrich Abrasion
Abrasivity Index Abrasiveness Abrasion Value Wear Value Steel
Number
Blue Sandstone 0.47 to 1.85 46.75 0.75 to 2.15 8.2 to 9.8 5.1 to 11.9
Average 0.97 Average 1.75 Average 9.0 Average 7.2
Brown Sandstone 0.45 to 2.25 46.5 1.5 to 3.0 6.0 to 9.2 5.0 to 13.2
Average 1.42 Average 2.5 Average 7.8 Average 10.3
Weighted CAI for 1.6 3.1 to 3.9 1.6 to 2.6 4.5 to 4.7
all Sandstones

6. DISCUSSION

The Old Alluvium has been found to be different to that originally anticipated as a result of the desk
study. The only area in which there is a similarity is within the weathered profile. The material beneath
the weathered zone is typically clay cemented and exhibits strengths in the lower range of those
applicable to rock. There is also evidence that the formation has undergone diagenesis, consequently
the Old Alluvium is a rock, albeit a weak or ‘soft’ rock.

The difference in terminology is not a matter of semantics. From a descriptive view point a ‘sand and
gravel with some cemented areas’ implies unconsolidated deposits that will ravel and fail whereas a
‘sandstone’ implies self-supporting material. As a consequence of the ground investigation techniques
that have been used for the CAL and the specific nature of the investigations a greater understanding
of the Old Alluvium has been achieved.

Most ground investigations into Old Alluvium have been for determining foundation levels and
bearing capacity. The most favoured technique used is the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) with SPTs
being carried out at 1.5m to 2.0m centres. SPTs are also used as the basis for foundation design by
piling contractors. Founding levels are usually defined when three consecutive SPT blow counts are
greater than 100 for 300mm penetration. The material obtained from the SPT sampler is inevitably a
cylinder of very compact sand with some gravels if a sample is obtained at all.

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The taking of a core sample after three SPTs reach 100 or more has been practised by some parties.
With such a reduced level of coring the skill of drilling operatives is not tested nor is it developed.
Consequently core recovery is poor which leads to the inevitable conclusion that the material is weak,
poorly cemented or granular. Observations of SPT practice indicate that a split spoon is used and that
substantial wear can occur thereby increasing the blow count and indicating ‘stronger’ or denser
material. Hence coring can be attempted at locations which, even for skilled operatives, could be
difficult.

Samples obtained within the Old Alluvium are usually obtained using open drive samplers in wash-
bored drill holes. Hence only samples from the upper and weaker cohesive parts of the weathered
profile may be tested with any confidence in the laboratory. Geotechnical practice is such that in-situ
tests are not normally carried out as part of ‘standard’ ground investigations and borehole preparation
using wash-boring techniques is not wholly satisfactory. This is believed to have resulted in a
‘mistrust’ of in-situ tests and a reluctance to use them as results are, at best, poor. In addition CPTs are
not normally used for design purposes as these tend not to be calibrated against other tests.

During the initial phases of the CAL investigations 'H' size borehole core was recovered using water as
a drilling fluid. The core recovery was poor and the core showed evidence of erosion and often
degraded upon extrusion from the core barrel. Polymer mud was then used with success as this
increased core recovery, reduced erosion and improved the quality of sampling, as was borne out by
the laboratory test results. The quality of pressuremeter tests also improved as a result of better test
section preparation.

Observation of excavations and bored piling operations in Old Alluvium indicate that the material is
weak but sufficiently compact to demand that it be ripped in open excavation and chiselled in bored
pile operations. Despite its compact nature, when the material comes into contact with free water there
is a marked and often rapid breakdown into its constituent parts. In addition the material also breaks
down rapidly under mechanical handling once in an unconfined state.

Observations of material sampled from boreholes using SPTs or core recovered using water flush
coupled with visual inspections of the arisings from excavations and bored piles would lead to a
conclusion that the Old Alluvium is a sand and gravel that is occasionally weakly cemented.

Ground investigation practice in the Old Alluvium is predominantly aimed at ascertaining founding
levels and piled foundations predominate. SPTs are used for such determinations and also for the
purpose of pile design. As such by assuming that the Old Alluvium is a dense sand and gravel bearing
capacities may well be underestimated as the ‘cohesion’ of the material is not considered. This will
also be true for slope stability determinations.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The CAL project required a comprehensive ground investigation programme. During the
investigations it was realised that the Old Alluvium is a weak rock mass and, as a consequence the site
investigations were varied and optimised to capitalise on the better geomechanical conditions.
The Old Alluvium has been described as a massive rock mass, albeit a weak rock type for CAL and
this is at difference to earlier publications which have indicated that the Old Alluvium is
predominantly uncemented and should be treated as a soil.

The geotechnical properties the sandstones are difficult to ascertain from laboratory tests due to the
inherently weak nature of the Old Alluvium together with difficulties in drilling, sampling, sampling
handling and preparation. The affects of the latter on laboratory tests must be considered in the light of
in-situ tests when establishing the geotechnical properties of the sandstones of the Old Alluvium.

294
REFERENCES

Anon 1970, The logging of rock cores for engineering purposes, Engineering Group Working Party Report.
Quart. J. Eng. Geol., 3, 1-24.
Brown, E.T. 1981, Rock characterisation testing and monitoring: ISRM suggested methods. Pergamon, Oxford,
1981.
Buttling, S. & Robinson, S.A. 1987, Bored Piles - Design & Testing, Proceedings of The Singapore Mass Rapid
Transit Conference, Singapore, 6-9 April 1987.
Choa, V. 1994, Application of the observational method to hydraulic fill reclamation projects. Geotechnique, 44,
No 4,735 – 745.
Gupta, A., Rahman, A., Wong, P.P and Pitts, J. 1987, The Old Alluvium of Singapore and the Extinct Drainage
System to the South China Sea. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 12, 259-275.
Johnston, I.W. and Novello, E.A. 1994, Soil mechanics, rock mechanics and soft rock technology. Proc. Instn
Civ. Engnrs Geotech. Engng. 1994, 107, Jan., 3-9.
PWD, 1976, The Geology of the Republic of Singapore. Public Works Department, Singapore.
Pitts, J. 1984, A review of the Geology and Engineering Geology in Singapore, Q. J. Eng. Geol., 17, 93-101.
Poh J & Hayward, A.J. 1999, Trial Shaft & Adit Construction for Bored Tunnels to Changi Airport, Proceedings
of the International Conference on Rail Transit, Singapore, November 1999.
Rosser, H.B. 2001, Personal Communication, Singapore.
Tan, S.B., Loy, W.C. and Lee, K.W. 1980, Engineering Geology of the Old Alluvium in Singapore. Proceedings
6th Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering.

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Geostatistical Kriging And Artificial Neural Networks In

Geotechnical Modeling
Y. T. Teo, W. T. Chan, F. H. Lee
National University of Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Borehole data are often interpolated manually and qualitatively. This can give rise to
unforeseen and unquantifiable errors in interpolations, which can have serious implications on the cost
and progress of construction work. This paper proposes a mathematical framework for the
interpolation of borehole data. The framework is based on the application of geostatistical kriging and
artificial neural networks to data which are placed on a Geotechnical Information System (GIS)
platform. The mathematical tools used in this study are first presented, followed by a description of
the geotechnical database. The data which are used in this study comes from the site investigation of
the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Northeast Line (NEL) Contract 704 (C704). The kriging and neural
network operations to transfer data from the database onto the GIS platform are then described.
Finally, the effects of borehole density are examined by deliberately omitting selected boreholes and
comparing the degraded interpolation with the best available interpolation (obtained by using all
available borehole).

1 INTRODUCTION

Site investigation is often the pre-requisite to any civil engineering project. Subsurface soil and rock
conditions are highly complex and uncertain. Through the sinking of boreholes, collection of samples,
as well as tests conducted at various stages of boring, light is shed on the properties of subsurface soil.
By sinking multiple boreholes, the vertical variation of soil profile over the concerned site can be
interpreted. The derivation of soil profile from borehole data is often conducted manually and
qualitatively. This time-honoured approach has two drawbacks. Firstly, there are no well-defined
guidelines on how the soil profile should be interpolated between boreholes; different interpolations
can be made by different persons. Secondly, there are no guidelines to allow the engineer to decide
whether a certain borehole density is sufficient to adequately cover a site. Where borehole density is
insufficient, grossly erroneous interpolation can arise; often resulting in “unforeseen ground
conditions” being encountered on the site during construction. In such cases, the projects may be
delayed and costs may escalate due to the need to undertake unplanned and unbudgeted contingency
measures. This is especially important for projects involving large distances such as long-distance
tunneling works.

This paper proposes a mathematical framework for the interpolation of borehole data. The framework
is based on the application of geostatistical kriging and artificial neural networks to data which are
placed on Geotechnical Information System (GIS) platform. The mathematical tools used in this study
are first presented, followed by a description of the geotechnical database.

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2 GEOSTATISTICAL KRIGING

Kriging is the process of estimating the value of a spatial variable from adjacent values while
considering the interdependence as expressed in a variogram. In geostatistics, it may be applied, for
instance, to the estimation of soil property at an unsampled location from the measured values at the
nearby sampled locations. The kriging process involves the construction of a weighted moving
average equation which is used to estimate the true value of a regionalized variable at specified
locations. This equation is designed to minimize the effect of the relatively high variance of the sample
points within the range. The main aspects to consider in understanding the theory of kriging are the
estimation error and the calculation of the weighting coefficient. In brief, geostatistical kriging has the
following steps:
(a) Estimation of the variogram.
(b) Estimation of the parameters of variogram model.
(c) Estimation of the surface(map) using point kriging

2.1 Estimation of the variogram

The variogram is a function γ*(h) defined by

1
γ * (h) = E{[ Z(vi) + Z(vi+ h)]2} (1)
2

in which E is defined to be the expected value of the set of random variables Z(vi) which are separated
by a distance h. The value of γ*(h) can be estimated by the average squared difference between the
paired values vi and vj via the relation

1
γ* (h) =
2 N {h}
∑ (v i − v j )2 (2)
( i , j ) hij = h

where N(h) is the number of paired values, vi and vj , whose corresponding hij vector equals the lag
vector h. The vector hij as shown in figure is defined to be the difference of vectors ti and tj which
correspond to the spatial locations of vi and vj.

vj = (xj, yj, zj)

tj tj - ti = hij

vi = (xi, yi, zi)

(0,0,0) ti

Figure 1. Illustartion of the hij vector notation in three-dimensional space.

With a single sample, vi, all we know about our random function Z (vi) is one realization. If estimated
values are required for unsampled locations, an intrinsic assumption concerning the random function is
needed. The intrinsic assumption requires the constraint of stationarity over the random function. A
random function is defined as stationary if the statistics on the random variables (Z (vi + h)) are the
same for every vector h. In other words, all pairs of random variables separated by a particular distance
h, regardless of their location, have the same joint probability distribution function. A random function
may be considered intrinsic if
E [Z (vi)] = m ∀vi ⊂ S (3)

297
Where E = m is the expected value of all samples inside of S. In the practice of geostatistics, the
adoption of the variogram function to represent the stationary random function satisfies the intrinsic
hypothesis.

Estimation of parameters of the variogram model

The variogram can be approximated by some mathematical models. Four models are most often used.

(a) Spherical model

 3h h 3
 0
C + C 1 ( − 3 ), if h ≤ a
 2 a 2a
γ (h) =  (4)
C + C , otherwise.
 0 1


(b) Exponential model

3h
γ (h) = C 0 + C1[1 − exp(− )] (5)
a

(c) Gaussian model

3h 2
γ (h) = C 0 + C1[1 − exp(− 2 )] (6)
a

(d) Linear model

C 0 + αh, 0≤h≤a

γ (h) =  (7)
C + C ,
 0 1 otherwise.

In Equations 4 to 7, h is the distance between the location where is the soil property is measured and
that where an estimate of the same property is required. The coefficient C0 is a measure of the nugget
effect. Though the value of the variogram for h = 0 is strictly 0, several factors, such as sampling error
and short scale variability, may cause values separated by extremely small distances to be quite
dissimilar. This causes a discontinuity at the origin of the variogram. The vertical jump from the value
of 0 at the origin to the value of the variogram at extremely small separation distances is calculated as
the value of C0. The parameter a is known as the range. As the distance between two pairs increases,
the variogram of these two pairs also increases. In the four models mentioned above, the rate of
increase of the variogram is assumed to decrease with distance. The distance which causes the
variogram to reach a plateau value is the range. The sum of the coefficients C0 and C1 is the maximum
variogram, or plateau, value, which is the plateau.

C0 + C1

C0

a
Figure 2 Graphical presentation of the Kriging methodology

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2.2 Estimation of the surface using point kriging
The estimated value of a soil property Z* (v0) at an unsampled location 0 is evaluated as a weighted
average of the sampled values Z(vi) at locations i around it, that is

n
Z* (v0) = ∑λ
i =1
i Z (vi ) (8)

in which the weights λi depend on the degree of correlation among sample points and estimation
points. The sum of weights is equal to 1 (this is specific to ordinary kriging).
n

∑λ
i −1
1 =1 (9)

The system of equation that minimizes the error variance can be written using a system of linear
equations of the form

γ 11 γ 12 γ 13 ! γ 1n 1  λ1  γ 10 
γ 1 λ 2  γ 20 
 21 γ 22 γ 2n     
 # # " # # .  #  =  #  (10)
     
γ n1 γ n 2 " γ nn 1 λ n  γ n 0 
 1 1 ! ! 1 0  µ   1 

in which γ is the correlation between points i and j, which is estimated from the variogram model using
the distance, h. The indices 1 to n denote the sample points. The Lagrange parameter µ is used for
converting a constrained minimization problem into an unconstrained one. Solution of Equation 10
allows the weights to be evaluated, which in turn allows us to estimate the value Z* (v0). When these
values are estimated for all points in a regular grid, we then get a surface of population density.

3 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

Artificial neural networks are inspired by the neuronal architecture of the human brain. These new
computational models are parallel adaptive systems capable of learning in a manner similar to human
brain, complex, mathematically ill defined or non-linear relationships from a body of examples. The
unique capability of learning from a vast amount of noisy or naturally scattered data suggests that
neural networks could be useful in dealing with the uncertainties and complexity inherent in
geotechnical problems.

Ghaboussi’s (1992) research on the constitutive modeling of material behavior with neural networks
had indicated some potential applications of neural networks in geotechnical engineering, such as
constitutive modeling of soils, seismic ground response and response of geotechnical structures. Chan
et al (1995) conducted research on the application of neural networks to pile driving formulas and
indicated network outputs being better as compared to a simplified Hiley driving formula. There is
also the added advantage of not requiring any prior assumptions from physical laws or regression
models, which make neural networks a potential alternative to the empirical and semi-empirical
formulas commonly used in geotechnical engineering.

4 GEOTECHNICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

The GIS was built up in three stages, viz.

i Database modeling,
ii Interpolation of data using kriging and artificial neural networks,
iii Transfer of interpolated data to GIS.

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4.1 Database Modeling
The database was modeled using an industry acceptable interpretation of geological process. This
interpretation was based on the estimation of the effect of geological processes over a relevant time
period.

In Singapore, the main geological formations are arranged as follows, (in ascending geological age) ,
Kallang Formation, Tekong Formation, Huat Choe Formation, Old Alluvium, Jurong Formation and
the Bukit Timah Granite. This is depicted graphically in table 1, starting from the oldest Bukit Timah
Granite. The sequence is based on the geological age of the different soil and rock formations. Based
on this sequence, the following assumptions were made:

(a) It is not possible for a younger formation to be overlain by an older formation.

(b) The geological layout of Singapore comprises the whole range of formations
mentioned above, i.e., if the surface formation is Old Alluvium, the underlying soil
will be Jurong Formation, followed by Bukit Timah Granite. However, skipping of
layers is allowed.
(c) Within a formation, the geologic arrangement is such that it follows the grade of
weathering as seen in table 1, i.e., a less weathered layer will underlay a more
weathered layer.

Table 1 Weathering grades of the different formations

Geological Class Weathering Grade
Bukit Timah G1 I
Granite G1 II
G2 III
G2 IV
G3
G4 V
G4 VI
Jurong S1 I
Formation S1 II
S2 III
S2 IV
S3
S4 V
S4 VI
Old Alluvium OA IV
OA III
OA II
OA I
Kallang B
Formation E
O
F1
F2
M
Fill FILL
Lenses Lens

4.2 Attribute Data

The attribute data are information processed from the borelogs which incorporate human
interpretation. Geological stratigraphy was interpreted based on the geological age of the different

300
formations. For the raw information on geological stratigraphy, a special record was introduced into
the database: virtual layers. Extra records were added to the raw data, with the top boundary equal to
the bottom boundary for the virtual layers created in the absence of certain geologic stratigraphy. For
instance, with reference to table 2, at NA126, G4VI, G4V, G2III and G1II are the geologic
stratigraphy as identified in the borelog, virtual layers of G2IV and G3 were added between G4V and
G2III. For these virtual layers of G2IV and G3, the reduced levels (RL) of the top and bottom
boundaries are equal to the RL for the bottom boundary of G2III.

Table 2 Addition of Virtual Layers

Borehole Northings Eastings RL (m) Geological Weather LAYER
Class Grade
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 122.12 FILL T
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 119.12 FILL B
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 119.12 G4 VI T
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 111.12 G4 VI B G3
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 111.12 G4 V T
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 77.62 G4 V B
NA126 36848.580 32501.830 77.62 G2 III T G2IV

It must be noted that stratigraphic layers within a formation often do not follow convention, i.e., in
violation of assumption (c). When such a situation occurs, the raw information was processed
normally, but with the ‘violating’ layer designated as a ‘Lens’ layer. This is depicted in table 3.
However, human intervention is required to classify the ‘Lens’ layers into their respective geological
classification and weathering grades, as a generalization could not be achieved for such localized
conditions.

Table 3 Handling the presence of lenses.

Borehole Northings Eastings RL (m) Geo Weather LAYER
Class Grade
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 78.272 G4 V T
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 77.672 G4 V B
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 77.672 G2 IV T/L
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 76.572 G2 IV B/L
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 76.572 G4 V T/L Lens
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 74.472 G4 V B/L
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 74.472 G2 IV T G3
NB8 36489.425 32271.844 73.472 G2 IV B

For the borehole information, there was also need to process the raw data. SPT is usually conducted at
depth intervals of 1.5m to 3m. However, these information need to be processed and arranged
according to the RL instead of depth. In order to facilitate future modeling, SPT results were classified
into pre-determined RL categories. The RL categories start from RL =126 down to RL=48 at intervals
of 2m. The upper and lower boundaries were chosen according to the highest and lowest RL for the
study site. The interval of 2m was chosen as SPT is often conducted at such intervals. It was also
chosen such that the rounding error is smaller than 1, hence, minimizing the errors due to
interpolation. As the need for a rigorous interpolation technique was not critical here, simple ratio-
interpolation was used to derive the SPT values at the pre-determined RL.

Table 4 Example problem for processing of Borehole data

Borehole Northings Eastings RL (m) Int RL (m) SPT Pseu SPT
(blows/30cm) (blows/30cm)
NA120 36962.6 32608.95 112.07 112 9 9
NA120 36962.6 32608.95 109.62 110 12 10

With reference to Table 4, data from the borelog gave the actual RLs and SPT N-values as 112.07,
109.62 and 9, 12 respectively, the nearest pre-categorized or ‘interpolated RL’ are 112 and 110

301
respectively. The pseudo SPT-N value, corresponding to the ‘interpolated RL’ 112, was calculated by
taking the integer value after simple ratio interpolation.

When using this simple ratio-interpolation, there were situations in which SPT N-values turned out
larger than 100. In such cases, the default value of 100 was assigned. There was also the possibility of
a negative value. This is possible mathematically but physically impossible; a ‘0’ value for the N-value
was assigned instead.

4.3 Spatial Records

Spatial data were created by interpolation. For the soil stratigraphy, the top and bottom boundaries of
the stratigraphy layers at each borehole locations were interpolated using geostatistical kriging. As for
the SPT N-values, the interpolation was done based on the data arranged in the different RL
categories. During the kriging process, searches can be limited to a certain number of nearest
neighbors and within a particular geographical radius. In this study, a default value of 16 nearest
neighbors is chosen, with no restrictions placed on the search radius. Any neighbors outside the range
were weighted identically and minimally. The interpolation range was taken as the rectangular box
formed by the 4 outermost points available.

5 CORRELATIONS USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

SPT being the most widespread test conducted on site, it was used as the major component by which
correlations were drawn. A neural network algorithm was utilized to draw a correlation between SPT
N-values, RL, Liquid Index (LI) and the undrained shear strength. This is a 2-step process by which a
correlation was first drawn between RL, SPT and LI, using 128 samples in the training set. This was
followed by a second correlation by which the undrained shear strength was correlated to RL, SPT,
and the LI derived in the first procedure, using measured undrained shear strength values. This
involved 43 samples in the training set. The 3 layer Back Propagation Method is adopted: input,
hidden layer and the output layer. Table 5 shows a typical spreadsheet output of the processed
borehole information. It includes spatial information on the SPT N-values, the liquidity index, and
undrained shear strength at RL 102.

Table 5 Typical spreadsheet output of spatial borehole information.

Kriged values Estimated using Neural

Networks

Eastings Northings SPT N RL (m) LI U SHEAR CU/N

(blows/30cm) STRENGTH
(kN/m2)
32143.93 35630.39 83 102 -0.137006 267.18845 3.219138
32143.93 35645.2 80 102 -0.1286944 265.76126 3.322016
32143.93 35660 73 102 -0.1086654 262.38876 3.594367
32143.93 35674.8 63 102 -0.0781454 257.46762 4.086788
32143.93 35689.6 51 102 -0.0367983 250.69081 4.915506
32143.93 35704.41 40 102 0.0103683 228.67151 5.716788

6 TRANSFER OF DATA TO GIS

The GIS platform used for this study is Manifold Release 4.00, which stores data in layers or themes.
For the soil stratigraphy, each soil layer was represented by a GIS layer or theme. In each layer,
information on the northings, eastings, RL of the top boundary as well as the thickness of the soil layer
can be can be retrieved in tabular format. An example of the G4V layer is shown in Figure 3. The
color intensity indicates the thickness of the G4V layer.

302
 Figure 4 Stratigraphy at a
particular location
Figure 3 G4V layer

In Manifold, these data are represented as points, instead of areas or lines. This is to enable analysis of
the soil data that are discrete, i.e., at each point there is specific RL and specific thickness. The user
will be able to extract the required data with pinpoint accuracy. These spatial data were stored under
the field names “Northings”, “Eastings” and “RL” that represent the co-ordinates and RL of the points.
The field “THICKNESS” contains information on the thickness of the soil layer at a specific point.
Figure 4 shows a typical output display for the information at a specific point.

Map layers containing information on the SPT N-values, liquidity index and undrained shear strength
at the different specified RL, were also incorporated. For instance, information of SPT N-value at RL
100 is in the layer “100” and for RL 98, it is “98”. Figure 5 shows the SPT N-values for RL100, and
figure 6 shows the undrained shear strength for RL100.

Figure 5 SPT values at RL 100

Figure 6 Cu values at RL 100

7 ACCURACY ANALYSIS
Cross Validation of Sample Points

Accuracy analysis of the kriging interpolation was done by cross validation. In this procedure, each of
the sample values was removed individually, and their values then estimated via kriging in the absence
of the removed sample. Percentage errors of the cross validation were compared for each layers. For
the G4V top-boundary, the % error due to kriging is presented graphically in figure 7. Table 6
summarizes the % error for the kriging of stratigraphic layers for the whole of the test site.

303
 114.560
102.295
Estimated

90.030
77.765
65.500
65.500 77.765 90.030 102.295 114.560
A ctual

Regression coef ficient = .808 (SE = .070 , r2 =.822, y interc ept = 18.192)

Figure 7 Graphical presentation of kriging % error for top boundary of G4V layer

Table 6 Summary of % error for the stratigraphy of test site

Layers No. of Min % Max % Ave %
Records Error Error Error
FILLB 44 0.066952 5.645294 1.157936
FILLT 44 0.018886 2.077756 0.526766
G1IIB 5 1.701045 19.964 9.762991
G1IIT 5 2.080599 20.38262 10.64769
G2IIIB 5 0.071218 15.09117 5.008999
G2IIIT 5 1.32598 16.318 5.689738
G2IVB 8 1.137593 26.26205 10.42255
G2IVT 8 0.523061 23.08273 9.805716
G3B 8 3.431287 26.48766 10.56331
G3T 8 0.523061 23.08273 9.805716
G4VB 32 0.133601 33.23834 7.868246
G4VT 32 0.414041 14.23132 5.818189
G4VIB 44 0.012583 56.83202 6.156328
G4VIT 44 0.016138 22.00379 2.89197
OAIB 10 0.512781 8.671858 4.417473
OAIT 10 0.092574 2.207756 0.802341
OAIIB 10 0.563002 14.42604 5.701183
OAIIT 10 0.346655 8.512411 4.260076
OAIIIB 8 0.811008 19.79772 6.48517
OAIIIT 8 0.018764 21.25411 6.835737
OAIVB 9 0.563116 13.57718 4.269432
OAIVT 9 0.811008 19.79772 6.48517

As shown in the figures and tables, the maximum % error and the average error from the kriging of the
top boundary of the fill layer is the lowest for the test site. The average kriging errors for the
stratigraphy are all below 11%. This indicates that geostatistical kriging is a suitable method of
interpolation for the stratigraphic layers. This is not surprising as kriging was first developed for the
estimation of the presence of subsurface minerals or ore layers. There is a consistent trend that the
average % error will decrease with the increase in the number of records. The average % error dropped
down from about 11% to about 6% when the number of boreholes increased from 5 to 44. The
maximum % error observed for the G4 layers is significantly larger than that for the OA layers. This
suggests that G4 formation may tend to vary more spatially and needs closer borehole spacing.

304
7.1 Analysis of borehole placement

A study was also made to analyze the largest borehole spacing that can be allowed, in order to obtain
reasonably accurate results. It was also intended to demonstrate how the GIS could be utilized for
geotechnical analysis. The “Location” map in Manifold visually displays the locations of all the
boreholes, and the distances between boreholes were readily available. The proposed method of
analysis was to use the G4V and G4VI layers for analysis, as these layers are more generalized,
covering almost the whole site. Fill is not chosen as it is man-made, hence, will not make a good case.
Two scenarios will be considered:

Figure 8 Scenario 1: Boreholes on 1 side of the track. Figure 9 Scenario 2: Boreholes on both sides
of the track.

The procedure started off with two extreme points and a central point along the chosen track and cross
validation for these 3 points was done. Borehole data would then be added, hence reducing the
distance between boreholes. For instance, in the first iteration, 2 additional boreholes were added, and
in the second iteration, 4 additional boreholes were added on, and so on. Interpolation results from
each of the iterations were compared against each other, as well as compared against the ‘actual’
surface generated from all available test site data.

7.1.1 Findings for Scenario 1

The percentage error decreased consistently as the distances between boreholes decreased. With less
than 10 boreholes within the 1.3 km stretch of track, the % error when compared to the ‘actual’ surface
was around 50%, with the bulk in the 30% error region. With at least 15 boreholes, thereby reducing
the distances between boreholes to about 85m or less, the errors decrease substantially to around 20%,
with the bulk in the 10% error region. (Refer to figure 10 and 11)

3000

2500
No. of locations

2000 5pt s
9pt s
1500
17pt s
1000 23pt s
500

0
10 20 30 40 50
% Erro r
Figure 10 Comparison of error for G4VI bottom boundary

305
 Comparison of error for G4VI top boundary

2500
No. of locations

2000 5pts
1500 9pts
1000 17pts
500 23pts

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% Error
Figure 11 Comparison of error for G4VI top boundary

7.1.2 Findings for Scenario 2

The percentage error similarly decreased consistently as the distances between boreholes decrease. But
what is significant is that even with just 5 points, the bulk of the errors were in the 10% region, and the
maximum error is just around 20%. (Refer to figure 12 and 13) This indicates that borehole
placements is not only affected by the separation distance, but also by their arrangement. A zigzag
manner of placing boreholes would significantly improve the interpretation of soil stratigraphy as well
as the accuracy of interpolation. The reason can be attributed to our selection for kriging to work in a
way that it is not biased in any direction. So with the zigzag placement, we introduce more data in
different directions for the initial estimation of the variogram, making the final kriging more accurate.
Although kriging can be done such that it is biased in a particular direction, the problem is not
knowing which the best direction is.

C o m p a r i so n o f e r r o r fo r G 4 V I b o tto m b o u n d a r y

3000
No. of locations

2500
5 p ts
2000
9 p ts
1500
1 7 p ts
1000
2 3 p ts
500
0
10 20 30
% E rro r
Figure 12 Comparison of error for G4VI bottom boundary

306
 C o m p a r i so n o f e r r o r fo r G 4 V I to p b o u n d a r y

3000
No. of locations 2500 5 p ts
2000
9 p ts
1500
1 7 p ts
1000
500 2 3 p ts
0
10 20
% E rro r

Figure 13 Comparison of error for G4VI top boundary

8 CONCLUSION

In this paper, an approach to handle interpolation of borelog data using geostatistical kriging and
artificial neural networks has been described. In this approach, a coarse grid of boreholes can first be
sunk. Successive refinement to the coarse grid can then be made until further grid refinement brings
about sufficiently small improvement to the interpolated soil profiles and inferred properties. By doing
so, the level of refinement can be tuned according to the geological variability of each location. The
data are systematically stored in a GIS database that enables convenient retrieval and analysis of the
data. Having geotechnical data on a GIS platform will, in the future, enable further geotechnical
modeling. The accuracy of the kriging interpolation and neural networks are also examined.

The current developed software system is well suited to the interpolation of data collected through a
one-dimensional borehole array, such as that commonly used in tunneling. The approach can, in
principle, be applied also to a two dimensional borehole grid, but this will require further research and
development.

REFERENCES

Chan, W. T., Chow, Y. K., Liu, L. F. 1995, Neural Networks: An Alternative to Pile Driving Formulas. Elsevier
Science Limited
Davis, J. C. 1986, Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: 1-6
Ghaboussi, J. 1992, Potential applications of neuro-biological computational models in geotechnical
engineering, in Numerical Models in Geotechnics, Rotterdam: Blakema
Giles, J. R. A. 1995, The what, why, when, how, where and who of geological data management, The Geological
Society: London.
Livingstone, D. and Raper, J. 1994, Modeling environmental systems with GIS: theoretical barriers to progress,
Taylor and Francis Ltd.
Makepiece, A., Ricketts, B. D. and Dunn, D. 1996, Digital Water Well Data for Groundwater Studies,
Geological Survey of Canada: Vancouver, B.C.
Rouhani, S., Srivastava, R. M., Desbarats, A. J., Cromer, M.V., and Johnson I. A., (Ed) 1996, Geostatistics for
Environmental and Geotechnical Applications, ASTM STP 1283, :3-48

307
 Underground Singapore 2001

Engineering Geology and Rock Mass Properties of the

Bukit Timah Granite

Y. Zhou
Defence Science and Technology Agency, Singapore

ABSTRACT: This paper discusses findings of an extensive site investigation programme carried out
for the construction of an underground storage facility in the Bukit Timah granite of Singapore.

A successful combination of conventional soil boring, diamond coring drilling and modern
geophysical methods provided very reliable information about the geology and rock mass properties of
the site. Some of the modern geophysical techniques included surface seismic refraction and reflection
surveys, RSVP (Reverse Seismic Vertical Profiling), electric resistivity profiling, cross-hole
tomography, borehole radar, borehole camera and borehole imaging.

The site investigations have shown the rock mass to be of good to very good quality for cavern
construction. A thick layer of residual soil ranging from a few meters to more than 60 meters overlies
the granite bedrock with a very rapid transition to fresh rock in most areas. Key geological features
include deep weathering trenches and some intermittent vertical strips of fractured zones. The rock
mass has three major joint sets, two sub-vertical and one nearly horizontal, forming typical rock
blocks. Permeability of the rock mass, even in heavily jointed rock mass, is generally low due to the
tight joints and calcite filling in open joints. Ground water problem has been mild and found only in
isolated areas near the weathering trenches.

Stress measurements using hydraulic fracturing during site investigation and 3-D overcoring
techniques in tunnel walls during construction showed a relatively high horizontal stress field. The
major and minor horizontal stresses are generally 2-3 times the vertical stress.

The rock mass has been classified using the Q-system with typical Q-values between 10 and 100. The
good rock quality in combination with the favorable horizontal stresses has made it possible to
construct tunnels and caverns of large span with normal support using rock bolts and shotcrete.

1 INTRODUCTION

The construction of Singapore’s first underground ammunition storage facility has been relatively
smooth sailing since construction began in 1999. The project involved construction of large-span
tunnels and rock caverns, with most spans ranging from 9.4 m to 27 m. There have been no surprises
in terms of rock conditions and tunnel stability, owing largely to a comprehensive site investigation
programme carried out prior to design and construction.

The granite rock mass belongs to the Bukit Timah Granite Formation, which is located in the middle
part of Singapore, and occupies about 1/3 of the main island. The hot and humid tropical climate has
left a thick layer of residual soil over the granite bedrock. The surface is generally covered with thick
vegetation with few exposures found except at the quarry walls of two quarry found at the site – the

308
Mandai quarry and the disused Gali Batu quarry and a few isolated spots along the two expressways
BKE and KJE.

The investigation strategy was developed along two main objectives: 1) structural geology; 2) rock
mass properties. In terms of structural geology, the main objective was to confirm the extent of two
suspected faults, and determine the in situ stress conditions, which have been found to be the major
factor controlling the stability of large tunnels and caverns in rock. For rock mass properties, the
investigation was biased somewhat towards obtaining sufficient data for rock mass classification using
the Norwegian Q-system, and basic rock mechanics properties for numerical modelling.

2 SITE INVESTIGATIONS

The detailed site investigation covered an area of about 2 km by 2 km (Econ Pte Ltd, 1999). The main
investigations carried out are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of main site investigations carried out

Type Methods Objective
Drilling Soil boring; diamond core drilling Overburden, and rock cores
Surface geophysical Seismic refraction/reflection; electric Main geological structures;
surveys resistivity tomography overburden depth
Borehole surveys and Borehole logging; seismic logging; Ground temperature; Seismic
testing borehole camera acoustic imaging; velocities; joints; and permeability;
impression packer; borehole radar; Lugeon geological structures
tests; rising head/falling head tests; cross-
hole tomography
Laboratory tests Point load; uniaxial/triaxial compression; Mechanical properties of intact rock
Brazil tensile; 3-point flexural and rock joints
In situ stress Hydraulic fracturing; 3-D overcoring Hydraulic fracturing; 3-D overcoring
(during construction)

In Singapore’s tropical weather, the granite formation has been weathered with a thick layer of
residual soil. For siting of rock caverns, the soil cover is therefore essential data. Soil boring was used
mainly to provide calibration for soil cover from surface geophysical surveys, and in some instances,
to check “abnormal” results, where the geological profile had become too irregular for geophysical
surveys to yield reliable results.

Some of the modern geophysical techniques successfully applied include cross-hole seismic
tomography, single-hole radar imaging, joint seismic reflection and resistivity profiling. The most
useful results from surface has been what is called joint imaging – seismic reflection coupled with
resistivity profiling along the same line. This is because seismic reflection typically gives better
resolution in the vertical direction while resistivity profiling gives better resolution in the horizontal
direction. Figure 1 shows a composite profile combining results from the various surveys and drilling
investigations. It can be seen that this joint imaging techniques can yield very reliable geological data
for cavern design.

A total of 19 diamond core drilling in vertical and inclined boreholes were carried out. In hindsight,
one type of drilling which the author thought should have been done, is long-hole horizontal drilling,
which was not carried out due to limitations of locally available drilling equipment. This type of
drilling could yield useful additional information, especially the rock joint results later showed two of
the three dominant joints sets in the sub-vertical direction.

309
 Weathered
Weathered Weathered EN1-ES1 trench – T12
trench – T11 trench – T12 F11 EN2-ES2 F11

Figure 1. Composite profile showing electrical resistivity and other investigations

310
3 STRUCTURAL AND ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

3.1 Residual Soil and Bedrock

The residual soil overlying the granite bedrock varies in thickness from 3 m to 62 meters, with the
average being about 20-30 meters. The transition to fresh rock is very rapid in most places, with only
2-3 meters of heavily weathered granite. The residual soil is heavy sandy loam, whose properties vary
from still to very stiff. The main properties of the soils are: bulk density = 1,830 kg/m3, internal
friction angle = 32o; and cohesion = 7 Kpa.

The granite rock is usually light grey and medium to coarse-grained, and varies from granite through
to admellite to granodiorite. The principal minerals of the granite are quartz (29%), alkali-feldspar
(29%), plagioclase (36%), biotite (5%), and hornblende.

3.2 Weathering Trenches

One of the most important findings of the site investigation was the discovery of three large-scale
weathering trenches in what were previously thought to be faults zones based on low seismic velocities
from seismic refraction surveys. The strike and location of these trenches normally coincide with those
of valleys, pools, or water convergence channels, where ground water is probably an important factor
in creating these trenches. Table 2 summarises the key features of these weathering trenches. The
maximum depth of the weathering trenches can reach 80 meter below surface. The strike of these
trenches coincides with that of the dominant sub-vertical joints.

Table 2. Summary of weathering trenches

Trench Strike Extent, m Depth, m Weathering Grade
T1 SN to NE30o 750 39 II, III
T2 NNW to NE30 950 80 II, III, IV
T3 NE25 900 47 II, III

The discovery of these weathered trenches has provided some essential input in the layout design and
in precautions taken during construction in anticipation of bad rock and potential ground water
problems.

3.3 Rock Joints and Dense Joint Strips

The rock joints are typical of granite rock mass. There are three dominant joint sets, with two being
sub-vertical and one sub-horizontal (Table 3). A few random joints can be observed, from both the site
investigation, and subsequent tunnel mapping during construction. Several methods were used to
obtain joint orientation data, including video logging, impression packer, acoustic imaging, borehole
radar, and quarry wall mapping.

Strips of densely spaced joints were observed on the quarry walls and in core logs. The strips are
normally sub-vertical and sparsely distributed at more than 5-m intervals. They are normally less than
0.5 m in width, with a few near the weathering trenches being some tens of meters in width. However,
the P-wave velocity at these joint strips is normally about 80% of that in massive rock, indicating that
the joints are closed and filled with materials. Most of the vertical joints are characterised by softened
filling materials.

Most joints are tight, with or without fill material, as suggested by the low permeability results. The
joint surfaces are normally rough, with the average friction angle being about 37o. Some joints are
filled with minerals, and when wet, show a noticeable reduction in its joint properties, as shown in
Table 4.

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Table 3. Summary of joint data from various methods
Joint Set Video Impression Acoustic Borehole radar Quarry wall
logging packer imaging mapping
Sub-vertical 310/70 278/70 233/74 239/80
311/77 308/71 110/79 9/83
68/79 178/83
Sub-horizontal 98/6 0/0 23/10
181/11
Medium dip 115/37 282/65
angle
292/55

Table 4. Summary of rock joint properties

Joint conditions Friction Angle, φ (o) Cohesion, C (Kpa)
Freshly fractured and dry 45.6 258
Freshly fractured and saturated 42.6 172
Freshly fractured and dry (weathered rock) 36.8 183
Natural and dry 36.5 266
Natural and saturated 33.4 108
Mineral filled and dry 32.5 71
Mineral filled and saturated 27.3 52
Weathered and dry 27.6 200
Weathered and saturated 20.1 136

From Table 4, it can be seen while the effects of water on the shear strength of rock joints are obvious,
the reduction in shear strength is only about 8-16%, even for joints filled with minerals. This
information is important for numerical modelling where the effect of water needs to be considered.

3.4 Geo-hydrology

Extensive in situ tests in boreholes and studies of the geo-hydrology have also been conducted. The
ground water is generally about 3-5 m below ground. The rock mass has a low permeability, with an
average permeability of 10-10 m/s in most of the rock masses. The permeability in the dense jointed
strips is about 10-8 m/s. Based on the above permeability numbers, the rock mass was expected to be
dry during construction.

4 IN SITU STRESS

In situ stress measurements were carried out by hydraulic fracturing during site investigation and by
over-covering during construction. A total of 8 hydraulic fracturing tests were conducted in two
boreholes at depths of 60, 80, 100, and 120 meters. The results show that there exist relatively high
horizontal stresses in the rock mass. The average maximum horizontal stress σH is about 7.3 Mpa with
a N13oE orientation, and the average minimum horizontal stress is 4.46 Mpa. It is noted the direction
of the σH is roughly normal to the Nee Soon Fault, being probably one of the causes for these
geological structures. These high horizontal stresses were later confirmed during construction by 3-D
overcoring, and borehole extensometer measurements of tunnel displacements, which showed the
tunnel and cavern roof moving upwards.

3-D stress measurements using overcoring was done in a horizontal borehole drilled into the wall of a
tunnel at about one-meter above the tunnel floor. The borehole location was chosen such that the rock
had the best quality and the location has the least influence from existing tunnel excavations.

Results of these stress measurements are summarised in Table 5. It should be noted that the stresses
from the hydraulic fracturing are horizontal because the boreholes are vertical. The “true” principal
stresses cannot be found from these hydraulic fracturing tests.

312
Table 5. Summary of Measured in Situ Stresses
Test Method Hydraulic Fracturing 3-D Overcoring
Stress, Mpa Orientation Stress, Mpa Orientation
Vertical stress 2.25 --- 3.0 ---
Maximum horizontal stress 7.3 13o 8.2 67 o
Minimum horizontal stress 4.56 103 o 3.4 157 o

The orientation of the maximum horizontal stress differs significantly between the hydraulic fracturing
and 3-D overcoring results. This difference could be due to the fact that both stress measurements were
carried out in somewhat disturbed stress fields, although at the time it was thought the effects of
disturbance would be minimal. The two vertical boreholes in which the hydraulic fracturing were
conducted were located about 120 m and 230 meters from the Mandai granite quarry, which measures
about 450 m by 650 m with an average of 50-60 meter highwalls. The quarry, which had been
operating for about 30 years, could have caused a re-distribution of the stresses around it.

The 3-D overcoring, as mentioned earlier, was carried out into a tunnel wall at a depth of about 80
meter below ground. Since the horizontal hole was drilled only 17 meters deep, it is conceivable that
the tunnel construction around it had also caused a re-distribution of the stress fields. This could be
seen from the fact that the maximum horizontal stress is almost normal to the borehole axis.

While the orientation of the maximum horizontal stress may vary, there is no doubt that the in situ
horizontal stresses are relatively high. It is worth noting that in recent studies by Broch et al. (1996), a
favorable horizontal stress field has been found to be the primary factor in cavern stability.

ROCK MASS PROPERTIES

4.1 Mechanical Properties of Intact Rock

Based on more than 600 laboratory tests, the basic mechanical properties of intact granite rock are
summarised in Table 6. Weathered granite generally shows 30-40% reduction in the respective
strength parameters.

Table 6. Summary of mechanical properties of intact rock

Property Range Average
Bulk density, g/cm3 2.62 – 2.67 2.65
Uniaxial compressive strength, MPa 108.1 – 224. 9 163.7
Young’s Modulus, GPa 49.3 – 111.3 65.6
Poisson’s Ratio 0.14 – 0.35 0.24
Internal Friction Angle, o --- 59.0
Point Load Index, MPa 5.2 – 16.1 8.7
Brazil Tensile Strength, MPa 5.2 – 16.1 11.6
Three-point Flexural Tensile Strength, MPA 8.2 – 27.3 20.3

4.2 Rock Mass Classification

Based on results of the site investigation, the rock mass has been classified according to the Q-system,
which has been adopted as the method for preliminary support design in the project. Table 7
summarises the rock mass quality values based on logging of rock cores.

As can be seen, the site investigation results suggest that most of the rock mass is good to very good.
The statistical distribution served a very useful function of providing the necessary information for
cost estimate during tendering.

313
During construction, results from tunnel mapping yielded slightly different results, with a higher
concentration of the Q values in the Fair to Good category. This could be partly due to the “uniform”
damages on the tunnel surface that were created due to blasting.

The average compressive strength and deformation modulus of the rock mass have been estimated to
be about 45- 65 Mpa, and 40-50 Gpa, respectively.

Table 7. Statistical distribution of Q values from core logging

Q Value Rock Mass Quality Percent, %
0.01 – 0.1 Extremely poor 1.9
0.1 – 1.0 Very Poor 3.7
1–4 Poor 5.8
4 – 10 Fair 13.6
10 – 40 Good 51.8
40 – 100 Very Good 19.3
> 100 Extremely Good 3.8

5 CONCLUSIONS

A three-layer model, consisting of a thick layer of residual soil, the weathered granite, and fresh
granite bedrock, can describe the geology of the Bukit Timah granite at the Mandai site. There is no
distinct relation between the relief of the topography and the bedrock elevation. The thickness of the
weathered granite is generally small, except in areas in the deep weathering trenches.

Dense jointed strips often occur in the rock mass. They are generally sub vertical and randomly
distributed with a spacing of more than 5 meters between strips. There are no major faults at the site.
Rather, deep weathered trenches and dense jointed strips are the principal geological features at the
Mandai site. The rock mass permeability at the site is also relatively low, with most tunnels and
chamber showing very little seepage water.

The site also showed relatively high horizontal stress, with the maximum and minimum horizontal
stress being about 7.3 Mpa, and 4.46 Mpa, respectively. This high horizontal stress has been found to
be a very favorable factor in tunnel/cavern stability, allowing tunnels and caverns of large spans to be
excavated with minimal support.

In terms of investigation techniques, the combined use of seismic reflection survey and electric
resistivity tomography at the same section has been found to yield very good results, providing better
resolution in both the vertical and horizontal directions. In diamond core drilling, long hole horizontal
drilling, which would probably have yielded even more useful data, was not carried out due to
limitations of drilling equipment of local contractors.

REFERENCES

Econ Geotech Pte Ltd, 1999. Site characterisation for a site at Mandai – Final Report. Contract Report Submitted
to DSTA-BI (unpublished).

Broch, E., Myrvang, A.M., and Stjern, G. 1996. Support of large rock caverns in Norway. Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology Vol. 11, No. 1: 11-19.

314
 Underground Singapore 2001

Evaluation of Shear Strength Parameters of Singapore

Marine Clay
L.F. Cao, M.F. Chang, C.I. Teh and V. Choa
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

M. W. Bo
SPECS Consultants Pte Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the evaluation of strength parameters of the Singapore marine clay
from selected laboratory and in-situ tests at a construction site in the eastern part of Singapore.
Results from laboratory tests, including the triaxial consolidated-undrained, consolidated-drained
compression tests and the direct simple shear test, indicate that the effective angle of internal friction
(φ′) is practically independent of the preconsolidation pressure, the drainage condition imposed during
shear and the rate of shear, and the φ′ is similar for the upper and the lower marine clay members. The
undrained shear strength (su), however, is found to increase with the shearing rate and the
overconsolidation ratio (OCR), as expected. The su obtained from the triaxial test is higher than that
from the direct simple shear test. The su value for the lower marine clay is higher than that for the
upper marine clay at the same OCR, although their rates of increase with OCR are the same. Results
of in-situ tests, including the field vane test, the piezocone penetration test, the dilatometer test and the
self-boring pressuremeter test, indicate that the in-situ undrained shear strength deduced from these in-
situ tests are similar and comparable to that from the triaxial compression test on a specimen
anisotropically consolidated under the in-situ effective stresses.

1 INTRODUCTION

The evaluation of shear strength parameters of soil is important for underground construction using
either the cut-and-cover method or the tunneling method. This is because stability is a major
consideration in underground construction and the analysis of which requires representative shear
strength parameters. Shear strength parameters of soils can vary with the stress path and the strain
rate and these parameters are often not uniquely defined. This aspect could be critical for underground
construction since the prevailing stress path, the drainage condition and the strain rate in the soil
surrounding an underground work can be different from those normally encountered in conventional
foundation problems. It is therefore useful that use of various laboratory and in-situ tests for the
evaluation of shear strength parameters is investigated.

This paper describes the evaluation of strength parameters of the Singapore marine clay using various
laboratory and in-situ tests based on an investigation carried out at a construction site in the eastern
part of Singapore. Results from laboratory tests, including the triaxial consolidated-undrained (CU)
test, the triaxial consolidated-drained (CD) test and the direct simple shear (DSS) test, and in-situ tests
including the field vane test, the piezocone penetration test, the dilatometer test and the self-boring
pressuremeter test are presented and compared.

2 SINGAPORE MARINE CLAY

The Singapore marine clay is the most dominant member of the Kallang Formation that consists of
Recent deposits in Singapore. The marine clay underlies mainly the coastal plain and the immediate
offshore zone in the central and eastern part of southern Singapore. The marine clay usually consists
of two members: the upper member locally known as the upper marine clay (UMC) and the lower

315
member locally known as the lower marine clay (LMC). The upper member was deposited about
eleven thousands years ago at the initiation of Holocene times and deposition continued until about
five thousands years ago. The lower member lies unconformably over the valley floors or over dense
fluvial sediments, and the clay is believed to be have been deposited during the Riss-Wurm
interglacial period, about one hundred and twenty thousands years ago (Tan & Lee, 1977). Near the
top of the lower member, the soil is stiff and has a distinctive pale-red mottled appearance. This stiff
layer locally known as the intermediate layer is believed to have resulted from desiccation and
weathering of the lower member when the sea level dropped during the Wurm glacial period. Thin
layers of silty clay, beach sand or river sediments are often found immediately above the intermediate
layer and form a boundary between the upper and lower members.

Through differing in age, the two marine members share similarities in appearance and texture. They
are laminated and are pale gray to dark gray colour. The two marine clay members are rich in
kaolinite with minor amount of smectite, mica and chlorite. They are highly plastic and have high
water contents. The upper member occasionally contains sand lenses and shell fragments particularly
at the bottom whereas the lower member has fine silt partings.

The Singapore marine clay at the investigation site in the eastern part of foreshore Singapore is
similar to that found elsewhere and has a total thickness ranging from a few metres to over 40 metres
in the area.

3 SHEAR STRENGTH FROM LABORATORY TESTS

The determination of shear strength parameters for saturated clay usually relies on laboratory tests on
“undisturbed’ samples. Two shear strength parameters that are of fundamental importance for the
analysis of geotechnical problems in soft to medium stiff clay, such as the Singapore marine clay, are
the undrained shear strength su and the effective internal friction angle φ′ corresponding to normally
consolidated state of stress. Both strength parameters can be conveniently evaluated by appropriate
shear tests in the laboratory. Nevertheless, the results may vary from one test to another because the
shear strength of a soil is not a fundamental soil property. This is particularly the case for the
undrained shear strength that is directly influenced by the in-situ state of effective stress. The
measured strength is affected by many factors such as the preconsolidation pressure, the stress or
strain path, the loading rate, and the principal stresses and their directions that are imposed on the test
specimen.

In this study, both the undrained triaxial and simple shear tests were used to evaluate the undrained
shear strength su. The effective friction angle φ′ was evaluated from the both drained and undrained
triaxial tests and direct simple shear tests. In order to investigate the effect of principal stress rotation
on the undrained shear strength su, selected specimens were subjected to the triaxial compression and
direct simple shear (DSS). The effect of preconsolidation pressure or stress-induced anisotropy was
investigated using triaxial tests on both isotropically consolidated and anisotropically consolidated
specimens. Also, the SHANSEP procedure (Ladd and Foott, 1991) was adopted to overcome sample
disturbance problem and to investigate the normalized behaviour of the undrained shear strength of
the Singapore marine clay.

3.1 Direct Simple Shear (DSS) Test

The NGI type of direct simple shear apparatus was used in the test. DSS tests, two series for the
upper marine clay and one series for the lower marine clay, were conducted. Each series consists of
four tests on specimens that were preconsolidated to OCR values of 1, 2, 4 and 8. A standard shearing
rate of 0.06 mm/min was used in these tests. Tests were also carried out on selected specimens with
different shearing rates of 0.9, 0.12, 0.06 and 0.012 mm/min to investigate the rate effect on the
measured undrained strength.

In the direct simple shear test, the samples were firstly anisotropically consolidated under the in-situ
effective stress ratio, or Ko consolidated, using a pressure of 240 kPa, which is higher than their
corresponding in-situ preconsolidation pressures. Then the samples were unloaded to 120, 60, 30 kPa,
respectively, to create three different OCR values of 2, 4 and 8. Due to the limitation of the simple

316
shear apparatus, a truly undrained condition could not be achieved by simply closing the drainage
valve. An undrained condition was imposed on the specimen by adjusting the normal stress under a
drained condition and maintaining the height of the specimen to a constant value. The variation in the
normal stress, in turn, provided an indication of the pore water pressure change that would have
developed under an undrained condition.

As expected, the undrained shear strength increases gradually with the shearing rate, as shown in
Figure 1(a) for both the upper marine clay and the lower marine clay. When the displacement rate is
converted to the shear strain rate, the undrained shear strength is found to be increased by 10% with
each log cycle of shear strain rate, as illustrated in Fg 1(b). This rate of increase is consistent with
findings from the triaxial tests reported by other researchers (e.g. Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990).

Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show the results of tests that follow the SHANSEP method for the upper marine
clay and the lower marine clay, respectively. The undrained shear strength ratio defined as su/σ′vc was
found to increase as OCR increases, where σ′vc is the consolidation pressure prior to shear. For the
upper marine clay, the relationship can be expressed as
su
= 0.18(OCR ) 0.75 (1)
σ′vc
For the lower marine clay, the relationship is
su
= 0.23(OCR ) 0.75 (2)
σ′vc

100 2
Normalized undrained shear strength,
Undrained shear strength, s u (kPa)

UMC (Normal stress = 22 kPa) UMC (Normal stress = 22 kPa)

UMC (Normal stress = 50 kPa) UMC (Normal stress = 50 kPa)
80 1.6
LMC (Normal stress = 200 kPa) LMC (Normal stress = 200 kPa)
s u /s u at 3.8%/h

60 1.2

40 0.8

s u/s u at 3.8%/hr
20 0.4 = 1+0.1log(ε*/ε* at 3.8%/hr)

0 0
0.01 0.1 1 1 10 100 1000

Shearing rate (mm/min) Shear strain rate, ε* (%/h)

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Influence of strain rate on undrained shear strength based on direct simple shear tests.

1.2 1.2
Undrained shear strength ratio, s u / 'vc
Undrained shear strength ratio, s u / 'vc

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4
s u/σ'vc = 0.23(OCR) 0.75
0.2
0.2 s u/σ'vc = 0.18(OCR) 0.75

0
0
1 5 10
1 5 10
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR (b)
(a)

Figure 2. Relationship between su/σ'vc and OCR based on direct simple shear tests: (a) upper marine clay; (b)
lower marine clay

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The relationships in Equations (1) and (2), which show the same rate of increase in su/σ′vc that is
similar to that reported by others (e.g. Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990), were based on limited data. The
su/σ′vc ratio at OCR=1 is higher for the lower than for the upper marine clay member probably due to
difference in plasticity index. More tests are needed to verify the relationships.

3.2 Triaxial Compression Tests

3.2.1 Tests on isotropically consolidated specimens

Two types of triaxial tests, some involving undrained compression (CIUCs) and others drained
compression (CIDCs), on isotropically consolidated specimens, were carried out. The purpose of
these tests is to determine the effective friction angle φ′ for the normally consolidated Singapore
marine clay. The value of φ′ that corresponds to the maximum deviator stress (σ′1 - σ′3)max is defined
as follows
 σ′ − σ′3 
φ′ = sin −1  1  (3)
 σ1′ + σ′3  max
600 800

600
q = ( '1 - '3 ) (kPa)

q = ( '1 - '3 ) (kPa)

400
M = 0.91 M = 0.89
o
o φ' = 22.8
φ' = 23.2 400

200
200

0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800

(a) p ' = (σ'1 + 2σ'3)/3 (kPa) p' = (σ'1 + 2σ'3 )/3 (kPa)
(b)

Figure 3. Effective stress paths from CIUC triaxial tests on: (a) upper marine clay; (b) lower marine clay

800 800
Strain rate = 8.34%/h
CIUC
600 600
(σ '1 - σ '3)/2 (kPa)

Strain rate = 0.498%/h

( '1 - '3)/2 (kPa)

CIDC

400 400

o
200 φ' = 24
o 200 φ' = 24

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800

(σ'1+ σ'3)/2 (kPa) (σ'1+σ'3)/2 (kPa)

Figure 4. Results of CIUC triaxial tests using different Figure 5. Comparison of results of CIUC and
strain rates tests for the upper marine clay CIDC tests for the upper marine clay

318
 Figure 3 shows the effective stress paths in the CIUC test with the consolidation pressure larger than
the preconsolidation pressure for UMC and LMC plotted in the Cambridge stress space. The values of
φ′ in the normally consolidated state typically range from 19o to 25o. The average φ′ value for the
upper marine clay is 23.2o, and the corresponding value for the lower marine clay is 22.8o, which is
marginally smaller than that for the upper marine clay.

Unlike the undrained shear strength, φ′ is found to be independent of the shear strain rate. As shown in
Figure 4 for the upper marine clay, φ′ is almost the same from four CIUC tests conducted with two
imposed strain rates of either 0.498%/h and 8.34%/h. The value of φ′ is also independent of the
drainage condition imposed during shear. For the normally consolidated Singapore marine clay, the
value of φ′ obtained from CIUC tests is the same as that from CIDC tests as shown in Figure 5.

3.2.2 Undrained tests on Ko consolidated specimens (CKoUC)

In order to investigate the in-situ undrained shear strength, the soil specimen was initially Ko
consolidated to a vertical pressure that is much larger than the in-situ preconsolidation pressure, and
then unloaded along the Ko line to create an overconsolidation effect based on the SHANSEP method.
Three specimens prepared from a tube sample recovered from the upper marine clay were
preconsolidated to OCRs of 1.27, 2.83 and 3.74, respectively, and subjected to undrained
compression. Figure 6 shows the plot of the undrained shear strength ratio, su/σ′vc, versus OCR. The
undrained strength ratio is seen to increase with OCR, and the relationship for the upper marine clay is
su
= 0.25(OCR ) 0.75 (4)
σ′vc
Comparing Equations (4) and (1), one sees that the su from the undrained compression test on Ko
consolidated specimen (CKoUC) is larger than that from the DSS test because the strength ratio at
OCR =1 is higher from the CKoUC test. There is no difference in the rate of increase in su/σ′vc with
OCR from these two different types of tests.
Figure 7 shows a comparison of the stress paths in CKoUC and CIUC tests for the upper marine
clay. The failure envelope and the effective friction angle determined based on the maximum deviator
stress are found to be similar in the CKoUC test and in the CIUC test.

1.2 800
Undrained shear strength ratio, s u / 'vc

Upper marine clay

Depth = 3.8 m CIUC (srain rate = 0.498%/h)
1
600
( σ '1 - σ '3)/2 (kPa)

CKoUC (strain rate = 0.498%/h)

0.8

0.6 400

0.4
200 o
s u/σ'vc = 0.25(OCR)0.75 φ' = 24
0.2

0 0
1 5 10 0 200 400 600 800

Overconsolidation ratio, OCR (σ'1+σ'3)/2 (kPa)

Figure 6. Relationship between su/σ'vc and OCR based on Figure 7. Stress paths for CIUC and CKoUC
CKoUC tests for the upper marine clay tests for the upper marine clay

4 SHEAR STRENGTH FROM IN-SITU TESTS

In-situ tests such as the field vane test (FVT), the piezocone test (CPTU), the flat dilatometer test
(DMT), and the self-boring pressuremeter test (SBPM) provide an alternative for the determination of
in-situ undrained shear strength. In addition to minimum sample disturbance effect and often highly

319
reproducible results, in-situ tests are particularly attractive because a complete shear strength profile
can be obtained at a reasonably lower cost compared to laboratory tests.

4.1 Piezocone Test (CPTU)

Previous research on the Singapore marine clay (e.g. Cao 1997, Bo et al., 1999; Chang et al. 2001a &
b, Cao et al. 2001) indicates that the piezocone test is one of the most useful in-situ tests for the
determination of the undrained shear strength profiles in clays.

The piezocone test utilizes a cone penetrometer that is equipped with a load transducer for measuring
the penetration resistance of the cone tip and a pore pressure transducer that is linked to a filter which
is usually located just behind the base of the conical tip. The test involves pushing one such cone
penetrometer at a standard rate of 20 mm/s into the soil and measuring the tip resistance qc and the
penetration pore pressure at the cone base ubt. From qc and ubt, a corrected cone resistance qt can be
easily calculated by considering the effect of unequal end areas inherent from the design of the
penetrometer. One can also calculate the pore pressure parameter Bq that is often used for soil
classification as follows:
u bt − u o
Bq = (5)
qt − σ vo
where uo is the hydrostatic pore water pressure and σvo is the total vertical stress in-situ. For sensitive
and special clays with Bq ranging from 0.75 to 0.85, su can be estimated from the following equation
derived based on cavity expansion theory in modified Cam clay (Cao 1997, Chang et al. 2001a)
(qt − u bt ) sin φ′
su = (6)
α ε (1 + sin φ′)
where αε is the strain rate factor, which can be taken as 1.64 for a 10 cm2 cone and 1.63 for a 15 cm2
cone. For soils with Bq less than 0.75, su may be determined from
(0.866qt + 0.134σ vo − u bt ) sin φ′
su = (7)
α ε (1 + sin φ′)
Note that su in Equations (6) and (7) corresponds to the undrained shear strength from CIUC tests or
(su)CIUC based on modified Cam clay assumptions.

4.2 Dilatometer Test (DMT)

A dilatometer blade is a flat penetrometer that is embedded with a sensing element behind a steel
membrane on one side. The test involves the pushing of a dilatometer blade into the soil at a standard
rate of 20 mm/s to the desired depth and measuring the pressure required to lift the membrane off its
original seating after stopping the penetration at every 200 mm. The lift-off pressure is designated as
P0 after correcting for membrane stiffness. Based on Chang et al. (2001b), the undrained shear
strength of the Singapore marine clay can be estimated from the lift-off pressure Po using the
following expression
su = 0.12( Po − σ vo ) (8)

4.3 Self-Boring PressuremeterTest (SBPM)

The self-boring pressuremeter test involves firstly steadily jacking a pressuremeter into the soil using
a built-in self-boring system that is located in front of the pressuremeter. At the desired depth, the
pressuremeter membrane is expanded under an internally applied pressure. Both the applied pressure
and the radial expansion of the membrane are measured by means of two separate electrical
transducers mounted at the mid-level on the pressuremeter. An expansion curve showing the applied
pressure versus the radial strain or the volumetric strain can then be constructed at the end of the test.
Gibson & Anderson (1961) proposed a method for estimating su from the expansion curve that relates
the volumetric strain ∆V/V to the applied pressure σa as follows

320
 ∆σ a
su = (9)
∆[ln (∆V / V )]

4.4 Field Vane Test (FVT)

The field vane involves pushing a typical field vane with a height to diameter ratio of 2 into the soil
and measuring the maximum torque that is required to mobilize the shearing resistance along the vane.
The corresponding value of undrained shear strength (su)FV is then calculated directly from the torque
applied. Previous research on the Singapore marine clay (Chang, et al. 2001b) indicates that su
measured from FVT is similar to that determined from CKoUC test.

4.5 Comparison of Results from Various In-Situ Tests

Figure 8 shows the comparison of undrained shear strength estimated from various in-situ tests and
selected laboratory tests. The su values interpreted from CPTU, DMT and SBPM are in good
agreement with those obtained from CKoUC tests and slightly higher than those obtained from direct
simple shear (DSS) tests. Generally, the su values predicted from CPTU, DMT and SBPM are similar
to that measured from the FVT.

s u (kPa) s u (kPa) s u (kPa)

0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100

0 0 0
CPTU CKoU
CKoU DSS
5 5 5 UMC
DSS FVT
FVT DMT
10 10 10

Silty clay
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

15 15 15

20 20 20 LMC

25 25 25

CKoU
30 30 30 DSS
FVT
SBPM
35 35 35

Figure 8. Typical su profiles obtained from CPTU, FVT, DMT, SBPM compared with laboratory test data

5 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

The stress path in the soil adjacent to a deep excavation and tunneling in underground construction is
different from that experienced by the soil under the normal loading condition. Results of various
laboratory shear tests indicate that effective friction angle or the effective strength parameter φ′ of the
Singapore marine clay is relatively unaffected by the difference in the preconsolidation pressure and
the drainage condition of the specimen during shear, or the stress path and that is imposed on the
specimen during consolidation and shear. The shearing rate has also been found to have insignificant
effect on the measured φ′ value. For long term stability analyses of undergound works that requires an
effective stress analysis using the effective strength parameter, the selection of laboratory tests that
are appropriate for the application is therefore not critical.
On the other hand, undrained stability analyses are often required for checking the short term stability
of underground construction, and the undrained strength parameter is important. From this study, the
undrained shear strength su as determined from the triaxial compression test is seen higher than that
from the direct simple shear test for the Singapore marine clay. Values of in-situ undrained shear

321
strength deduced from various in-situ tests are found comparable to that obtained from CKoU tests on
specimens that have been reconsolidated back to the in-situ effective stress state prior to shear, but
these values may not reflect the prevailing in-situ strength at various locations along the potential
sliding surface around an underground construction. In consideration of the potential difference in
stress path for soil around an excavation work, appropriate correction may need to be applied to the
undrained shear strength values obtained from traditional triaxial compression tests or deduced from
in-situ tests in the selection of relevant su values for the analysis.

The emphasis of this study was on shear strength and no mentioning was made on soil stiffness that is
usually significantly affected by soil disturbance and the adopted stress path. For underground
construction for which soil deformation is a prime concern, the selection of test methods that integrate
both concerns of stress-deformation and strength is important.

6 CONCLUSIONS

From the present investigation, the following findings are relevant to the Singapore marine clay:

(1) The effective friction angle φ′ in the normally consolidated stress range is independent of the
drainage condition during shear, the induced stress anisotropy, and the shearing strain rate.
(2) The difference in the normally consolidated φ′ parameter between the upper marine clay and the
lower marine clay is insignificant.
(3) The undrained shear strength as determined in the laboratory tests on reconsolidated specimens
increases with the reproduced overconsolidation ratio and the shearing strain rate, and the rate of
increase is the same for the upper and the lower marine members.
(4) The undrained shear strength of the upper marine clay is slightly lower that of the lower marine
clay at the same overconsolidation ratio.
(5) The su value measured by FVT is comparable with that obtained from the CKoUC test for the
Singapore marine clay.
(6) The su values interpreted from CPTU and DMT based on cavity expansion theory and SBPM
based the method proposed by Gibson & Anderson’s (1961) are similar to those obtained from the
FVT and the CKoUC test.

REFERENCES
Bo M.W., Chang, M.F., Arulrajah, A. & Choa, V. 2000. Undrained shear strength of the Singapore marine clay at
Changi from in-situ tests, Geotechnical Engineering, Journal of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society.
Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 91-107.
Cao, L.F. 1997. Interpretation of in-situ tests in clay with particular reference to reclaimed sites. Ph.D. Thesis.
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Cao, L. F., Teh, C. I., Chang, M. F. & Choa, V. 2001. Geotechnics of reclaimed land. Research Report for
RGM10/95, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
Chang, M.F., Teh, C.I. & Cao L.F. 2001a. Undrained cavity expansion in modified Cam clay II: Application to
the interpretation of piezocone test. Géotechnique 51(4): 335-350.
Chang, M. F. Cao, L. F. & Teh, C. I. 2001b. Undrained shear strength of clay from in-situ tests. Accepted for
publication in 14th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Hong Kong.
Gibson, R. E. and Anderson, W. F. 1961. In situ measurement of soil properties with the pressuremeter. Civil
Engineering and Public Works Review 56: 615-618
Kulhawy, F.H. and Mayne, P.W. 1990. Manual on Estimating Soil Properties for Foundation Design. Report
EL-6800. Palo, Alto, California: Electric Power Research Institute, USA.
Ladd, C. C & Foott, R. 1974. New design procedure for stability of soft clays. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering Division, ASCE, 100(GT7): 763-786.
Tan, S.B. & Lee, K.W. 1977. Engineering geology of the marine member of the Kallang Formation. Proc. Int.
Symposium on Soft Clay: 75-88. Bangkok.

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Planning of High Voltage Cable Tunnels for PowerGrid

Ltd, Singapore
G D Mainwaring
Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK

Y K Lam, L W Weng and Y K Chong

Development Resources Pte. Ltd, Singapore

R G Ramanathan
PowerGrid Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT: PowerGrid Ltd is a Transmission Licensee responsible for the transmission and
distribution of electricity to about 1.2 million customers in Singapore. It was formed in 1995 along
with the generation companies following the privatisation of the Electricity Department of the Public
Utilities Board. As part of a major system reinforcement and expansion programme to enhance power
supplies to various parts of Singapore, PowerGrid commissioned a study in 1998 to investigate the
feasibility of constructing tunnels for its transmission circuits. PowerGrid's involvement in cable
tunnels dates back to the 1980s with the construction of the 2.6 km Seraya Cable Tunnel linking Pulau
Seraya to the mainland and the subsequent 2.9 km Tuas Cable Tunnel beneath Tuas Bay.

The most recent studies have involved a series of bored tunnels up to 5.5 m in diameter and over 30
km in length linking various power stations and substations. The tunnels will be let as design-and-
build contracts. Development Resources Pte Ltd in association with Mott MacDonald (Singapore) Pte
Ltd have provided consultancy and project management services for the work. This paper describes
the main issues involved in the planning and design of the tunnels.

1 BACKGROUND

In the mid 1980s, the then Electricity Department of the Public Utilities Board decided on a tunnel for
the undersea section of the 2500 MVA transmission link for its new power station on Pulau Seraya, an
island lying approximately 2.5 km south of Singapore. Mott MacDonald was appointed as the owner’s
consultant for the project. The design-and-build contract for the tunnel was let in April 1985 to
Christiani & Nielsen A/S and the work was completed in 1988. At 2.6 km, the tunnel remains one of
the longest immersed tube tunnels in the world.

With the development of the new Tuas Power Station on the tip of the reclaimed Tuas Peninsula at the
western end of Singapore in the early 1990s, an immersed tunnel was again identified as providing the
most direct routing for the transmission cables to connect with the central areas of Singapore.
Development Resources Pte. Ltd, supported by Mott MacDonald on the tunnelling aspects, had
conducted a detailed feasibility study in 1994 and followed up with the planning, design and project
management services. The design-and-build contract for the works was let in May 1996 to Obayashi
Corporation. The tunnel was completed in December 1998.

Both the cable tunnels described above consist of rectangular precast concrete elements sunk into
position and jointed underwater. The rapid growth in the number of services installed in Singapore
roads together with a rise in vehicular traffic and difficulty in finding space for its cables led
PowerGrid to consider the development of bored tunnels to accommodate its primary transmission
circuits. PowerGrid commissioned Development Resources Pte Ltd in association with Mott
MacDonald (Singapore) Pte Ltd in October 1998 to investigate the feasibility of housing its primary
transmission circuits in tunnels. The scope of the study included developing tunnel layouts and

325
diameters for different circuit configurations, identifying potential route alignments and suitable sites
for the shafts and M&E equipment buildings taking into consideration cable access and installation
requirements, designing layouts for ventilation shafts and equipment buildings, incorporating facilities
for cable jointing in the tunnel etc. The tunnels would need to provide for ventilation, cooling systems
for the cables, fire and life safety systems, control systems, communication facilities and a
maintenance vehicle. Based on the findings of the feasibility study, the commission also included the
development of specific cable tunnel projects.

2 OUTLINE OF STUDY

The brief was for a single study covering the civil, structural and M&E works for the proposed cable
tunnels. The study investigated the feasibility of installing transmission circuits in deep tunnels which
pass under public road reserves and which could be constructed under the procedures of The Street
Works Act (Works on Public Streets) Regulations 1995. In order to determine the tunnel routes, it
was necessary to identify a limited number of wayleaves from third parties. The study was divided
into three distinct stages:
• To address the general concepts and implications of routing high voltage cables in tunnels
• To investigate in detail the feasibility of the following cable tunnels:
a) Tunnel 1: Senoko to Gambas Avenue
b) Tunnel 2: Ayer Rajah to Paya Lebar
• To evaluate the potential for a future island-wide cable tunnel network

In 1999, the study was extended to include also the feasibility of constructing a third tunnel to serve
the re-powering needs of Seraya Power Station. This Tunnel 3 links Seraya Power Station to Labrador
Substation.

Among the issues that were addressed in the study were:

• Typical requirements of cables to be installed in the tunnel
• Cable layouts within the tunnel including cable arrangement, installation and snaking requirements
• Appropriate tunnel diameters for various circuit configurations for both single and twin tunnel
options
• Tunnel route selection to achieve overall cost economy while satisfying the requirements of local
authorities
• Tunnel and shaft arrangements to accommodate routing of cables from surface to tunnel and
bending radii of cables
• Facilities for oil-filled cables including provisions for oil stop jointing within the tunnel
• Tunnel related M&E services
• Environmental considerations during tunnel construction
• Overall programme and contract packaging

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3 TUNNEL DESIGN AND ROUTE SELECTION

PowerGrid required the cable tunnels to be designed to enable it to expand and upgrade its primary
transmission system and carry out future maintenance works on the cables economically. As the
tunnel has a 100 year design life, they have to be planned for cables to enter and exit at various shaft
locations to maximise usage of the tunnels. Tunnel and shaft layout arrangements would need to be
developed to accommodate the various circuit configurations.

The tunnels were sized to accommodate both oil-filled and XLPE (cross linked polyethylene) cables
and joints within the tunnel, access for maintenance and a tunnel maintenance vehicle. Specially
formed chambers were also provided at shaft locations, which would allow for the cable oil stop
jointing facilities associated with the oil-filled cables.

Two methods have been adopted for installation of the cables in the tunnel. Cables will initially be
installed with CBS (cement bound sand) backfill in precast concrete troughs in the tunnel invert.
Subsequent circuits will be installed with CBS backfill in wall-mounted fire rated FRP (fibre
reinforced plastic) trough designed to withstand loads and forces caused by cable short circuits. CBS
backfill protects the cables against mechanical damage as well as prevents cable movement in the
event of a short circuit. The backfill also helps to contain any leakage from oil-filled cables. It also
offers additional benefits where future cable installations are planned, as the protective CBS surround
generally makes the tunnels a much safer environment in which to carry out the work.

Cables may be laid in flat or trefoil formation in the tunnels. From the spatial point of view, flat
formation with the necessary spacing between cables occupies more space than trefoil formation. Flat
formation was nevertheless adopted for the cable circuits in the tunnel in order to achieve higher
current ratings.

Figure 1 Typical Cable Arrangements

The tunnel diameter is determined by the need to have adequate spacing between cables for installation
and maintenance and to allow for personnel/maintenance vehicle access. Since a fault in one circuit
could affect other circuits and possibly result in major supply interruption, the need for segregation
was a major factor in designing the cable layout. The tunnel diameters required ranged from 3 metres
for a tunnel accommodating two circuits up to 5.5 metres for ten circuits. Each of the tunnel
arrangements would provide for a maintenance vehicle which would run on tracks placed on the walls
of an invert cable trough.

For fire safety, all single bore tunnels would have a vertical partition wall, which segregates the tunnel
into two discrete compartments. Fire rated doors connecting the two compartments are provided at
100 metre intervals.

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 Figure 2 Typical Cross Section For 8 Circuit Cable Tunnel

Cable oil stop jointing chambers, compartmentalised for fire protection, are provided near the base of
ventilation shafts. These chambers are 8 metres wide and 6 metres high, with a length of over 60
metres. Oil pressure tanks for the oil-filled cables are located at the surface and connected to the oil
stop joints in the tunnel by pipework installed in protective conduits on the shaft walls. This
arrangement has been adopted to minimise the risk of widespread damage resulting from fire.

Figure 3 Cross Section of Cable Oil Stop Jointing Chamber

Ventilation shafts form the boundary between the ventilation sections of the tunnel on either side of
the shafts, with the fans feeding air in two directions into the tunnel. The tunnel ventilation system has
been designed to remove heat and smoke from the tunnel under all operating conditions, including fire
emergency. The ventilation shaft layout is further complicated by the need for compartmentalisation
of the ventilation system. The shafts would therefore require four separate ventilation compartments,
plus separate sections for access requirements via both staircase and man-rider, and the necessary
framework to support the cables, etc.

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 Figure 4 Typical Cross Section of Ventilation Shaft and Adit

Shafts along the tunnel route would be required for TBM driving, for ventilation, for installing the
cables and for maintenance purposes. Ventilation fans and tunnel M&E equipment would be housed
in equipment buildings located above every alternate shaft. The other shafts would surface into single
storey structures with louvers for air intake or exhaust.

The ventilation fans housed in the equipment buildings would control discrete lengths of the particular
tunnel. In addition, the buildings would be required to house the tunnel control room, HV and LV
switchrooms, standby generators, transformers, fire-fighting equipment, cooling water pumps for the
cables, emergency power supply and maintenance vehicle battery charging facilities. The area
required for the equiment buildings is relatively significant. The availability of suitable locations for
the buildings has a considerable influence on the actual alignment selected for the tunnel.

In summary the mechanical and electrical requirements that impacted on the layouts of the tunnels and
shafts included:
• Ventilation and forced cooling for cables
• Fire detection and fire control
• Gas detection monitoring
• Communication facilities
• Earthing system for power circuits
• Security and access requirements
• Power, lighting and signage
• Drainage
• Maintenance vehicle

The selection of tunnel routes were done to achieve overall cost economy in construction while
complying with the requirements of the various local authorities. The alignment of the tunnels were
located within road reserves as far as possible taking into account existing obstructions. Where this
was not possible, wayleaves from third parties were required although acquisition of private land has

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been avoided. The main difficulty in the route selection lies in locating suitable sites for the shafts and
buildings and in negotiating tight bends along the route.

As mentioned in Section 1 above, the commission also included the development of specific cable
tunnel projects. These projects were the 1.8 km Tunnel 1, extending from Senoko Power Station in the
northern part of Singapore southwards into Gambas Avenue and Tunnel 2 which extends over 16 km
around the city area, from Ayer Rajah Substation in the central region through to the future Paya Lebar
400 kV Substation located to the east of the city. Subsequently, because of the expansion of the power
station on Seraya, the consultant was also requested to investigate the feasibility of providing a tunnel
from Seraya to Labrador Substation. These tunnels are described in detail in the subsequent sections.

Figure 5 Location of High Voltage Cable Tunnels

4 CONTRACT STRATEGY

The proposed cable tunnels would be let as fixed lump sum price design-and-build contracts based on
the ‘Engineer's Preferred Scheme’, a method successfully employed for the earlier Seraya and Tuas
Cable Tunnels. The Engineer's Preferred Scheme is a fully worked-up scheme which detailed all the
particular requirements of the development including a proposed outline construction method for the
works. In addition to the Engineer's Preferred Scheme, the tender documents contained fully detailed
Design Criteria and Materials and Workmanship Specifications for all facets of the works.

The civil works would be split into a number of contract packages to meet programme requirements
and allow for wider participation by contractors. The M&E works for each tunnel would however be
let as a system-wide contract to ensure uniformity of design and avoid unnecessarily complex and
costly interfacing.

Submission of an offer based on the Engineer's Preferred Scheme is mandatory. Tenderers may
however submit in addition alternative offers to provide for better design or construction options.
These may be adopted in place of the Engineer's Preferred Scheme should they be considered more
advantageous in terms of cost or programme. It is significant to note that the successful contractors for

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both the Seraya and Tuas Cable Tunnels and the present Tunnel 1 chose to adopt the Engineer's
Preferred Scheme.

All contractors were required to go through a prequalification exercise including approval of the
contractor's design consultant for the works. The prequalification process for Tunnel 1 commenced in
late 1999, but various events delayed the letting of the contract. The contract for Tunnel 1 was finally
awarded in mid 2001. The bid process for Tunnels 2 and 3 was scheduled to continue through the
latter part of 2001.

5. TUNNEL 1

In connection with the re-powering of one of the oldest power stations in Singapore, Senoko Power
Station, new 230 kV circuits will be required to transmit electricity to the load centres. In view of the
congestion of existing underground services in the immediate vicinity of the power station, it was
decided that a 1.8 km long cable tunnel be built to link the power station to Gambas Avenue to
facilitate future cabling works. The tunnel route alignment has been chosen to follow the existing
cable reserve zone for the initial part and then pass under public road reserves wherever possible for
the remainder of the route to Gambas Avenue. The tunnel route requires very tight turning radii of
100m in places. The twin tunnels are designed to accommodate eight 230 kV circuits and two 66 kV
circuits.

Figure 6 Tunnel 1 Route Map

A twin tunnel option was chosen to meet the cabling programme requirements. Each tunnel bore with
precast segmental linings has an internal diameter of 3.7 m accommodating four 230 kV circuits and
one 66 kV circuit. The minimum clearance between the two tunnel bores is 2.3 m and cross passages
linking the two bores are provided at 300 m intervals for fire safety. Oher facilities to be installed
within the tunnels and equipment building include pumped drainage system, fire detection and
protection system, communication facilities, tunnel ventilation and smoke control equipment, tunnel
temperature and air velocity monitoring devices, lifting devices, air borne contaminant monitoring
equipment and two maintenance vehicles. Drill-and-blast technique would be used for excavating the
cross passages, the adits and the lower portion of the shafts within the rock strata. At these locations
in-situ concrete linings would be adopted.

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 Figure 7 Tunnel 1 Cross Section At cross Passages

Three shafts of diaphragm wall construction are associated with this tunnel with two 12.8 m diameter
end shafts and a 15.8 m diameter intermediate shaft which will connect to a substation to be built in
the future. The intermediate shaft site will also house an equipment building for the mechanical and
electrical equipment serving the tunnel. Preliminary ground investigation results indicate that granite
bedrock underlies soft superficial deposits and weathered granite strata along the entire tunnel route.
The depth to the granite bedrock varies from approximately 15 m to 35 m below ground level and the
rock strength at the tunnel horizon varies from approximately 100 to 230 MPa. In order to co-exist
with LTA’s future developments, the tunnel within the public road reserves has been designed to be a
hard rock tunnel with a minimum rock cover of 5 m over the tunnel crown.

The design-and-build contract was awarded in April 2001 to Obayashi - McConnell Dowell Joint
Venture at a cost of approximately S$77 million. The contract period was specified to be
approximately 25 months. The contractor has proposed a refurbished Robbins hard rock TBM for the
tunnelling works. At the time of writing this paper, the Contractor has commenced mobilisation
works.

6. TUNNEL 2

Tunnel 2 is over 16 km in length, extending from Ayer Rajah Substation to the future Paya Lebar 400
kV Substation. The 5.2 m internal diameter tunnel has been designed to accommodate eight 400 kV
circuits. The tunnel cross-section has a vertical partition wall dividing the tunnel longitudinally into
two compartments. The dividing wall is slightly offset from the centre-line of the tunnel to provide a
slightly larger compartment for a battery operated maintenance vehicle. Seven permanent shafts along
the tunnel route spaced at between 1.8 km to 3.9 km apart have been proposed for the purpose of
ventilation, human access/ emergency egress and cable entry. In addition to the seven permanent shaft
sites, two other sites have also been safeguarded to facilitate the location of temporary shafts to aid the
tunnel construction.

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 Figure 8 Tunnel 2 Schematic Section

Figure 9 Tunnel 2 Bored Tunnel Cross Section

Wherever possible the tunnel route has followed existing road reserves, and every effort has been
made to minimise the requirement for any additional wayleave or land take. Due to the limited
availability of suitable sites in land-scarce Singapore, the location of the shafts has had a major
influence on the choice of the final alignment of the tunnel. Inevitably this results in a number of
horizontal curves which have to be negotiated by the TBMs. It is considered undesirable to negotiate
curves tighter than a 140 m radius with the size of TBM required. Even with this radius, the
implications for tunnel construction are that the TBMs would need to be specially designed and
manufactured, adding to procurement time and cost, and during the actual tunnel driving, progress is
likely to be slowed down during negotiation of the curves. The tight radii will also be of concern for
the erection of the tunnel linings.

As underground space in Singapore becomes progressively more congested, the cable tunnel route is
required to interact with a number of existing and planned underground structures. These consist
principally of MRT/LRT lines, the Deep Tunnel Sewer System including the link sewer tunnels, the
Singapore Underground Road System, the Paya Lebar Expressway tunnel, road underpasses and the
deep piled foundations of major structures such as MRT viaducts, road flyovers and high rise
buildings. While every effort has been made in choosing the tunnel route alignment to minimise such

333
interaction, some crossing of and corridor sharing with existing and planned tunnels is inevitable.
Where this occurs the tunnel has generally been taken to sufficient depth to stay below the other
structures, and maintain a clearance adequate to avoid any significant effect on existing tunnels.

The tunnel route alignment is underlain by a variety of geological formations, ranging from the Jurong
Formation in the west, through Bukit Timah Granite in the central zone, a second area of Jurong
Formation, the Kallang Formation and then Old Alluvium to the east. The Jurong Formation is a
variable rock of interbedded sandstones, siltstones and mudstones and has been weathered to
considerable depths. The bedrock is expected to be reasonably good for tunnelling, although rapidly
varying rock strengths will occur. A rock type TBM should be effective in this material. The Bukit
Timah Granite is extremely strong in its unweathered state. The depth of weathering varies from 10 m
to 50 m, but the transition between weathered and fresh rock is always rapid. A hard rock type TBM
will be required and it will be important for the tunnel to be located fully within the fresh rock to avoid
the difficulties of mixed face excavation. The most important unit of the Kallang Formation is the
Marine Clay, with a maximum thickness of 35 m, although 10 m to 15 m is more common. The clay
is soft to very soft. This material is difficult for tunnelling, but is within the capabilities of modern
closed face TBMs of the earth pressure balance type (EPB). Careful monitoring and balance of the
ground and groundwater pressures will be required in order to avoid adverse ground movements. The
Old Alluvium is very extensive in the east of Singapore and has a thickness up to 185 m. The
formation is variable, but consists predominantly of dense silty sand. This is generally expected to be
a good tunnelling material for an EPB machine, with the possibility of open face mode for part of the
route which would increase productivity.

Three major considerations, geology, gradient and other structures, dictate the choice of vertical
alignment. The tunnel has, where possible, been maintained in one type of geological formation for
the length of each proposed TBM drive, in order to minimise the complexity of manufacture and
operation of these machines. However, mixed ground TBM drive is expected to be unavoidable at
certain sections of the route. Gradients between 0.25 % and 2.5 % have been assumed to be most
suitable for permanent drainage and for ease of construction of the tunnel drives using rail mounted
transport. Vertical clearances of 5m in soft ground and 2m in rock are expected to be adequate where
the crossing of other tunnel or structures is substantially perpendicular. The result of the above
considerations is a vertical alignment ranging from approximately 25 m below ground level to as deep
as 60 m in some locations.

Due to the schedule constraints, a TBM bored tunnel has been preferred for most of the route. It is
considered that a one pass lining system consisting of precast concrete gasketted segments will be the
most suitable in respect of both programme and waterproofing. At the western end of the tunnel at
Paya Lebar, the geometry of the route requires the tunnel to negotiate very tight bends, some of which
are almost at right angles. Due to the congestion of existing services and heavy vehicular traffic
during the day, a cut-and-cover tunnel option is not considered to be feasible. Instead a 600 m length
of tunnel by sequential excavation method has been selected to overcome the difficulty.

From the consideration of geology, lengths of drives, availability of worksites, construction techniques
and construction periods, it has been determined that the civil works should be formed into three
separate contract packages with tunnel lengths of between 4.5 km to 6.5 km for each contract package.
Each contract package will consist of 2 TBM drives carried out simultaneously. While there are some
differences in contract length, it is possible to classify one of the contracts as rock tunnel only, one as
soft ground tunnel only, while for the third contract mixed tunnelling conditions probably cannot be
avoided.

334
 Figure 10 Tunnel 2 Sprayed Concrete Lining Tunnel Cross Section

The inclusion of M&E works in the civil contracts would require unnecessarily complex interfacing.
Therefore, the M&E works for the tunnel will be let as a separate system-wide contract. It is
envisaged that the development of Tunnel 2 including the associated buildings and M&E works can be
completed within a construction programme of 32 months.

7 TUNNEL 3

The repowering of Seraya Power Station will require the provision of a new 400kV transmission link
with Labrador Substation. As the existing Seraya Cable Tunnel is already full and the land routes to
Labrador congested with services, it is necessary to consider the development of a new tunnel to
accommodate the required generation connection. The resulting Tunnel 3 is a 10 km undersea/land
cable tunnel.

A major portion of the new tunnel involves an undersea crossing. Unlike the Seraya Cable Tunnel
which was constructed as an immersed tube, this form of construction was not considered viable for
the new tunnel due to the need to undercross an existing oil and gas pipeline, which cuts across the
direct route from Seraya to the mainland. Further, the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore had
restrictions on the type and duration of activities that could be carried out at the deep channel limit of
the fairway. A bored tunnel solution has therefore been developed for the undersea section of Tunnel
3. As for Tunnel 2, the tunnel has a nominal internal diameter of 5.2 m and will accommodate a total
of eight circuits of 400 kV cables in a layout similar to that described above.

On land the tunnel route has generally followed the existing road reserves, and every effort had been
made to minimise the requirement for any additional wayleave or land take. The land section will
comprise bored and cut-and-cover tunnels.

A variety of ground conditions are anticipated over the 10 km length of Tunnel 3. The marine site
investigation has encountered bedrock of the Jurong Formation, which is expected to be a reasonably
good tunnelling medium although with rapidly varying rock strengths. In the weathered mudstones and
siltstones, the rock is expected to have a compressive strength in the range of 20 to 80 MPa. High rock
strengths were also encountered during excavation of the trench for the Seraya Cable Tunnel in 1985,
and underwater blasting was required to form the trench for the immersed tunnel. The recent marine
site investigation has however also revealed the presence of cavernous limestones offshore of Seraya
and West Coast Park. The larger cavities located by the preliminary site investigation were
predominantly located at the deeper levels of the limestone formation. In the locality of the West
Coast Park, smaller voids were found within the upper more weathered horizons. The presence of this

335
type of material will necessitate the use of specialised TBMs and ground treatment techniques during
the construction of the tunnel in this area. Beyond West Coast Park, the undersea bored tunnel will be
approximately 20-25 m below seabed level.

Figure 11 Tunnel 3 Cut-and-Cover Section

The civil works for Tunnel 3 will be let as two contract packages with tunnel lengths of 5 km for each
contract package. The first contract package for the undersea tunnel will consist of two TBM drives
carried out simultaneously, while the second contract will comprise a hybrid of cut-and-cover and
bored tunnels. The M&E works for the tunnel will be awarded as a separate system-wide contract.

It is envisaged that the development of Tunnel 3 including the associated buildings and M&E works
can be completed within a construction programme of 30 months.

8 FUTURE PLANS

As part of its effort to maintain Singapore’s world class power supply infrastructure, PowerGrid is
continually upgrading its transmission system to meet the power transmission needs of Singapore into
the new Millenium. The new system will enhance the transmission capability through better fault
handling and more economical power transmission. PowerGrid is considering accommodating future
extensions to its transmission system in tunnels. The cable tunnels would enable refurbishment and
upgrading of the transmission system with minimal cost and disruption to the public.

The final task of the study was the review of the overall concept of an island-wide tunnel network,
development of general route corridor plans, agreed route corridors for right-of-way constraints,
options for future extensions and integration with the existing cable network. The result of the study
was a master plan for the staged development of an island-wide network of cable tunnels and
recommendations for its implementation.

Obviously, the results of this study remain confidential, but the study looked at a total of 17 separate
cable tunnels extending over 150 km. This clearly demonstrates the long-term commitment of
PowerGrid to providing the best service to its customers with minimum impact to the environment.
The commissioning of Tunnels 1, 2 and 3 in the next few years will be the first step towards realising
this vision.

336
 Underground Singapore 2001

Contaminant levels in Singapore soils and their

implications for soil disposal
P.J. Heslop, R. Page & J.C.W Ong
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: A review of the results from environmental site investigations in Singapore shows that
the background concentrations of trace metals within the Fill, Kallang and Old Alluvium Formations
are below the Dutch ‘intervention levels’. In general they are also below the Dutch ‘target values’ for
soil contamination, however notable exceptions to this are Cadmium and Mercury, which are quite
frequently found in concentrations above the ‘target’ levels. The indication is that these relatively high
concentrations are naturally occurring within these soil formations, as they can occur at significant
depths below the ground surface.

The results also highlight that other contaminants such as Toluene, Phthalates and Mineral Oils are
also persistently found at concentrations above the Dutch ‘target levels’. These are not naturally
occurring contaminants and their persistence and high concentrations are believed to be related to the
sampling and/or testing techniques commonly used during environmental testing.

These results have obvious implications for the use of the Dutch Standards in Singapore in assessing
the suitability of soil for disposal offshore, indicating that the standards are not necessarily applicable
for these soils and they should be used with caution. A Singapore standard should be adopted where
the ‘contaminant’ concentrations are developed from a risk based approach, similar to that used in the
United States.

1.INTRODUCTION

This paper presents and discusses the results from a large-scale environmental site investigation
conducted in Singapore. The investigation is believed to be the first of its kind conducted in Singapore,
specifically for the purpose of assessing the environmental suitability for disposal offshore of spoil
arising from a major construction project. Environmental concerns regarding the disposal of
‘potentially contaminated’ spoil are becoming an increasingly important consideration. This is
particularly true in Singapore, where large volumes of spoil from construction projects can be disposed
of offshore as part of land reclamation projects. The future developers of the reclaimed land are
required to conduct environmental baseline studies prior to any development. The presence of any
contaminated soil will subsequently have major implications for the future development of the land.

In light of these results the paper proposes ‘background’ levels for contaminants within the soils of
Singapore. At present the background levels of ‘potential contaminants’ have not been established for
these soils. The determination of these background levels is important, as it is evident that some
common contaminants occur naturally within soils, in particular, trace metals.

The paper concludes by discussing the appropriateness of the Dutch Standards, for use in Singapore to
assess the contamination of soil.

337
2. BACKGROUND

At present some Singapore authorities apply standards for the assessment of spoil contamination
which are based on the Dutch Standards (‘Dutch Soil and Groundwater Quality Standards (1994)).
These propose ‘target’ and ‘intervention’ levels, against which contamination is judged. The ‘target’
level for a given contaminant is the concentration level below which the soil is considered to be
uncontaminated. The ‘intervention’ level for a given contaminant is the concentration level above
which the soil is considered to be heavily contaminated and is required to be treated. Permission to
dispose of spoil in Singapore landfill projects generally requires that the levels of contaminants within
the spoil have been shown not to exceed the Dutch ‘intervention’ levels.

The environmental site investigation was therefore targeted at any soil, which could potentially be
excavated from the project site and disposed of at the selected land reclamation site. The aims were:

• To establish the naturally occurring levels of all the substances listed in the Dutch Standards, and
thereby establish ‘background levels’ for these in Singapore soils.

• To target specific pre-identified locations along the project alignment to establish whether or not
unacceptably high levels of any of the contaminants identified in the Dutch standards were present

The majority of the sampling was therefore carried out on a random basis in the soils of the Kallang
and Old Alluvium Formations and the Fill. Some samples however, were targeted at potential
contamination ‘hot-spots’. These ‘hot-spots’ had been pre-identified by environmental specialists on
the basis of an historical land use survey which established the past and present uses of land and
buildings along and adjacent to the project alignment.

All soil samples were analysed for the full suite of contaminants listed in the Dutch Standards. This
consisted of the trace metals arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), total chromium
(Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn).
Inorganic compounds, aromatic compounds, PAH (polyaromatic hydrocarbons), chlorinated
hydrocarbons, pesticides and organic material.

3. RESULTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING

The results presented below were obtained from tests conducted on one hundred and fifty soil samples,
taken at various depths within the different soil types. The results for the trace metals are also
supplemented by an additional one hundred and twenty results that were undertaken as part of previous
geotechnical site investigations for this project and other projects in Singapore. Sampling and testing
for heavy metals in soils is relatively insensitive to sampling technique. Separate reviews of the results
from these historical tests also indicate that the concentration levels measured show similar trends to
those obtained from the recent environmental site investigation. The Authors therefore feel justified in
including these results in the data set.

The results are summarised below in a series of tables, however only contaminants detected during
testing are discussed. If a contaminant has not been discussed then it was either not present in the
sample or it was present at concentrations that lie below normal detection limits. It should be noted
that only contamination levels in soil samples are considered in this paper. Groundwater is not
considered. The summary tables show the average concentration of each contaminant together with the
minimum and maximum values recorded. The standard deviations have also been calculated to
illustrate the range recorded in the concentrations, together with the percentage of how many samples
tested contained detectable levels of the contaminant. The target concentration limits as stipulated on
the Dutch standards are also shown for comparison.

The results have also been summarised into a series of graphs. These graphs show the distribution of
the concentration of each contaminant and the range of concentration of each contaminant for each soil
type with depth. The trace metal results from the environmental site investigation and the historical
data have been combined for reasons of clarity. The results have been divided into the following soil
types, Fill, Marine Clay (MC), Old Alluvium (OA), E (Esturaine), Fluvial Sand (F1) and Fluvial Clay
(F2).

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 3.1 Trace Metals

Detectable heavy metal concentrations were found in virtually all of the soil samples tested.

Table 1 Summary of Trace Metal Concentrations

Metal Mean Min Max Standard % Detected

(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Deviation
Arsenic 9.9 0.7 37.8 6.9 100
Barium 23.2 1.8 269 23.1 100
Cadmium 1.4 0.6 3.5 0.7 85
Chromium 16.3 2.2 39.7 8.3 100
Cobalt 3.7 0.1 10.5 2.4 95
Copper 20.5 0.5 433 7.5 80
Mercury 0.4 0.02 4.2 0.03 23
Lead 16.5 0.7 207 15 99
Molybdenum 2.3 0.5 13.7 2 38
Nickel 6.8 0.6 43.3 5.1 99
Zinc 32.7 1.6 566 38.2 100

3.1.1 Arsenic

The results from the environmental site investigation show that the average concentrations of Arsenic
within the soil samples were approximately 10ppm. A review of the historical data collected show that
Arsenic concentrations are typically less than this with the concentrations in most samples regardless
of soil type being less than 4ppm.

0 80

70
Fill MC OA
5
60
E F1 F2

50
10
D e p th (m )

F ill 40
%

MC
15
OA 30

E
F1 20
20 F2
T arget 10

25 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
9

22
9

1.

3.

5.

7.

9.

1.
1.

3.

5.

7.

9.

PPM
-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2
0-

2-

4-

6-

8-

>
10

12

14

16

18

20

R ange

Figure 1. Distribution of Arsenic Concentrations

Arsenic was measured above the Dutch ‘target values’ in four of the samples analysed, with a
maximum recorded value of 37.8ppm. This is significantly less than the Dutch ‘intervention value’ of
55ppm, it can therefore be concluded that, in general the levels of arsenic in the soil are acceptable.

339
 Table 2 Summary of the Heavy Metal Concentrations and the Dutch Standards

Metal Max Mean Standard Dutch Standards

(ppm) Deviation
Target Value Intervention Value
Arsenic 37.8 9.9 6.3 29 55
Barium 269 23.2 35.9 200 625
Cadmium 3.5 1.4 0.6 0.8 12
Chromium 39.7 16.3 7.9 100 380
Cobalt 10.5 3.7 2.4 20 240
Copper 433 20.5 55.7 36 190
Mercury 4.2 0.4 1.2 0.3 10
Lead 207 16.5 3.2 85 530
Molybdenum 2.3 1.1 2.7 10 200
Nickel 43.3 6.8 6.5 35 210
Zinc 566 32.7 93.4 140 720

3.1.2 Antimony
The Dutch tables do not discuss the concentration of Antimony with soils, however for completeness
the results obtained have been presented. The highest measured value was 9ppm. There is no reference
value for antimony on the Dutch Tables, however the concentrations measured show that there is not a
concern over its concentration in the soil, it has as the average reading of 1.6ppm and this is
considered to be a naturally occurring concentration.

3.1.3 Barium
The result show that the highest measured concentrations of barium within the soil samples was
approximately 269ppm. These concentrations of barium do not exceed the Dutch ‘intervention levels’.
The average barium concentration is 23ppm and this is well below the Dutch ‘target value’ and is
assumed to be the average naturally occurring concentration of barium in the soils of the Kallang
Formation and Old Alluvium.

Antimony Barium
0 0

5 5

10 10
Depth (m.)
Depth (m.)

Fill
Fill MC
MC OA
15 OA 15 Target

20 20

25 25
0 5 10 15 20 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
PPM PPM

Figure 2. Distribution of Antimony and Barium Concentrations

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3.1.4 Cadmium
The results show that the average concentrations of cadmium within the soil samples were
approximately 1.4ppm; these are well above the Dutch ‘target values’. However the results from the
previous historical testing show that the cadmium concentrations are less than the Dutch ‘target level’,
typically being less than 0.3ppm.

Cadmium
0
Cadmium
70

60
Fill MC OA
5

50 E F1 F2

10
Depth (m.)

40

%
Fill MC

OA E 30
15
F1 F2

Target 20

20
10

25 0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
PPM
Range (PPM)

Figure 3. Distribution of Cadmium Concentrations

Cadmium was detected above the Dutch ‘target levels’ in 75% of the soil samples, it was not however
detected above the Dutch ‘intervention level’. As the average cadmium concentrations are above the
Dutch ‘target value’ it is assumed that, in general, higher levels of cadmium are present in these soils.

3.1.5 Chromium
The results show that the average concentration of chromium within the soil samples was
approximately 16.5ppm. However the distributions of the concentrations were found to be different
within different soil types. In the Fill and the Old Alluvium the concentrations were normally
distributed with an average value of approximately 13ppm, ranging up to and in excess of 25ppm,
however within the Marine Clay chromium concentrations were typically higher. In the Marine Clay
most recorded concentrations were in excess of 15ppm, with over 60 percent being over 20ppm

A review of the historical data collected show that Chromium concentrations are also typically around
16ppm with many samples being in excess of 25ppm, regardless of the soil type.

Chromium was detected at or above the Dutch ‘target value’ in four of the samples. The average
chromium readings are however well below the Dutch ‘target values’ and are assumed to be naturally
occurring concentrations in these soils.

3.1.6 Cobalt
The results show that the average concentration of cobalt within the soil samples was approximately
4ppm. The concentrations are normally distributed within all soil types. However the average
concentrations in the Fill and Old Alluvium were lower than in the Marine Clay.

341
 Chromium Cobalt
0
0

5
5

10
10

Depth (m.)
Depth (m)

Fill

Fill MC MC
15
15 OA E OA

F1 F2 Target

Target 20
20

25 25
0 50 100 150 200 0 5 10 PPM 15 20 25
PPM

Figure 4. Distribution of Chromium and Cobalt Concentrations

3.1.7 Copper
The results show that 70% of the samples from within the Old Alluvium and approximately 45% of
the Marine Clay and Fill samples have concentrations less than 5ppm. The majority of the samples in
the Old Alluvium have concentration less than 30ppm, however approximately 15% of the Fill
samples and 5% of the Marine Clay samples have concentrations in excess of 25ppm. The result of
this is that the average concentration recorded was 20.5ppm. This shows how a relatively small
percentage of high concentrations have influenced the average.

Copper Copper

0 80

70

60

Fill MC OA
10 50
Depth (m.)

Fill E F1 F2
%

MC 40
OA
15 E
30
F1
F2
Target 20
20

10

25 0
0 30 60 90 120 150
PPM
9

25
9

4.

9.

4.
4.

9.

-1

-1

-2

>
0-

5-

10

15

20

PPM

Figure 5. Distribution of Copper Concentration

342
 Historically we can see that copper concentrations are typically much lower. The concentration of
Copper within the Fill and Old Alluvium are typically less than 10ppm, where over 70% of the results
were less than 5ppm. Approximately 80% of all Marine Clay, Fluvial Clay and Sand samples also had
concentrations less than 10ppm. Historically the highest concentrations of copper were found in
Esturaine deposits, with some 60% of the samples having concentrations between 10 to 15ppm.

On average the concentration of copper is well below the Dutch Standards however locally high
concentrations have been found, typically within the fill and Marine Clay deposits. The average copper
reading of 20.5ppm is well below the Dutch ‘target value’ and is assumed to be the average naturally
occurring concentration of copper in these soils.

3.1.8 Mercury
The results show that over 90% of the samples have concentrations of Mercury less than 0.4ppm.
This is supported by the results of the historical investigations that show that in all soil types over 95%
of the samples have concentrations less than 0.4ppm. Historically there have been a small number of
samples in various soil types at shallow depths that have values in excess of the Dutch ‘target levels’.
The only noticeable results are those which show concentrations in the Estuarine and Marine Clay
above the Dutch ‘target levels’ at depths in excess of 5m.

The mercury concentrations measured were not detected at or above the Dutch ‘intervention value’.
The average mercury reading of 0.4ppm is above the Dutch ‘target value’ but this has been influenced
by a number of high results obtained particularly in the Old Alluvium. At these test locations the Old
Alluvium is overlain by Marine Clay which is considered to be an effective barrier to any potential
contamination of the Old Alluvium from the ground surface of the fill. These high values are therefore
believed to be naturally occurring.

Mercury Mercury
0 100

90

5 80
Fill MC OA
70
E F1 F2
10 60
Depth (m)

50
Fill MC
15
OA E 40

F1 F2
30
Target
20
20

10

25
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
PPM
.5
9

9
4

4
0.

1.

2.

3.
0.

1.

2.

3.

4.

>4
5-

5-

5-

5-
0-

1-

2-

3-

4-
0.

1.

2.

3.

PPM

Figure 6. Distribution of Mercury Concentrations

3.1.9 Lead
The results show that the concentration of lead within these soils is on average 25ppm, however its
concentration varies within each soil type. The lead concentration within the Marine Clay is normally
distributed with an average concentration of approximately 16ppm. The distribution of lead within the
OA and Fill are more evenly distributed, with over 20% of the Fill samples having concentrations in
excess of 28ppm. These high values, typically in the fill influence the average results, several samples
showed concentrations in excess of 150ppm, at shallower depth less than 5 metres.

343
 The historical results support this view that the average concentration of lead is typically lower. The
results show that lead concentrations within the Old Alluvium, Estuarine soil, and Fluvial Sands are
typically around 6ppm, with some 65 to 70% of the results being less than 12ppm. The lead
concentrations in the Fluvial Clays are slightly higher with approximately 50% of the samples being
less than 16ppm. Historically the highest concentration of lead is seen in the Marine Clay where some
40% of the samples had concentrations in excess of 25ppm.

Lead was not detected above the Dutch ‘intervention levels’ The average lead reading of 16.5 ppm is
well below the Dutch ‘target value’ and is assumed to be the average naturally occurring concentration
of lead in Singapore soils.

Lead
Lead
0 40

35 Fill MC OA

5
30 E F1 F2

25
10
Depth (m)

20
Fill

15 MC
OA 15

E
F1 10
20 F2
Target 5

25 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
9

28
.9
9

ppm
5.

9.

3.

7.
3.

7.

11

-1

-1

-2

-2

>
0-

4-

8-

12

16

20

24
ppm

Figure 7. Distribution of Lead Concentrations

3.1.10 Molybdenum
The results show that the concentrations of Molybdenum are low, the average concentration is 2.3ppm,
with over 70% of the samples having concentrations less than 1ppm for all soil types. The average
molybdenum concentrations are well below the Dutch ‘target values’ and are assumed to be the
average naturally occurring concentration of molybdenum in these soils.

3.1.11 Nickel
The results show that the concentration of Nickel within all soil types is normally distributed; however
the average concentrations are higher in the Marine Clay. In the Old Alluvium 80% of the samples are
have concentrations less than 4ppm, in the Fill approximately 50% of samples have concentrations less
than 4%. In the Marine Clay however 50% of the samples have concentrations between 10 to 15ppm.
The average concentration is therefore approximately 7ppm. These are much lower than the Dutch
‘target value’ of 75ppm.

The historical data shows a similar distribution of concentrations of Nickel within the various soils. In
the Fill, Old Alluvium, and fluvial deposits over 70% of the samples have concentrations less than
6ppm. The Marine Clay and Esturaine deposits have higher concentrations with over 40% of these
samples having concentrations in the range of 12 to 14+ppm.

The average nickel readings are well below the Dutch ‘target value’ and are assumed to be the average
naturally occurring concentrations of nickel in these soils.

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 Nickel
Nickel
0 45

40

5
35 Fill MC OA

30
E F1 F2
10
Depth (m)

25

%
Fill 20
15
MC
15
OA
E
20 10
F1
F2
5
Target
25
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

14
9

9
ppm

1.

3.
1.

3.

5.

7.

9.

-1

-1

>
0-

2-

4-

6-

8-

10

12
ppm

Figure 8. Distribution of Nickel Concentrations

3.1.12 Zinc
The results show that the concentration of Zinc is normally distributed within the Old Alluvium. The
concentrations in the Old Alluvium are on average 12ppm with approximately 80% of the samples
having concentrations less than 20ppm.

In the Marine Clay, however the concentration is on average around 35ppm. The concentrations within
the Fill are widely dispersed, with over 30% of the samples having concentrations in excess of 45ppm.
There are some localised high values in the Fill and Marine Clay with values as high as 550ppm being
recorded these are at shallow depth. Although the Marine Clay and Fill samples are higher than those
in the Old Alluvium they are still well below the Dutch Standard level of 720ppm.

Zinc
Zinc
0 45

40 Fill MC OA

5
35 E F1 F2

30
10
Depth (m)

25
%

20
15

15

Fill MC
10
20 OA E
F1 F2
5
Target

25 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
9

45
9

4.

9.

4.

9.

4.

9.

4.
4.

9.

ppm
-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

-3

-4

>
0-

5-

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Range (PPM)

Figure 9. Distribution of Zinc Concentrations

345
The historical results for Zinc concentrations confirm this distribution, that Marine Clay and Estuarine
deposits have higher concentration, but even these levels are below the Dutch Standards, maximum
historical values are around 160ppm, these are from samples as deep as 15m in the Marine Clay.

The average zinc concentrations are well below the Dutch ‘target values’ and are assumed to be the
average naturally occurring concentrations of zinc in Singapore soils.

3.2 Inorganic Compounds

Cyanide was the only inorganic compound detected, this was discovered in approximately 45% of the
samples. The average concentration is 0.34ppm, which is below the Dutch ‘target level’.

Table 3 Summary of Inorganic Compound Concentrations

Inorganic Average Min Max Standard Target Intervention %

Compounds Value Deviation
ppm
Cyanide (free) 0.34 0.1 1.5 0.28 1 20 44

3.3 Aromatic Compounds

Toluene was the only Aromatic Compound detected, concentrations were discovered in approximately
50% of the samples. It was detected above the Dutch ‘target values’ in 45% of the samples, but the
concentrations did not exceed either the Dutch ‘intervention levels’.

It should be noted that toluene is a common laboratory contaminant. Considering the consistent levels
of toluene detected, mainly in the Old Alluvium soil samples, where it is highly unlikely to occur, it is
assumed that this has been introduced during storage and handling in the laboratory.

Table 4 Summary of Aromatic Compound Concentrations

Aromatic Average Min Max Standard Target Intervention %

Compounds Value Deviation
ppm
Toluene 0.4 0.1 1.8 0.3 0.05 130 49

3.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

A number of PAH Compounds were detected these are shown in Table 5. The Dutch Standards base
the ‘target’ and intervention’ value on the sum of all 10 PAH compounds on the tables. Total PAH was
detected above the Dutch ‘target value’ in 3% of the samples however the total PAH was not detected
at or above the Dutch ‘intervention value’.

Table 5 Summary of PHA Compound Concentrations

PHA Compounds Average Min Max Standard %

Value Deviation
ppm
Fluoroanthrene 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.3 5
Benzo(a)anthracene 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 1
Chrysene 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.1 3
Benzo(a)pyrene 0.5 0.3 1 0.4 3
Benzo(a)perylene 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.2 3
Benzofluoranthrene 0.9 0.5 1.6 0.6 3
Indo(123cd)pyrene 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.2 3

* All of the above results were from samples taken from within one borehole location in an area of potential contamination

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3.5 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

Trichloromethane and Dichloromethane were the only Chlorinated Hydrocarbons discovered. These
were found in 10 to 15 % of the samples respectively, with average concentration of 0.5 ppm and
0.2ppm respectively.

Trichloromethane (or chloroform) was detected above the Dutch ‘target values’ in nine of the samples
analysed at levels between 0.1 and 0.4ppm. Dichloromethane (or methylene chloride) was detected
above the Dutch ‘target value’ in two samples analysed, at levels between 1.1 and 1.3ppm.
Dichloromethane was not detected at or above the Dutch ‘intervention value’.

Table 6 Summary of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Concentrations

Chlorinated Average Min Max Standard Dutch Standards %

Hydrocarbons Value Value Value Deviation
ppm ppm ppm Target Intervention

Dichloromethane 0.5 0.2 1.3 0.3 0.01 1000 15

Trichloromethane 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.01 400 10

Toluene Dichloromethane
0 0

5 5

10 10
Depth (m.)

Depth (m.)

Fill
MC
Fill
15 15 OA
MC
OA
Target

20 20

25 25
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
PPM PPM

Figure 10. Distribution of Toluene and Dichloromethane

3.6 Other Pollutants

Of the remaining contaminates on the Dutch Tables, the only other contaminates found at high
concentrations above the Dutch ‘target values’ were Phthalates and Mineral Oil.

Phthalates are over the Dutch levels in over 90% of the samples analysed. Phthalates are generally
used as plasticisers. These compounds are not naturally occurring and must therefore be introduced
into the soil. These are frequently detected in soil samples and there is a theory that the source of these
are the disposable gloves used to handle the samples, the Teflon lids used on the sample jars or the
plastic lids on the sampling tubes. The widespread occurrence of these in the test samples appears to
support this theory.

347
 Phthalates Mineral Oil
0 0

5 5

10
Depth (m.)

10

Depth (m.)
Fill Fill
MC
MC
OA
15 Target OA
15
Interventio n Target

20 20

25 25
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 250.0 300.0
PPM PPM

Figure 11. Distribution of Pthalates and Mineral Oil Concentrations

Mineral oil was detected above the Dutch ‘target value’ in 10% of the samples analysed, with a
maximum value of 248 ppm. Mineral Oil was not detected at or above the Dutch ‘intervention value’
in any of the analysed soil samples.

Table 10 Summary of the Concentration of Other Pollutants

Other Mean Min Max Standard Dutch Standards %

Pollutants Value Value Value Deviation
ppm ppm ppm Target Intervention

Phthalates 4.8 0.3 34.2 5.9 0.5 5 92

total
Mineral Oil 32.8 0.7 248 45.1 - - 12

4. DISCUSSION

The results of the Environmental Study show that the soils in the Fill, Kallang Formation and Old
Alluvium typically have background levels of contamination that are acceptable, in accordance with
the Dutch Standards.

Levels of the trace metals cadmium and mercury do however frequently exceed the Dutch ‘target
value’. These are likely to be naturally occurring concentrations in Singapore soil rather than being
introduced by human activity. The high mercury and cadmium concentrations are typically found at
shallower depths within the fill or at the top of the Marine Clay. However there are instances where
high concentrations have also been found at greater depths, Mercury concentrations in the Old
Alluvium have been found at 10m depth. Chromium concentrations in the Old Alluvium have been
found at over 20m depth, this would suggest that these are naturally occurring.

The high concentrations of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are not
considered to be naturally occurring. It should be noted that chlorinated hydrocarbons and toluene
(Aromatic compounds) are common laboratory contaminants. Considering the low levels of these
contaminants detected, in some of the Old Alluvium samples, where it is highly unlikely to find these
compounds, it is assumed that these are introduced into the samples during storage or handling at the

348
laboratory. In general, serious petrochemical contamination show levels of BTEX and other volatile
compounds, which are not evident in the samples analysed, except for some very low toluene levels.

5. CONCLUSION

The blanket use of the Dutch Standards in Singapore may not necessarily be appropriate given the high
natural levels of some trace metals. Certain trace metals are found in the Fill, Kallang and Old
Alluvium Formations at concentrations that are apparently naturally occurring and higher than the
‘target’ levels set out in the Dutch Tables. Since the Dutch Standards are typically very onerous
because they are intended for the protection of groundwater aquifers (which is not an issue in
Singapore) their application in Singapore should be reviewed. It is suggested that a risk-based
approach such as that used by the USEPA would be more appropriate, as this would take into account
land use, exposure time, toxicity and the exposure pathway.

It is also clear to see from these results that soil samples can become potentially contaminated with
certain contaminants listed on the Dutch Tables as a direct result of the sampling or laboratory testing.
Specifically phthalates and toluene were detected in a large proportion of the samples tested. The
requirements to test for these should be reviewed, particularly in areas where no other contamination
has been found and where historical reviews of the land use show no industrial activity.

REFERENCES

Dutch Soil and Groundwater Quality Standards (1994)

JTC Guidelines on Environmental Baseline Studies, 3rd June 1998

Summary Review on Environmental Site Assessment for the KPE, Montgomery Watson, September 2001

US EPA Region III Risk Based Concentration Table, 8th May 2001

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 Underground Singapore 2001

A Tunnel Engineering System (TES) for Tunnel Design

and Construction
H. Y. Bian, J. Zhao, A. M. Hefny
Geotechnical Research Centre, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Tunnelling is one of the major construction activities in Singapore nowadays. Tunnel
engineering involves a large number of factors including ground conditions, tunnelling machine,
operation, environmental constraints and technologies. These factors are inter-dependent on and
interact with each other. In order to understand the interaction mechanisms and identify optimum
approaches in tunnel planning, design and construction, a Tunnel Engineering System (TES) is
proposed. The TES provides a systems approach that allows one to study the interactions among the
various factors and to establish an optimised solution of tunnel engineering. In this paper, the TES
framework is established with interaction mechanisms. The factors and parameters that affect tunnel
engineering in terms of planning, design and construction are identified, and the interaction
mechanisms amongst the factors are established.

1 INTRODUCTION

Tunnels serve an important function in infrastructure development, including transportation and

sewerage system. Due to the lack of surface area, tunnelling has been one of the major construction
activities in Singapore nowadays. Currently, a number of tunnels for rail transport and sewerage
systems are under construction, and more road tunnels are going to be constructed in the next few
years (Hulme and Burchell, 1999). The tunnelling method, type of support and environment effects of
tunnelling are the most concerned issues in these projects and need to be foreseen and designed
accordingly to ensure the safety before construction starts. This is a very complicated problem since a
lot of parameters and uncertainties are involved in tunnel engineering. Those parameters include
ground conditions, tunnelling machines, people and operation, environmental constraints, end use of
the tunnel, and cost of tunnel. These factors are interdependent on and interact with each other. In
order to understand the interaction mechanisms between the parameters and identify optimum
approaches in tunnel planning, design and construction, a Tunnel Engineering System (TES) is
proposed in this paper. The TES framework is established with interaction mechanisms. The factors
and parameters that affect tunnel engineering in terms of planning, design and construction are
identified, and the interaction mechanisms amongst the factors are established.

2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Concept of Systems Approach

A system is some collection of components that are connected by some type of interaction or
interrelationship. The components, and thus the system, are subject to certain constraints which set a
boundary around the system. Definition of these system boundaries depends on the chosen objectives
for the system. In short, a system is a collection of things that function together to fulfil some specific
purpose or function. The systems approach can be thought of as a system, with the tools of systems
analysis comprising its components (Jewell, 1986).

350
The systems approach is a framework for analysis and decision making. It allows the decision maker
to undertake resolution of a problem in a logical, rational manner. The magnitude and complexity of
decision processes require the most effective use possible of the scientific (quantitative) methods of
system analysis.

2.2 Rock Engineering System

Rock Engineering System (RES) approach was originally proposed by Hudson in 1991, and was
developed by Hudson and his work team at Imperial College of London (Hudson, 1991, 1992). The
RES approach is intended to study rock engineering within a completely integrated systems
perspective. From a systematic viewpoint, this approach treats rock mass, boundary conditions and
engineering activities as a complete, interactive and dynamic system. It firstly establishes a specific
engineering objective, then considers all the potentially relevant parameters and their relationship, and
subsequently develops an appropriate model. The RES approach utilizes a new top-down analytic
model to supplement the traditional bottom-up synthetic model used in rock mechanics. In this way,
all the necessary information can be utilized and the rock mechanics components put into its correct
context in rock engineering.

The basic device for representing the parameters and their interaction mechanisms in the rock
engineering systems is the interaction matrix. The basic principle of the interaction matrix is to list
main subjects or parameters along the leading diagonal and to consider the interaction in the off-
diagonal boxes. An interaction matrix may start from a simple form, and then may be expanded in the
leading diagonal terms according to the engineering objectives and the level of treatment desired.

One of the interaction matrix coding methods is called the ‘expert semi-quantitative’ (ESQ) method.
There are five categories into which the interaction mechanism can placed, ranging from zero to four,
corresponding to ‘no’, ‘weak’, ‘medium’, ‘strong’ and ‘critical’ interactions respectively. The
categorization is usually definite, although the procedure does allow for some variability in the
category allocation. Normally, the sums of rows and columns through each of the leading diagonal
terms are considered rather than the total of all the box values in the matrix. The sum of the row
values is termed as ‘cause’ and the sum of the column values is as ‘effect’, designated as co-ordinates
(C, E). Thus, C represents the way in which one leading diagonal term Pi affects the system; and E
represents the effect that system has on Pi. The C, E diagram is significant because it shows that the
parameter intensity can be measured along the C=E line and the parameter dominance can be
measured by the perpendicular distance of the parameter point from this line. Basically, from the C, E
diagram, parameters in an interaction matrix can be divided into four categories: dominant if value of
C-E is large; subordinate if C-E is small or even negative; interactive if C+E is large and non-
interactive if C+E is comparatively smaller. In this paper, ESQ method will be adapted to illustrate the
interaction between various parameters.

3 PARAMETERS RELEVANT TO TUNNELLING

Tunnelling is a complicated construction activity. From proposing, planning, designing to

construction, a lot of factors, including ground material, groundwater, end use of tunnel, tunnel
dimension, tunnelling method, tunnel support, legislation, government policy, environment
considerations, funding, cost and operation are involved and proper decisions have to be made at each
stage. A thorough study of all the factors has to be done in order to minimise the possible error in the
decision-making process.

3.1 Ground Condition

There is general recognition of the importance of knowledge on the geological aspects of tunnelling
project. Ground condition is approximately divided into two categories: soft ground and rock,
according to the formation and strength. Soft ground is considered to cover strata ranging from loose
sands and gravels through various grades of clay to conglomerates and some of the softer grades of
rock, including shales, mudstone, claystone and weathered elements of siltstone, sandstone and
limestone.

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3.2 Tunnelling Method

Selection of tunnelling method is an important step for tunnel construction. The engineer often has to
choose among construction at surface, cut-and-cover construction or fully underground tunnelling by
blasting or boring machine. The tunnelling system is designed for optimum performance in a given
range of ground condition. The components of the tunnelling machine are then built to cope with any
ground condition generally regarded as an economic proposal.

3.3 Machine Performance

Machine performance is measured by penetration rate, advance rate or cutter wear. It directly controls
the progress rate of the tunnelling project and thus overall cost. Costs typically escalate substantially if
delays occur, such as when excavation must stop to allow grouting from the face in the case of
extremely soft ground. When difficult or mixed ground conditions are encountered, advance rate is
then slowed down. As a result, the time needed for mucking and tunnel support erection is prolonged.
The progress rate is therefore decreased.

3.4 Tunnel Support

There are different types of tunnel support include rib and lagging, Sprayed Concrete Lining (SCL),
cast-in-situ concrete lining, pre-cast concrete segments and rock bolts. Tunnel support is selected
empirically and checked by analytic solutions and a range of assumed ground conditions to ensure that
stresses are acceptable. It has been proven that the type of tunnel support is mainly determined by
ground condition and tunnelling method. Soil properties, such as strength and stand-up time,
significantly influence the selection of tunnel support type.

3.5 Environment Constraints

Tunnelling brings some vertical displacements, either settlement or heaving. The tolerable settlement
limits for buildings above and surrounding the tunnel are set according to status of buildings. Noise,
vibration levels and disturbance to surface activities are also of public concern. All these are closely
related to the excavation method and need extremely careful consideration before and during
construction.

Except for the factors listed above, the other parameters involved in tunnel engineering include ground
water (referring to free water here), tunnel end use and dimension, government policy and legislation,
labour and operation, cost and funding mechanism.

4 INTERACTION MECHANISMS

First of all, the natural ground condition needs to be considered when selecting excavation method
since ground conditions present major limitations on some particular methods. The strength and
abrasiveness of ground have major effects on the thrust torque and cutting tools. Higher strength
requires higher thrust torque and correspondingly may slow down the progress. To some extent,
ground condition determines part of the cost. The excavation for the tunnel represents about 40-50
percent of the total cost in poor mixed-ground conditions, but this is reduced to perhaps 20 percent in
good conditions or even less when an excavating machine is used. This is because ground condition
influences the tunnelling machine performance significantly. When mixed or difficult ground
conditions or suddenly changed soil profile is encountered, tunnelling process is slowed down.

Tunnel support type is selected based on ground conditions, too. Ground stand-up time determines
when the support is needed and also which type of support is necessary. For flowing soil, tunnel
support may be needed immediately after excavation is done, a tunnel support that can gain its strength
in no time is needed, so in this case, cast-in-situ concrete lining is not a wise choice for tunnel support,
or even sometimes, ground treatment may be necessary for successful tunnelling. While for rock
masses with discontinuities under groundwater table, its stand-up time may be very long, while the
ingress and accumulation of water to the invert of tunnel may prevent further excavation and

352
installation of tunnel support. In this case, lowering of water table is required and water proofing of
tunnel support is of significance.

Tunnelling creates cavities in ground, and unavoidably disturbs the surrounding soil. Depending on
the excavation method, tunnel dimension and tunnel support, the degree of disturbance varies.
Tunnelling tends to release part of in-situ stress, and ground tends to squeeze into tunnel. If cut-and-
cover method is used, the soil is excavated and filled back, the structure and stresses of soil is totally
changed. If a boring machine is in use, there is a kneading action between cutting tools and soil at
face, disturbance to the soil is obvious. If dense sand strata presents above the tunnel, it may be
loosened due to the rearrangement of shear stresses within the deforming ground wedge and its volume
increases. On the other hand, the change in stress may also compact loose cohesionless strata and thus
decreases their volume. At the same time, over-consolidated clay tends to dilate and increases in
volume. Due to the cavity created, the overburden soil tends to settle down since it is no longer fully
supported, plastic zones form around tunnel. Depending on depth of tunnel to cover, the plastic zone
changes in shape and volume. In severe situation, the plastic zone extends to the ground surface,
which simply indicates a failure of tunnelling.

Tunnelling method also influences the settlement introduced by tunnelling. Large settlement may
occur after tunnelling machine passes through. If compressed air tunnelling method is in use,
pressurization of air in a TBM working chamber may cause settlement or heave at the face depending
on the magnitude of pressure compared to the overburden stress, or even there is a potential of blowing
out if pressure is too high. Tunnelling speed has impact on the settlement since the ground behaves
like a viscous fluid. Speedy tunnelling may decrease pre-face deformations by about 80% (Greschik et
al, 1999). For tunnelling project, a maximum surface settlement is pre-defined to prevent surrounding
surface structures form cracking or damaging. Depending on the stress changes and soil properties,
the settlement varies.

Groundwater plays an important role in settlement especially when tunnel is excavated below water
table. Groundwater tends to seep into excavated tunnel, and thus leads to lowering of water table and
stress increase in overburden ground, therefore, settlement occurs. The amount of water ingress
depends on the surrounding soil property, such as permeability, and ground water pressure. Another
problem brought by groundwater is that fine particles are washed into tunnel invert along with water.
This may affect the overall stability of tunnel and sometimes excavation may need to be stopped for
mucking purpose. And again, rate of progress is slowed down. When necessary, ground may need
pre-treatment, such as grouting or freezing of weak soil.

Tunnel end use includes the future use and users of the tunnel. It determines the size of tunnel after
completion, also influences the selection of route and depth of tunnel to cover. For instance, if the
tunnel is built for rapid transportation of people, it may need two parallel and similar tunnels to serve
two-way transportation; if only one tunnel is going to be excavated, the tunnel size has to increase to
accommodate trains for both directions. The diameter of the tunnel indicates the accessibility of the
face and thus the rate of removal of the excavated material. The rates of progress for tunnels of 2 m
diameter and below, with similar methods of excavation and lining, will differ little, with congestion
generally more acute as the size decreases. Many parameters, such as Revolution per Minute (RPM),
torque and, therefore, the total power consumption, are influenced by the tunnel diameter, as is the
stability of surrounding ground. In general, it is said that the penetration rate per length decreases with
increasing diameter (Grima et al, 2000).

The length of drive, which is determined by geological profile and route of tunnel, has a considerable
effect on the rate of progress. At commencement of a drive there is a gradual build up in the rate of
progress as the operators become familiar with the tunnelling system and the back up equipment is
installed behind the face. For full face machines, the rate of progress may increase to the sustained
average over a length equivalent to 2 to 3 times the length of the travelling platform (Craig, 1978). On
the other hand, if the tunnel length is too short, TBM may not be a cost-effective method compared to
other options since the initial capital cost to purchase a TBM is simply too expensive.

In the excavation process, skilled labours and proper operation of excavation machine are of extreme
importance for efficient tunnelling. The tunnelling machine performance largely depends on
continuous and cooperative work of each gang of operators. They keep a close eye on the tunnelling

353
process and ground condition change during excavation, report immediately when problem or sudden
changes are encountered.

If the total cost is limited by budget or difficult funding approach, the whole system again will be
affected. Provided the tunnel still can be excavated safely, tunnelling method may need to be
reselected since different tunnelling method option has various cost. Tunnel dimension may be
changed slightly to reduce the total cost, since it is proven that bigger diameter tunnels cost more. For
tunnel support, a compromise has to be found out to satisfy both the end use requirement and cost
restraint.

In one word, all these factors influence each other in one way or another; some may even have
iterative effect on other factors again and again. An interaction matrix for three parameters: ground
condition, excavation method and tunnel support, can be easily established. If this matrix is expanded
to include all the parameters involved in tunnel engineering, a bigger matrix can be obtained to show
the interaction between each parameter, as shown in Figure 1.

Other than the interaction between the main parameters, each parameter can be regarded as a
combination of a few sub-level parameters. For example, ground condition may include material
strength, ground classification, discontinuities or fault, geological profile, chemical components of
ground, stand-up time of ground, and stability of surrounding ground. These sub-level parameters also
need to be taken into consideration when calculating the overall effect of ground condition to other
main parameters.

At the same time, the relative importance of influence of one factor on another needs to be quantified
in order to find the most interactive and dominant factor in the whole system. In next section, semi-
quantified interaction matrix will be generated to represent quantified interaction between all the
factors.

5 INTERACTION MATRIX FOR TES

Using Expert Semi-Quantitative Method (ESQ), interaction between factors involved in tunnel
engineering can be presented in an anti-symmetric matrix as illustrated in Figure 2. These values are
assigned from experience, by right, from experts’ experience, but at this stage, for the purpose of
building tunnel engineering system framework, they are assigned from the author’s experience and
literature review. The summation of off-diagonal terms in the same row represents the influence of the
parameter in this row on other diagonal parameters (Cause); while the summation of terms in the same
column represents the influence of other diagonal parameters on the parameter in this column (Effect).
The corresponding cause and effect values for each parameter are tabulated in Table 1. ‘C – E’ and ‘C
+ E’ are also calculated.

“Ground Condition” has the maximum ‘C – E’ value (16), which means that it is the most dominant
factor among all the parameters. It controls the selection of tunnelling methods, tunnelling machine
performance and tunnel support design, and thus the cost largely depends on the ground condition.
The minimum ‘C – E’ value (-10) is found from “Funding”, it shows that “Funding” is the most
subordinate factor. It depends on the other factors to determine the total cost, then funding approach
may be decided. “Tunnelling Method” is shown to be the most interactive factor in the tunnel
engineering system. It has the maximum ‘C + E’ value (70). It almost interacts with all the factors
and all the other factors have influences on “Tunnelling Method”. On the other hand, “Government
Policy” has the minimum ‘C + E’ value (34) which indicates it is the least interactive factor. Among
all the factors, it has effect only at the planning stage, once the tunnel is decided to be built,
government policy no longer plays an important role in the tunnelling activity.

“Tunnel Support” and “Cost” also have high “C+E” values, which show that both of them are highly
interactive in the system. As mentioned in last section, support has great effects on environment and
cost, at the same time, it is controlled by ground condition, tunnelling method and cost.

“Machine Performance” is very subordinate, since it is under control of other parameters such as
ground condition, tunnelling method, tunnel support installation and others.

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6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

There are a large number of parameters involved in tunnel engineering. Each parameter interacts with
others. Tunnel Engineering System framework is developed using interaction matrix to represent
interaction mechanisms between parameters. From the preliminary analysis of the interaction matrix,
it is shown that, among all the parameters, “ground condition” is the most dominant factor; “funding”
is the most subordinate factor; “tunnelling method” acts as the most interactive parameter and
“government policy” is the least interactive factor.

Currently, the authors are computerising the Tunnel Engineering System by applying knowledge-
based expert system and feedback from experts in tunnel construction line.

7 REFERENCES

Craig, R.N. and Muir Wood A.M. (1978). A Review of Tunnel Lining Practice in the United Kingdom,
Transportation and Road Research Laboratory Supplementary Report 335.

Greschik, G.K. and Greschik, G. (1999). Prediction of Surface Subsidence due to Tunnelling in Soft Ground.
Challenges for the 21st Century, Alten et al. (eds), Balkema, Rotterdam.

Grima, M.A., Bruines, P.A. and Verhoef, P.N.W. (2000). Modelling Tunnel Boring Machine Performance by
Neuro-Fuzzy Methods. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 259-269.

Hudson, J.A. (1991). Atlas of Rock Engineering Mechanism: Underground Excavations. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstracts, Vol. 28, pp. 523-526.

Hudson, J.A. (1992). Rock Engineering Systems: Theory and Practice. Ellis Horwood, Chicester.

Hulme, T.W. and Burchell, A. J. (1999). Tunnelling Project in Singapore: an Overview. Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology, Vol. 14, No.4, pp. 409-418, 1999.

Jewell, T.K. (1986). A Systems Approach to Civil Engineering Planning and Design. Harper & Row, New York.

355
 Ground Mixed ground Running ground Harder ground Less water ingress Good ground Difficult ground Softer ground Mixed ground
Uniform ground
needs multi funding Uniform
ground is
suitable for TBM difficult for needs immediate allows bigger for ground with leaves more --- easier to control results in more results in more
condition tunnelling support tunnels lower permeability options for end use approach settlement delay and cost
TBM brings less Tunnelling TBM is more TBM requires TBM may require Boring tunnel best TBM requires TBM introduces
disturbance to TBM size TBM is the main TBM is more
efficient in uniform circular tunnel availability lowering of ground for sewage or TBM availability part of capital cost skilled labour and less settlement and expensive
ground
method ground support table transportation operation disturbance
Machine Poor Good performance Poor performance, Poor performance,
Faster tunnelling Method may be Machine performance Good performance Good performance,
speed, less changed due to Faster tunnelling, more alternatives performance,more requires skilled more disturbance more delay, more
determines tunnel leaves option for less water loss --- delay, more flexible labour and
disturbance poor performance performance support installation bigger tunnel for end use funding approach operation to environment cost
peed
The speed of
Rigid support, less Available tunnel support installation Tunnel Available support Support with good Support with poor Tunnel support and Good quality of
water proofing Tunnel support finishes cost much support requires Rigid support, less Support of higher
disturbance to supports limit influences size limits results in less water water proofing availability and needs flexible skilled labour and settlement quality costs more
ground tunnelling method support dimension limits end use
performance loss funding approach operation
Bigger tunnel, more Bigger tunnel
Bigger tunnel Tunnel Bigger tunnel Bigger tunnel can Big tunnel Bigger and longer
disturbance
require bigger size Bigger tunnel, requires bigger size brings more water transport more underneath tunnel needs more Bigger tunnel Bigger tunnel, more
settlement and Bigger tunnel, more
slower speed support, more needs more labour expensive
tunnelling machine dimension loss people or goods business area fund disturbance
space for erection
Water makes Ground water
Ground water loss TBM designed Water ingress Water proofing Groundwater Ground
Water ingress limits Ground water may tunnelling more requires closely Water loss results needed More money
changes stresses according to water makes tunnelling required to prevent makes bigger tunnel end use be considered in difficult, more fund monitored and in large settlement to tackle
in ground condition more difficult water ingress tunnel more difficult water the policy may need to tackle water problem
experience
water problem
If tunnel used for TBM features If tunnel end use Tunnel end use
sets less Tunnel end use Some special use Tunnel
may change Different end use Some end use Tunnel itself brings Costs varies with
transportation, designed according Tunnel dimension
needs disturbance
to different tunnel end
constraints, may require good needs water table government policy needs different requirement
vibration is to tunnel to suit end water proofing decided by end use below tunnel fund better workmanship surrounding use
unavoidable use tunnelling will be end use for future tunnel environment
faster design
Government
Government policy Tunnelling may be Policy requirement Route of tunnel Policy limits end
Government Government has Government has restraints Due to policy
stopped when
--- restraints some influenced by --- rules on funding policy on foreign disturbance of restraints, cost may
methods hitting existing for tunnel support government policy use of tunnel approach labour increase
utilities policy tunnelling to
environment
Limited funding Limited funding
may not allow to Enough funding Limited funding Limited funding Protection of
ensure enough may not allow Limited funding may not allow Limited funding Available funding may not allow environment Multi funding
--- purchase TBM may not allow large perfect water approaches approach allows for
material on site in some expensive restraints end use employ highly restrained by
time finishes size tunnel proofing, thus more influences policy Funding skilled labour limited funding higher cost
water loss
Skilled labour, Labour
Poor workmanship Available Skilled labour, Good More skilled labour Skilled operation, More skilled labour,
more efficient --- --- ---
results in more professionals limits workmanship, less requires more less disturbance to
disturbance tunnel method higher productivity tunnel support
erection water loss funding & operation environment higher cost

If environment well Environment From environment Environment Public attitude to

Environment Faster tunnelling is consideration, big Environment environment More funding is Environment More environment
protected, less restraints limit preferred from restraints requires restraints may
disturbance to good quality of tunnel may not requires less water restraints limit protection needed to protect restraints require restraints, higher
ground some methods environment view support allowed in some table drop tunnel end use influences environment good workmanship Environment cost
area government policy
Limited investment Tunnel end use Due to large
Lack of investment Limited materials Limited investment Higher cost Limited cost Less cost results in
and equipment restraints types of Limited
investment may not allow amount of cost,
may not allow to may not allow big may be changed requires more restraints the less money on
--- lower down support and perfect water due to cost government may flexible funding number of skilled environment
buy TBM tunnels proofing or water need to change Cost
tunnelling speed finishes limitation approaches labours protection
treatment policy on funding

Figure 1. Illustration of key parameter interaction in matrix form

356
 Ground
4 4 4 2 3 2 0 4 3 4 4 34
condition
Tunnelling
3 4 3 2 3 1 2 4 3 4 4 33
method
Machine
1 2 2 1 2 1 0 3 3 3 4 22
performance
Tunnel
4 2 3 2 3 4 1 3 3 4 4 33
support
Tunnel
3 4 4 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 4 30
dimension
Ground
3 4 4 4 1 3 1 3 3 4 4 34
water
Tunnel
1 4 1 4 4 1 2 2 1 3 2 25
end use
Government
0 3 1 2 2 0 4 4 1 3 1 21
policy
Funding
0 4 1 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 4 23

Labour
1 2 4 3 0 2 0 0 1 3 3 19
& operation
Environment
2 4 1 4 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 29

Cost
0 4 3 4 3 1 2 2 4 3 2 28

18 37 30 36 23 22 25 13 33 27 34 37

Notes:
0 -- No Interaction
1 -- Weak Interaction
2 -- Medium Interaction
3 -- Strong Interaction
4 -- Critical Interaction

Figure 2. The interaction matrix for Tunnelling Engineering System

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Table 1. Summation of cause and effect values for interaction matrix

parameters C E C-E C+E

Ground Condition 34 18 16 52
Tunnelling Method 33 37 -4 70
Machine Performance 22 30 -8 52
Tunnel Support 33 36 -3 69
Tunnel Dimension 30 23 7 53
Ground Water 34 22 12 56
Tunnel End Use 25 25 0 50
Government policy 21 13 8 34
Funding 23 33 -10 56
Labor and Operation 19 27 -8 46
Environment 29 34 -5 63
Cost 29 37 -8 66

Avg. 27.92 Max. 16 Max. 70

Min. -10 Min. 34

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 Underground Singapore 2001

Damage to Geotechnical Instruments during the

construction of the North East Line
J.N.Shirlaw, R.Jeyarajah, B. Yong and H.H.Seetoh
Land Transport Authority, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The construction of the North East line of Singapore’s mass transit system involved the
construction of 20 route kilometers of underground railway. There are 16 underground stations linked
by bored and cut and cover tunnel. Much of the construction was in densely populated urban areas,
and the effects of the construction on buildings, utilities and other structures had to be monitored. The
monitoring for the deep excavations and tunnels included the measurement of the direct effect of the
work on buildings and utilities. In addition, instrumentation was installed to identify the causes of the
measured effects, and to verify the safety of the work. For the measurement of the direct effects,
monitoring typically included items such as settlement, tilt, horizontal movement and opening of
cracks. Monitoring to assess the causes of the movement and for safety included items such as the
deflection of walls (by inclinometer), subsurface settlement, pore pressure changes and strain
measurement. In total, over 50,000 individual measurement points were installed for the construction
of the North East Line. If an instrument is damaged, then it usually cannot be read any more. Even if
the instrument is replaced, there is a gap in the monitoring record and a loss of continuity. The paper
reviews the proportion of instruments that were damaged on 7 construction contracts of the North
East Line. By comparing damage rates for different contracts, high risk areas for instrument damage
are identified. Improved methods of physical protection for some of the more vulnerable instruments
are proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION

The construction of the North East Line of Singapore’s mass transit system involved the construction
of 20 route kilometers of underground railway. There are 16 underground stations linked by bored and
cut and cover tunnel. The ground conditions encountered varied from soft clay to tropically weathered
rocks, as shown in Figure 1.

The construction of the line was let as let as twelve major civil contracts, on a design/build basis. The
contracts were let in 1997, and the line will enter revenue service in 2002. The contract documents
included a Particular Specification specific to each contract, Design Criteria, and a Materials and
Workmanship Specification. The latter documents were common for all of the construction contracts.
Much of the construction was in densely populated urban areas, and the effects of the construction on
buildings, utilities and other structures had to be monitored. Only general requirements for the
monitoring were included in the Specifications, as the appropriate type and number of instruments had
to be determined by the designers. One requirement that was included in the Specifications was that
the contractor had to replace any damaged instrument immediately. However, it inevitably took some
time for damaged instruments to be installed and base readings taken. Where an instrument is
damaged and has to be replaced, there is an inevitable loss of data for the period between the damage
occurring and the replacement instrument becoming operational. Most instruments measure the
change relative to base readings. For example, settlement is typically measured by levelling the top of
a pin or bolt. The settlement is the change in level since the pin or bolt was installed. If the pin or bolt

359
is lost or disturbed, the measurement on the new point starts again, relative to a new set of base
readings.

Figure 1. Ground conditions along the North East Line.

If there has been sudden settlement or a change in the settlement trend between the damage to the
original point and the readings on the replacement instrument, then this cannot be picked up from the
available data. Damage to instruments therefore reduces the quality of the monitoring data. If the
damage occurs during critical periods of the work, the loss of data may mean that incorrect
conclusions are drawn as to the degree of ground movement or what is causing the movement.

Another use of the monitoring record is to allow back analysis to improve methods of design and
prediction. Loss of part of the record reduces the effectiveness of such work.

Construction sites provide a harsh environment, with heavy plant moving around and constant
rearrangement of the surface facilities. It is therefore common practice to provide some form of
protection to instruments, to increase their survival rate. Due to the design/build nature of the NEL
civil contracts, the type and degree of protection provided varied significantly between the different
contracts.

2. TYPE AND NUMBER OF INSTRUMENTS.

The most widely used instruments for the North East Line construction are given in Table 1. These
instruments were used on almost all of the construction contracts. Other types of instrument were used
locally, to address particular issues on a limited number of construction contracts. These instruments
included:

• Electrolevels, used to measure the effects of tunnelling under buildings and existing tunnels
• Automated total stations, used to measure the effects of tunnelling under existing tunnels
• LVDTs – used for continuous monitoring of existing cracks and tunnel lining joints
• Tape extensometers, used to measure horizontal extension of buildings

In total, over 50,000 individual measurement points were installed for the construction of the North
East Line.

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Table 1. Common instruments installed for the NEL construction.

Location Instrument Measurement

Within Excavation Strain gauge Load in struts
Load cell Load in struts
Piezometer Change in piezometric pressure below base of
excavation
Inclinometer (in wall) Deflection of wall
Outside/above Piezometer Change in piezometric pressure outside excavation
Excavation
Standpipe Change in phreatic surface
Inclinometer Horizontal ground movements
Inclinometer/Extensometer Horizontal and vertical ground movements
Deep settlement point Subsurface settlement
Surface settlement point Surface settlement
On Buildings Building settlement point Building settlement
Tiltmeter Building tilt
Crackmeter Opening of existing cracks

2 SURVEY OF RATES OF DAMAGE

The LTA’s geotechnical engineers were reporting high rates of damage to some types of instrument
during construction. It was therefore decided to study which instruments were being damaged, and
why, as part of a Work improvement Team (WIT) project. A survey was therefore carried out of the
rates of damage for the common instruments listed in Table 1. In this context, damage is any damage
that means that no further readings can be taken on that instrument. The survey was limited to seven
of the twelve main construction contracts for the NEL, and not all of the instruments installed on
those contracts were assessed. Nevertheless, over nine thousand instruments were included in the
survey. Table 2 provides the number of instruments of each type that were assessed, and the
proportion damaged.

Table 2. Damage rates for common instruments installed for the NEL construction.
Location Instrument No. assessed No. damaged % damaged
Within Excavation Strain gauge 1299 26 2.00
Load cell 324 2 0.62
Piezometer 13 2 15.38
Inclinometer (in wall) 43 3 6.98
Outside/above Piezometer 340 48 14.1
Excavation
Standpipe 112 4 3.57
Inclinometer 136 43 31.6
Inclinometer/Extensometer 138 15 10.87
Deep settlement point 33 5 15.15
Surface settlement point 4858 660 13.59
On Buildings Building settlement point 1029 132 12.83
Tiltmeter 446 48 10.76
Crackmeter 243 59 24.28

The highest damage rates were to inclinometers installed outside the excavation and crackmeters
installed on buildings. Inclinometers in the ground were typically installed close to the retaining walls
for cut-and-cover excavations. On many sites, this zone was part of the work site and likely to be used
either as a haul road or storage area. This appears to be why the damage rate for this instrument was
particularly high. Crackmeters were installed in buildings which were already in poor visual
condition, although they were structurally safe. Inevitably, nearby construction would open up the

361
pre-existing cracks and caused further deterioration of the visual condition of the buildings. In many
instances the owner carried out cosmetic repairs and redecorated. The majority of the damage to
crackmeters in particular, and all instruments installed on buildings in general, was during this
redecoration.

From Table 1, the instruments within the excavation had relatively low damage rates. The highest
rate was for piezometers, but the rate for these was not significantly higher than for instruments
installed outside the excavation. Given the vulnerability of these instruments during excavation, it is
considered that the 15% damage rate was tolerable.

As discussed above, much of the damage to instruments installed on buildings was due to them being
removed or covered over during redecoration.

The level of damage to instruments placed in the ground outside excavations and over tunnels was of
particular concern. It was therefore decided to study the damage to inclinometers (including
inclimometer/extensometers) piezometers and surface settlement points in greater detail. It was found
that there was a significant variation in the rates of damage experienced on the seven different
contracts reviewed, as shown in Figure 2.

100.00

90.00

80.00

70.00 Piezometers
60.00
Percentage

Inclinometers
50.00
Settlement points
40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
C704 C705 C706 C707 C709 C710 C711

Figure 2. Percentage of damage to instruments installed outside excavation on different contracts.

Although part of the difference in the proportion of instruments damaged on the different contracts
can be ascribed to the different nature of the sites, It was clear that the other major factor was the type
of protection placed around the instrument. At some sites little or no effort was made to protect the
instruments from the risk of impact from vehicles or materials being moved around the site. Figure 3
shows piezometers which had been damaged by passing traffic. Little had been done to protect the
instruments apart from a very flimsy barricade. Figure 4 shows a box used to protect an inclinometer.
Not only is the box flimsy, but the top had been left open and the inclinometer left uncapped, with a
high risk of material entering the tube and blocking it. The examples shown in Figures 3 and 4 were
two of the worst examples seen, and should not be considered characteristic. Surface settlement points
typically consisted of a concrete nail driven into road or pavement surfaces. On the occasional
unpaved areas, steel reinforcing bars were driven into the ground. The concrete nails were found to
be unsatisfactory both technically and with respect to damage. Technically, the settlement points
measured the movement of the road surface. However, if there was a localised loss of ground, the
road slab could bridge over the resulting void. In such a case the measured settlement would not
reflect the real ground movements.

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 Located by site haul road

Piezometer pipes bent

and unusable

Flimsy, poorly visible

protection

Figure 3. Piezometers damaged by site traffic.

Flimsy cover box, not anchored,

left open

Inclinometer tube left uncapped, easily

blocked

Poor housekeeping

Figure 4. Inclinometer with minimal surface protection.

In terms of damage, the most common problem for settlement points was that they were removed or
covered over during road resurfacing. Such resurfacing was carried out as part of the programmed
traffic diversions for the work, in response to road settlement or as part of the ongoing road
maintenance programme.

4. ASSESSMENT OF STANDARD PROTECTION MEASURES

Following the review of the damage to the instrumentation placed in the ground, it was decided to
develop standard protection details, to improve the level of protection and reduce damage. Based on a
survey of the site geotechnical engineers, it was found that the following factors were important in
damage to the instruments:

• No protective barriers. A lack of protection meant that moving plant, and equipment and
materials being moved could hit the instrument and damage it.
• Located near moving machinery. Instruments on or by site haul roads were particularly prone to
damage due to impact from the machinery.
• Instrument not visible. The less visible an instrument, the more likely it was to be struck.
• Poor housekeeping. If the site was disordered, instruments were more likely to be struck or
accidentally filled with mud and possibly covered up.
• Carelessness. Particularly carelessness after reading instrument, such as leaving the cap off and
allowing mud to flow inside or cables to be cut.
• Poor subsurface protection. Without subsurface protection, instruments could be damaged by
vehicles driving too close or by local loss of ground during excavation.

Considering these factors, a protection system was first designed for instruments that had to be
located near site haul roads, which was identified as an area of particularly high risk.

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4.1 Protection system for instruments near site haul roads
For this application, the instrument was provided with subsurface protection consisting of a 600mm
long steel casing, set in a block of concrete at the surface (see Figure 5). Set into the block of concrete
was an above ground guard rail made of two steel ‘U’ bars, stiffened with crossbars. The height of this
barrier needs to be selected considering site safety; too low and it becomes a trip hazard, while too
high and it becomes something people can be trapped against. The guard rail was painted yellow for
visibility. Immediately above the head of the instrument was a lockable box, also made of steel,
painted yellow and set in concrete.

Note: height of
guard rail can be
reduced to 800mm,
where necessary
for safety

Figure 5. Protection system for instruments close to site haul roads.

4.2 Protection system for non-traffic areas

For areas where it is reasonable to expect that no traffic will venture, such as on cut slopes, the guard
rail shown in Figure 5 can be discarded.

4.3 Protection systems for public roads and pavements

Many of the instruments used for the North East Line were installed under public roads and
pavements. In this case the protective cap has to be placed flush with the surface, and be strong
enough to bear repeated traffic loading. No above ground protective barriers can be used. Figure 6
shows the proposed protection system for this case. The circular protective cap is provided with a
screw thread, so that it can be fixed securely into the top of the protective casing.

Figure 6. Protection system for public roads and pavements

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4.4 Ground settlement points
There were two problems with the commonly used concrete nail driven into the road or pavement
surface. Firstly, the settlements measured could be affected by the bridging action of the road
structure. This was not an issue for the widespread settlements due to general excavation, tunnelling
or consolidation, but was an issue for localised losses of ground. Secondly, the points were easily lost
during road resurfacing. Both of these issues can be addressed by using a steel pin drilled or driven
into the ground below the road or pavement surface, and provided with simple protection. In the event
that the road is resurfaced, the protective system can be extended before or after the resurfacing, and
the point can still be used.

Note; for public roads and

pavements use steel casing
with threaded steel cap
flush with road surface.

Figure 7. Ground settlement point and protection system.

5 IMPLEMENTATION

The protection systems developed above were finalised after discussions on cost and constructability
with staff from the Obayashi Corporation. This company also agreed to carry out a trial installation of
the system at their Dhoby Ghaut construction site. The trial installation was installed in January of
2001, and was fully functional seven months later, as shown in Figure 8.

Protective barrier and cap

still visible after 7 months

Instrument undamaged
and in use

Figure 8. Protection system as installed at Dhoby Ghaut.

It was found that the cost of the protection system for inclinometers and piezometers was typically
about 2% of the cost of obtaining and installing the instrument. For the ground settlement point the
cost of the detail shown in Figure 7 is significantly greater than that of the simple concrete nail.
However, for settlement points, the primary cost is in obtaining readings, not the original installation.

365
6 CONCLUSIONS

Damage to instruments installed to monitor the effects of the construction of the North East Line was
common. The proportion of instruments damaged depended on the type and location of the
instrument, and on the nature of the protection provided by the contractor. Damage to instruments
results in loss of data. The readings from replacement instruments generally cannot be related to
those from the original instrument, so the trends of movement are lost. This greatly reduces the value
of the readings obtained, both in terms of site control and for back-analysis.

Simple, standard, protection systems have been developed for instruments installed in the ground
outside excavations. The cost of installing the protective systems is a very small proportion of the
cost of installing and reading the instruments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Land Transport Authority for permission to publish this paper. They
also wish to thank Obayashi Corporation for advice and the installation of the trial protection system
at Dhoby Ghaut.

366
 Underground Singapore 2001

Use of an improved soil berm for stabilization in a deep

excavation
T-S Tan & T-G Ng
Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

D French & F-K Wong

Land Transport Authority, Singapore

T Takeda
Onoda Chemico Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore

ABSTRACT: The construction of the proposed HDB Centre at Toa Payoh requires a basement
excavation on both sides of the adjacent MRT station. This paper focuses on the excavation for this
3-level basement car park, which required a 12m deep excavation running approximately parallel to
the Rapid Transit Structure (RTS). The retaining wall system had to ensure movements to the RTS
structure satisfy the requirements of LTA’s Code of Practice for Railway Protection, which imposes
stringent limit on movement as the rail track has a low tolerance for movement to ensure safety of the
train. In this construction, a challenging aspect was the wide span of the excavation, approximately
180m, making it difficult to install horizontal braced struts. Thus, inclined struts were proposed. To
adopt this first requires an excavation some distance away from the retaining wall adjacent to the
MRT structures, while ensuring that the soil berm left provides adequate support to the retaining wall
to ensure that movement is adequately controlled. In this project, the soft marine clay berm was
improved with lime-columns prior to excavation. This is a novel approach in Singapore and is the
subject of this paper. In the paper, the design considerations were examined. Then the concept of the
berm and the lime-column soil improvement technique are explained. Finally, an evaluation of the
performance of this design is provided using data from instrumentation arrays installed at this site.
This approach was found to be effective, and the actual tunnel movement was a little smaller than the
predicted value, which was expected due to inherent conservatism in the analysis method.

1 INTRODUCTION

The construction of the proposed HDB Centre at Toa Payoh is an integrated development with the
MRT station and a bus interchange. The development is constructed above and adjacent to the MRT
station with basement excavation on both sides of the station. Of particular interest is the excavation
for a 3-level basement car park linked to the podium, which required a 12m deep excavation running
approximately 150m parallel to the Rapid Transit Structure (RTS). The design of the retaining system
had to ensure movements to the RTS structure satisfy the requirements of LTA’s Code of Practice for
Railway Protection, which has a stringent control on the allowable movement to the RTS structure, as
the rail track has a very low tolerance for movement to ensure safety of the train. Specifically, this
means “differential movements resulting from works shall not produce final distortion in the track or
its plinth in excess of 3mm in 6m (1:2000) in any plane or a total movement in the MRT structure or
tracks exceeding 15mm in any plane”.

One challenging aspect in this construction was that due to the wide span of the excavation,
approximately 180m, it was difficult to install horizontal braced struts. Thus, inclined struts were
proposed. However, to adopt this approach, first an excavation some distance away from the
retaining wall adjacent to the MRT structures is needed, while a soil berm is left to provide adequate
support to restrain the retaining wall, so that movement is kept within the limit of regulatory

367
requirements. In this project, the difficulty in using this approach was further acerbated by the fact
that the soil on the excavation side is soft marine clay. Left on its own, this berm may not be able to
provide adequate passive resistance. To overcome this, this soft clay was treated with chemico pile
soil improvement method in the form of lime-columns to provide a stronger berm prior to excavation.
This is a novel approach in Singapore and is the subject of this paper.

First, the design considerations were examined, leading to the rationale for the selection of this
approach. The paper will then explain the concept of the berm and the lime-column soil improvement
technique and also provide a detailed account of the excavation sequence and how this is considered
in the analysis. Finally, an evaluation of the performance of this design is provided using data from
instrumentation arrays installed at this site. This approach was found to be effective, and the actual
tunnel movement was a little smaller than the predicted value, which was expected due to inherent
conservatism in 2-dimensional analyses.

2 SITE AND GROUND CONDITIONS

The site under study is located near the intersection of Lorong 2 and Lorong 6 in Toa Payoh. Part of
the site was occupied by an existing bus interchange while the Toa Payoh MRT station, running in an
almost north-south orientation, cuts directly across the site. At the southern end, the tunnels exit from
the station. The proposed building is sited next to the Toa Payoh MRT Station. A three-level
basement excavation to a depth of about 11.55m is planned in the project. Where the tunnels exit
from the station on the south end, the centre of the south-bound tunnel is about 10.4m from the
external face of the diaphragm wall while the north bound tunnel is about 25.5m from the diaphragm
wall. At this location, the centre of the tunnel is about 10.5m below the existing ground surface.

Three different soil investigations had been carried out in the vicinity of this project. Briefly, the
entire site is underlain by moderately to highly weathered Bukit Timah Granite. This is consistent
with the geological map of Singapore (Pitts, 1983). Above this zone sits a layer of completely
weathered granite and on top of this is the residual soil from the Bukit Timah Granite. Above the

R.L 106.36

Fill R.L 102.65

R.L 101.86

Organic/ Marine
Clay
R.L 94.65

R.L 94.36

Residual Soil

R.L 86.36

Completely to moderately
weathered granite

Figure 1 - Soil profile adjacent to the soil improvement

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residual soil, the soil stratification is not uniform. In the eastern and western ends of the site, the
residual soil rises almost to the surface, with little trace of soft marine or organic clay. This includes
the area where the station is built. However, in the central corridor, running approximately along the
station and to the west of the diaphragm wall, a layer of soft marine or organic clay was encountered
between the top fill layer and residual soil as shown in Figure 1. In particular, this layer is present
next to the diaphragm wall at the south end of the station where the tunnels exit from the station.

3 EXCAVATION PROCESS

Stage 1 SOIL IMPROVEMENT WORK

Stage 2 GROUND FLOOR SLAB WORK

Stage 3 INSTALLATION OF 1ST LAYER STRUT

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 Stage 4 INSTALLATION OF 2ND &3RD 4TH STRUTTING

Figure 2 Key construction stages

3.1 Sections for Excavation Analysis

Two-dimensional plane strain analyses were carried out to simulate the basement construction in this
project. It is important to realize that plane strain analyses for deep excavation are inherently on the
conservative side as three-dimensional effects are not included. Though a number of sections were
analysed in the project, but this paper will only report results from the most the critical section,
referred to as Section 9-9, where the thickest soft clay layer is found and where the tunnels exit from
the station. To limit movement and settlement of the adjacent MRT tunnels, an excavation support
system comprising a 800mm thick diaphragm wall with a semi top-down construction approach was
used. In this particular project, this meant the construction of the top floor slab initially to be further
supported by 4 levels of struts. A schematic sequence of key stages in the excavation works is shown
in Figure 2.

4 EXCAVATION ANALYSIS

The time dependent behaviour of the supported excavation was studied using the program, CRISP,
which incorporates a fully coupled consolidation analysis based on Biot’s formulation together with a
number of well known constitutive models for soils. CRISP (CRItical State Program) is based on the
finite element method and includes in the constitutive models available, a number of “critical state”
models of soil behaviour that has been developed by the Cambridge University Engineering
Department Soil Mechanics Group over the last forty years (Britto and Gunn, 1990). This program
can simulate excavation and strutting sequence including the effect of time needed for each activity.
CRISP has been widely used to study problems of excavation and earth retaining structures,
particularly those involving time-dependent behaviours (Powrie & Li, 1991 and Lee et al., 1993, and
Yong et al., 1996).

The soil profile and pertinent soil parameters used in the design phase is given in Table 1. The
parameters chosen are based on the soil reports provided and also previous experiences of analysing
excavations in similar soil conditions. This is often inevitable as most construction related soil
investigations seldom carry enough information to determine all the parameters, especially those
relating to the stiffness of the soils. Most soil investigations focused on the shear strength and then
use some approximate correlation to obtain the stiffness of the soil. A parametric study was also
conducted to check on the sensitivity of the soil parameters before arriving at these design parameters.

In order to simulate the substructure construction process, which takes place over several months, the
finite element analysis was conducted in stages to simulate accurately the proposed construction
sequence. This is important in a coupled analysis, as the time dependent behaviour is an important

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Table 1: Soil profile and soil parameters
Depth (m) Soil Type Soil model & properties used
0 - 4.5m Fill Mohr-Coulomb
E’= 7,800 KN/m2 , v’=0.3, c' = 5 KN/m2 , φ’=30°,
γ’bulk=18 KN/m3 , kx=ky=5.0E-8 m/sec Ko = 0.7,
OCR= 2
4.5 – 7.5m Organic Clay Modified Cam Clay
7.5 – 9.2m Sandy Clay κ=0.1, λ=0.3, ecs = 2.4, M=1.0, ν= 0.3
9.2 – 12.0m Lower Marine Clay γbulk= 16 kN/m3, kx=ky=1.0E-9 m/sec
Ko = 0.6, OCR= 1.5
Staggered from Residual soil Mohr-Coulomb
depth 6.0 to E’o = 7000 kN/m2 and increasing linearly at 950
18.6m from kN/m2/m v’=0.3, c = 5 kN/m2, φ’=30°,
west to east γ’bulk =19 kN/m3 , kx=ky=1.0E-8 m/sec Ko = 0.8,
OCR = 3
18.6 – 20.0 Completely weathered granite E’ = 1.5E5 kN/m2 Mohr-Coulomb
ν’ = 0.2,γbulk = 20 kN/m2
20.0 – 21.5 Highly to moderately E’ = 1.5E6 kN/m2 kx=ky=1.0E-9 m/sec
weathered granite Ko = 0.8, OCR = 3
> 21.5 Moderately weathered granite E’ = 3.7E6 kN/m2

RL 102.65 to Improved soil E’ = 1.0E5 kN/m2

RL94.65 Cu = 200 kN/m2

Length : ≤ 20m Limited improved soil ( 0.4 m E’ = 1.0E4 kN/m2

from wall dia. Column at 2.0m spacing Cu = 20 kN/m2
in square grids )

aspect that needs to be considered in such a complicated soil-structure interaction problem. The
sequence adopted for the analyses to be described in this paper is given in Table 2.

Table 2 Construction sequence used in analyses

Stage Activities Time (days)
1 Simulating in-situ soil condition 10
2 Excavation to RL 104.0m in regions >16m from the wall 5
3 Cast slab & ground beams above previous excavation 30
4 Extend ground beams to diaphragm wall 30
5 Excavate to RL 103.30m 5
6 Cast remaining slab 30
7 Excavate to RL 102.50m 10
8 Install 1st layer strut at RL 102.95m 1
9 Form berm 30
10 Cast basement slab 30
11 1st excavation on berm 10
12 Install 2nd layer strut (RL 101.2m to RL95.35m) 1
13 2nd excavation on berm 5
14 Install 3rd layer strut (RL 99.45m to RL 95.35m) 1
15 3rd excavation on berm 10
16 Install 4th layer strut (RL 97.05m to RL 95.35m) 1
17 Excavate to formation level of RL 94.450m 5

Of the stages described above, the key stage is the formation of the berm at Stage 9. In this stage, the
soil away from the berm is excavated to the formation level of the excavation as shown in Figure 2,
and only the berm is left to provide the necessary restraint on the wall. The effectiveness of this berm

371
is the focus of this study. To have a better appreciation of the problem, first, the expected behaviour
of the excavation if the berm is not improved is examined. This will then confirm whether the
presence of an untreated berm was adequate to provide the restraint needed.

4.1 No Soil Improvement

The first case to be studied is the case where no soil improvement is carried out for the berm. The
movement of the tunnel and the deflection of the diaphragm wall for this case are shown in Figs. 3
and 4 respectively. The maximum magnitude of movement in the tunnel is over 13.8mm and this
occurs at the tunnel crown, close to the requirement of 15mm set by the relevant authority. The
corresponding maximum diaphragm wall deflection is just over 27mm, located at a depth of about 7m.
Though, according to this analysis, the expected movement is marginally smaller than that allowed by
the authority, it is important to realize that during the installation of diaphragm wall, usually there will
be additional movement induced. This has to be accounted for, and in ther present case, only 1.2mm
is allowed. Thus it is prudent that the movement is restricted to a few millimeters below the required
value. From the figures presented, it can be observed that at the stage of cutting the berm (Stage 9), a
significant movement can be observed. At this stage, the entire system depends only on the berm and
the top slab already constructed. Thus, it is important to try to control the movement at this stage by
improving the berm. This also has an associated effect of improving the performance at other stages.
At the same time this has the advantage of improving the marine clay properties thus ensuring
stability of the berm against failure. However, it is also important to realize that the structure is
already very stiff, hence the movement in the diaphragm wall is controlled to a very small amount,
less than 25mm. With such a stiff system in place, the use of such improved soil will only improved
the performance marginally. However, because the original movement is already so close to the
regulatory requirements, even a small improvement of another 1 or 2mm in the tunnel movement can
mean a significant difference to the entire construction process.

16 0
Horizontal Movt
14 Vertical Sett
-5
Depth below ground level (m)

12 Resultant Movt
Movement (mm)

10
-10
8

6 -15 Exc away from DW

Exc to -2.7m
4 Exc to -3.5m
-20 Form Berm
2 1st exc on berm
Exc to -11.55m
0 -25
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Stages of construction Deflection (mm)
Figure 3 Movement at tunnel crown Figure 4 Deflection of Diaphragm Wall

5 SOIL IMPROVEMENT – USE OF LIME COLUMNS

As there is concern about the stability of the berm that is being used to provide passive resistance
against the diaphragm wall, it is proposed that some soil treatment of the marine clay layer is carried

372
out. In this project, the soil was improved using a method known as the Chemico-Pile Soil
Improvement technique. This is a chemical ground improvement technique, and in this project, a
special driver was used to install lime columns of diameter 400mm at a spacing of 2m. The main
material of the lime columns is quick lime (CaO), which absorbs water from the surrounding causing
the lime to swell and formed slaked lime (Ca(OH)2). The process of slaking leads to apparent volume
expansion causes a lateral consolidation effect on the soil adjacent to the lime columns, and moisture
content in the soil is reduced. As a longer term chemical effect, the calcium ion in the slaked lime are
then absorbed by the negatively charged surface of clay minerals, thereby acting as the cementing
agent leading to the improved strength of the soil. The layout for such a soil improvement technique
is shown Figure 5 and a schematic of how the column is installed is shown in Figure 6.

The sequences are as follow:

1. Position vertically the guide leader of the casing
2. Screw down to the required depth
3. Discharge Chemico Lime aggregates into the top of the casing through the side hopper.
4. Apply compressed air within the casing
5. Reverse the direction of rotation and withdraw the casing slowly. Open the shoe of the casing and
discharge Chemico Lime aggregates to form the Chemico Lime Piles.

2m 2m

MRT 2m
station
2m

Lime columns are spaced at

2m c/c.

South Bound 800mm Diaphragm

MRT tunnel wall

Figures 5 - Soil improvement area

The shear strength of the original soil is around 15 kPa. After the soil improvement, the shear
strength of the composite treated soil will increase to 20 to 25 kPa. The shear strength of the
individual pile is about 150 kPa, close to the strength of a stiff clay, and similarly, the stiffness of the

373
 Figure 6 - Sequence lime column installation

lime column itself should also be much higher. More importantly, the Young’s Modulus of the
composite soil can be improved to 8 MPa, significantly higher than the value of the original
unimproved marine clay, which will be about 1 to 2 MPa. As explained earlier, the use of lime
column will cause a lateral consolidation by means of water migration towards the quicklime. Thus,
the surrounding soil will also be likely to be improved due to the presence of this. However, on the
whole, this degree of improvement is significantly lower than that usually achieved if the columns are
constructed at more narrow spacing and somewhat lower if cement is used, but this method is clearly
a more competitive approach and most important, has enough strength for the design desired.
In the reanalysis using conservative estimate of the strength improvement, the movements of the
tunnel and the associated deflection in the diaphragm wall for this case are shown in Fig. 7 and 8.
The predicted movement is now reduced to 12.8mm. The maximum lateral deflection of the
diaphragm wall is also about 27mm. What is more significant in this case is that if the expected
movement due to the excavation is 12.8mm, then during construction of the diaphragm wall, the
tunnel can move up to 2.2mm, a significant increase from 1.6mm. This is significantly less stringent
than in the previous case.

14 0

12
-5
10
Movement (mm)

8 -10
Depth (m)

6
-15 Exc away from DW
4 Exc to -2.7m
Horizontal Movt Form Berm
2 Vertical Movt -20 1st exc on berm
Exc to -11.55m
Resultant Movt
0 Struts removed
-25
0 5 10 15 20
0 10 20 30 40
Stages
Figure 7 Movement predicted by FEA Deflection (mm)
at the crown of South_bound Tunnel Figure 8 Deflection of Diaphram Wall

Another analysis is also carried out to assess the impact if it is assumed that the soil in between the
lime columns is also improved, as a result of secondary effects. In this case, the stiffness used is
about 30 MPa. The predicted movement of the tunnel and the deflection of the diaphragm wall in

374
this case is given in Figure 9 and 10 respectively. It can be seen that the maximum deflection of the
wall is reduced further to about 17mm, while the maximum expected movement at the tunnel is about
10mm.

12 0
Horizontal Movt
10 Vertical Sett
-5
Resultant Movt
Movement (mm)

8
-10

Depth (m)
6

-15 Exc away from DW

4
Exc to 2.7m
Exc to 3.5m
2 -20 Form Berm
1st exc on berm
0 Exc to -11.55m
0 5 10 15 20 -25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Stages
Deflection (mm)
Figure 9 Predicted movement at Figure 10 Predicted deflection of
crown of south tunnel diaphragm wall

It must be noted that at this stage, the system is already very stiff, and thus, any improvement, from
the absolute movement point of view, is very limited. However, if viewed from the angle of
movement now allowed during installation of diaphragm wall point of view, then the improvement is
very significant. Without any improvement, the allowable movement is 1.2mm. However, if a
conservative set of values is used to estimate the effect of lime column improvement, this allowable
movement will increase to nearly 3mm, an increase of more than 100%, and will make a significant
difference to the construction control. If a more realistic set of number is used, then the allowable
movement during diaphragm wall installation increases to nearly 5mm, another very significant
improvement.

6 FIELD PERFORMANCE

The excavation for the HDB Centre has been completed, and the actual measured movement of the
crown of the tunnel and the diaphragm wall deflection are shown in Figures 12 and 13 respectively.
The readings shows maximum movement at the crown of the South-bound tunnel during construction
was 6.7mm horizontal movement (towards excavation) and 7.8mm vertical settlement whilst the
maximum deflection of the diaphragm wall was 30.24 mm.

7 CONCLUSIONS

The use of a berm to provide temporary support while inclined struts are installed is not a common
approach and is used only when horizontal strutting proved not feasible. In the project described
here, this is indeed the case, due to the large expanse of the area to be excavated. However, the area
where this is being done faced two other problems, the presence of thick marine clay, and proximity
to the tunnels just exiting from the Toa Payoh Station.

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Due to its proximity to the tunnels, the Railway Code of Practice applied, and movement at the tunnel
needs to be tightly controlled. However, due to the presence of the marine clay, there were concerns
about the ability of the marine clay berm being able to provide adequate resistance to restrain the
diaphragm wall. As a result, it was decided that the marine clay will be improved using lime
columns. A series of FEM analysis were conducted to demonstrate the need for this.

12 0

10 -5

8
Movement (mm)

-10

Depth (m)
6
-15

4
-20
Horizontal Movt
2 Vertical Movt
Total Movt -25
0 0 10 20 30 40
0 5 10 15 20 Deflection (mm)
Stages Figure 12 Measured deflection of
Figure 11 Measured movement of crown diaphragm wall

It is important to recognize that in many problems of this nature, when control of movement is of
paramount importance, the overall structural system is already very stiff, and any improvement will
only provide marginal improvement to the absolute movement. However, the margin it provides
against the regulatory requirement can be improved significantly, relative to the tolerance that would
be allowed if no such improvement is taken. In the present case, the allowable movement for other
activities such as diaphragm wall installation and bored piles construction increases from about 1.2
mm to nearly 3mm if conservative estimate of the effectiveness of lime column is made. However, if
more realistic parameters are used for analysis, then, the allowable movement further increases to
5mm, a very significant improvement. As some movement is always expected from the diaphragm
wall installation, an increase of the limit from 1.2mm to 5.0mm is a very significant improvement.

Actual measurements carried out at this site during the construction indicate the effectiveness of this
approach. The actual monitored total movement in the south-bound tunnel crown is 10mm, which is
close to that predicted. The actual deflection in the diaphragm wall is actually a little bigger than the
value predicted. What is more significant is that a portion of the ground adjacent to the soil
improvement area, and which was not improved, actually moved during the excavation. Thus, the
combined analysis and the actual monitored movement indicate that the limited soil improvement was
able to make that small absolute, but large relative, improvement to this excavation. Incidentally, the
measured values also indicate that the FEM was able to provide reasonable estimate.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to HDB, the owner of the HDB Centre, for allowing us to publish the results
from this project. We are also grateful to the contractor, Shimizu and to the consultant RSP
Architects and Engineering for their kind consent to publish the paper.

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9 REFERENCES

Bolton, M.D., Britto, A.M., Powrie, W. and White, T.P. 1989. Finite element analysis of a centrifuge
model of a retaining wall embedded in a heavily over-consolidated clay. Computer and
Geotechnics, Vol. 7, pp. 289-318.
Britto, A.M. & Gunn, M.J. 1990. CRISP90 User's and Programmer's Guide. Cambrige University.
Lee, F.H., Tan, T.S. and Yong, K.Y. 1993. Excavations in residual soils with high permeability. In
Proceedings of the 11th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 4-8 May 1993, Singapore.
Pitts, J. 1983. The Origin Natural and Extent of Recent Deposits in Singapore. Int. Seminar on
Construction Problems in Soft Soils, Nanyang Technological Institute, Singapore. pp. 1-18.
Powrie, W. and Li, E.S.F. 1991. Finite element analysis of an in-situ wall dropped at formation level.
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Yong, KY, Lee, FH and Liu, KX 1996. “Three dimensional finite element analysis of deep
excavation in marine clay.” Proceedings of the Twelfth Southeast Asian Geotechnical
Conference, 6-10 May, 1996, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 435-440

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